tag:theconversation.com,2011:/institutions/university-of-arizona-959/articlesThe University of Arizona2024-02-15T13:53:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766622024-02-15T13:53:50Z2024-02-15T13:53:50ZChildren are expensive – not just for parents, but the environment – so how many is too many?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573356/original/file-20240205-19-6s8ovc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C6%2C2120%2C1390&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Protecting the planet for future children might mean having fewer children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/people-with-placards-and-posters-on-global-strike-royalty-free-image/1181043800?phrase=climate+protest+kid&adppopup=true">Halfpoint/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People born in the future stand to inherit a planet in the midst of a global ecological crisis. <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/11/201106093027.htm">Natural habitats are being decimated</a>, the world <a href="https://theconversation.com/arctic-report-card-2023-from-wildfires-to-melting-sea-ice-the-warmest-summer-on-record-had-cascading-impacts-across-the-arctic-218872">is growing hotter</a>, and scientists fear we are experiencing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09678">the sixth mass extinction event in Earth’s history</a>. </p>
<p>Under such circumstances, is it reasonable to bring a child into the world?</p>
<p><a href="https://philosophy.arizona.edu/person/trevor-hedberg">My philosophical research</a> deals with environmental and procreative ethics – the ethics of choosing how many children to have or whether to have them at all. Recently, my work has explored <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Environmental-Impact-of-Overpopulation-The-Ethics-of-Procreation/Hedberg/p/book/9781032236766">questions where these two fields intersect</a>, such as how climate change should affect <a href="https://www.pdcnet.org/eip/content/eip_2019_0020_0001_0042_0065">decision-making about having a family</a>.</p>
<p>Procreation is often viewed as a personal or private choice that should not be scrutinized. However, it is a choice that affects others: the parents, the children themselves and the people who will inhabit the world alongside those children in the future. Thus, it is an appropriate topic for moral reflection.</p>
<h2>A lifelong footprint</h2>
<p>Let’s start by thinking about why it might be wrong to have a large family.</p>
<p>Many people who care about the environment believe they are obligated to try to reduce their impact: driving fuel-efficient vehicles, recycling and purchasing food locally, for example.</p>
<p>But the decision to have a child – to create another person who will most likely adopt a similar lifestyle to your own – vastly outweighs the impact of these activities. Based on the average distance a car travels each year, people in developed countries can save the equivalent of 2.4 metric tons of CO2 emissions each year by living without a vehicle, according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541">one literature review</a>. For comparison, having one fewer child saves 58.6 metric tons each year.</p>
<p>So, if you think you are obligated to do other activities to reduce your impact on the environment, you should limit your family size, too.</p>
<p>In response, however, some people may argue that adding a single person to a planet of 8 billion <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics201133326">cannot make a meaningful difference</a>. According to this argument, one new person would constitute such a tiny percentage of the overall contribution to climate change and other environmental problems that the impact would be morally negligible.</p>
<h2>Crunching the numbers</h2>
<p>Environmental ethicists debate how to quantify an individual’s impact on the environment, especially their lifetime carbon emissions.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://stat.oregonstate.edu/directory/paul-murtaugh">statistician Paul Murtaugh</a> and scientist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Michael-G-Schlax-5771424">Michael Schlax</a> attempted to <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/pdfs/OSUCarbonStudy.pdf">estimate the “carbon legacy</a>” tied to a couple’s choice to procreate. They estimated the total lifetime emissions of individuals living in the world’s most populous 11 countries. They also assumed a parent was responsible for all emissions tied to their genetic lineage: all of their own emissions, half their children’s emissions, one-quarter of their grandchildren’s emissions, and so on. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A camera in the back of a minivan captures two adults riding in the front seat and two brunette children sitting in the back row." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Calculating how many emissions an average person is responsible for is tricky – but for the average American lifestyle, it’s high.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/family-riding-together-in-car-royalty-free-image/103058683?phrase=minivan+kids&adppopup=true">PhotoAlto/Ale Ventura/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If emissions stayed similar to 2005 levels for several generations, an American couple having one fewer child <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/pdfs/OSUCarbonStudy.pdf">would save 9,441 metric tons of CO2-equivalent</a>, according to their calculations. Driving a more fuel-efficient car, on the other hand – getting 10 more miles to the gallon – would save only 148 metric tons of CO2-equivalent.</p>
<p>Philosopher <a href="https://web.utk.edu/%7Enolt/">John Nolt</a> has attempted to estimate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2011.561584">how much harm</a> the average American causes over their lifetime in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. He found that the average American contributes roughly one two-billionth of the total greenhouse gases that cause climate change. But since climate change may harm billions of people over the next millennium, this person may be responsible for the severe suffering, or even death, of one or two future people.</p>
<h2>Collective toll</h2>
<p>Such estimates are, at best, imprecise. Nevertheless, even if one assumes that each individual child’s impact on the environment is relatively insignificant on the global scale, that does not necessarily mean that procreators are off the moral hook.</p>
<p>One common thought in ethics is that people should avoid participating in enterprises that involve collective wrongdoing. In other words, we should avoid contributing to institutions and practices that cause bad outcomes, even if our own individual contribution to that outcome is tiny. </p>
<p>Suppose someone considers making a small donation to an organization that they learn is engaged in immoral activities, such as polluting a local river. Even if the potential donation is only a few dollars – too small to make any difference to the organization’s operations – that money would express a degree of complicity in that behavior, or perhaps even an endorsement. The morally right thing to do is avoid supporting the organization when possible.</p>
<p>We could reason the same way about procreation: Overpopulation is a collective problem that is <a href="http://www.mlcfoundation.org.in/#assets/ijpd/2023-1/V_3_1_7.pdf">degrading the environment and causing harm</a>, so individuals should <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Environmental-Impact-of-Overpopulation-The-Ethics-of-Procreation/Hedberg/p/book/9781032236766">reduce their contribution to it</a> when they can.</p>
<h2>Moral gray zone</h2>
<p>But perhaps having children warrants an exception. Parenthood is often a crucial part of people’s life plans and makes their lives far more meaningful, even if it does come at a cost to the planet. Some people believe <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691036656/children-of-choice">reproductive freedom is so important</a> that no one should feel moral pressure to restrict the size of their family.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three women, one of whom has white hair, stand smiling around a baby in a blue outfit and a pacifier." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Having children feels like an essential part of many people’s life plans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/grandmother-looking-at-her-newborn-grandson-in-the-royalty-free-image/1444230309?phrase=newborn&adppopup=true">Abraham Gonzalez Fernandez/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One point of general consensus among ethicists, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9930.1993.tb00093.x">following the lead</a> of <a href="https://www.merton.ox.ac.uk/people/professor-henry-shue">philosopher Henry Shue</a>, is that there is a moral difference between emissions tied to crucial interests and those that are tied to convenience and luxury. Emissions connected to basic human needs are usually regarded as permissible. It isn’t wrong for me to emit carbon to drive to the grocery store, for example, if I have no other safe or reliable transportation available. Getting to the store is important to my survival and well-being. Driving purely for recreation, in contrast, is harder to justify.</p>
<p>Reproduction occupies the messy conceptual space between these two activities. For most people today, having their own biological children is not essential to health or survival. Yet it is also far more important to most people and their broader life plans than a frivolous joyride. Is there a way to balance the varied and competing moral considerations in play here?</p>
<p><a href="https://www.pdcnet.org/eip/content/eip_2019_0020_0001_0042_0065">In prior work</a>, I have argued the proper way to balance these competing moral considerations is for each couple to have no more than two biological children. I believe this allows a couple an appropriate amount of reproductive freedom while also recognizing the moral significance of the environmental problems linked to population growth. </p>
<p>Some authors reason about this issue differently, though. Philosopher <a href="https://www.bowdoin.edu/profiles/faculty/sconly/">Sarah Conly</a> argues that it is permissible for couples <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/7760">to have only one biological child</a>. In large part, her position rests on her argument that all the fundamental interests tied to child-rearing can be satisfied with just one child. Bioethicist <a href="https://bioethics.jhu.edu/people/profile/travis-rieder/">Travis Reider</a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-33871-2">argues in favor of having a small family</a>, but without a specific numerical limit. It is also possible, as ethicist <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/staff/kalle-grill/">Kalle Grill</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics20238860">has argued</a>, that none of these positions gets the moral calculus exactly right.</p>
<p>Regardless, it is clear that prospective parents should reflect on the moral dimensions of procreation and its importance to their life plans.</p>
<p>For some, adoption may be the best way of experiencing parenthood without creating a new person. And there are many other ways for prospective parents to do their part in mitigating environmental problems. Carbon offsets or donations to environmental organizations, for example, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2023.2223805">hardly perfect substitutes</a> for limiting procreation – but they certainly may be more appealing to many prospective parents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176662/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevor Hedberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You can donate to environmental charities and even purchase carbon offsets, but not having an additional child typically has a much greater impact.Trevor Hedberg, Assistant Professor of Practice, W.A. Franke Honors College / Philosophy Department, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2219492024-02-13T03:43:12Z2024-02-13T03:43:12ZApa itu pribumi?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571248/original/file-20221031-12-kfy9ej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C11%2C3976%2C2646&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Peserta Parade Masyarakat Adat di Amerika di New York City, 15 Oktober 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-participate-in-the-first-annual-indigenous-peoples-news-photo/1434017560">Alexi Rosenfeld/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>Apa yang membuat seseorang menjadi pribumi? - Artie, usia 9 tahun, Astoria, New York, Amerika Serikat (AS)</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>“Pada 1492, Columbus mengarungi samudra biru.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Kamu mungkin pernah mendengarnya di sekolah. Sajak ini memudahkan kita untuk mengingat bahwa 1492 adalah tahun ketika seorang penjelajah Italia bernama Christopher Columbus <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Columbus/The-first-voyage">berlayar dari Spanyol</a> dan mendarat di sebuah rantai pulau dekat Florida modern yang disebut “Hindia Barat.”</p>
<p>Orang Eropa menyebut daratan luas, yang sekarang kita kenal sebagai Amerika Utara dan Selatan itu, sebagai “Dunia Baru” karena sebelum akhir abad ke-15, tidak ada seorang pun di sisi timur Samudra Atlantik yang tahu bahwa tempat itu ada. Beberapa penjelajah Viking telah mencapai Amerika ratusan tahun sebelumnya, tetapi <a href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/early-exploration-of-the-Americas/543490">hanya sedikit yang diketahui</a> tentang kunjungan mereka.</p>
<p>Dari sudut pandang orang Eropa, Columbus telah menemukan sesuatu yang baru. Namun, bagi jutaan penduduk asli atau penduduk pribumi yang telah tinggal di sana, <a href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/1492/america.html">“Dunia Baru” bukanlah hal baru sama sekali</a>. </p>
<h2>Istilah pribumi terhubung dengan tempat</h2>
<p>Dalam istilah yang paling mendasar, apakah seseorang atau sekelompok orang adalah pribumi atau bukan, tergantung pada <a href="https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/5session_factsheet1.pdf">di mana nenek moyang mereka tinggal dan berapa lama mereka tinggal di sana</a>. </p>
<p>Orang dianggap sebagai penduduk asli suatu tempat jika nenek moyang mereka telah ada dan berkembang di tempat tersebut sejak dahulu kala - lebih lama daripada yang dapat diingat oleh siapa pun, atau sebelum orang mulai membuat catatan sejarah tertulis. </p>
<p>Masyarakat pribumi adalah penduduk asli suatu wilayah tertentu. Desa dan wilayah mereka adalah yang pertama kali didirikan di suatu tempat dan sudah ada jauh sebelum kota, negara bagian, atau negara modern ada. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yhw5Ko0o5xE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Pada tahun 2007, Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB) mengadopsi Deklarasi PBB tentang Hak-Hak Masyarakat Adat untuk membantu memastikan keberlangsungan hidup, martabat, dan kesejahteraan masyarakat adat di seluruh dunia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Identitas budaya pribumi</h2>
<p>Diperkirakan terdapat <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/indigenous-peoples/#">476 juta penduduk asli</a> dalam sekitar 5.000 kelompok masyarakat pribumi yang tersebar di seluruh dunia. Mereka tinggal di hampir setiap sudut dunia, termasuk di Kutub Utara yang membeku di <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-people-arctic">Kanada bagian utara</a> dan <a href="https://www.nativefederation.org/alaska-native-peoples/">Alaska</a>, <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/native-people-of-the-american-great-plains">dataran AS</a>, pegunungan dan hutan hujan di <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/lac/brief/indigenous-latin-america-in-the-twenty-first-century-brief-report-page">Amerika Latin</a>, <a href="https://lcipp.unfccc.int/about-lcipp/un-indigenous-sociocultural-regions/pacific">pulau-pulau di Samudra Pasifik</a>, dan di seluruh Eropa, Asia, Afrika, Australia, <a href="https://www.newzealand.com/int/maori-culture/">Selandia Baru</a>, serta di mana pun masyarakat tinggal-termasuk di kota-kota besar. </p>
<p>Masing-masing kelompok unik tersebut memiliki hubungan historis yang mendalam dengan bagian dunia tertentu. Dan pengalaman mereka telah menghasilkan budaya yang unik.</p>
<p>Tempat tinggal kita - terutama jika keluarga kita telah tinggal di sana selama berabad-abad - dapat memberikan dampak yang sangat besar terhadap gaya hidup kita. Hal ini membentuk berbagai hal seperti jenis rumah yang kamu tinggali, makanan yang kamu makan, caramu memasak, dan bahkan hal-hal seperti bagaimana dan siapa yang kamu sembah dalam agamamu.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1447565076349718528"}"></div></p>
<p>Sebagai contoh, nenek moyang pribumi ayah saya berasal dari suku <a href="https://comanchenation.com/">Comanche</a>, <a href="https://kiowatribe.org/">Kiowa</a>, dan <a href="https://www.cherokee.org/">Cherokee</a>. Suku Comanche sering berkelana, melintasi bentangan tanah yang luas dari Kanada di utara sampai ke hutan-hutan di Amerika Selatan. </p>
<p>Mereka belajar mengikuti migrasi <a href="https://theconversation.com/bison-are-back-and-that-benefits-many-other-species-on-the-great-plains-107588">kerbau</a>, yang merupakan sumber makanan utama mereka. Mereka juga mengembangkan teknik-teknik yang membuat perjalanan menjadi lebih mudah, seperti membuat tempat penampungan bergerak yang disebut <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/tepee"><em>tepees</em></a> yang dapat dengan mudah didirikan, dibongkar, dan dibawa dari satu tempat ke tempat lain.</p>
<p>Sementara itu, ibu saya dibesarkan di sebuah komunitas suku asli yang dikenal sebagai <a href="https://taospueblo.com/">Taos Pueblo</a>. Orang-orang Taos Pueblo tinggal sepanjang tahun di daerah yang sama di New Mexico utara, yang merupakan rumah bagi pegunungan yang luas dan sungai-sungai yang mengalir. Karena masyarakat Taos Pueblo tidak perlu banyak berpindah-pindah, mereka membangun bangunan besar dari <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/adobe"><em>adobe</em></a>, atau batu bata lumpur yang dipanggang, yang memiliki beberapa lantai dan tidak dapat dipindahkan.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="rumah pribumi" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492601/original/file-20221031-15-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Taos Pueblo di Taos, New Mexico, merupakan sebuah komunitas penduduk asli Amerika yang hidup dan telah ditetapkan sebagai Situs Warisan Dunia oleh UNESCO serta sebagai Tengara Bersejarah Nasional.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/trees-with-fall-colors-at-the-taos-pueblo-which-is-the-only-news-photo/909633522">Wolfgang Kaehler/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meskipun menjadi pribumi adalah masalah keturunan dan tempat, kelompok pribumi yang berbeda memiliki budaya, tradisi, bahasa, dan agama mereka sendiri. Sama halnya dengan hal-hal yang mungkin berbeda dari satu negara ke negara lain, dari satu negara bagian ke negara bagian lain, atau bahkan dari satu kota ke kota lain.</p>
<h2>Identitas politik pribumi</h2>
<p>Saat ini, menjadi pribumi tidak selalu berarti bahwa nenek moyangmu tinggal di tempat yang sama dengan tempat tinggalmu sekarang. Faktanya, sepanjang sejarah, banyak kelompok masyarakat pribumi yang <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-losing-land-can-mean-losing-lives">dipindahkan dari tanah adat mereka</a> dan dipaksa untuk tinggal di tempat lain. </p>
<p>Sebagian besar masyarakat pribumi yang dipaksa keluar dari tanah mereka tidak ingin pergi. Namun, para pemukim dari tempat lain melihat tanah dan sumber daya di mana masyarakat pribumi tinggal dan menginginkannya untuk negara mereka. Seringkali mereka menggunakan <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">kekuatan militer</a> untuk membuat masyarakat pribumi meninggalkan rumah mereka. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="contoh tokoh pribumi" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492605/original/file-20221031-16-2z90cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Menteri Dalam Negeri Deb Haaland, seorang anggota Pueblo of Laguna, adalah penduduk asli Amerika pertama yang menjabat sebagai sekretaris kabinet AS. Dia mengawasi jutaan hektar lahan publik, serta tanggung jawab kepercayaan negara terhadap suku Indian Amerika dan penduduk asli Alaska.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/InteriorNativeVoices/b0e913e52cfc4bb1a903a2170c3b3b9c/photo">AP Photo/Evan Vucci</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Banyak dari kelompok-kelompok tersebut yang masih ada hingga saat ini sebagai sebuah jenis pemerintahan yang dikenal dengan suku atau bangsa asli. Setidaknya ada <a href="https://www.usa.gov/tribes#">574 suku di Amerika Serikat</a>. Seperti halnya pemerintahan lainnya, pemerintahan suku membuat undang-undang tentang bagaimana hidup bersama secara damai, memutuskan apa artinya menjadi warga negara yang baik, dan merencanakan masa depan. </p>
<p>Bersama-sama, hukum-hukum tersebut membentuk sebuah komunitas politik - sebuah pemahaman tentang bagaimana semua anggota suatu bangsa pribumi setuju untuk hidup dan memperlakukan satu sama lain sebagai bagian dari komunitas pribumi yang sama.</p>
<p>Jadi, meskipun menjadi pribumi selalu terkait erat dengan tempat, saat ini hal tersebut juga merupakan masalah identitas budaya dan politik. Hal ini membantu membentuk hubungan seseorang dengan komunitasnya dan memungkinkan mereka untuk memahami tempat mereka dalam sejarah.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Rahma Sekar Andini dari Universitas Negeri Malang menerjemahkan artikel ini dari bahasa Inggris</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Torivio Fodder adalah anggota yang terdaftar di Taos Pueblo, dan merupakan keturunan Comanche, Kiowa, dan Cherokee.</span></em></p>Identitas geografis, budaya, dan politik adalah bagian dari apa yang dimaksud sebagai pribumi.Torivio Fodder, Indigenous Governance Program Manager and Professor of Practice, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2190542024-02-02T13:17:20Z2024-02-02T13:17:20ZOrbital resonance − the striking gravitational dance done by planets with aligning orbits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571696/original/file-20240126-29-xc09zr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C4%2C1578%2C792&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Planets can gravitationally affect each other when their orbits line up. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/trappist1/">NASA/JPL-Caltech</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Planets orbit their parent stars while separated by enormous distances – in our solar system, planets are like <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/learning-resources/how-big-is-the-solar-system/">grains of sand</a> in a region the size of a football field. The time that planets take to orbit their suns have no specific relationship to each other. </p>
<p>But sometimes, their orbits display striking patterns. For example, astronomers studying <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1771/discovery-alert-watch-the-synchronized-dance-of-a-6-planet-system/">six planets orbiting a star</a> 100 light years away have just found that they orbit their star with an almost rhythmic beat, in perfect synchrony. Each pair of planets completes their orbits in times that are the ratios of whole numbers, allowing the planets to align and exert a gravitational push and pull on the other during their orbit.</p>
<p>This type of gravitational alignment is called <a href="https://www.aanda.org/glossary/175-orbital-resonance">orbital resonance</a>, and it’s like a harmony between distant planets.</p>
<p>I’m an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OrRLRQ4AAAAJ&hl=en">astronomer</a> who studies and writes about <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393343861">cosmology</a>. Researchers have discovered <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/">over 5,600 exoplanets</a> in the past 30 years, and their extraordinary diversity continues to surprise astronomers.</p>
<h2>Harmony of the spheres</h2>
<p>Greek mathematician <a href="https://www.auroraorchestra.com/2019/05/pythagoras-the-music-of-the-spheres/">Pythagoras</a> discovered the principles of musical harmony 2,500 years ago by analyzing the sounds of blacksmiths’ hammers and plucked strings. </p>
<p>He believed mathematics was at the heart of the natural world and proposed that the Sun, Moon and planets each emit unique hums based on their orbital properties. He thought this “music of the spheres” would be imperceptible to the human ear.</p>
<p>Four hundred years ago, <a href="https://www.skyscript.co.uk/kepler.html">Johannes Kepler</a> picked up this idea. He proposed that musical intervals and harmonies described the motions of the six known planets at the time. </p>
<p>To Kepler, the solar system had two basses, Jupiter and Saturn; a tenor, Mars; two altos, Venus and Earth; and a soprano, Mercury. These roles reflected how long it took each planet to orbit the Sun, lower speeds for the outer planets and higher speeds for the inner planets. </p>
<p>He called the book he wrote on these mathematical relationships “<a href="https://archive.org/details/ioanniskepplerih00kepl">The Harmony of the World</a>.” While these ideas have some similarities to the concept of orbital resonance, planets don’t actually make sounds, since <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-isnt-there-any-sound-in-space-an-astronomer-explains-why-in-space-no-one-can-hear-you-scream-217885">sound can’t travel through the vacuum of space</a>.</p>
<h2>Orbital resonance</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.aanda.org/glossary/175-orbital-resonance">Resonance happens when</a> planets or moons have orbital periods that are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDHKveVSc0Y">ratios of whole numbers</a>. The orbital period is the time taken for a planet to make one complete circuit of the star. So, for example, two planets orbiting a star would be in a 2:1 resonance when one planet takes twice as long as the other to orbit the star. Resonance is seen in only <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.03634">5% of planetary systems</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A simple animated diagram showing a planet, as a dot, with three smaller dots making circles around it, and occasionally flashing when two of the three line up." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571674/original/file-20240126-17-ofefj2.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Orbital resonance, as seen with Jupiter’s moons, happens when planetary bodies’ orbits line up – for example, Io orbits Jupiter four times in the time it takes Europa to orbit twice and Ganymede to orbit once.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galilean_moon_Laplace_resonance_animation_2.gif">WolfmanSF/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the solar system, Neptune and Pluto are in a 3:2 resonance. There’s also a <a href="https://www.planetary.org/space-images/orbital-resonances-of-galilean-moons">triple resonance</a>, 4:2:1, among Jupiter’s three moons: Ganymede, Europa and Io. In the time it takes Ganymede to orbit Jupiter, Europa orbits twice and Io orbits four times. Resonances occur naturally, when planets happen to have orbital periods that are the ratio of whole numbers. </p>
<p>Musical intervals describe the relationship between two musical notes. In the musical analogy, important <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Music/mussca.html">musical intervals</a> based on ratios of frequencies are the fourth, 4:3, the fifth, 3:2, and the octave, 2:1. Anyone who plays the <a href="https://globalguitarnetwork.com/perfect-intervals/">guitar or the piano</a> might recognize these intervals.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2V3bvZu2Xqo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Musical intervals can be used to create scales and harmony.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Orbital resonances can change <a href="https://theconversation.com/earth-isnt-the-only-planet-with-seasons-but-they-can-look-wildly-different-on-other-worlds-216874">how gravity influences</a> two bodies, causing them to speed up, slow down, stabilize on their orbital path and sometimes have their orbits disrupted.</p>
<p>Think of pushing a <a href="https://astrobites.org/2018/07/05/small-black-hole-meets-big-black-hole/">child on a swing</a>. A planet and a swing both have a natural frequency. Give the child a push that matches the swing motion and they’ll get a boost. They’ll also get a boost if you push them every other time they’re in that position, or every third time. But push them at random times, sometimes with the motion of the swing and sometimes against, and they get no boost. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qDHKveVSc0Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Orbital resonance can cause planets or asteroids to speed up or start to wobble.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For planets, the boost can keep them continuing on their orbital paths, but it’s much more likely to disrupt their orbits.</p>
<h2>Exoplanet resonance</h2>
<p>Exoplanets, or planets outside the solar system, show striking examples of resonance, not just between two objects but also between resonant “chains” involving three or more objects. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A square box with the words 'Art & Science Collide' and a drawing of a lightbulb with its wire filament in the shape of a brain, surrounded by a circle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567788/original/file-20240103-23-yg479z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Art & Science Collide series.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/art-in-science-series-2024-149583">This article is part of Art & Science Collide</a></strong>, a series examining the intersections between art and science.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/literature-inspired-my-medical-career-why-the-humanities-are-needed-in-health-care-217357">Literature inspired my medical career: Why the humanities are needed in health care</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-wrote-a-play-for-children-about-integrating-the-arts-into-stem-fields-heres-what-i-learned-about-encouraging-creative-interdisciplinary-thinking-218001">I wrote a play for children about integrating the arts into STEM fields – here’s what I learned about interdisciplinary thinking</a> </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/pictures-have-been-teaching-doctors-medicine-for-centuries-a-medical-illustrator-explains-how-218998">Pictures have been teaching doctors medicine for centuries − a medical illustrator explains how</a></p>
<hr>
<p>The star <a href="http://oklo.org/2010/06/23/a-second-laplace-resonance/">Gliese 876</a> has three planets with orbit period ratios of 4:2:1, just like Jupiter’s three moons. <a href="https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/kepler-finds-planets-in-tight-dance/">Kepler 223</a> has four planets with ratios of 8:6:4:3. </p>
<p>The red dwarf <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.08695">Kepler 80</a> has five planets with ratios of 9:6:4:3:2, and <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2021/01/Infographic_of_the_TOI-178_planetary_system">TOI 178</a> has six planets, of which five are in a resonant chain with ratios of 18:9:6:4:3. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sci.news/astronomy/trappist-1-planetary-harmonies-04851.html">TRAPPIST-1</a> is the record holder. It has seven Earth-like planets, two of which <a href="https://theconversation.com/ultracool-dwarf-star-hosts-three-potentially-habitable-earth-sized-planets-just-40-light-years-away-58695">might be habitable</a>, with orbit ratios of 24:15:9:6:4:3:2. </p>
<p>The newest example of a resonant chain is the <a href="https://www.digitaltrends.com/space/exoplanet-orbital-resonance-chain/">HD 110067</a> system. It’s about 100 light years away and has six sub-Neptune planets, a common type of exoplanet, with orbit ratios of 54:36:24:16:12:9. The discovery is interesting because most resonance chains are unstable and disappear over time. </p>
<p>Despite these examples, resonant chains are rare, and <a href="https://www.astronomy.com/science/astronomers-find-six-planets-orbiting-in-resonance/">only 1% of all planetary systems display them</a>. Astronomers think that planets form in resonance, but small gravitational nudges from passing stars and wandering planets erase the resonance over time. With HD 110067, the resonant chain has survived for billions of years, offering a rare and pristine view of the system as it was when it formed.</p>
<h2>Orbit sonification</h2>
<p>Astronomers use <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/sonification.htm">a technique called sonification</a> to translate complex visual data into sound. It gives people a different way to appreciate the beautiful images from the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/multimedia/sonifications/">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, and it has been applied to <a href="https://www.system-sounds.com/">X-ray data and gravitational waves</a>.</p>
<p>With exoplanets, sonification can convey the mathematical relationships of their orbits. Astronomers at the European Southern Observatory created what they call “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-WevvRG9ysY">music of the spheres</a>” for the TOI 178 system by associating a sound on a pentatonic scale to each of the five planets. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-WevvRG9ysY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Music from planetary orbits, created by astronomers at the European Southern Observatory.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WS5UxLHbUKc">similar musical translation</a> has been done for the TRAPPIST-1 system, with the orbital frequencies scaled up by a factor of 212 million to bring them into audible range. </p>
<p>Astronomers have also <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2rrODAG7nmI&t=3s">created a sonification</a> for the HD 110067 system. People may not agree on whether these renditions sound like actual music, but it’s inspiring to see Pythagoras’ ideas realized after 2,500 years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219054/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Impey receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Orbital resonance is kind of like musical harmony, but systems that display it are far more rare than songs with harmonic melodies.Chris Impey, University Distinguished Professor of Astronomy, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212462024-01-16T16:16:21Z2024-01-16T16:16:21ZPourquoi certains trous noirs sont-ils plus gros que d’autres et comment grandissent-ils ?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569504/original/file-20231129-23-ug9ynd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C15%2C3429%2C2863&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Les trous noirs utilisent la gravité pour attirer la matière en leur sein. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HungryBlackHole/4cd9b7c1c318427ba2f3b78c77cfe6de/photo?Query=black%20hole&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=418&currentItemNo=7&vs=true&vs=true">NASA/Chandra X-ray Observatory/M.Weiss via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Les <a href="https://theconversation.com/fr/topics/trous-noirs-24673">trous noirs</a> sont des objets astronomiques denses dont la gravité est si forte que rien, pas même la lumière, ne peut s’en échapper. Tout ce qui franchit la limite de l’influence gravitationnelle d’un trou noir, appelée horizon des événements, tombe dans le trou noir. À l’intérieur de ce trou profond et dense, on ne le reverra plus jamais.</p>
<p>Les trous noirs jonchent l’univers. Certains, plus petits, sont disséminés au hasard dans des galaxies comme la Voie lactée. D’autres, gigantesques, appelés trous noirs « supermassifs », se trouvent au centre des galaxies. Ces derniers peuvent peser entre un million et un milliard de fois la masse de notre soleil. Vous vous posez donc peut-être la question : comment les astronomes peuvent-ils voir quelque chose d’aussi sombre ?</p>
<p>Je suis un astronome qui étudie les tout premiers trous noirs supermassifs qui se sont formés dans notre univers. Je veux comprendre comment ils se forment et dans quel type de voisinage astrophysique ils grandissent.</p>
<h2>Il existe différents types de trous noirs</h2>
<p>Comment les trous noirs commencent-ils leur vie ? Deux scientifiques célèbres, Albert Einstein et Karl Schwarzchild, ont été les premiers à imaginer l’idée des trous noirs. Ils pensaient qu’à la mort d’une étoile, son noyau pouvait se contracter jusqu’à ce qu’il s’effondre sous son propre poids. C’est ce que les astronomes appellent un « trou noir de masse stellaire », ce qui revient à dire qu’il est plutôt petit.</p>
<p>Les trous noirs de masse stellaire ne sont que quelques fois plus gros que notre soleil. Les trous noirs supermassifs sont en revanche plus mystérieux. Ils sont des millions de fois plus lourds que notre soleil et sont concentrés dans une petite zone de l’univers. Certains scientifiques pensent qu’ils pourraient se former à la suite de la collision et de l’effondrement simultané de nombreuses étoiles, tandis que d’autres pensent qu’ils existent depuis plusieurs milliards d’années.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tMax0KgyZZU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Les étoiles au centre de la Voie lactée tournent autour d’un objet invisible, un trou noir supermassif, comme les planètes tournent autour du Soleil (Andrea Ghez/UCLA/Keck Observatory).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Les trous noirs qui grandissent</h2>
<p>À quoi ressemblent les trous noirs ? La plupart du temps, ils ne se développent pas activement et sont donc invisibles. Mais nous pouvons nous en rendre compte parce que des étoiles peuvent orbiter autour d’eux, tout comme la Terre autour du Soleil.</p>
<p>Lorsque quelque chose orbite autour d’un objet invisible à grande vitesse, les scientifiques savent que cet objet est un trou noir supermassif. C’est le cas de celui le plus proche de nous, qui se trouve au centre de la Voie lactée, à des millions de kilomètres de la Terre.</p>
<p>Quand un trou noir dévore du gaz dans une galaxie, il chauffe ce gaz jusqu’à ce que l’on puisse voir un anneau rougeoyant de rayons X, de lumière optique et de lumière infrarouge. Une fois qu’il a épuisé tout son carburant près de l’horizon des événements, la lumière s’éteint à nouveau et le trou noir devient invisible.</p>
<h2>Autour des trous noirs</h2>
<p>L’un des « anneaux blancs » les plus célèbres est l’image d’un trou noir dans le film <em>Interstellar</em>. Dans ce film, on essaie de montrer l’anneau de gaz chauffé à blanc et incandescent qui tombe dans le trou noir en pleine croissance.</p>
<p>Dans la réalité, nous n’avons pas une vue aussi rapprochée. La meilleure image de l’anneau entourant un véritable trou noir provient du télescope Event Horizon, qui montre aux scientifiques le trou noir supermassif au centre d’une galaxie appelée M87. Il peut vous sembler flou, mais ce beignet est en fait l’image la plus nette jamais prise d’un objet aussi lointain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Un cercle doré flou sur un fond noir" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">La toute première image d’un trou noir a été prise par l’Event Horizon Telescope en 2019. Vous pouvez voir la lumière se courber autour de l’intense gravité du trou noir au centre d’une galaxie appelée M87. Cela peut paraître flou, mais c’est l’équivalent de pouvoir lire un journal sur une table à Paris si vous vous trouviez à New York.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://eventhorizontelescope.org/press-release-april-10-2019-astronomers-capture-first-image-black-hole">Event Horizon Telescope</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Il existe de nombreux types de trous noirs dans l’univers. Certains sont petits et invisibles, tandis que d’autres atteignent des proportions gigantesques en dévorant tout ce qui se trouve à l’intérieur d’une galaxie et en brillant de mille feux.</p>
<p>Mais ne vous inquiétez pas, les trous noirs ne peuvent pas continuer à aspirer tout ce qui se trouve dans l’univers. Un jour, il n’y aura plus rien d’assez proche du trou noir pour y tomber, et il redeviendra invisible.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251779/original/file-20181220-103676-bvxzth.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.dianerottner.com/">Diane Rottner</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p><em>Si toi aussi tu as une question, demande à tes parents d’envoyer un mail à : <a>tcjunior@theconversation.fr</a>. Nous trouverons un·e scientifique pour te répondre. En attendant, tu peux lire tous les articles <a href="https://theconversation.com/fr/topics/the-conversation-junior-64356">« The Conversation Junior »</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221246/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaclyn Champagne ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>La plupart des trous noirs sont invisibles, mais lorsqu’ils absorbent de la matière, de la lumière peut être émise et l’on peut les observer indirectement.Jaclyn Champagne, JASPER Postdoctoral Researcher, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172412023-12-18T13:23:27Z2023-12-18T13:23:27ZWhy are some black holes bigger than others? An astronomer explains how these celestial vacuums grow<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562536/original/file-20231129-23-ug9ynd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C15%2C3429%2C2863&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Black holes use gravity to pull matter into them. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HungryBlackHole/4cd9b7c1c318427ba2f3b78c77cfe6de/photo?Query=black%20hole&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=418&currentItemNo=7&vs=true&vs=true">NASA/Chandra X-ray Observatory/M.Weiss via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why are there small and big black holes? Also, why are some black holes invisible and others have white outlines? – Sedra and Humaid, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-scariest-things-in-the-universe-are-black-holes-and-here-are-3-reasons-148615">Black holes</a> are dense astronomical objects with gravity so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape. Anything that crosses the boundary of a black hole’s gravitational influence, called the event horizon, will fall into the black hole. Inside this deep, dense pit, it is never to be seen again. </p>
<p>Black holes litter the universe. Some smaller black holes are sprinkled randomly throughout galaxies like our Milky Way. Other gigantic ones, called <a href="https://theconversation.com/supermassive-black-hole-at-the-center-of-our-galaxy-may-have-a-friend-128295">“supermassive” black holes</a>, lie at the centers of galaxies. Those can weigh anywhere between a million to a billion times the mass of our Sun. So you might be wondering: How can astronomers possibly see something so dark and so big?</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://jackiechampagne.com">astronomer</a> who studies the very first supermassive black holes that formed in our universe. I want to understand how black holes form and what kinds of astrophysical neighborhoods they grow up in.</p>
<h2>Types of black holes</h2>
<p>Let’s talk about how black holes begin their lives. Two famous scientists, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Schwarzschild">Karl Schwarzchild</a>, first pitched the <a href="https://www.astronomy.com/science/a-brief-history-of-black-holes/">idea of a black hole</a>. They thought that when a large star dies, its core might shrink and shrink until it <a href="https://universe.nasa.gov/black-holes/types/">collapses under its own weight</a>. This is what we astronomers call a “<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/stellar-mass-black-hole/">stellar mass black hole</a>,” which is just another way of saying it’s comparatively very small.</p>
<p>Stellar mass black holes are only a few times bigger than our Sun. Supermassive black holes are more of a mystery, though. They are many millions of times heavier than our Sun, and they are packed into a small area that’s about the size of our solar system. Some scientists think supermassive black holes might form by <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes/">many stars colliding and collapsing at once</a>, while others think they might have already started growing several billion years ago. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tMax0KgyZZU?wmode=transparent&start=13" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Stars at the center of the Milky Way are orbiting around an invisible object, a supermassive black hole, like planets orbit around the Sun. Credit: Andrea Ghez/UCLA/W.M. Keck Observatory.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Growing black holes</h2>
<p>What do black holes look like? Most of the time, they are not actively growing, so they are invisible. But we can tell they’re there because <a href="https://theconversation.com/2020-nobel-prize-in-physics-awarded-for-work-on-black-holes-an-astrophysicist-explains-the-trailblazing-discoveries-147614">stars can still orbit around them</a>, just like Earth around the Sun. </p>
<p>When something is orbiting an invisible object at high speeds, scientists know there <a href="https://theconversation.com/2020-nobel-prize-in-physics-awarded-for-work-on-black-holes-an-astrophysicist-explains-the-trailblazing-discoveries-147614">must be a massive black hole</a> in the middle. This is the case for the closest supermassive black hole to us, which lies at the center of the Milky Way – safely millions of miles away from you.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, when a hungry black hole is eating up gas in a galaxy, it heats that gas up until you can see a <a href="https://universe.nasa.gov/black-holes/anatomy/">glowing ring</a> of X-rays, optical light and infrared light around the black hole. Once it exhausts all of the fuel near the event horizon, the light dies down once again and it becomes invisible. </p>
<h2>Outlines around black holes</h2>
<p>One of the most famous “white outlines” is the <a href="https://cerncourier.com/a/building-gargantua/">image of a black hole</a> from <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0816692/">the movie “Interstellar</a>.” In that movie, they were trying to show the white-hot, glowing ring of gases that are falling into the actively growing black hole. </p>
<p>In real life, we don’t get such a close-up view. The best image of the ring around a real black hole comes from the <a href="https://eventhorizontelescope.org/">Event Horizon Telescope</a>, showing scientists the supermassive black hole at the center of a <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/first-image-of-a-black-hole/">galaxy called M87</a>. It might look blurry to you, but this doughnut is actually the sharpest image ever taken of something so far away.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A blurry golden circle against a black background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559440/original/file-20231114-27-fnfqnq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first-ever image of a black hole was taken by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019. You can see the light as it bends around the intense gravity of the black hole at the center of a galaxy called M87. It might look blurry, but this is the equivalent of being able to read a newspaper on a table in Paris if you were standing in New York.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://eventhorizontelescope.org/press-release-april-10-2019-astronomers-capture-first-image-black-hole">Event Horizon Telescope</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are lots of types of black holes out there in the universe. Some are small and invisible, and some grow to gigantic proportions by eating up stuff inside a galaxy and shining bright. But don’t worry, black holes can’t just keep sucking in everything in the universe – eventually there is nothing close enough to the black hole to fall in, and it will become invisible again. So you are safe to keep asking questions about black holes. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217241/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaclyn Champagne receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the Space Telescope Science Institute. </span></em></p>Pictures of black holes have a white outline around them when photographed, due to one of black holes’ unique and key features.Jaclyn Champagne, JASPER Postdoctoral Researcher, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168082023-12-12T13:22:22Z2023-12-12T13:22:22ZScientists and space agencies are shooting for the Moon – 5 essential reads on modern lunar missions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556958/original/file-20231031-19-egoy20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=72%2C21%2C4734%2C3293&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Moon, shot from Pakistan during a lunar eclipse. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/PakistanLunarEclipse/78b42ec6aa9f40218389cd06b938b1ff/photo?Query=moon&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=41215&currentItemNo=5">AP Photo/Fareed Khan</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The year 2023 proved a big one for lunar science. <a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-chandrayaan-3-landed-on-the-south-pole-of-the-moon-a-space-policy-expert-explains-what-this-means-for-india-and-the-global-race-to-the-moon-212171">India’s Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft landed</a> near the south pole of the Moon, a huge accomplishment for a country relatively new to the space scene, especially after its <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/chandrayaan-2/">Chandrayaan-2 craft crashed</a> in 2019. </p>
<p>At the same time, NASA’s been gearing up for a host of Moon-related missions, including its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a>. In 2023, the agency gained nine signatories to the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>, an international agreement for peaceful space exploration, for a total of 32 countries that have signed so far. </p>
<p>As Georgia Tech’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">Mariel Borowitz explains</a>, the U.S. now has widespread bipartisan political support for spacefaring – for the first time since the 1970s – and returning missions to the Moon is the first natural target. </p>
<p>Here are five stories that The Conversation U.S. has published over the past year about lunar exploration, including why people want to go back to the Moon, what Chandrayaan-3 found during its initial foray across the lunar surface and the ever-growing problem of lunar space junk. </p>
<h2>1. Why shoot for the Moon?</h2>
<p>Missions to the Moon <a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">hold potential benefits</a> for a variety of sectors, including commercial, military and geopolitical. </p>
<p>“Ever since humans last left the Moon in 1972, many have dreamed about the days when people would return. But for decades, these efforts have hit political roadblocks,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aESo-coAAAAJ&hl=en">wrote Borowitz</a>. “This time, the United States’ plans to return to the Moon are likely to succeed – it has the cross-sector support and the strategic importance to ensure continuity, even during politically challenging times.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ocDzndmmE8I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA is planning to return to the Moon with Artemis missions. This video describes where on the Moon it may land and how it will decide.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While some of these <a href="https://theconversation.com/back-to-the-moon-a-space-lawyer-and-planetary-scientist-on-what-it-will-take-to-share-the-benefits-of-new-lunar-exploration-podcast-202415">potential uses</a> are incredibly far off – from <a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-the-moon-110744">mining the Moon for resources</a> to sending out <a href="https://www.airandspaceforces.com/raymond-foresees-cislunar-space-as-key-terrain-guardians-going-to-space/">military satellites</a> to orbit around the Moon – missions to the Moon in the near term will help inform scientists and stakeholders of future possibilities. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">Returning to the Moon can benefit commercial, military and political sectors – a space policy expert explains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Searching for sulfur</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-chandrayaan-3-landed-on-the-south-pole-of-the-moon-a-space-policy-expert-explains-what-this-means-for-india-and-the-global-race-to-the-moon-212171">India’s Chandrayaan-3 lander touched down</a> on the Moon’s surface, just a few miles away from the lunar south pole, in late August 2023. </p>
<p><a href="https://robotsguide.com/robots/pragyan">Its rover, called Pragyan</a>, took measurements of the lunar surface and found the <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/lunar_sourcebook/pdf/Chapter07.pdf">soil near the south pole</a> contains <a href="https://www.isro.gov.in/LIBSResults.html">a surprise – sulfur</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rrTtLze5Ydk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">India’s lunar rover Pragyan rolls out of the lander and onto the surface.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wKuEBj0AAAAJ&hl=en">Jeffrey Gillis-Davis</a>, a <a href="https://theconversation.com/chandrayaan-3s-measurements-of-sulfur-open-the-doors-for-lunar-science-and-exploration-212950">physicist at Washington University in St. Louis, wrote</a>, future Moon missions or a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-artemis-base-camp-on-the-moon-will-need-light-water-elevation">future Moon base</a> could use lunar sulfur as an ingredient in everything from <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19980001900/downloads/19980001900.pdf">fuel and fertilizer to concrete</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chandrayaan-3s-measurements-of-sulfur-open-the-doors-for-lunar-science-and-exploration-212950">Chandrayaan-3's measurements of sulfur open the doors for lunar science and exploration</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. Water in ice</h2>
<p>But <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-suspect-theres-ice-hiding-on-the-moon-and-a-host-of-missions-from-the-us-and-beyond-are-searching-for-it-216060">sulfur’s not the only resource</a> the lunar south pole could have to offer. For several years, scientists have predicted that the lunar south pole <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ice/ice_moon.html">might have water</a> in the form of ice. And Chandrayaan-3’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/chandrayaan-3s-measurements-of-sulfur-open-the-doors-for-lunar-science-and-exploration-212950">sulfur discovery</a> gives scientists more insight into how and how recently ice might have formed on the surface.</p>
<p>Comets or <a href="https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ac649c">volcanic activity</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125858">could have brought water</a> to the Moon years ago. If volcanic activity is the culprit for water’s appearance, scientists would also expect to see sulfur in higher levels, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kgXwvksAAAAJ&hl=en">wrote Paul Hayne</a>, an assistant professor of astrophysical and planetary sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder.</p>
<p>A host of future missions to the Moon, including <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/in-depth/">NASA’s VIPER mission</a> planned for 2024, will continue to investigate where ice could be hiding on the Moon. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-suspect-theres-ice-hiding-on-the-moon-and-a-host-of-missions-from-the-us-and-beyond-are-searching-for-it-216060">Scientists suspect there's ice hiding on the Moon, and a host of missions from the US and beyond are searching for it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Moon debris</h2>
<p>With all the Moon missions, <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/221205-apl-cislunar-traffic-management">both current and upcoming</a>, some experts have raised concerns about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-a-satellite-falls-on-your-house-space-law-protects-you-but-there-are-no-legal-penalties-for-leaving-junk-in-orbit-160757">increased space junk</a> in the “<a href="https://www.afrl.af.mil/Portals/90/Documents/RV/A%20Primer%20on%20Cislunar%20Space_Dist%20A_PA2021-1271.pdf?ver=vs6e0sE4PuJ51QC-15DEfg%3D%3D">cislunar space</a>” – or the space between Earth and the Moon and around the Moon. </p>
<p>NASA doesn’t currently track the space junk left behind from its missions, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-junk-in-earth-orbit-and-on-the-moon-will-increase-with-future-missions-but-nobodys-in-charge-of-cleaning-it-up-212421">this lack of oversight</a> has many people worried. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large, black telescope." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A team of students and professors at the University of Arizona built a telescope to track objects near the Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vishnu Reddy/University of Arizona</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One team at the University of Arizona has started <a href="https://news.arizona.edu/story/75m-effort-seeks-prevent-lunar-traffic-jams">building a catalog of debris</a> left in this space. Team members started off by identifying a few large objects, and as their methods got better, they <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-lunar-missions-means-more-space-junk-around-the-moon-two-scientists-are-building-a-catalog-to-track-the-trash-196645">were able to see objects</a> as small as a cereal box. The team hopes this work will one day improve the sustainability of future lunar missions. </p>
<p>“While there is still a long way to go, these efforts are designed to ultimately form the basis for a catalog that will help lead to safer, more sustainable use of cislunar orbital space as humanity begins its expansion off of the Earth,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XCYhJqcAAAAJ&hl=en">writes Vishnu Reddy</a>, a professor of planetary science at the University of Arizona. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-lunar-missions-means-more-space-junk-around-the-moon-two-scientists-are-building-a-catalog-to-track-the-trash-196645">More lunar missions means more space junk around the Moon – two scientists are building a catalog to track the trash</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Future flyers</h2>
<p>Early this year, <a href="https://spacenews.com/nasa-announces-crew-for-artemis-2-mission/">NASA announced</a> who will make up the crew of their <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/">Artemis II mission</a>. Set for late 2024, Artemis II will fly by the Moon and test the technology and equipment planned for use in future missions. It will also mark the <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">first time people are close to the lunar surface</a> in over 50 years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four astronauts in orange space suits with their helmets off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crew members of the Artemis II mission are NASA astronauts Christina Hammock Koch, Reid Wiseman and Victor Glover and Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Three of the four crew members <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">have spent time in space</a>, with the fourth having spent lots of time in spaceflight simulations. Each started their careers as a military pilot, just like all the astronauts of the Apollo missions. But this crew represents more racial and gender diversity than the astronauts of the Apollo era. </p>
<p>“Unlike the Apollo program of the 1960s and 1970s, with Artemis, NASA has placed a heavy emphasis on building a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/16/science/nasa-launch-artemis-1.html">politically sustainable lunar program</a> by fostering the participation of a diverse group of people and countries,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en">wrote Wendy Whitman Cobb</a>, a professor of strategy and security studies at Air University.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">Meet the next four people headed to the Moon – how the diverse crew of Artemis II shows NASA's plan for the future of space exploration</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216808/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Chandrayaan-3’s successful landing on the Moon made 2023 a big year for lunar exploration, and future years will come with even more discoveries.Mary Magnuson, Assistant Science EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159422023-12-07T13:26:48Z2023-12-07T13:26:48ZWhen research study materials don’t speak their participants’ language, data can get lost in translation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563460/original/file-20231204-23-ka52z2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2032%2C1462&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some approaches to translation are more true to the aims of the text than others.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/international-communication-translation-royalty-free-illustration/1150757275">arthobbit/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine your mother has cancer. You just heard about a promising new experimental treatment and want to enroll her in the study. However, your mother immigrated to the U.S. as an adult and speaks limited English. When you reach out to the research team, they tell you she is ineligible because they are recruiting only English speakers. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, this is an all too likely outcome of a scenario like this, because non-English speakers are frequently <a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2017.25.112-115">excluded from clinical trials</a> and research studies in the U.S.</p>
<p>Despite efforts to increase research participation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318208289a">racial and ethnic minorities remain underrepresented</a> in results. A review of 5,008 papers in three pediatric journals from 2012 to 2021 revealed that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.3828">only 9% of these studies included non-English speaking</a> volunteers. </p>
<p>Language is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301706">key barrier to participation</a>, as even those with some English proficiency are less likely to participate in studies when recruitment materials <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301706">aren’t in their native language</a>. Language barriers also hinder a person’s ability to provide <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eahr.500028">informed consent</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7176.70517">to participate</a>.</p>
<p>This problem is not likely to fade away. The number of people with limited English proficiency in the U.S. grew by 80% between 1990 and 2013, going from nearly <a href="https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/limited-english-proficient-population-united-states-2013">14 million to 25.1 million people</a>. As of 2022, this number rose to <a href="https://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/data-hub/us-immigration-trends#lep">26.5 million people</a>. Excluding people with limited English proficiency is not only unethical, as these groups deserve the same access to experimental and evolving therapies as the English-speaking population, but also limits <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301706">how applicable research findings are</a> to the general population.</p>
<p>One way to eliminate language barriers is by translating research documents. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NG1Yem8AAAAJ&hl=en">As a translation scholar</a>, I strive to discover ways to improve translation quality to benefit the research community and broader society. Translation in research, however, is not straightforward. Not only must the translated materials be accurate, they also have to serve their intended purpose.</p>
<p>The most commonly used method to evaluate translation quality in health research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278716648191">is backtranslation</a> – translating the translated text into the original language and assessing how well it matches the original text. And yet, this method <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100301">relies on outdated scholarship</a> from the 1970s, perpetuating serious misconceptions about how translation works.</p>
<h2>Understanding translation</h2>
<p>Translation involves much more than just transferring written words from one language to another. For many health researchers, the goal of translation is to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/411434">transfer meaning</a> so it remains intact in a new language. Along these lines, the translator is meant to be a conduit of perfect linguistic equivalence. Yet, current work in the field of translation studies indicates this perfect match or meaning transfer is <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Translation-Studies/Bassnett/p/book/9780415506731">only an illusion</a>.</p>
<p>A translator is not a conduit of meaning, but both a reader of the original text and a writer of the translation. As such, translators <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315678627-90/positioning-theo-hermans">have their own positioning</a> in the world that comes with a set of conscious or unconscious values and knowledge that bias how they read and write. Translation is a <a href="https://translation.utdallas.edu/what-is-translation-studies/translation-and-reading/">process of interpretation</a> regardless of how objective a translator aims to be.</p>
<p>Furthermore, languages do not match structurally or culturally. For instance, the English sentence “I arrived late” structurally corresponds to the Spanish “Yo llegué tarde” because the grammar lines up. But because Spanish expresses subject information through verb endings (“lleg-ué”), the “Yo” is normally interpreted as contrastive, meaning that “I” was the one who arrived late as opposed to someone else.</p>
<p>A perfect match in backtranslation often reflects a translation that is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278716648191">too similar to the original</a>, such that it often contradicts the norms of the translated language. For instance, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278705275342">health status questionnaire</a> translated “My thinking is clear” into Portuguese as “O meu pensamento é claro.” Despite good backtranslation results, patients in Brazil stated it was unclear. Changing it to “Consigo pensar claramente” (“I am able to think clearly”) communicated more effectively and naturally with the target population.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Health care professional holding clipboard while talking to a patient" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563462/original/file-20231204-17-l9egxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patients with limited English proficiency are less likely to participate in research studies if the materials aren’t in their primary language.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/female-mental-health-professional-talks-with-royalty-free-image/917744736">SDI Productions/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Translation scholars suggest that a more realistic, descriptive and explanatory approach to translation is one governed by <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315760506">what the commissioner wants to achieve</a> with the translation. Under this view, the translator makes decisions according to the type of text being translated and to the purpose of the translation.</p>
<p>How translators approach texts and what strategies they use to translate them varies with each document. Some texts require closer adherence to the words of the original than others. For instance, legal or regulatory considerations require translating the chemical ingredients list of a medication more closely to the structure of the source than a recruitment flyer that aims to convince readers to participate in a study. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278716648191">Translators of research documents</a> need to determine the needs of the specific text in collaboration with both the researchers and representatives of the population they’re studying.</p>
<h2>Translation affects research results</h2>
<p>Recent studies show that translation can affect data validity and reliability. An inadequate approach may result in translated materials that don’t work as intended. For instance, a survey may produce <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eahr.500115">incomplete or incorrect data</a> if participants misunderstand or are unclear about the questions.</p>
<p>My team and I investigated how different translation approaches affected how readers responded to translated materials. We had bilingual participants review two versions of a survey measuring perceptions of stress. Each version was translated into Spanish in a different way. </p>
<p>One of the two translations was produced with a literal approach that aimed to be as equivalent as possible to the original, while the other followed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278716648191">functionalist approach</a> that focused on achieving the purpose specified for the translation. In this case, the goal was to obtain data on how a Spanish-speaking population perceives daily stress.</p>
<p>We asked participants to review the two translated versions of the survey, then indicate any unclear sections and which version they preferred. We found that participants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eahr.500115">preferred the functionalist translation</a> and identified a higher number of problems in the translation focused on equivalence. Participants commented that the “equivalent” translation was more difficult to understand, too direct and seemed obviously translated.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of the first page of the 'A' section of an English-Spanish dictionary" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563463/original/file-20231204-25-uls439.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A literal translation may not best serve the aims of its commissioner.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/english-spanish-dictionary-royalty-free-image/483136313">parema/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other studies have shown that <a href="https://aclanthology.org/R15-1014">translated materials</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.6035/MonTI.2018.10.2">are less accessible overall</a> compared with the original documents. Researchers have also found that some translation approaches increase reading complexity. One study found that a survey used to measure the health progress of patients translated with a functionalist approach <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_AJA-17-0018">had better readability</a> than published counterparts that used a more literal approach.</p>
<p>The translation process is complicated. Lack of awareness of its complexities can affect not only equitable participation in research but also the validity and reliability of its methodology and findings. But with the right approach, translation can increase a study’s reach, diversify its data and lead to new findings and ideas. Reaching out to a translation scholar before starting a project can help scholars prevent their data and research from getting lost in translation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215942/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sonia Colina works for the National Center for Interpretation at the University of Arizona. She has received funding from the National Institutes of Health</span></em></p>Translation involves more than just transferring words from one language to another. Better translations of study materials can improve both the diversity of study participants and research results.Sonia Colina, Professor of Spanish and Portuguese, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2178852023-12-04T13:25:52Z2023-12-04T13:25:52ZWhy isn’t there any sound in space? An astronomer explains why in space no one can hear you scream<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560865/original/file-20231121-23-g49y80.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C1957%2C1992&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Matter in deep space is very spread out, which makes it impossible for any sound waves to travel. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2022/038/01G7JGTH21B5GN9VCYAHBXKSD1?news=true">NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>How far can sound travel through space, since it’s so empty? Is there an echo in space? – Jasmine, age 14, Everson, Washington</strong></p>
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<hr>
<p>In space, no one can hear you scream.</p>
<p>You may have heard this saying. It’s the tagline from the famous 1979 science fiction movie “<a href="https://screenrant.com/space-no-one-hear-scream-alien-movie-origin/">Alien</a>.” It’s a scary thought, but is it true? The simple answer is yes, no one can hear you scream in space because there is no sound or echo in space.</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OrRLRQ4AAAAJ&hl=en">professor of astronomy</a>, which means I study space and how it works. Space is silent – for the most part.</p>
<h2>How sound works</h2>
<p>To understand why there’s no sound in space, first consider how sound works. <a href="https://www.scienceworld.ca/resource/sound/">Sound is a wave</a> of energy that moves through a solid, a liquid or a gas. </p>
<p>Sound is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/longitudinal-wave">a compression wave</a>. The energy created when your vocal cords vibrate slightly compresses the air in your throat, and the compressed energy travels outward. </p>
<p>A good analogy for sound is a <a href="https://www.scienceworld.ca/resource/modelling-sound-wave/">Slinky toy</a>. If you stretch out a Slinky and push hard on one end, a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GKzpVUUrwM8">compression wave travels</a> down the Slinky.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fMJrtheQfZw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Slinky toys can demonstrate how sound waves, a type of compression wave, work.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When you talk, your vocal cords vibrate. They jostle air molecules in your throat above your vocal cords, which in turn jostle or bump into their neighbors, causing a sound to come out of your mouth. </p>
<p>Sound moves through air the same way it moves through your throat. Air molecules near your mouth bump into their neighbors, which in turn bump into their neighbors, and the sound moves through the air. The <a href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/BGP/sound.html">sound wave travels quickly</a>, about 760 miles per hour (1,223 kilometers per hour), which is faster than a commercial jet.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sQZtKAPv7lI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Sound waves are created when matter vibrates.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Space is a vacuum</h2>
<p>So what about in space?</p>
<p>Space is a vacuum, which means it contains almost no matter. The word vacuum <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/vacuum">comes from the Latin word for empty</a>.</p>
<p>Sound is carried by atoms and molecules. In space, with no atoms or molecules to carry a sound wave, there’s no sound. There’s nothing to get in sound’s way out in space, but there’s nothing to carry it, so it doesn’t travel at all. No sound also means no echo. <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-makes-an-echo-109141">An echo</a> happens when a sound wave hits a hard, flat surface and bounces back in the direction it came from.</p>
<p>By the way, if you were caught in space outside your spacecraft with no spacesuit, the fact that no one could hear your cry for help is the least of your problems. Any air you still had in your lungs would expand because it was at higher pressure than the vacuum outside. Your lungs would rupture. In a mere <a href="https://www.space.com/how-long-could-you-survive-in-space-without-spacesuit">10 to 15 seconds</a>, you’d be unconscious due to a lack of oxygen. </p>
<h2>Sound in the solar system</h2>
<p>Scientists have wondered how human voices would sound on our nearest neighboring planets, Venus and Mars. This experiment is hypothetical because <a href="https://www.space.com/16907-what-is-the-temperature-of-mars.html">Mars is usually below freezing</a>, and its atmosphere is <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mars/facts/">thin, unbreathable carbon dioxide</a>. <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/venus/facts/">Venus is even worse</a> – its air is hot enough to melt lead, with a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere.</p>
<p>On Mars, your voice would sound tinny and hollow, like the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cE26bD_-hN4">sound of a piccolo</a>. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/science/cosmic-log/how-would-you-sound-mars-flna659387">On Venus</a>, the pitch of your voice would be much deeper, like the sound of a booming bass guitar. The reason is the thickness of the atmosphere. On Mars the thin air creates a high-pitched sound, and on Venus the thick air creates a low-pitched sound. The team that worked this out <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/news/2012/04/the-sounds-of-mars-and-venus.page">simulated other solar system sounds</a>, like a waterfall on Saturn’s moon Titan.</p>
<h2>Deep space sounds</h2>
<p>While space is a good enough vacuum that normal sound can’t travel through it, it’s actually not a perfect vacuum, and it does have some particles floating through it.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.universetoday.com/34074/interplanetary-space/">Beyond the Earth</a> and its atmosphere, there are five particles in a typical cubic centimeter – the volume of a sugar cube – that are mostly hydrogen atoms. By contrast, the air you are breathing is 10 billion billion (10<sup>19)</sup> times more dense. The density goes down with distance from the Sun, and in <a href="https://www.space.com/interstellar-space-definition-explanation">the space between stars</a> there are 0.1 particles per cubic centimeter. In vast <a href="https://www.livescience.com/why-is-space-a-vacuum.html">voids between galaxies</a>, it is a million times lower still – fantastically empty.</p>
<p>The voids of space are kept very hot by radiation from stars. The very spread-out matter found there is in a physical state <a href="https://www.psfc.mit.edu/vision/what_is_plasma">called a plasma</a>. </p>
<p>A plasma is a gas in which electrons are separated from protons. In a plasma, the <a href="https://www.iflscience.com/is-there-really-no-sound-in-space-69612">physics of sound waves get complicated</a>. Waves travel much faster in this low-density medium, and their wavelength is much longer.</p>
<p>In 2022, NASA released a <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/y3p3dv/nasa-has-captured-actual-sound-in-space-and-its-honestly-terrifying">spectacular example of sound in space</a>. It used X-ray data to make an audible recording that represents the way a massive black hole stirs up plasma in the Perseus galaxy cluster, 250 million light years from Earth. The black hole itself emits no sound, but the diffuse plasma around it carries very long wavelength sound waves.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1561442514078314496"}"></div></p>
<p>The natural sound is far too low a frequency for the human ear to hear, 57 octaves below middle C, which is the middle note on a piano and in the middle of the range of sound people can hear. But after raising the frequency to the audible range, the result is chilling – it’s the sound of a black hole growling in deep space.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217885/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Impey receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Sound needs matter to propagate, so the vast vacuum of space is not just empty − it’s silent.Chris Impey, University Distinguished Professor of Astronomy, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2178932023-11-30T13:36:43Z2023-11-30T13:36:43ZIsrael’s mosaic of Jewish ethnic groups is key to understanding the country<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561744/original/file-20231127-21-ym0xyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C1%2C1013%2C680&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People cheer as a vehicle carrying hostages released by Hamas drives toward an army base in Ofakim, southern Israel, on Nov. 26, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-cheer-as-a-vehicle-carrying-hostages-released-by-news-photo/1803642237?adppopup=true">Menahem Kahana/AFP via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some 16 million people worldwide identify as Jewish – and <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/global-jewish-population-hits-15-7-million-ahead-of-new-year-46-of-them-in-israel/">more than 7 million</a> of them live in Israel.</p>
<p>The country is home to more than 2 million people who are not Jewish, as well – primarily Arab Israelis, who make up 20% to 25% of the population, and more than 100,000 <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Israel-Hamas-war/How-Thai-workers-became-integral-to-Israel-s-economy">foreign workers</a>. Most Arab Israeli citizens are Muslim, but small minorities adhere to various Christian denominations, as well as <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2016/03/21/5-facts-about-israeli-druze-a-unique-religious-and-ethnic-group/">the Druze religion</a>.</p>
<p>Even within Israel’s Jewish population, however, there is dizzying diversity. As <a href="https://judaic.arizona.edu/person/david-l-graizbord">a historian of Jewish identity</a>, I believe that understanding that diversity is key to understanding Israelis’ behavior amid the current war in Gaza, as well as the country’s long-term resilience. </p>
<h2>Many cultures, one people</h2>
<p>Jews are not a “race,” but constitute <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511499067">a people or nation</a>. Traditionally, Jewish texts often refer to the Jewish people as “Israel.”</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015">DNA studies</a> and <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Who_Were_the_Early_Israelites_and_Where.html?id=A_ByXkpofAgC">archaeological evidence</a> show that the Jewish people originated in the Middle East. Owing to Jews’ historical dispersion around the world however, Jews also belong to <a href="https://archive.jewishagency.org/society-and-politics/content/36171/">several Jewish ethnic groups</a>, all of which are represented in the modern state of Israel.</p>
<p>The largest Jewish ethnic group in Israel, <a href="https://people.socsci.tau.ac.il/mu/noah/files/2018/07/Ethnic-origin-and-identity-in-Israel-JEMS-2018.pdf">about 40% to 45% of the country’s total population</a>, <a href="https://katz.sas.upenn.edu/resources/blog/what-do-you-know-sephardi-vs-mizrahi">is called Mizrahi</a>, which means “Eastern” in Hebrew. Mizrahi Jews’ ancestors hailed from Jewish communities in the Middle East, including Israel itself. </p>
<p>The word Mizrahi often describes Jews from North Africa, too. However, these <a href="https://www.mahj.org/en/permanent-collection/9-jews-levant-and-maghreb">Maghrebi Jews</a> descend from different groups than other Mizrahi Jews. Some North African Jews’ ancestors came from local communities. Others migrated there from the Iberian Peninsula after Spain expelled its Jewish population in 1492.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A crowd of people smile as they gather inside a building, many of them wearing white headcoverings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561787/original/file-20231127-17-y5hf0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pilgrims have lunch at El Ghriba Synagogue on the Tunisian island of Djerba, the oldest Jewish monument built in Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pilgrims-have-lunch-at-el-ghriba-synagogue-in-tunisian-news-photo/491690053?adppopup=true">Amine Landoulsi/Anadolu Agency/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The expulsion of these Sephardic communities, as Iberian Jews are called, <a href="https://nyupress.org/9780814729113/after-expulsion/">scattered Sephardi culture</a> throughout areas such as Greece, Turkey, the Balkans, Italy and Morocco. Thus, many Jews whose families came to these regions are genealogically and culturally Sephardi. Yet, Sephardi Jews also include people whose Jewish ancestors adopted the traditions of Iberian Jews.</p>
<p>The Israeli government’s record-keeping tends to lump Sephardi Jews under the Mizrahi category as well.</p>
<p>The second-largest <a href="https://people.socsci.tau.ac.il/mu/noah/files/2018/07/Ethnic-origin-and-identity-in-Israel-JEMS-2018.pdf">ethnic Jewish group in Israel</a>, about 32% of the population, is Ashkenazi. <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/who-are-ashkenazi-jews/">Ashkenazi Jews</a> trace their ancestry to central Europe, most often via Eastern Europe.</p>
<p>Alongside these two dominant groups – Mizrahi and Ashkenazi – are Jews from unique communities that do not fit neatly into the two major subdivisions, yet sometimes find themselves included under the Mizrahi umbrella. </p>
<p>These include <a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bene-israel">the Bene Israel</a> of India; several groups of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1878-9781_ejiw_COM_0005160">Kavkazi, or Caucasus Jews</a>, referring to their origins in the Caucasus region of Central Asia; and <a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bukharan-jews">Bukharan Jews</a> of Uzbekistan. Other <a href="https://forward.com/opinion/407472/neither-ashkenazi-nor-sephardi-italian-jews-are-a-mystery/">unique groups</a> include <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/lu/podcast/italkim-the-jews-of-italy/id450251365?i=1000095640385&l=de">Italian Jews</a> and <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xBQ2YgEACAAJ&">Ethiopian Jews</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young man in a white suit dances on a red carpet as older men in ornate robes play instruments around him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561788/original/file-20231127-23-wlbspg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dancers perform during a celebration of the Ohr Natan congregation of Bukharan Jews in the Rego Park section of Queens in New York in 2011.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dancers-perform-during-a-celebration-of-the-ohr-natan-news-photo/123136917?adppopup=true">Tom Williams/Roll Call via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Modern migrations</h2>
<p>Modern times have witnessed sweeping migrations of Jews across the diaspora – and also migration <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403983473">to modern Israel</a>.</p>
<p>For example, many Jews migrated from Europe and the Ottoman Empire to the Americas before and after the world wars: not only to the United States, <a href="https://mjhnyc.org/blog/the-jewish-diaspora-latin-american-stories/">but Latin America</a>, especially Argentina, Brazil and Mexico.</p>
<p>Since the state of Israel’s founding in 1948, <a href="https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/DocLib/2016/2.ShnatonPopulation/st02_08x.pdf">migration has flowed the other way</a> as well. Today in Israel there are approximately 200,000 Jews from English-speaking countries and some 100,000 from Latin American countries.</p>
<p>Since the final years of of the Soviet Union, about 1 million people with Jewish roots have immigrated to Israel <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-other-tribe-israels-russian-speaking-community-and-how-it-is-changing-the-country/">from Russia and the former Soviet bloc countries</a>. They and their children now make up about 15% to 18% of the Israeli population.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman with yellow ribbons and red and white flowers in her hair looks solemnly at the camera amid a protest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561794/original/file-20231127-19-ptdh63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ukrainians and Israelis who support them gather during a protest against Russian attacks on Ukraine, on March 12, 2022, in Tel Aviv, Israel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/ukrainians-and-israelis-who-support-them-gather-during-a-news-photo/1239137503?adppopup=true">Mostafa Alkharouf/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As regards their approach to Jewish traditions and rabbinic law, Israelis <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/03/08/israels-religiously-divided-society/#:%7E:text=Overwhelmingly%2C%20Haredi%20and%20Dati%20Jews,of%20religion%20from%20government%20policy.">range from the ultrasecularist to the Haredi</a>, whose name means “trembling” before God – often referred to as ultra-Orthodox. There is no hard-and-fast correspondence, though, between Israelis’ ethnic identity and their level of traditional observance.</p>
<p>Some 50% of <a href="https://ij.jppi.org.il/english/book">Israeli Jews</a> may belong to ethnically mixed families. Nevertheless, in an age of identity politics, a trend toward <a href="https://doi.org/10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.10">ethnic tribalism</a> has gripped Israel, complicating an older <a href="https://wid.world/document/inequality-identity-and-the-long-run-evolution-of-political-cleavages-in-israel-1949-2019-world-inequality-lab-wp-2020-17/">divide between left and right</a>. Although the center-right Likud party of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has been led mostly by Ashkenazi Jews, it <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-ethnic-tensions-helped-fuel-netanyahus-victory/">openly appeals to Sephardi and Mizrahi pride</a>, as does <a href="https://en.idi.org.il/israeli-elections-and-parties/parties/shas/">the ultra-Orthodox Shas party</a>.</p>
<p>Appeals to Mizrahi and Sephardi voters reflect a long-standing sense of discrimination among non-Ashkenazi Israelis. In Israel’s first few decades, predominantly Ashkenazi, socialist governments channeled hundreds of thousands of Mizrahi and Sephardi immigrants toward unskilled labor <a href="https://www.972mag.com/anti-mizrahi-discrimination-was-official-israeli-policy/">and peripheral development towns</a>.</p>
<p>The phrase “<a href="https://fathomjournal.org/culture-wars-ethnicity-and-the-future-of-israels-democracy/">The Second Israel</a>” refers to the idea that non-Ashkenazi citizens <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.17">are still marginalized</a> by an Ashkenazi cultural establishment.</p>
<h2>Tensions – and unity</h2>
<p>Tribal factionalism, however, has a countervailing force: Zionism, the cultural and political ideology on which the country was founded. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/Z/bo43636872.html">an ideology of national liberation</a>, Zionism advocates Jews’ collective sovereignty and cultural renaissance in their ancestral homeland. Despite its diversity of political beliefs, ethnicities and religious observance, Jewish Israeli society ultimately holds together because of a widely shared Zionist patriotism. </p>
<p>This is expressed in what Israeli scholars <a href="https://jppi.org.il/en/staff/staff/">Shmuel Rosner</a> and <a href="http://www.math.tau.ac.il/%7Efuchs/">Camil Fuchs</a> call the civic culture of “Jewsraelis”: a largely secular yet semitraditional Jewishness <a href="https://ij.jppi.org.il/english/book">that shapes public life in Israel</a>. Jewsraelis, they argue, are proud citizens who are comfortable mixing Jewish tradition and modernity – from family meals on the Jewish Sabbath and Passover to beach barbecues and serving in the Israel Defense Forces, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-israel-army-service-is-required-for-all-that-could-now-change-2c76624d">which is mandatory for most citizens</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A handful of young men in t-shirts crowd around a table, unseen, to receive laminated cards." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561797/original/file-20231127-21-1imqpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An Israeli recruit gets his army identification card after reporting for the draft on July 22, 2012, near Tel Aviv, Israel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-israeli-army-recruit-gets-his-army-identification-card-news-photo/149047434?adppopup=true">Uriel Sinai/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Before the current war, Jewish Israelis by the hundreds of thousands had marched in the streets for nearly a year over <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-65086871">government proposals to curtail the power of Israel’s Supreme Court</a>. In the wake of Hamas’ horrific attacks on Oct. 7, 2023, however, those considerable tensions have been tabled. High numbers of Israelis have <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/idf-says-a-huge-number-of-reservists-have-reported-for-duty-including-those-not-summoned/">volunteered to go to the front</a> or <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/13/world/middleeast/israel-volunteer-unity.html">assist each other</a> <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/study-nearly-50-of-israeli-citizens-volunteered-during-first-weeks-of-war/">in other ways</a>, such as donations or working on farms.</p>
<p>Notably, Jewish commandments <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691161747/rescue-the-surviving-souls">and traditions</a> put an emphasis <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/ransoming-captive-jews/">on freeing Jewish captives</a>, such as the people held hostage in Gaza. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/israel-far-right-hostage-families-cease-fire-negotiation-rcna126486">Sharp debate</a> continues among Jewish Israelis over the goals and scope of the war in Gaza. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, as has been true in other moments of national crisis, they have largely banded together for what they perceive to be the common national good. Although diverse and often divided from within, most Israeli Jews embrace the idea expressed in <a href="https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-song-that-made-a-country/">a popular song</a> penned in the 1980s: “Ein li eretz aḥeret” – “I have no other (home)land.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217893/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David L. Graizbord does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The diversity of Israel’s Jewish population has been a source of tensions, but also strength, over the decades.David L. Graizbord, Director of the Arizona Center for Judaic Studies, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180882023-11-21T16:03:00Z2023-11-21T16:03:00ZO mundo ainda não tem uma lista única de todas as espécies - mas isso pode começar a mudar<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560201/original/file-20231027-21-nxmtp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=129%2C45%2C4735%2C3308&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/common-kingfisher-alcedo-atthis-wetlands-birdss-2331210013">Sumruay Rattanataipob/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As listas de espécies são um dos pilares invisíveis da ciência e da sociedade. As listas de espécies sustentam nossa compreensão do mundo natural, o gerenciamento de espécies ameaçadas, a quarentena, o controle de doenças e <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13127-021-00518-8">muito mais</a>.</p>
<p>As pessoas que descrevem novas espécies e criam listas delas são os taxonomistas. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/546025a">Há alguns anos</a>, uma manchete da revista Nature acusou a comunidade taxonômica de anarquia por não coordenar uma visão comum das espécies, o que gerou confusão sobre nosso conhecimento da vida na Terra.</p>
<p>Muitos membros da comunidade taxonômica <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2005075">ficaram indignados</a> com isso. Os taxonomistas estavam preocupados com o fato de que as ideias propostas limitariam sua liberdade de expressão e que eles ficariam presos a uma burocracia antes de poderem publicar novas descrições de espécies.</p>
<p>Os taxonomistas certamente discutem - a disputa é <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13127-021-00495-y">essencial para a prática da taxonomia</a>, assim como é para a ciência em geral. No entanto, em última análise, a vida de um taxonomista é gasta tentando discernir a ordem na extraordinariamente diversa árvore da vida.</p>
<p>Os resultados de uma nova pesquisa publicada no <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2306899120">Proceedings of the National Academies of Science</a> mostram o quanto os taxonomistas realmente gostam de ordem.</p>
<h2>Dificilmente um grupo de anarquistas</h2>
<p>A discussão era sobre como resolver as divergências entre os taxonomistas. Por fim, os <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-scientific-spat-over-how-to-name-species-turned-into-a-big-plus-for-nature-138887">dois lados se uniram</a> para produzir princípios sobre a criação de <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000736">uma única lista autorizada de espécies</a>.</p>
<p>Em seguida, esse grupo procurou a comunidade taxonômica para pesquisar suas opiniões sobre a necessidade de uma lista global de espécies e como ela deveria ser administrada.</p>
<p>Os resultados recém-publicados mostram que a grande maioria (77%) dos entrevistados - que incluiu mais de 1.100 taxonomistas e usuários de taxonomia de 74 países - expressou apoio à existência de uma lista única de toda a vida na Terra.</p>
<p>Eles também concordaram que deveria haver um sistema de governança que apoiasse a criação e a manutenção da lista. Ainda não foi especificado o que esse sistema de governança implicaria. Decidir isso será a próxima etapa do processo.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Um pequeno animal cinza que parece um cruzamento entre um canguru e um rato" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Compreender a taxonomia das espécies é fundamental para seu gerenciamento. Conhecer a taxonomia de marsupiais como esse bettongia ajuda a identificar o que precisa ser conservado e onde.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bettong-australias-smallest-kangaroo-glances-curiously-1658557687">Tyrrannoid/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Os taxonomistas propõem hipóteses, não fatos</h2>
<p>Por que isso é importante? Muitos talvez não percebam que, quando um taxonomista nomeia uma nova descrição de espécie, ele está propondo uma hipótese científica, não apresentando um <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-44966-1">fato científico objetivo</a>.</p>
<p>Outros taxonomistas, então, analisam as evidências fornecidas na descrição e decidem se concordam ou não. Se as pessoas que elaboram as listas de espécies julgarem que há concordância em relação a uma hipótese, a nova espécie entra em sua lista.</p>
<p>Somente depois que uma espécie é listada é que ela pode ser protegida, estudada, erradicada, ignorada ou qualquer outra coisa que os governos decidam ser apropriada. Os cientistas e defensores da conservação também precisam que as espécies sejam listadas antes de poderem incluí-las em seu trabalho. Até ser listada, a espécie permanece, para todos os fins práticos, invisível.</p>
<p>Entretanto, nem todas as listas são igualmente confiáveis. Muito raramente, os taxonomistas se tornam desonestos. Um notório taxonomista foi colocado na lista negra por “<a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/133/3/645/6240088?login=falsename">vandalismo taxonômico</a>”. Ele publicou todos os tipos de novos nomes - alguns até em homenagem a seu cachorro - com pouca justificativa. Se fosse aceito, seu campo (herpetologia) teria sido lançado no caos.</p>
<p>O trabalho de taxonomistas desonestos desperdiça o tempo e o dinheiro de todos. Em um caso, a taxonomia deficiente chegou a matar pessoas - um antiveneno com o nome errado para uma cobra foi distribuído na África e em Papua Nova Guiné com <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18359053/">resultados desastrosos</a>.</p>
<p>Mesmo sem taxonomistas desonestos, há um enorme problema com os chamados sinônimos - pessoas diferentes dando nomes diferentes para a mesma espécie. Algumas espécies têm dezenas de nomes científicos, sem mencionar os erros de ortografia.</p>
<p>Isso deixa os usuários incertos quanto ao nome a ser usado. Às vezes, eles usam nomes diferentes, mas se referem à mesma espécie; às vezes, usam os mesmos nomes, mas se referem a espécies diferentes. A única maneira de esclarecer essa confusão é ter uma lista mestra de nomes de espécies vinculada à literatura científica.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Um recife de coral colorido com cardumes de peixes e uma tartaruga nadando sobre ele" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A biodiversidade é uma característica essencial do nosso planeta e de seus ecossistemas, mas, para entendê-la, também precisamos entender as espécies individuais.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tropical-fish-turtle-red-sea-egypt-211006552">Vlad61/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>E agora?</h2>
<p>A pesquisa recém-divulgada mostra que os taxonomistas e os usuários de taxonomia chegaram a um consenso de que boas listas precisam de boa governança. As listas de espécies precisam refletir a melhor ciência, independentemente de influência externa. Elas precisam de processos de resolução de disputas. E precisam do envolvimento e da concordância da comunidade taxonômica em relação ao seu conteúdo.</p>
<p>A governança da ciência não funciona a menos que a grande maioria dos cientistas concorde com as regras, pois a participação é voluntária. Não existe polícia científica.</p>
<p>O acordo e a conformidade são mais bem alcançados se os próprios cientistas estiverem envolvidos na criação das regras. Isso ajuda a aumentar a adesão entre a comunidade de colegas para garantir que as regras sejam cumpridas.</p>
<p>Com base nos resultados da pesquisa, o <a href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/">Catalogue of Life</a> - o grupo que possui a lista global de espécies mais abrangente até o momento, e do qual participamos - está testando formas de medir a qualidade das listas que compõem seu catálogo.</p>
<p>Essas formas estão sendo testadas primeiro com os criadores de listas, desde vírus até mamíferos. Em seguida, elas serão testadas com a comunidade taxonômica em geral para obter mais feedback.</p>
<p>Uma boa taxonomia é muito mais valiosa do que as pessoas imaginam. Um estudo recente na Austrália descobriu que, para cada dólar gasto em taxonomia, a <a href="https://www.science.org.au/support/analysis/decadal-plans-science/discovering-biodiversity-decadal-plan-taxonomy#report2021">economia ganhava 35 dólares australianos</a>. É provável que o valor da taxonomia em nível global seja colossal.</p>
<p>Mas o valor será ainda maior se todos no mundo inteiro puderem usar a mesma lista de espécies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Garnett recebe financiamento do Australian Research Council para um projeto sobre governança de listas taxonômicas e coordena o Catalogue of Life Working Group on Taxonomic Lists.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron M. Lien é membro do Catalogue of Life Working Group on Taxonomic Lists e do Global Species List Working Group.</span></em></p>Somente depois que uma espécie é identificada e listada por taxonomistas é que ela pode ser protegida. No entanto, ainda não temos uma lista globalmente aceita de todas as espécies. Uma nova pesquisa realizada em 74 países aponta para a solução.Stephen Garnett, Professor of Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods, Charles Darwin UniversityAaron M. Lien, Assistant Professor of Ecology, Management and Restoration of Rangelands, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2174912023-11-16T13:18:51Z2023-11-16T13:18:51Z‘From the river to the sea’ – a Palestinian historian explores the meaning and intent of scrutinized slogan<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559740/original/file-20231115-19-9tmpne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C302%2C4996%2C3053&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A pro-Palestinian activist in the U.K.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pro-palestinian-activist-holds-up-a-sign-reading-from-the-news-photo/1767735727?adppopup=true">Mark Kerrison/In Pictures via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What does the call “<a href="https://apnews.com/article/river-sea-israel-gaza-hamas-protests-d7abbd756f481fe50b6fa5c0b907cd49">From the river to the sea</a>, Palestine will be free” mean to Palestinians who say it? And why do they keep using the slogan despite the controversy that surrounds its use?</p>
<p>As both a <a href="https://menas.arizona.edu/person/maha-nassar">scholar of Palestinian history</a> and someone from the Palestinian diaspora, I have observed the decades-old phrase gain new life – and scrutiny – in the massive pro-Palestinian marches <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/11/04/1210669096/palestine-march-washington-dc-cease-fire-israel-protest-gaza">in the U.S.</a> and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/4/demonstrations-around-the-world-renew-calls-for-gaza-ceasefire">around the world</a> that have occurred during the Israeli bombing campaign in the Gaza Strip in retaliation for Hamas’ Oct. 7 attack on Israel. </p>
<p>Pro-Israel groups, including the U.S.-based <a href="https://www.adl.org/myths-facts-about-adl">Anti-Defamation League</a>, have labeled <a href="https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounder/allegation-river-sea-palestine-will-be-free?gclid=Cj0KCQiAr8eqBhD3ARIsAIe-buNxvQjDx5nWGNcDrO9OE4lECB5TruGtplZXCVhLsWVFqHWkTf_CqHgaAoBfEALw_wcB">the phrase “antisemitic</a>.” It has even led to a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-house-censures-lone-palestinian-american-lawmaker-over-israel-comments-2023-11-08/">rare censure of House Rep.</a> Rashida Tlaib, the only Palestinian-American member of Congress, for using the phrase.</p>
<p>But to Tlaib, and countless others, the phrase isn’t antisemitic at all. Rather, it is, <a href="https://twitter.com/RashidaTlaib/status/1720574880557539763">in Tlaib’s words</a>, “an aspirational call for freedom, human rights and peaceful coexistence.”</p>
<p>I cannot speak to what is in the heart of every person who uses the phrase. But I can speak to what the phrase has meant to various groups of Palestinians throughout history, and the intent behind most people who use it today.</p>
<p>Simply put, the majority of Palestinians who use this phrase do so because they believe that, in 10 short words, it sums up their personal ties, their national rights and their vision for the land they call Palestine. And while attempts to police the slogan’s use may come from a place of genuine concern, there is a risk that tarring the slogan as antisemitic – and therefore beyond the pale – taps into a longer history of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/10/19/palestinian-writers-canceled-censorship-literature/">attempts to silence Palestinian voices</a>.</p>
<h2>An expression of personal ties</h2>
<p>One reason for the phrase’s appeal is that it speaks to Palestinians’ deep personal ties to the land. They have long <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/palestinian-identity/9780231150743">identified themselves</a> – and one another – by the town or village in Palestine from which they came. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An old map shows a land mass next to a sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559739/original/file-20231115-23-gdrvv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 1902 map of Palestine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/map-of-palestine-ancient-and-modern-1902-showing-the-news-photo/1055145688?adppopup=true">The Print Collector/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And those places stretched across the land, from Jericho and Safed near the Jordan River in the east, to Jaffa and Haifa on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea in the west. </p>
<p>These deeply personal ties were passed down over generations through <a href="https://www.tatreezandtea.com">clothing</a>, <a href="https://justworldbooks.com/books/the-gaza-kitchen-third-edition/">cuisine</a> and subtle differences in <a href="https://aclanthology.org/W14-3603.pdf">Arabic</a> <a href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004499140/BP000009.xml?language=en">dialects</a> that are specific to locations within Palestine.</p>
<p>And those ties continue today. Children and grandchildren of Palestinian refugees often feel a <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2640111484?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">personal connection</a> to the specific places their ancestors hailed from.</p>
<h2>A demand for national rights</h2>
<p>But the phrase is not simply a reference to geography. It’s political.</p>
<p>“From the river to the sea” also seeks to reaffirm Palestinians’ national rights over their homeland and a desire for a unified Palestine to form the basis of an independent state.</p>
<p>When Palestine was under <a href="https://time.com/3445003/mandatory-palestine/">British colonial rule</a> from 1917 to 1948, its Arab inhabitants objected strongly to partition proposals advocated by British and Zionist interests. That’s because, buried deep in the proposals, were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2022.2151845">stipulations that would have forced</a> hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs off their ancestral lands.</p>
<p>In 1946, the Delegation of Arab Governments <a href="https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/amed/amedeltaher/2017498789/2017498789.pdf">proposed instead</a> a “unitary state” with a “democratic constitution” that would guarantee “freedom of religious practice” for all and would recognize “the right of Jews to employ the Hebrew language as a second official language.” </p>
<p>The following year, the United Nations instead approved a partition plan for Palestine, which would have forced 500,000 Palestinian Arabs living in the proposed Jewish state to <a href="https://www.thecairoreview.com/essays/framing-the-partition-plan-for-palestine/">choose between</a> living as a minority in their own country or leaving.</p>
<p>It’s in this context that the call for a unified, independent Palestine emerges, <a href="https://twitter.com/AbuMrouj/status/1721575189207470431">according to</a> Arabic scholar Elliott Colla.</p>
<p>During the 1948 war that led to the formation of the state of Israel, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-nakba-at-75-palestinians-struggle-to-get-recognition-for-their-catastrophe-204782">around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs</a> fled or were expelled from their villages and towns. By the end of the war, Palestine was <a href="http://www.passia.org/maps/view/15">split into three</a>: 78% of the land became part of the Jewish state of Israel, while the remainder fell under Jordanian or Egyptian rule. </p>
<p>Palestinian refugees believed they had a <a href="https://www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-210170/">right to return</a> to their homes in the new state of Israel. Israeli leaders, seeking to maintain the state’s Jewish majority, <a href="https://www.haaretz.com/2013-12-19/ty-article/.premium/israels-nixed-plan-to-resettle-arabs/0000017f-e664-dc7e-adff-f6ed4fd80000">sought to have the refugees resettled</a> far away. Meanwhile, a narrative <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205221132878">emerged in the West in the 1950s claiming</a> that Palestinians’ political claims were invalid. </p>
<h2>Future vision</h2>
<p>Palestinians had to find a way to both assert their national rights and lay out an alternative vision for peace. After Israel occupied the West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, the call for a free Palestine “from the river to the sea” started to <a href="https://online-ucpress-edu.ezproxy1.library.arizona.edu/jps/article-abstract/9/4/17/54721/The-Passions-of-Exile-The-Palestine-Congress-of?redirectedFrom=fulltext">gain traction</a> among those who believed that all the land should be returned to the Palestinians.</p>
<p>But it soon also came to represent the vision of a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2537386.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A1dc8c4f42d4cfd47756d3adb211ccd9a&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=&acceptTC=1">secular democratic state</a> with equality for all. </p>
<p>In 1969, the Palestinian National Council, the highest decision-making body of the Palestinians in exile, <a href="https://www.palquest.org/en/historictext/16209/palestine-national-council-6th-session-political-statement">formally called for</a> a “Palestinian democratic state” that would be “free of all forms of religious and social discrimination.”</p>
<p>This remained a popular vision among Palestinians, even as some of their leaders inched toward the idea of establishing a truncated Palestinian state alongside Israel in the West Bank, Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem. </p>
<p>Many Palestinians were skeptical of this two-state solution. For refugees exiled since 1948, a two-state solution would not allow them to return to their towns and villages in Israel. Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780520385634-014">Palestinian citizens of Israel feared</a> that a two-state solution would leave them even more isolated as an Arab minority in a Jewish state.</p>
<p>Even Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip – those who stood the most to gain from a two-state solution – were lukewarm to the idea. A 1986 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4327683?seq=10">poll found</a> that 78% of respondents “supported the establishment of a democratic-secular Palestinian state encompassing all of Palestine,” while only 17% supported two states.</p>
<p>That helps explains why the call for a free Palestine “from the river to the sea” became popular in the <a href="https://justvision.org/nailaandtheuprising">protest chants</a> of the First Intifada, or Palestinian uprising, from 1987 to 1992.</p>
<p>Notably, Hamas, an Islamist party founded in 1987, did not initially use “from the river to the sea,” likely due to the phrase’s long-standing ties to Palestinian secular nationalism. </p>
<h2>Two states or one?</h2>
<p>The 1993 signing of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/30-years-after-arafat-rabin-handshake-clear-flaws-in-oslo-accords-doomed-peace-talks-to-failure-211362">Oslo Accords</a> led many to believe that a two-state solution was just around the corner. </p>
<p>But as hopes for a two-state solution dimmed, some Palestinians returned to the idea of a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/10/magazine/the-one-state-solution.html">single, democratic state</a> from the river to the sea. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, Hamas picked up the slogan, adding the phrase “from the river to the sea” to its 2017 <a href="https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/hamas-2017-document-full">revised charter</a>. The language was part of Hamas’ broader <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501752742/decolonizing-palestine/">efforts</a> to gain legitimacy at the expense of its secular rival, Fatah, which was seen by many as having failed the Palestinian people.</p>
<p>Today, broad swaths of Palestinians still favor the idea of equality. A 2022 poll found <a href="https://themedialine.org/by-region/palestinian-support-for-a-one-state-solution-is-highest-since-last-years-violence/">strong support</a> among Palestinians for the idea of a single state with equal rights for all. </p>
<h2>Offensive phrase?</h2>
<p>Perhaps colored by Hamas’ use of the phrase, some <a href="https://uncertain.substack.com/p/israel-hamas-river-sea">have claimed</a> it is a genocidal call – the implication being that the slogan’s end is calling for Palestine to be “free from Jews.” It’s understandable where such fears come from, given the Hamas attacks on Oct. 7 that killed <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/11/11/1212458974/israel-revises-death-toll-hamas-attacks-oct-7">1,200 people</a>, according to the Israeli foreign ministry.</p>
<p>But the Arabic original, “Filastin hurra,” means liberated Palestine. “Free from” would be a different Arabic word altogether. </p>
<p>Other <a href="https://www.ajc.org/translatehate/From-the-River-to-the-Sea">critics of the slogan insist</a> that by denying Israel’s right to exist as a Jewish state, the phrase itself is antisemitic. Under such thinking, protesters should instead be calling for a Palestinian state that exists alongside Israel – and not one that replaces it.</p>
<p>But this would seemingly ignore the current reality. There is <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/middle-east/israel-palestine-one-state-solution">strong scholarly consensus</a> that a two-state solution is no longer viable. They argue that the extent of settlement building in the West Bank and the economic conditions in Gaza have eaten away at the cohesion and viability of any envisioned Palestinian state.</p>
<h2>Further demonization</h2>
<p>There is another argument against the slogan’s use: That while not antisemitic in itself, the fact that some Jewish people see it that way – and as such see it as a threat – is enough for people to abandon its use.</p>
<p>But such an argument would, I contend, privilege the feelings of one group over that of another. And it risks further <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-islamophobia-and-anti-palestinian-racism-are-manufactured-through-disinformation-216119">demonizing</a> and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/5/13/social-media-companies-are-trying-to-silence-palestinian-voices">silencing</a> Palestinian voices in the West.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman in a black and white scarf speaks into a microphone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559743/original/file-20231115-15-vqxv2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rep. Rashida Tlaib, D-Mich., speaks during a demonstration calling for a cease-fire in Gaza.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Election2024MichiganTlaib/e0a47d188079478ea61d918f8d72eabb/photo?Query=from%20river%20to%20sea&mediaType=photo,video,graphic,audio&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=478&currentItemNo=4">AP Photo/Amanda Andrade-Rhoades</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the last month, Europe has seen what pro-Palestine advocates describe as an “<a href="https://time.com/6326360/europe-palestine-protests-free-speech/">unprecedented crackdown</a>” on their activism. Meanwhile, people across the U.S. are reporting widespread <a href="https://palestinelegal.org/news/2023/11/14/letter-to-workplace-leaders-protect-against-anti-palestinian-anti-arab-and-anti-muslim-discrimination">discrimination</a>, <a href="https://prismreports.org/2023/11/13/workers-retaliation-supporting-palestine/">retaliation</a> and <a href="https://www.columbiaspectator.com/news/2023/11/15/to-shut-us-down-you-have-only-made-us-stronger-hundreds-of-students-faculty-protest-suspension-of-sjp-jvp/">punishment</a> for their pro-Palestinian views.</p>
<p>On Nov. 14, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/11/14/gwu-images-palestinian-students-for-justice/">George Washington University suspended</a> the student group Students for Justice in Palestine, in part because the group projected the slogan “Free Palestine From the River to the Sea” on the campus library.</p>
<h2>Principle, not platform</h2>
<p>None of this is to say that the phrase “From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free” doesn’t have multiple interpretations.</p>
<p>Palestinians themselves are divided over the specific political outcome they wish to see in their homeland.</p>
<p>But that misses the point. Most Palestinians using this chant do not see it as advocating for a specific political platform or as belonging to a specific political group. Rather, the majority of people using the phrase see it as a principled vision of freedom and coexistence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217491/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maha Nassar has previously received funding from the Foundation for Middle East Peace.</span></em></p>The slogan has been attacked as ‘antisemitic’ and defended as a ‘call for freedom.’ Behind the controversy is decades of usage.Maha Nassar, Associate Professor in the School of Middle Eastern and North African Studies, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160062023-10-30T19:10:53Z2023-10-30T19:10:53ZWe need a single list of all life on Earth – and most taxonomists now agree on how to start<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556256/original/file-20231027-21-nxmtp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=151%2C53%2C4719%2C3316&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/common-kingfisher-alcedo-atthis-wetlands-birdss-2331210013">Sumruay Rattanataipob/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Species lists are one of the unseen pillars of science and society. Lists of species underpin our understanding of the natural world, threatened species management, quarantine, disease control and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13127-021-00518-8">much else besides</a>. </p>
<p>The people who describe new species and create lists of them are taxonomists. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/546025a">A few years ago</a>, a headline in the journal Nature accused the taxonomic community of anarchy for not coordinating a common view of species, leading to confusion about our knowledge of life on earth.</p>
<p>Many in the taxonomic community <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2005075">took umbrage</a> at this. Taxonomists were concerned that the ideas proposed would limit their freedom of expression and they would be tied to a bureaucracy before they could publish new species descriptions.</p>
<p>Taxonomists certainly argue – disputation is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13127-021-00495-y">essential to the practice of taxonomy</a>, as it is to science in general. Ultimately, however, a taxonomist’s life is spent trying to discern order in the extraordinarily diverse tree of life.</p>
<p>The results of a new survey published today in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2306899120">Proceedings of the National Academies of Science</a>, show just how much taxonomists really do like order.</p>
<h2>Hardly a group of anarchists</h2>
<p>The argument was about how to solve disagreements between taxonomists. Eventually, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-scientific-spat-over-how-to-name-species-turned-into-a-big-plus-for-nature-138887">two sides came together</a> to produce principles on the creation of a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000736">single authoritative list of species</a>.</p>
<p>This group then went to the taxonomic community to survey their views on whether a global species list is needed and how it should be run.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-scientific-spat-over-how-to-name-species-turned-into-a-big-plus-for-nature-138887">How a scientific spat over how to name species turned into a big plus for nature</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The newly published results show that a large majority (77%) of respondents – which included over 1,100 taxonomists and users of taxonomy across 74 countries – have expressed support for having a single list of all life on Earth.</p>
<p>They also agreed there should be a governance system that supports the list’s creation and maintenance. Just what that governance system would entail is not yet specified. Deciding that will be the next step in the process.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small grey animal looking like a cross between a kangaroo and a rat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556258/original/file-20231027-15-lpxxvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Understanding species taxonomy is crucial for their management. Knowing the taxonomy of marsupials like this bettong helps identify what needs conserving and where.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bettong-australias-smallest-kangaroo-glances-curiously-1658557687">Tyrrannoid/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Taxonomists propose hypotheses, not facts</h2>
<p>Why is this important? Many may not realise that when a taxonomist names a new species description, they are proposing a scientific hypothesis, not presenting an <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-44966-1">objective scientific fact</a>.</p>
<p>Other taxonomists then look at the evidence provided in the description and decide whether they agree. If people making species lists judge that there is agreement about a hypothesis, the new species goes on their list. </p>
<p>Only after a species is listed can it be protected, studied, eradicated, ignored or whatever else governments decide is appropriate. Scientists and conservation advocates also need species to be listed before they can include them in their work. Until listed, the species remains, for all practical purposes, invisible. </p>
<p>However, not all lists are equally trusted. Very rarely taxonomists do go rogue. One notorious taxonomist has been blacklisted for “<a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/133/3/645/6240088?login=falsename">taxonomic vandalism</a>”. He published all sorts of new names – some even commemorated his dog – with little justification. If accepted, his field (herpetology) would have been thrown into chaos.</p>
<p>The work of rogue taxonomists wastes everyone’s time and money. In one instance, poor taxonomy has even killed people – an antivenom labelled with the wrong name for a snake was distributed in Africa and Papua New Guinea <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18359053/">with disastrous results</a>.</p>
<p>Even without rogue taxonomists, there is an enormous problem with so-called synonyms – different people giving different names for the same species. Some species have tens of scientific names, not to mention misspellings. </p>
<p>This leaves users uncertain what name to use. Sometimes they use different names but mean the same species; sometimes the same names but mean different species. The only way to clarify this confusion is by having a working master list of species names linked to the scientific literature.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A colourful coral reef with schools of fish and a turtle swimming above it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556257/original/file-20231027-17-f2a7fd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biodiversity is an essential feature of our planet and its ecosystems – but to understand it, we also need to understand the individual species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tropical-fish-turtle-red-sea-egypt-211006552">Vlad61/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Now what?</h2>
<p>The newly released survey shows taxonomists and users of taxonomy have achieved an agreement that good lists need good governance. Species lists need to reflect the best science, independent of outside influence. They need dispute resolution processes. And they need involvement and agreement from the taxonomic community on their contents.</p>
<p>Governance of science does not work unless a large majority of scientists agree with the rules, because participation is voluntary. There’s no such thing as science police. </p>
<p>Agreement and compliance is best achieved if scientists themselves are involved in the creation of the rules. This helps to increase buy-in among the community of peers to make sure rules are kept.</p>
<p>Based on the survey results, <a href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/">the Catalogue of Life</a> – the group that has the most comprehensive global species list to date, and the one we’re involved in – is piloting ways of measuring the quality of the lists that make up their catalogue. </p>
<p>These are being trialled first with the creators of lists, everything from viruses to mammals. Then, they will be tested with the taxonomic community at large for further feedback.</p>
<p>Good taxonomy is far more valuable than people realise. One recent study in Australia found that, for every dollar spent on taxonomy, <a href="https://www.science.org.au/support/analysis/decadal-plans-science/discovering-biodiversity-decadal-plan-taxonomy#report2021">the economy gained A$35</a>. The value of taxonomy globally is likely to be colossal.</p>
<p>But the value will be higher still if everyone the world over is able to use the same list of species.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-re-counted-australias-extinct-species-and-the-result-is-devastating-127611">Scientists re-counted Australia's extinct species, and the result is devastating</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Garnett receives funding from the Australian Research Council for a project on taxonomic list governance and coordinates the Catalogue of Life Working Group on Taxonomic Lists. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron M. Lien is a member of the Catalogue of Life Working Group on Taxonomic Lists and the Global Species List Working Group. </span></em></p>Only after a species is identified and listed by taxonomists can it be protected. Yet we still don’t have one globally agreed-upon list of every species. A new 74-nation survey points to the solution.Stephen Garnett, Professor of Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods, Charles Darwin UniversityAaron M. Lien, Assistant Professor of Ecology, Management and Restoration of Rangelands, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2161372023-10-27T12:17:17Z2023-10-27T12:17:17ZAsteroids in the solar system could contain undiscovered, superheavy elements<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555902/original/file-20231025-23-pgf5be.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=52%2C30%2C4981%2C3426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An illustration of an asteroid orbiting through space. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/illustration-of-an-asteroid-royalty-free-illustration/973895632?phrase=asteroid&adppopup=true">Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For centuries, the <a href="https://sciencenotes.org/when-were-the-elements-discovered-timeline-and-periodic-table/">quest for new elements</a> was a driving force in many scientific disciplines. Understanding an atom’s structure and the development of nuclear science allowed scientists to accomplish the old goal of <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alchemy">alchemists</a> – <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/transmutation">turning one element into another</a>. </p>
<p>Over the past few decades, scientists in the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">United States</a>, <a href="https://www.helmholtz.de/en/about-us/helmholtz-centers/centers-a-z/centre/gsi-helmholtz-centre-for-heavy-ion-research/">Germany</a> and <a href="https://www.iaea.org/contact/joint-institute-for-nuclear-research-jinr">Russia</a> have figured out how to use special tools <a href="https://physicalsciences.lbl.gov/2023/10/16/berkeley-lab-to-test-new-approach-to-making-superheavy-elements/">to combine two atomic nuclei</a> and create new, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nucl-102912-144535">superheavy elements</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A periodic table, with each group a different color." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555904/original/file-20231025-30-pcmast.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The heaviest element on the periodic table has 118 protons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Periodic_table_%28JPEG_version%29.jpg">Licks-rocks/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These heavy elements usually aren’t stable. Heavier elements <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsprotons">have more protons</a>, or positively charged particles in the nucleus; some that scientists have created <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/when-will-we-reach-end-periodic-table-180957851/">have up to 118</a>. With that many protons, the electromagnetic repulsive forces between protons in the atomic nuclei overwhelm the attractive nuclear force that keeps the nucleus together. </p>
<p>Scientists have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172015">predicted for a long time</a> that elements with around 164 protons could have a relatively long <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/half-life-radioactivity">half-life</a>, or even be stable. They call this the “<a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/627973">island of stability</a>” – here, the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to balance out any electromagnetic repulsion. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A purple piece of machinery in a concrete room with metal boxes and cables coming off it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556194/original/file-20231026-23-l75f9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have constructed experiments that can weigh superheavy elements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.osti.gov/np/Highlights/2019/NP-2019-08-c">Marilyn Chung, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since heavy elements are difficult to make in the lab, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7GzPpUgAAAAJ&hl=en">physicists like me</a> have been looking for these elements everywhere, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-quest-for-superheavy-elements-and-the-island-of-stability/">even beyond the Earth</a>. To narrow down the search, we need to know what sort of natural processes could produce these elements. We also need to know what properties they have, like their mass densities. </p>
<h2>Calculating density</h2>
<p>From the outset, my team wanted to figure out the mass density of these superheavy elements. This property could tell us more about how the atomic nuclei of these elements behave. And once we had an idea about their density, we could get a better sense of where these elements might be hiding. </p>
<p>To figure out the mass density and other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BFb0116498">chemical properties</a> of these elements, my research team used a model that represents an atom of each of these heavy elements as a single, charged cloud. This model works well for large atoms, particularly metals that are laid out in a lattice structure.</p>
<p>We first <a href="https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-023-04454-8">applied this model</a> to atoms with known densities and calculated their chemical properties. Once we knew it worked, we used the model to calculate the density of elements with 164 protons, and other elements in this island of stability. </p>
<p>Based on our calculations, we expect stable metals with atomic numbers around 164 to have densities between 36 to 68 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (21 to 39 oz/in<sup>3</sup>). However, in our calculations, we used a conservative assumption about the mass of atomic nuclei. It’s possible that the actual range is up to 40% higher. </p>
<h2>Asteroids and heavy elements</h2>
<p>Many scientists <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/101209-asteroid-collisions-earth-gold-science-space">believe that gold</a> and other heavy metals were deposited on Earth’s surface after <a href="https://earthsky.org/earth/did-meteorites-bombard-earth-with-gold/">asteroids collided with the planet</a>. </p>
<p>The same thing could have happened with these superheavy elements, but super mass dense heavy elements sink into ground and are eliminated from near the Earth’s surface by the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/science-snippet/earthword-subduction">subduction of tectonic plates</a>. However, while researchers might not find superheavy elements on Earth’s surface, they could still be in asteroids like the ones that might have brought them to this planet.</p>
<p>Scientists have estimated that some asteroids have mass densities greater than that of <a href="https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/76/osmium">osmium</a> (22.59 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, 13.06 oz/in<sup>3</sup>), the densest element found on Earth. </p>
<p>The largest of these objects is asteroid 33, which is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33_Polyhymnia">nicknamed Polyhymnia</a> and has a calculated density of 75.3 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (43.5 oz/in<sup>3</sup>). But this density might not be quite right, since it’s quite difficult to measure the mass and volume of far-away asteroids.</p>
<p>Polyhymnia isn’t the only dense asteroid out there. In fact, there’s a whole class of superheavy objects, including asteroids, which could contain these superheavy elements. Some time ago, I introduced the name <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.111102">Compact Ultradense Objects, or CUDOs</a>, for this class. </p>
<p>In a study published in October 2023 in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-023-04454-8">European Physical Journal Plus</a>, my team suggested some of the CUDOs orbiting in the solar system might still contain some of these <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wj7BM6Jt-4I">dense, heavy elements</a> in their cores. Their surfaces would have accumulated normal matter over time and would appear normal to a distant observer.</p>
<p>So how are these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.93.015002">heavy elements produced</a>? Some extreme astronomical events, like <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-star-collisions-forge-the-universes-heaviest-elements/">double star mergers</a> could be hot and dense enough to produce stable superheavy elements. </p>
<p>Some of the superheavy material could then remain on board asteroids created in these events. They could stay packed in these asteroids, which orbit the solar system for billions of years.</p>
<h2>Looking to the future</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia_overview">Eurpoean Space Agency’s Gaia mission</a> aims to create the largest, most precise three-dimensional map of everything in the sky. Researchers could use these extremely precise results to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ace52b">study the motion of asteroids</a> and figure out which ones might have an unusually large density.</p>
<p>Space missions are being conducted to collect material from the surfaces of asteroids and analyze them back on Earth. Both NASA and the <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/">Japanese state space agency JAXA</a> have targeted low density near-Earth asteroids with success. Just this month, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/">OSIRIS-REx</a> mission brought back a sample. Though the sample analysis is just getting started, there is a very small chance it could harbor dust containing superheavy elements accumulated over billions of years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing the Psyche spacecraft's approach to the asteroid, where it starts at Earth in the center and moves in a counterclockwise spiral to the top of the screen, where it arrives at the asteroid." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556232/original/file-20231026-29-oeel6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Psyche spacecraft has left Earth. It will use the gravitational field of Mars to carry it closer to the asteroid. It will then orbit the asteroid and collect data.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia24930-psyches-mission-plan">NASA/JPL-Caltech</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One mass-dense dust and rock sample brought back to Earth would be enough. <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/psyche/">NASA’s Psyche mission</a>, which launched in October 2023, will fly to and sample <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/nasa-launches-mission-to-study-distant-asteroid-180983072/">a metal-rich asteroid</a> with a greater chance of harboring superheavy elements. More asteroid missions like this will help scientists better understand the properties of asteroids orbiting in the solar system.</p>
<p>Learning more about asteroids and exploring potential sources of superheavy elements will help scientists continue the century-spanning quest to characterize the matter that makes up the universe and better understand how objects in the solar system formed. </p>
<p><em>Evan LaForge, an undergraduate student studying physics and mathematics, is the lead author on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-023-04454-8">this research</a> and helped with the writing of this article, along with Will Price, a physics graduate student.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216137/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Johann Rafelski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scientists have been searching Earth’s surface for superheavy elements too difficult to make in the lab, but now, many are looking to the skies instead.Johann Rafelski, Professor of Physics, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2146142023-10-24T12:22:02Z2023-10-24T12:22:02ZSpace rocks and asteroid dust are pricey, but these aren’t the most expensive materials used in science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552576/original/file-20231006-23-aam2il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C34%2C5751%2C3794&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Meteorites can get pricey, but they're not the most expensive material. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/FranceMeteoriteAuction/e075e1b22656489db39610bafb0682af/photo?Query=meteorites&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=341&currentItemNo=5&vs=true">AP Photo/Thibault Camus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After a journey of seven years and nearly 4 billion miles, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex">NASA’s OSIRIS-REx</a> <a href="https://www.space.com/osiris-rex-asteroid-samples-land-houston">spacecraft landed</a> gently in the Utah desert on the morning of Sept. 24, 2023, with a precious payload. <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex">The spacecraft</a> brought back a sample from the asteroid Bennu.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An artist's illustration of a gray metallic spacecraft hovering above the dark surface of an asteroid, with an arm that reaches down to the surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552573/original/file-20231006-27-cm9a07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">OSIRIS-REx collected a sample from the asteroid Bennu.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/20c047ec48f74f6995ffad6b0f54422c?ext=true">NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Roughly half a pound of material collected from the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/asteroids/101955-bennu/facts/">85 million-ton asteroid</a> (77.6 billion kg) will help scientists learn about the <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/osiris-rex/in-depth/">formation of the solar system</a>, including whether <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/asteroids/101955-bennu/in-depth/">asteroids like Bennu</a> include the chemical ingredients for life.</p>
<p>NASA’s mission was budgeted at <a href="https://www.asteroidmission.org/qa/">US$800 million</a> and will end up costing around <a href="https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-osiris-rex">$1.16 billion</a> for <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-first-asteroid-sample-has-landed-now-secure-in-clean-room/">just under 9 ounces of sample</a> (255 g). But is this the most expensive material known? Not even close.</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OrRLRQ4AAAAJ&hl=en">professor of astronomy</a>. I use Moon and Mars rocks in my teaching and have a modest collection of meteorites. I marvel at the fact that I can hold in my hand something that is billions of years old from billions of miles away.</p>
<h2>The cost of sample return</h2>
<p>A handful of asteroid works out to $132 million <a href="https://www.hoodmwr.com/things-that-weigh-around-1-ounce/">per ounce</a>, or $4.7 million per gram. That’s about 70,000 times the <a href="https://goldprice.org/">price of gold</a>, which has been in the range of $1,800 to $2,000 per ounce ($60 to $70 per gram) for the past few years.</p>
<p>The first extraterrestrial material returned to Earth came from the Apollo program. Between 1969 and 1972, six Apollo missions brought back 842 pounds (382 kg) of <a href="https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/">lunar samples</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/cost-of-apollo">total price tag</a> for the Apollo program, adjusted for inflation, was $257 billion. These Moon rocks were a relative bargain at $19 million per ounce ($674 thousand per gram), and of course Apollo had additional value in demonstrating technologies for human spaceflight. </p>
<p>NASA is planning to bring samples back from Mars in the early 2030s to see if any contain traces of ancient life. The <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msr/">Mars Sample Return</a> mission aims to return <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/161264/we-can-only-bring-30-samples-of-mars-back-to-earth-how-do-we-decide/">30 sample tubes</a> with a <a href="https://downloads.regulations.gov/NASA-2022-0002-0002/attachment_5.pdf">total weight of a pound</a> (450 g). The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance">Perseverance rover</a> has already <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/160109/perseverance-is-building-up-a-big-collection-of-mars-samples/">cached 10 of these samples</a>. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/mars-sample-return-got-new-price-tag-it-s-big">costs have grown</a> because the mission is complex, involving multiple robots and spacecraft. Bringing back the samples could run $11 billion, putting their cost at $690 million per ounce ($24 million per gram), five times the unit cost of the Bennu samples.</p>
<h2>Some space rocks are free</h2>
<p>Some space rocks cost nothing. Almost 50 tons of free samples from the solar system <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/meteors-meteorites/">rain down on the Earth</a> every day. Most burn up in the atmosphere, but if they reach the ground <a href="https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/meteor-meteorite-asteroid">they’re called meteorites</a>, and most of those come from asteroids. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/types-of-meteorites.html">Meteorites can get costly</a> because it can be difficult to recognize and retrieve them. Rocks all look similar unless you’re a geology expert. </p>
<p>Most meteorites are stony, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chondrite">called chondrites</a>, and they can be bought online for as little as $15 per ounce (50 cents per gram). Chondrites differ from normal rocks in containing <a href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/meteorites/origins-of-the-solar-system/chondrules">round grains called chondrules</a> that formed as molten droplets in space at the birth of the solar system 4.5 billion years ago.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A meteorite that looks like a long gray rock with dark gray veins running across it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552568/original/file-20231006-19-kgbnz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A chondrite from the Viñales meteorite, which originated from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ordinary_chondrite_%28Vi%C3%B1ales_Meteorite%29_15.jpg">Ser Amantio di Nicolao/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://aerolite.org/shop/iron-meteorites/">Iron meteorites</a> are distinguished by a dark crust, caused by melting of the surface as they come through the atmosphere, and an internal pattern of long metallic crystals. They cost $50 per ounce ($1.77 per gram) or even higher. <a href="https://geology.com/meteorites/value-of-meteorites.shtml">Pallasites</a> are stony-iron meteorites laced with the mineral olivine. When cut and polished, they have a translucent yellow-green color and can cost over $1,000 per ounce ($35 per gram).</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A brown-gray meteorite that's roughly circular with textured ridges" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552571/original/file-20231006-21-vjnv0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An iron meteorite.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Odessa_%28iron%29_meteorite.jpg">Llez/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More than a few meteorites have reached us from the Moon and Mars. Close to 600 have been recognized as <a href="https://sites.wustl.edu/meteoritesite/items/lunar-meteorites/">coming from the Moon</a>, and <a href="https://www.catawiki.com/en/stories/4683-10-most-expensive-meteorites-ever-offered-up-on-earth">the largest</a>, weighing 4 pounds (1.8 kg), sold for a price that works out to be about $4,700 per ounce ($166 per gram). </p>
<p>About 175 meteorites are identified as <a href="https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/">having come from Mars</a>. <a href="https://aerolite.org/shop/mars-meteorites/">Buying one</a> would cost about $11,000 per ounce ($388 per gram). </p>
<p>Researchers can figure out <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/meteors-meteorites/facts/">where meteorites come from</a> by using their landing trajectories to project their paths back to the asteroid belt or comparing their composition with different classes of asteroids. Experts can tell where Moon and Mars rocks come from by their geology and mineralogy.</p>
<p>The limitation of these “free” samples is that there is no way to know where on the Moon or Mars they came from, which limits their scientific usefulness. Also, they start to get contaminated as soon as they land on Earth, so it’s hard to tell if any microbes within them are extraterrestrial.</p>
<h2>Expensive elements and minerals</h2>
<p>Some elements and minerals are expensive because they’re scarce. Simple <a href="http://www.leonland.de/elements_by_price/en/list">elements in the periodic table</a> have low prices. Per ounce, carbon costs one-third of a cent, iron costs 1 cent, aluminum costs 56 cents, and even mercury is less than a dollar (per 100 grams, carbon costs $2.40, iron costs less than a cent and alumnium costs 19 cents). Silver is $14 per ounce (50 cents per gram), and gold, $1,900 per ounce ($67 per gram). </p>
<p><a href="https://alansfactoryoutlet.com/how-much-do-elements-cost-the-price-of-75-elements-per-kilogram/">Seven radioactive elements</a> are extremely rare in nature and so difficult to create in the lab that they eclipse the price of NASA’s Mars Sample Return. Polonium-209, the most expensive of these, costs $1.4 trillion per ounce ($49 billion per gram).</p>
<p>Gemstones can be expensive, too. <a href="https://www.gemsociety.org/article/emerald-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/">High-quality emeralds</a> are 10 times the <a href="https://goldprice.org/">price of gold</a>, and <a href="https://ajediam.com/diamond-prices/white-natural-diamond/">white diamonds</a> are 100 times the price of gold. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A circular white diamond sitting on a white surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554101/original/file-20231016-15-63z3ek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">High-quality white diamonds can cost millions of dollars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/eeaab33d812a487ebfd2e5a76a25eb03?ext=true">AP Photo/Mary Altaffer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some diamonds have a boron impurity that gives them a <a href="https://www.diamonds.pro/education/blue/">vivid blue hue</a>. They’re found in only a handful of mines worldwide, and at <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2022/04/28/worlds-largest-blue-diamond-sells/9567999002/">$550 million per ounce</a> ($19 million per gram) they rival the cost of the upcoming Mars samples – an ounce is 142 carats, but very few gems are that large. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-create-world-s-most-expensive-material-valued-at-145-million-per-gram">most expensive synthetic material</a> is a tiny spherical “cage” of carbon with a nitrogen atom trapped inside. The atom inside the cage is extremely stable, so can be used for timekeeping. <a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2015/12/oxford-company-now-selling-endohedral-fullerenes-priced-at-110-million-per-gram/">Endohedral fullerenes</a> are made of carbon material that may be used to create extremely accurate atomic clocks. They can cost $4 billion per ounce ($141 million per gram).</p>
<h2>Most expensive of all</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.livescience.com/32387-what-is-antimatter.html">Antimatter</a> occurs in nature, but it’s exceptionally rare because any time an antiparticle is created it quickly annihilates with a particle and produces radiation. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7MkfMGzMcf8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">At CERN’s ‘antimatter factory,’ scientists create antimatter in very small quantities.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2010.0026">particle accelerator at CERN</a> can produces 10 million antiprotons per minute. That sounds like a lot, but <a href="https://archive.ph/6RUrA">at that rate</a> it would take billions of years and cost a billion billion (10<sup>18</sup>) dollars to generate an ounce (3.5 x 10<sup>16</sup> dollars per gram). </p>
<p><a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24232342-600-how-star-treks-warp-drives-touch-on-one-of-physics-biggest-mysteries/">Warp drives</a> as envisaged by “Star Trek,” which are powered by matter-antimatter annihilation, will have to wait.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214614/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Impey receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Some space rocks you can get for free – if you know how to identify them. Rarer materials cost more, and the asteroid sample NASA just brought back has a high price tag.Chris Impey, University Distinguished Professor of Astronomy, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160452023-10-19T17:11:19Z2023-10-19T17:11:19Z‘Los asesinos de la luna’: quien más robó a los nativos americanos fue el Gobierno de EE. UU.<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554836/original/file-20231006-21-4xdn37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3639%2C2842&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Una delegación Osage con el presidente Calvin Coolidge en la Casa Blanca el 20 de enero de 1924. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/washington-dc-osage-indians-in-washington-regarding-their-news-photo/514689540">Bettman via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>La nueva película del director Martin Scorsese, <a href="https://www.filmaffinity.com/es/film970587.html"><em>Los asesinos de la luna</em></a>, narra la historia real de una serie de asesinatos ocurridos en las tierras de la <a href="https://www.osagenation-nsn.gov/">Nación Osage</a> en Oklahoma, Estados Unidos, en la década de 1920. </p>
<p>Basada en la <a href="https://www.penguinlibros.com/es/biografias/37073-libro-los-asesinos-de-la-luna-9788439734321">meticulosa investigación de 2017</a> de David Grann, la película profundiza en la dinámica racial y familiar que sacudió Oklahoma hasta la médula cuando se descubrió petróleo en las tierras de los Osage. Los colonos blancos atacaron a los miembros de la Nación Osage para robárselas y quedarse con las riquezas que había bajo ellas. Pero desde una perspectiva histórica, este crimen es sólo la punta del iceberg. </p>
<p>Desde principios del siglo XIX hasta la década de 1930, la política oficial estadounidense desplazó a miles de nativos americanos de sus hogares ancestrales mediante los conocidos como “<a href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/pdf/related-facts.pdf">traslados de indios</a>”. Y a lo largo del siglo XX, el Gobierno federal recaudó miles de millones de dólares de las ventas o arrendamientos de recursos naturales como madera, petróleo y gas en tierras indias, que se suponía debía desembolsar a los propietarios de las tierras. Pero <a href="https://narf.org/cases/cobell/">no rindió cuentas de estos fondos fiduciarios</a> durante décadas, y mucho menos pagó a los indios lo que se les debía.</p>
<p>Soy director del <a href="https://law.arizona.edu/academics/programs/indigenous-governance-program">Programa de Gobernanza Indígena</a> de la Universidad de Arizona y <a href="https://naair.arizona.edu/person/torivio-fodder">profesor de Derecho</a>. Mi ascendencia es comanche, kiowa y cherokee por parte de padre y pueblo por parte de madre. Desde mi punto de vista, <em>Los asesinos de la luna</em> es sólo un capítulo de una historia mucho mayor: Estados Unidos se construyó sobre tierras y riquezas robadas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Miembros de la tribu, algunos con atuendos tradicionales, en un escenario" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Miembros de la Nación Osage asisten al estreno de <em>Los asesinos de la luna</em> el 27 de septiembre de 2023, en Nueva York.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/julie-okeefe-addie-roanhorse-osage-nation-princess-lawren-news-photo/1705095795">Dia Dipasupil/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Expansión hacia el Oeste y robo de tierras</h2>
<p>Según la versión tradicional, el Oeste americano fue poblado por laboriosos colonos que se ganaron la vida a duras penas, formaron ciudades y, con el tiempo, crearon estados. En realidad, en esas tierras vivían ya cientos de naciones nativas, cada una con sus propias formas de gobierno, cultura y lengua.</p>
<p>A principios del siglo XIX, las ciudades del este crecían y los densos centros urbanos se volvían inmanejables. Las tierras indias del oeste eran un objetivo atractivo, pero la expansión hacia allá se topó con lo que se conocería como “el problema indio”. Esta <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears">frase muy utilizada</a> reflejaba la creencia de que Estados Unidos tenía el mandato divino de colonizar Norteamérica, y los indios se interponían en el camino.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/if-BOZgWZPE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A principios del siglo XIX, la elaboración de tratados entre Estados Unidos y las naciones indias pasó de ser un proceso de cooperación a convertirse en una herramienta para expulsar por la fuerza a las tribus de sus tierras.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A partir de la década de 1830, el Congreso presionó a las tribus indias del este para que firmaran tratados que las obligaban a <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/indian-removal-act/">trasladarse a reservas en el oeste</a>. Esto tuvo lugar a pesar de las objeciones de figuras públicas como <a href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/pdf/related-facts.pdf">el pionero y congresista por Tennessee Davy Crockett</a>, organizaciones humanitarias y, por supuesto, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/fosm/learn/historyculture/storiestrailoftears.htm">las propias tribus</a>. </p>
<p>El traslado forzoso afectó a todas las tribus al este del río Misisipi y a varias tribus al oeste del mismo. En total, <a href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/pdf/lesson-0-full.pdf">unos 100 000 indios americanos fueron expulsados</a> de sus tierras orientales a reservas occidentales. </p>
<p>Pero la apropiación de tierras más perniciosa estaba aún por llegar.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mapa que muestra las tribus desplazadas del este de EE. UU." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tribus nativas americanas del este que se vieron obligadas a trasladarse al oeste a partir de la década de 1830.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/img/Removal-MAP-20170124.jpg">Smithsonian</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>La Ley General de Asignación</h2>
<p>Incluso después de que los indios fueran acorralados en reservas, los colonos presionaron para conseguir un mayor acceso a las tierras del oeste. En 1871, el Congreso puso fin formalmente a la política de elaboración de tratados con los indios. Después, en 1887, aprobó la <a href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dawes-act">General Allotment Act</a>, también conocida como Ley Dawes. Con esta ley, la política estadounidense hacia los indios pasó de la separación a la asimilación, es decir, la integración forzosa de los indios en la población nacional.</p>
<p>Para ello fue necesario cambiar las estructuras tribales de propiedad comunal de la tierra bajo un sistema de reservas por un modelo de propiedad privada que disolvió las reservas por completo. La Ley de Adjudicación General se diseñó para dividir las tierras de las reservas en adjudicaciones para indios individuales y abrir las tierras no adjudicadas, que se consideraban excedentes, <a href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dawes-act#">a la colonización no india</a>. Las tierras sólo podían adjudicarse a los hombres cabeza de familia. </p>
<p>Según el estatuto original, el Gobierno de EE. UU. mantenía las asignaciones indias, que medían aproximadamente 160 acres por persona (poco más de medio kilómetro cuadrado), en fideicomiso durante 25 años antes de que cada adjudicatario indio pudiera recibir un título claro. Durante este periodo, se esperaba que los indios adjudicatarios <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1034&context=fac_pub">se dedicaran a la agricultura, se convirtieran al cristianismo y asumieran la ciudadanía estadounidense</a>. </p>
<p>En 1906, el Congreso modificó la ley para permitir al secretario de Interior expedir títulos de propiedad siempre que se considerara que un indio adjudicatario era capaz de gestionar sus asuntos. Una vez que esto ocurría, la adjudicación quedaba sujeta a impuestos y podía venderse inmediatamente.</p>
<h2>Genocidio cultural legal</h2>
<p>Los indios adjudicatarios a menudo tenían escasos conocimientos de agricultura y aún menos capacidad para gestionar sus tierras recién adquiridas.</p>
<p>Incluso después de ser confinadas en reservas occidentales, muchas tribus habían mantenido sus estructuras de gobierno tradicionales y habían intentado preservar sus prácticas culturales y religiosas, incluida la propiedad comunal de bienes. Cuando el Gobierno estadounidense les impuso un sistema ajeno de propiedad y gestión, muchos terratenientes indios se limitaron a vender sus tierras a compradores no indios o se vieron sujetos a impuestos que no podían pagar.</p>
<p>En total, la adjudicación <a href="https://iltf.org/land-issues/history/">eliminó 90 millones de acres de tierra (alrededor de 364 200 kilómetros cuadrados)</a> del control indio antes de que la política finalizara a mediados de la década de 1930. Esto condujo a la destrucción de la cultura india, a la pérdida de la lengua cuando el Gobierno federal <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/51.21-22/indigenous-affairs-the-u-s-has-spent-more-money-erasing-native-languages-than-saving-them">implantó su política de internados</a> y a la imposición de una miríada de normas, como se muestra en <em>Los asesinos de la luna</em>, que afectaban a la herencia, la propiedad y las disputas por el título cuando fallecía un adjudicatario. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mapa antiguo con las extensiones de producción petrolífera marcadas" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mapa de 1917 de los arrendamientos petrolíferos en la Reserva Osage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/map-of-osage-indian-reservation-gas-and-oil-leases-1917-news-photo/1371414745">HUM Images / Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Una medida de justicia</h2>
<p>En la actualidad, hay <a href="https://revenuedata.doi.gov/how-revenue-works/native-american-ownership-governance/">unos 56 millones de acres (unos 226 623 km²)</a> bajo control indio. El Gobierno federal posee la titularidad de las tierras, pero las mantiene en fideicomiso para las tribus indias y los particulares.</p>
<p>Estas tierras contienen muchos recursos valiosos, como petróleo, gas, madera y minerales. Pero en lugar de actuar como administrador de los intereses indios en estos recursos, el Gobierno de EE. UU. ha incumplido repetidamente sus obligaciones fiduciarias.</p>
<p>De acuerdo con la Ley General de Adjudicación, el dinero obtenido de la prospección de petróleo y gas, la minería y otras actividades en las tierras indias adjudicadas se depositaba en cuentas individuales en beneficio de los indios adjudicatarios. Pero durante más de un siglo, en lugar de efectuar los pagos a los propietarios indios, el Gobierno gestionó mal esos fondos, no rindió cuentas de ellos por orden judicial y <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2318591">destruyó sistemáticamente los registros de desembolsos</a>. </p>
<p>En 1996, Elouise Cobell, miembro de la Nación de los Pies Negros de Montana, presentó una demanda colectiva para obligar al Gobierno a rendir cuentas históricas de esos fondos y arreglar su fallido sistema de gestión. Tras 16 años de litigio, la demanda se <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/18/us/elouise-cobell-65-dies-sued-us-over-indian-trust-funds.html">resolvió en 2009 por unos 3 400 millones de dólares</a>. </p>
<p>El acuerdo preveía 1 400 millones de dólares para pagos directos de 1 000 dólares a cada miembro del grupo, y 1 900 millones para consolidar los complejos intereses de propiedad que se habían acumulado a medida que la tierra se transmitía de generación en generación, lo que hacía <a href="https://www.doi.gov/ocl/hearings/111/CobellvsSalazar_121709">difícil rastrear a los adjudicatarios y desarrollar la tierra</a>. </p>
<p>“Todos sabemos que el acuerdo es inadecuado, pero también debemos encontrar la forma de curar las heridas y lograr cierta medida de restitución”, declaró Jefferson Keel, presidente del Congreso Nacional de Indios Americanos, cuando la organización <a href="https://www.ncai.org/news/articles/2010/06/23/ncai-passes-resolution-to-support-immediate-passage-of-the-cobell-settlement-legislation">aprobó una resolución en 2010</a> en la que respaldaba el acuerdo.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Una mujer y un hombre se dan la mano en una sala de audiencias abarrotada." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elouise Cobell estrecha la mano del secretario del Interior, Ken Salazar, en una audiencia del Senado sobre el acuerdo Cobell contra Salazar por valor de 3 400 millones de dólares. Cobell, miembro de la Nación Pies Negros, lideró la demanda contra el Gobierno federal por la mala gestión de los ingresos derivados de las tierras en fideicomiso para las tribus indias y los particulares.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/elouise-cobell-shakes-hands-with-interior-secretary-ken-news-photo/94711236">Mark Wilson/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>¿Quiénes son los lobos?</h2>
<p><em>Los asesinos de la luna</em> ofrece una instantánea del robo de tierras a los indios estadounidenses, pero la historia completa es mucho más amplia. En una escena de la película, Ernest Burkhart –un hombre blanco sin educación, interpretado por Leonardo DiCaprio, que se casó con una mujer Osage y <a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=OS005">participó en los asesinatos de Osage</a>– <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EG0si5bSd6I&t=4s">lee entrecortadamente de un libro infantil ilustrado</a>.</p>
<p>“Hay muchos lobos hambrientos”, lee. “¿Puedes encontrar a los lobos en este dibujo?”. En la película queda claro que los ciudadanos del pueblo son los lobos. Pero el mayor lobo de todos es el propio Gobierno federal, y el Tío Sam no aparece por ninguna parte.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216045/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Torivio Fodder es miembro inscrito del Pueblo Taos y descendiente de comanches, kiowas y cherokees.</span></em></p>Los asesinatos de Osage en la década de 1920 son sólo un episodio en casi dos siglos de robo de tierras y recursos a los nativos americanos. Gran parte de este robo fue guiado y sancionado por la ley federal.Torivio Fodder, Indigenous Governance Program Manager and Professor of Practice, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2077002023-10-16T12:32:54Z2023-10-16T12:32:54ZGangsters are the villains in ‘Killers of the Flower Moon,’ but the biggest thief of Native American wealth was the US government<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552605/original/file-20231006-21-4xdn37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3639%2C2842&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An Osage delegation with President Calvin Coolidge at the White House on Jan. 20, 1924. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/washington-dc-osage-indians-in-washington-regarding-their-news-photo/514689540">Bettman via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Director Martin Scorsese’s new movie, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EG0si5bSd6I">Killers of the Flower Moon</a>,” tells the true story of a string of murders on the <a href="https://www.osagenation-nsn.gov/">Osage Nation</a>’s land in Oklahoma in the 1920s. Based on David Grann’s <a href="https://www.davidgrann.com/book/killers-of-the-flower-moon/">meticulously researched 2017 book</a>, the movie delves into racial and family dynamics that rocked Oklahoma to the core when oil was discovered on Osage lands.</p>
<p>White settlers targeted members of the Osage Nation to steal their land and the riches beneath it. But from a historical perspective, this crime is just the tip of the iceberg. </p>
<p>From the early 1800s through the 1930s, official U.S. policy displaced thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homes through the policy known as <a href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/pdf/related-facts.pdf">Indian removal</a>. And throughout the 20th century, the federal government collected billions of dollars from sales or leases of natural resources like timber, oil and gas on Indian lands, which it was supposed to disburse to the land’s owners. But it <a href="https://narf.org/cases/cobell/">failed to account for these trust funds</a> for decades, let alone pay Indians what they were due.</p>
<p>I am the manager of the University of Arizona’s <a href="https://law.arizona.edu/academics/programs/indigenous-governance-program">Indigenous Governance Program</a> and a <a href="https://naair.arizona.edu/person/torivio-fodder">law professor</a>. My ancestry is Comanche, Kiowa and Cherokee on my father’s side and Taos Pueblo on my mother’s side. From my perspective, “Killers of the Flower Moon” is just one chapter in a much larger story: The U.S. was built on stolen lands and wealth.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tribal members, some in traditional garb, on a stage" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553328/original/file-20231011-15-91wp92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Osage Nation attend the premiere of ‘Killers of the Flower Moon’ on Sept. 27, 2023, in New York City.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/julie-okeefe-addie-roanhorse-osage-nation-princess-lawren-news-photo/1705095795">Dia Dipasupil/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Westward expansion and land theft</h2>
<p>In the standard telling, the American West was populated by industrious settlers who eked out livings from the ground, formed cities and, in time, created states. In fact, hundreds of Native nations already lived on those lands, each with their own unique forms of government, culture and language.</p>
<p>In the early 1800s, eastern cities were growing and dense urban centers were becoming unwieldy. Indian lands in the west were an alluring target – but westward expansion ran up against what would become known was “the Indian problem.” This <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears">widely used phrase</a> reflected a belief that the U.S. had a God-given mandate to settle North America, and Indians stood in the way.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/if-BOZgWZPE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In the early 1800s, treaty-making between the U.S. and Indian nations shifted from a cooperative process into a tool for forcibly removing tribes from their lands.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Starting in the 1830s, Congress pressured Indian tribes in the east to sign treaties that required the tribes to <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/indian-removal-act/">move to reservations in the west</a>. This took place over the objections of public figures such as <a href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/pdf/related-facts.pdf">Tennessee frontiersman and congressman Davy Crockett</a>, humanitarian organizations and, of course, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/fosm/learn/historyculture/storiestrailoftears.htm">the tribes themselves</a>. </p>
<p>Forced removal touched every tribe east of the Mississippi River and several tribes to the west of it. In total, <a href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/pdf/lesson-0-full.pdf">about 100,000 American Indians were removed</a> from their eastern homelands to western reservations. </p>
<p>But the most pernicious land grab was yet to come.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing tribes displaced from the eastern U.S." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552609/original/file-20231006-29-gfecbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eastern Native American tribes that were forced to move west starting in the 1830s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal/img/Removal-MAP-20170124.jpg">Smithsonian</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The General Allotment Act</h2>
<p>Even after Indians were corralled on reservations, settlers pushed for more access to western lands. In 1871, Congress formally ended the policy of treaty-making with Indians. Then, in 1887, it passed the <a href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dawes-act">General Allotment Act</a>, also known as the Dawes Act. With this law, U.S. policy toward Indians shifted from separation to assimilation – forcibly integrating Indians into the national population.</p>
<p>This required transitioning tribal structures of communal land ownership under a reservation system to a private property model that broke up reservations altogether. The General Allotment Act was designed to divvy up reservation lands into allotments for individual Indians and open any unallotted lands, which were deemed surplus, <a href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dawes-act#">to non-Indian settlement</a>. Lands could be allotted only to male heads of households. </p>
<p>Under the original statute, the U.S. government held Indian allotments, which measured roughly 160 acres per person, in trust for 25 years before each Indian allottee could receive clear title. During this period, Indian allottees were expected to <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1034&context=fac_pub">embrace agriculture, convert to Christianity and assume U.S. citizenship</a>. </p>
<p>In 1906, Congress amended the law to allow the secretary of the interior to issue land titles whenever an Indian allottee was deemed capable of managing his affairs. Once this happened, the allotment was subject to taxation and could immediately be sold.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tHdSZnoDREE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A 2021 study estimated that Native people in the U.S. have lost almost 99% of the lands they occupied before 1800.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Legal cultural genocide</h2>
<p>Indian allottees often had little concept of farming and even less ability to manage their newly acquired lands.</p>
<p>Even after being confined to western reservations, many tribes had maintained their traditional governance structures and tried to preserve their cultural and religious practices, including communal ownership of property. When the U.S. government imposed a foreign system of ownership and management on them, many Indian landowners simply sold their lands to non-Indian buyers, or found themselves subject to taxes that they were unable to pay.</p>
<p>In total, allotment <a href="https://iltf.org/land-issues/history/">removed 90 million acres of land</a> from Indian control before the policy ended in the mid-1930s. This led to the destruction of Indian culture; loss of language as the federal government <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/51.21-22/indigenous-affairs-the-u-s-has-spent-more-money-erasing-native-languages-than-saving-them">implemented its boarding school policy</a>; and imposition of a myriad of regulations, as shown in “Killers of the Flower Moon,” that affected inheritance, ownership and title disputes when an allottee passed away. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Antique map with oil production tracts marked" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552606/original/file-20231006-22-gax5ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 1917 map of oil leases on the Osage Reservation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/map-of-osage-indian-reservation-gas-and-oil-leases-1917-news-photo/1371414745">HUM Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A measure of justice</h2>
<p>Today, <a href="https://revenuedata.doi.gov/how-revenue-works/native-american-ownership-governance/">about 56 million acres</a> remain under Indian control. The federal government owns title to the lands, but holds them in trust for Indian tribes and individuals.</p>
<p>These lands contain many valuable resources, including oil, gas, timber and minerals. But rather than acting as a steward of Indian interests in these resources, the U.S. government has repeatedly failed in its trust obligations.</p>
<p>As required under the General Allotment Act, money earned from oil and gas exploration, mining and other activities on allotted Indian lands was placed in individual accounts for the benefit of Indian allottees. But for over a century, rather than making payments to Indian landowners, the government routinely mismanaged those funds, failed to provide a court-ordered accounting of them and <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2318591">systematically destroyed disbursement records</a>. </p>
<p>In 1996, Elouise Cobell, a member of the Blackfeet Nation in Montana, filed a class action lawsuit seeking to force the government to provide a historic accounting of these funds and fix its failed system for managing them. After 16 years of litigation, the suit was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/18/us/elouise-cobell-65-dies-sued-us-over-indian-trust-funds.html">settled in 2009 for roughly US$3.4 billion</a>. </p>
<p>The settlement provided $1.4 billion for direct payments of $1,000 to each member of the class, and $1.9 billion to consolidate complex ownership interests that had accrued as land was handed down through multiple generations, making it <a href="https://www.doi.gov/ocl/hearings/111/CobellvsSalazar_121709">hard to track allottees and develop the land</a>. </p>
<p>“We all know that the settlement is inadequate, but we must also find a way to heal the wounds and bring some measure of restitution,” said Jefferson Keel, president of the National Congress of American Indians, as the organization <a href="https://www.ncai.org/news/articles/2010/06/23/ncai-passes-resolution-to-support-immediate-passage-of-the-cobell-settlement-legislation">passed a resolution in 2010</a> endorsing the settlement.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman and man shake hands in a crowded hearing room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553330/original/file-20231011-15-h5ezb6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elouise Cobell shakes hands with Interior Secretary Ken Salazar at a Senate hearing on the $3.4 billion Cobell v. Salazar settlement. Cobell, a member of the Blackfeet Nation, led the suit against the federal government for mismanaging revenues derived from land held in trust for Indian tribes and individuals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/elouise-cobell-shakes-hands-with-interior-secretary-ken-news-photo/94711236">Mark Wilson/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Who are the wolves?</h2>
<p>“Killers of the Flower Moon” offers a snapshot of American Indian land theft, but the full history is much broader. In one scene from the movie, Ernest Burkhart – an uneducated white man, played by Leonardo DiCaprio, who married an Osage woman and <a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=OS005">participated in the Osage murders</a> – <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EG0si5bSd6I&t=4s">reads haltingly from a child’s picture book</a>.</p>
<p>“There are many, so many, hungry wolves,” he reads. “Can you find the wolves in this picture?” It’s clear from the movie that the town’s citizens are the wolves. But the biggest wolf of all is the federal government itself – and Uncle Sam is nowhere to be seen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207700/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Torivio Fodder is an enrolled member of the Taos Pueblo, and of Comanche, Kiowa and Cherokee descent.</span></em></p>The Osage murders of the 1920s are just one episode in nearly two centuries of stealing land and resources from Native Americans. Much of this theft was guided and sanctioned by federal law.Torivio Fodder, Indigenous Governance Program Manager and Professor of Practice, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155692023-10-13T09:53:40Z2023-10-13T09:53:40ZFranja de Gaza: por qué la historia de este enclave tan masificado es clave para entender el conflicto actual<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553534/original/file-20231010-25-rr34z3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Destruction from the latest siege of Gaza.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-of-destroyed-buildings-and-debris-at-the-al-rimal-news-photo/1715969639?adppopup=true">Ashraf Amra/Anadolu via Getty Images)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>El foco del conflicto en Oriente Próximo ha vuelto de nuevo a la Franja de Gaza, con el Gobierno de Israel <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/09/middleeast/israel-gaza-hamas-fighting-monday-intl-hnk/index.html">ordenando un “asedio completo</a>” del enclave palestino.</p>
<p>Al margen de los bombardeos, la orden de <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67051292">cortar el suministro de alimentos, la electricidad y el agua</a> no hará sino empeorar la difícil situación de los residentes en lo que se ha <a href="https://www.nrc.no/news/2018/april/gaza-the-worlds-largest-open-air-prison/">denominado la “mayor prisión al aire libre del mundo</a>.” </p>
<p>Pero, ¿cómo se convirtió Gaza en una de las zonas más densamente pobladas del planeta? ¿Y por qué es ahora un territorio controlado por Hamás? Como <a href="https://menas.arizona.edu/person/maha-nassar">estudiosa de la historia palestina</a>, creo que comprender las respuestas a estas preguntas proporciona un contexto histórico crucial para la violencia actual.</p>
<h2>Breve historia de Gaza</h2>
<p>La Franja de Gaza es un estrecho pedazo de tierra en la orilla sureste del mar Mediterráneo. Tiene aproximadamente <a href="https://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2014arch/20140708_gazastrip.html">el doble del tamaño de Washington, D.C.</a> y está encajonada entre Israel, al norte y al este, y Egipto, al sur.</p>
<p><iframe id="2PeQw" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2PeQw/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Antiguo puerto comercial y marítimo, Gaza ha formado parte durante mucho tiempo de la <a href="http://www.midafternoonmap.com/2013/07/ottoman-and-arab-maps-of-palestine.html">región geográfica conocida como Palestina</a>. A principios del siglo XX, estaba habitada principalmente por árabes musulmanes y cristianos que vivían bajo dominio otomano. Cuando <a href="https://www.un.org/unispal/history2/origins-and-evolution-of-the-palestine-problem/part-i-1917-1947/">Gran Bretaña tomó el control de Palestina</a> tras la Primera Guerra Mundial, los intelectuales de Gaza se unieron al emergente movimiento nacional palestino.</p>
<p>Durante la guerra de 1948 que estableció el Estado de Israel, el ejército israelí <a href="https://www.palquest.org/en/militaryoperations/25299/operation-yoav">bombardeó 29 pueblos del sur de Palestina</a>, lo que llevó a decenas de miles de aldeanos a huir a la Franja de Gaza, bajo el control del ejército egipcio que se desplegó después de que Israel declarara la independencia. La mayoría de ellos y sus descendientes permanecen allí hoy en día.</p>
<p>Tras la <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-1967-six-day-war">Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967</a> entre Israel y sus vecinos árabes, la Franja de Gaza quedó bajo ocupación militar israelí. La ocupación ha dado lugar a “<a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/06/israel-occupation-50-years-of-dispossession/">violaciones sistemáticas de los derechos humanos</a>”, según Amnistía Internacional, entre ellas la expulsión de la población de sus tierras, la destrucción de viviendas y la represión incluso de formas no violentas de disidencia política.</p>
<p>Los palestinos protagonizaron dos grandes levantamientos, en <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/">1987-1991</a> y en <a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170928-remembering-the-second-intifada/">2000-2005</a>, con la esperanza de poner fin a la ocupación y establecer un Estado palestino independiente.</p>
<p>Hamás, grupo militante islamista palestino con sede en Gaza, se fundó en 1988 para luchar contra la ocupación. Hamás y otros grupos militantes lanzaron repetidos ataques contra objetivos israelíes en Gaza, lo que llevó a <a href="https://embassies.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Maps/Pages/Israels%20Disengagement%20Plan-%202005.aspx#:%7E:text=Israel's%20plan%20of%20unilateral%20disengagement,peace%20negotiations%20with%20the%20Palestinians.">la retirada unilateral de Israel</a> de Gaza en 2005. En 2006 se celebraron elecciones legislativas palestinas. <a href="https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/legislative-elections-2006/">Hamás venció</a> a su rival laico, Fatah, que había sido <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/1/26/hamas-wins-huge-majority">ampliamente acusado de corrupción</a>. No se han celebrado elecciones en Gaza desde 2006, pero los sondeos de marzo de 2023 revelaron que <a href="https://pcpsr.org/en/node/938">el 45 % de los gazatíes apoyaría a Hamás</a> en caso de celebrarse una votación, por delante de Fatah, con un 32 %.</p>
<p>Tras un <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/battle-for-gaza-hamas-jumped-provoked-and-pushed/">breve conflicto</a> entre militantes de Hamás y Fatah en mayo de 2007, Hamás se hizo con el control total de la Franja. Desde entonces, Gaza ha estado bajo el control administrativo de Hamás, aunque las Naciones Unidas, el Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos y otros organismos internacionales siguen considerando que está <a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2016-report-on-international-religious-freedom/israel-and-the-occupied-territories/israel-and-the-occupied-territories-the-occupied-territories/">bajo ocupación israelí</a>.</p>
<h2>¿Quiénes son los palestinos de Gaza?</h2>
<p>Los <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gaza-strip/">más de 2 millones de habitantes</a> de la Franja de Gaza forman parte de la <a href="https://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/129983">comunidad palestina mundial de 14 millones de personas</a>. Aproximadamente un tercio de los habitantes de Gaza tiene sus raíces familiares en tierras de la Franja. Los <a href="https://www.unrwa.org/palestine-refugees">dos tercios restantes</a> son refugiados de la guerra de 1948 y sus descendientes, muchos de los cuales proceden de ciudades y pueblos de los alrededores de Gaza.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Un mural azul, rojo y amarillo en una pared en la que hay una ventana por la que mira un niño." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Un mural recién pintado en el campo de refugiados palestinos de Shati, en la ciudad de Gaza.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/palestinian-children-are-seen-next-a-freshly-painted-mural-news-photo/1259087700?adppopup=true">Majdi Fathi/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gaza tiene una población muy joven: <a href="https://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/128691">casi la mitad de sus habitantes tiene menos de 18 años</a>. El enclave es también muy pobre, con una <a href="https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_PSE.pdf">tasa de pobreza que se sitúa en el 53%</a>.</p>
<p>A pesar de este sombrío panorama económico, los niveles de educación son bastante altos. <a href="https://www.unicef.org/sop/what-we-do/education-and-adolescents">Más del 95 %</a> de los niños gazatíes de 6 a 12 años están escolarizados. La mayoría termina el bachillerato, y <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/islamic-university-gaza-0">el 57 % de los alumnos</a> de la prestigiosa Universidad Islámica de Gaza son mujeres.</p>
<p>Pero los jóvenes lo tienen realmente difícil para salir adelante. Para los licenciados de entre 19 y 29 años, la <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/27/gaza-graduates-demand-unrwa-solutions-for-high-unemployment-rate">tasa de desempleo se sitúa en el 70 %</a>. Y una encuesta del Banco Mundial realizada a principios de este año reveló que <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/intersection-economic-conditions-trauma-and-mental-health-west-bank-and-gaza%20https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2023-07-16/ty-article/.premium/58-of-palestinians-show-depression-symptoms-new-world-bank-survey-reveals/00000189-5fa3-de4e-adeb-ffa73afd0000">el 71 % de los habitantes de Gaza</a> muestra signos de depresión y altos niveles de trastorno de estrés postraumático.</p>
<p>Hay varios factores que contribuyen a esta situación. Uno de los principales es el <a href="https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/gaza-strip-humanitarian-impact-15-years-blockade-june-2022">bloqueo de 16 años</a> que Israel y Egipto, con el apoyo de Estados Unidos, han impuesto a Gaza.</p>
<h2>Años de bloqueo</h2>
<p>Poco después de las elecciones de 2006, la administración Bush <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/04/gaza200804">intentó obligar a Hamás a abandonar el poder</a> y colocar a un líder rival del partido Fatah que se consideraba más cercano a Israel y Estados Unidos. Hamás se adelantó a la operación y tomó el control total de Gaza en mayo de 2007. En respuesta, Israel y Egipto –con el apoyo de Estados Unidos y Europa– <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2008/01/some-history-and-background-on-the-gaza-strip.html">cerraron los pasos fronterizos</a> de entrada y salida de la Franja e <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/israel-strikes-and-seals-off-gaza-after-hamas-incursion#:%7E:text=Israel%20y%20Egipto%20han%20impuesto,restringiendo%20los%20viajes%20deentrada%20y%20de%20salida">impusieron un bloqueo terrestre, aéreo y marítimo</a>.</p>
<p>El <a href="https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/gaza-strip-humanitarian-impact-15-years-blockade-june-2022">bloqueo</a>, que sigue en vigor, limita la importación de alimentos, combustible y material de construcción. Limita hasta dónde pueden salir al mar los pescadores de Gaza, prohíbe casi todas las exportaciones e impone estrictas limitaciones a la circulación de personas dentro y fuera de Gaza.</p>
<p>Los años de cierre han devastado la vida de los palestinos de Gaza. Sus habitantes <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/failing-gaza-undrinkable-water-no-access-toilets-and-little-hope-horizon">no tienen agua suficiente</a> para beber y para el saneamiento. Se enfrentan a <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/timeline-humanitarian-impact-gaza-blockade">cortes de electricidad</a> que duran de 12 a 18 horas cada día. Sin agua ni electricidad suficientes, el frágil sistema sanitario de Gaza está “<a href="https://www.map.org.uk/news/archive/post/1382-gazaas-health-system-on-the-brink-of-collapse-yet-again">al borde del colapso</a>”, según el grupo de derechos médicos <a href="https://www.map.org.uk/">Medical Aid for Palestine</a>.</p>
<p>Estas restricciones afectan especialmente a los jóvenes y las personas más vulnerables. Israel <a href="https://www.btselem.org/gaza_strip/20230404_in_2022_too_israel_prevented_thousands_of_palestinians_in_need_of_medical_care_from_leaving_gaza_for_treatment">niega sistemáticamente a los pacientes enfermos</a> los permisos que necesitan para recibir atención médica fuera de Gaza. Los estudiantes brillantes con becas para estudiar en el extranjero a menudo se encuentran con que <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/4/gaza-scholarship-students-plead-for-rafah-exit-permit">no pueden salir</a>. </p>
<p>Los expertos de la ONU afirman que este bloqueo <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-un-gaza-rights/u-n-experts-say-israels-blockade-of-gaza-illegal-idUSTRE78C59R20110913">es ilegal según el derecho internacional</a>. Sostienen que <a href="https://imeu.org/article/israel-international-law-the-siege-blockade-of-gaza">equivale a un castigo colectivo</a> de los palestinos de Gaza, una violación de la Convención de La Haya y de las Convenciones de Ginebra que forman la columna vertebral del derecho internacional.</p>
<h2>El sufrimiento no tiene fin</h2>
<p>Israel afirma que el bloqueo de Gaza es necesario <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/10/09/gaza-strip-israel-hamas-explained/">para garantizar la seguridad</a> de su población y que se levantará cuando Hamás renuncie a la violencia, reconozca a Israel y cumpla los acuerdos anteriores.</p>
<p>Pero Hamás ha rechazado sistemáticamente este ultimátum. En su lugar, los combatientes intensificaron el lanzamiento de cohetes caseros y morteros contra las zonas pobladas que rodean la Franja de Gaza <a href="https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/27428">en 2008</a>, con el fin de presionar a Israel para que levantara el bloqueo. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tres hombres vestidos con ropa militar y armados junto a un muro." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Soldados israelíes toman posiciones en Gaza en 1993.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/israeli-soldiers-take-position-in-el-bureij-refugee-camp-news-photo/1538695765?adppopup=true">STR/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Israel ha lanzado cuatro grandes ataques militares contra Gaza –en 2008-2009, 2012, 2014 y 2021– para destruir la capacidad militar de Hamás. Esas guerras <a href="https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-united-nations-israel-palestinian-gaza-hamas-186d89b5fa8ae171c166f6162d6ea3da">mataron a cuatro mil palestinos</a>, más de la mitad de los cuales eran civiles, junto a 106 personas en Israel. </p>
<p>Durante ese tiempo, la ONU calcula que se han producido daños por valor de más de <a href="https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-united-nations-israel-palestinian-gaza-hamas-186d89b5fa8ae171c166f6162d6ea3da">5 000 millones de dólares</a> en los hogares, la agricultura, la industria y las infraestructuras de electricidad y agua de Gaza.</p>
<p>Cada una de esas guerras terminó con un frágil alto el fuego, pero sin una resolución real del conflicto. Israel pretende <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2021/05/why-has-gaza-frequently-become-a-battlefield-between-hamas-and-israel/">disuadir a Hamás</a> de lanzar cohetes. Hamás y otros grupos militantes afirman que, incluso cuando han respetado anteriores alto el fuego, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2013/2/22/what-a-period-of-calm-looks-like-in-the-occupied-territories">Israel ha seguido atacando a los palestinos</a> y <a href="http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/7/16/gaza-ceasefire-accountability.html">se ha negado a levantar el bloqueo</a>.</p>
<p>Hamás ha ofrecido una tregua de larga duración a cambio de que Israel <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-offers-long-term-ceasefire-in-exchange-for-end-of-blockade/">ponga fin al bloqueo de Gaza</a>. Israel se ha negado a aceptar la oferta, aferrándose a su postura de que Hamás debe primero poner fin a la violencia y reconocer a Israel.</p>
<p>En los meses previos a la última escalada, las condiciones en Gaza se han deteriorado aún más. El Fondo Monetario Internacional informó en septiembre de que las perspectivas económicas de Gaza “<a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/09/12/West-Bank-and-Gaza-Report-to-the-Ad-Hoc-Liaison-Committee-539149">siguen siendo nefastas</a>”. La situación se agravó cuando Israel anunció el 5 de septiembre que <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/5/israel-halts-exports-from-gaza-at-key-crossing-says-explosives-found#:%7E:text=Israeli%20forces%20have%20ordered%20the,ministry%20said%20in%20a%20statement.">interrumpía todas las exportaciones</a> desde un paso fronterizo clave de Gaza.</p>
<p>Sin un final a la vista para el sufrimiento causado por el bloqueo, parece que Hamás ha decidido poner fin al <em>statu quo</em> con un ataque sorpresa contra israelíes, incluidos civiles. Los ataques aéreos de represalia de Israel y su imposición de un “asedio total” a la franja han provocado aún más sufrimiento sobre los gazatíes de a pie.</p>
<p>Es un trágico recordatorio de que los civiles se llevan siempre la peor parte de los conflictos.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maha Nassar no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.</span></em></p>El enclave colindante con Israel ha sido descrito como la “mayor prisión al aire libre” del mundo. Las condiciones se han deteriorado para la población bajo un bloqueo de 16 años. Los próximos días serán aún peores.Maha Nassar, Associate Professor in the School of Middle Eastern and North African Studies, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154172023-10-10T20:49:51Z2023-10-10T20:49:51ZFaixa de Gaza: por que a história do enclave é fundamental para entender o conflito entre Israel e Palestina<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553093/original/file-20231010-25-rr34z3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A destruição tomou conta da pequena e densamente povoada Gaza nos últimos três dias. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-of-destroyed-buildings-and-debris-at-the-al-rimal-news-photo/1715969639?adppopup=true">Ashraf Amra/Anadolu via Getty Images)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>O foco do conflito no Oriente Médio voltou novamente para a Faixa de Gaza, com o ministro da defesa de Israel <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/09/middleeast/israel-gaza-hamas-fighting-monday-intl-hnk/index.html">ordenando um “cerco completo</a>” ao enclave palestino.</p>
<p>A operação militar, que envolve <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2023/10/8/israel-palestine-escalation-live-israeli-forces-bombard-gaza">um extenso bombardeio de residências</a>, ocorre após um <a href="https://theconversation.com/hamas-assault-echoes-1973-arab-israeli-war-a-shock-attack-and-questions-of-political-intelligence-culpability-215228">ataque surpresa em 7 de outubro de 2023</a>, realizado por militantes do Hamas que se infiltraram em Israel a partir de Gaza e <a href="https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/israel-hamas-war-gaza-10-10-23/h_acc9121c3e878d221f6e5ee32e74be80#:%7E:text=Mais%20de%20900%20pessoas%20j%C3%A1,%20o%20conflito%20erupcionou%20no%20s%C3%A1bado.">mataram mais de 900 israelenses</a>. </p>
<p>Em ataques aéreos de represália, o exército israelense <a href="https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/israel-hamas-war-gaza-10-10-23/h_acc9121c3e878d221f6e5ee32e74be80#:%7E:text=More%20than%20900%20people%20have,the%20conflict%20erupted%20on%20Saturday.">matou mais de 800 habitantes de Gaza</a>. E esse número pode aumentar nos próximos dias. Enquanto isso, uma ordem para <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67051292">cortar todos os alimentos, eletricidade e água</a> para Gaza só piorará a situação dos residentes no que tem sido <a href="https://www.nrc.no/news/2018/april/gaza-the-worlds-largest-open-air-prison/">chamado de “a maior prisão a céu aberto do mundo</a>.” </p>
<p>Mas como Gaza se tornou uma das regiões mais densamente povoadas do planeta? E por que agora é o lar da ação militante palestina? Como <a href="https://menas.arizona.edu/person/maha-nassar">estudiosa da história palestina</a>, acredito que entender as respostas a essas perguntas fornece um contexto histórico crucial para a violência atual.</p>
<h2>Uma breve história de Gaza</h2>
<p>A Faixa de Gaza é um pedaço estreito de terra na costa sudeste do Mar Mediterrâneo. Com aproximadamente <a href="https://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2014arch/20140708_gazastrip.html">o dobro do tamanho de Washington, D.C.</a>, ela está encravada entre Israel, ao norte e a leste, e o Egito, ao sul.</p>
<p><iframe id="Ky3de" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Ky3de/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Antigo porto comercial e marítimo, Gaza há muito tempo faz parte da <a href="http://www.midafternoonmap.com/2013/07/ottoman-and-arab-maps-of-palestine.html">região geográfica conhecida como Palestina</a>. No início do século XX, era habitada principalmente por árabes muçulmanos e cristãos que viviam sob o domínio otomano. Quando a <a href="https://www.un.org/unispal/history2/origins-and-evolution-of-the-palestine-problem/part-i-1917-1947/">Grã-Bretanha assumiu o controle da Palestina</a> após a Primeira Guerra Mundial, os intelectuais de Gaza aderiram ao emergente movimento nacional palestino.</p>
<p>Durante a guerra de 1948, que estabeleceu o Estado de Israel, os militares israelenses <a href="https://www.palquest.org/en/militaryoperations/25299/operation-yoav">bombardearam 29 vilarejos no sul da Palestina</a>, levando dezenas de milhares de moradores a fugir para a Faixa de Gaza, sob o controle do exército egípcio, que foi mobilizado depois que Israel declarou independência. A maioria deles e seus descendentes permanecem lá até hoje.</p>
<p>Após a <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-1967-six-day-war">Guerra dos Seis Dias de 1967</a> entre Israel e seus vizinhos árabes, a Faixa de Gaza ficou sob ocupação militar israelense. A ocupação resultou em “<a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/06/israel-occupation-50-years-of-dispossession/">violações sistemáticas dos direitos humanos</a>”, de acordo com o grupo de direitos Anistia Internacional, incluindo a expulsão de pessoas de suas terras, a destruição de casas e o esmagamento até mesmo de formas não violentas de dissidência política.</p>
<p>Os palestinos realizaram duas grandes revoltas, em <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/">1987-1991</a> e em <a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170928-remembering-the-second-intifada/">2000-2005</a>, na esperança de acabar com a ocupação e estabelecer um Estado palestino independente.</p>
<p>O Hamas, um grupo militante islâmico palestino com sede em Gaza, foi fundado em 1988 para lutar contra a ocupação israelense. O Hamas e outros grupos militantes lançaram repetidos ataques contra alvos israelenses em Gaza, levando à <a href="https://embassies.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Maps/Pages/Israels%20Disengagement%20Plan-%202005.aspx#:%7E:text=Israel's%20plan%20of%20unilateral%20disengagement,peace%20negotiations%20with%20the%20Palestinians.">retirada unilateral de Israel</a> de Gaza em 2005. Em 2006, foram realizadas eleições legislativas na Palestina. <a href="https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/legislative-elections-2006/">O Hamas venceu</a> seu rival secular, o Fatah, que havia sido <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/1/26/hamas-wins-huge-majority">amplamente acusado de corrupção</a>. As eleições não são realizadas em Gaza desde 2006, mas uma pesquisa de março de 2023 revelou que <a href="https://pcpsr.org/en/node/938">45% dos habitantes de Gaza apoiariam o Hamas</a> em caso de votação, à frente do Fatah com 32%.</p>
<p>Após um <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/battle-for-gaza-hamas-jumped-provoked-and-pushed/">breve conflito</a> entre militantes do Hamas e do Fatah em maio de 2007, o Hamas assumiu o controle total da Faixa de Gaza. Desde então, Gaza está sob o controle administrativo do Hamas, embora ainda seja considerada <a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2016-report-on-international-religious-freedom/israel-and-the-occupied-territories/israel-and-the-occupied-territories-the-occupied-territories/">sob ocupação israelense</a> pelas Nações Unidas, pelo Departamento de Estado dos EUA e por outros órgãos internacionais.</p>
<h2>Quem são os palestinos de Gaza?</h2>
<p>Os <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gaza-strip/">mais de 2 milhões de habitantes</a> da Faixa de Gaza fazem parte da <a href="https://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/129983">comunidade palestina global de 14 milhões de pessoas</a>. Cerca de um terço dos habitantes de Gaza tem suas raízes familiares em terras dentro da Faixa de Gaza. Os <a href="https://www.unrwa.org/palestine-refugees">dois terços restantes</a> são refugiados da guerra de 1948 e seus descendentes, muitos dos quais são originários de cidades e vilarejos ao redor de Gaza.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Um mural azul, vermelho e amarelo em uma parede na qual há uma janela através da qual um menino olha." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Um mural recém-pintado no campo Shati para refugiados palestinos na Cidade de Gaza.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/palestinian-children-are-seen-next-a-freshly-painted-mural-news-photo/1259087700?adppopup=true">Majdi Fathi/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Os palestinos de Gaza tendem a ser jovens: <a href="https://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/128691">quase metade da população tem menos de 18 anos</a>. O enclave também é muito pobre, com uma <a href="https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_PSE.pdf">taxa de pobreza que chega a 53%</a>.</p>
<p>Apesar desse quadro econômico sombrio, os níveis de educação são bastante altos. <a href="https://www.unicef.org/sop/what-we-do/education-and-adolescents">Mais de 95%</a> das crianças de 6 a 12 anos de idade de Gaza estão na escola. A maioria dos estudantes palestinos em Gaza conclui o ensino médio e <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/islamic-university-gaza-0">57% dos estudantes</a> da prestigiosa Universidade Islâmica de Gaza são mulheres.</p>
<p>Porém, devido às circunstâncias de seu ambiente, os jovens palestinos em Gaza têm dificuldade em levar uma vida plena. Para os graduados com idade entre 19 e 29 anos, a <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/27/gaza-graduates-demand-unrwa-solutions-for-high-unemployment-rate">taxa de desemprego é de 70%</a>. E uma pesquisa do Banco Mundial realizada no início deste ano constatou que <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/intersection-economic-conditions-trauma-and-mental-health-west-bank-and-gaza%20https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2023-07-16/ty-article/.premium/58-of-palestinians-show-depression-symptoms-new-world-bank-survey-reveals/00000189-5fa3-de4e-adeb-ffa73afd0000">71% dos habitantes de Gaza</a> apresentam sinais de depressão e altos níveis de TEPT.</p>
<p>Há vários fatores que contribuem para essas condições. Um fator importante é o bloqueio paralisante de <a href="https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/gaza-strip-humanitarian-impact-15-years-blockade-june-2022">16 anos</a> que Israel e o Egito - com o apoio dos EUA - impuseram a Gaza.</p>
<h2>Anos de bloqueio</h2>
<p>Logo após as eleições de 2006, o governo Bush <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/04/gaza200804">tentou forçar a saída do Hamas do poder</a> e trazer um líder rival do partido Fatah, considerado mais amigável a Israel e aos EUA. O Hamas se antecipou ao golpe e assumiu o controle total de Gaza em maio de 2007. Em resposta, Israel e Egito - com o apoio dos EUA e da Europa - <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2008/01/some-history-and-background-on-the-gaza-strip.html">fecharam as passagens de fronteira</a> para dentro e fora da Faixa de Gaza e <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/israel-strikes-and-seals-off-gaza-after-hamas-incursion#:%7E:text=Israel%20e%20Egito%20t%C3%AAm%20imposto,restringindo%20as%20viagens%20para%20entro%20e%20para%20fora.">impuseram um bloqueio terrestre, aéreo e marítimo</a>.</p>
<p>O <a href="https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/gaza-strip-humanitarian-impact-15-years-blockade-june-2022">bloqueio</a>, que ainda está em vigor, limita a importação de alimentos, combustível e material de construção; limita a distância que os pescadores de Gaza podem percorrer no mar; proíbe quase todas as exportações; e impõe limitações rigorosas ao movimento de pessoas que entram e saem de Gaza. Em 2023, Israel <a href="https://www.ochaopt.org/content/movement-and-out-gaza-update-covering-august-2023">permitiu que apenas cerca de 50.000 pessoas por mês</a> saíssem de Gaza, de acordo com dados da ONU. </p>
<p>Os anos de fechamento devastaram a vida dos palestinos em Gaza. Os habitantes de lá <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/failing-gaza-undrinkable-water-no-access-toilets-and-little-hope-horizon">não têm água suficiente</a> para beber e para o saneamento. Eles enfrentam <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/timeline-humanitarian-impact-gaza-blockade">cortes de eletricidade</a> que duram de 12 a 18 horas por dia. Sem água e eletricidade adequadas, o frágil sistema de saúde de Gaza está “<a href="https://www.map.org.uk/news/archive/post/1382-gazaas-health-system-on-the-brink-of-collapse-yet-again">à beira do colapso</a>”, de acordo com o grupo de direitos médicos <a href="https://www.map.org.uk/">Medical Aid for Palestine</a>.</p>
<p>Essas restrições atingem especialmente os jovens e os fracos de Gaza. Israel <a href="https://www.btselem.org/gaza_strip/20230404_in_2022_too_israel_prevented_thousands_of_palestinians_in_need_of_medical_care_from_leaving_gaza_for_treatment">rotineiramente nega a pacientes doentes</a> as autorizações necessárias para receber atendimento médico fora de Gaza. Estudantes brilhantes com bolsas de estudo para estudar no exterior frequentemente descobrem que estão <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/4/gaza-scholarship-students-plead-for-rafah-exit-permit">impossibilitados de sair</a>. </p>
<p>Especialistas da ONU afirmam que esse bloqueio <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-un-gaza-rights/u-n-experts-say-israels-blockade-of-gaza-illegal-idUSTRE78C59R20110913">é ilegal de acordo com o direito internacional</a>. Eles argumentam que o bloqueio <a href="https://imeu.org/article/israel-international-law-the-siege-blockade-of-gaza">equivale a uma punição coletiva</a> dos palestinos de Gaza, uma violação da Convenção de Haia e das Convenções de Genebra que formam a espinha dorsal do direito internacional.</p>
<h2>O sofrimento não tem fim</h2>
<p>Israel afirma que o bloqueio em Gaza é necessário <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/10/09/gaza-strip-israel-hamas-explained/">para garantir a segurança</a> de sua população e será suspenso quando o Hamas renunciar à violência, reconhecer Israel e cumprir os acordos anteriores.</p>
<p>Mas o Hamas sempre rejeitou esse ultimato. Em vez disso, os combatentes militantes intensificaram o disparo de foguetes e morteiros caseiros em áreas povoadas ao redor da Faixa de Gaza <a href="https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/27428">em 2008</a>, buscando pressionar Israel a suspender o bloqueio. Eles têm atacado esporadicamente Israel dessa forma nos anos seguintes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three men in army clothing and armed stand by a wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Soldados israelenses assumem uma posição em Gaza em 1993.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/israeli-soldiers-take-position-in-el-bureij-refugee-camp-news-photo/1538695765?adppopup=true">STR/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Israel lançou quatro grandes ataques militares em Gaza - em 2008-09, 2012, 2014 e 2021 - com o objetivo de destruir a capacidade militar do Hamas. Essas guerras <a href="https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-united-nations-israel-palestinian-gaza-hamas-186d89b5fa8ae171c166f6162d6ea3da">mataram 4.000 palestinos</a>, mais da metade dos quais eram civis, além de 106 pessoas em Israel. </p>
<p>Durante esse período, a ONU estima que houve mais de <a href="https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-united-nations-israel-palestinian-gaza-hamas-186d89b5fa8ae171c166f6162d6ea3da">US$ 5 bilhões em danos</a> às residências, agricultura, indústria, eletricidade e infraestrutura hídrica de Gaza.</p>
<p>Cada uma dessas guerras terminou em um cessar-fogo frágil, mas sem uma solução real para o conflito. Israel procura <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2021/05/why-has-gaza-frequently-become-a-battlefield-between-hamas-and-israel/">dissuadir o Hamas</a> de lançar foguetes. O Hamas e outros grupos militantes afirmam que, mesmo quando mantiveram os cessar-fogos anteriores, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2013/2/22/what-a-period-of-calm-looks-like-in-the-occupied-territories">Israel continuou a atacar os palestinos</a> e <a href="http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/7/16/gaza-ceasefire-accountability.html">recusou-se a suspender o bloqueio</a>.</p>
<p>O Hamas ofereceu uma trégua de longo prazo em troca de Israel <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-offers-long-term-ceasefire-in-exchange-for-end-of-blockade/">acabar com o bloqueio em Gaza</a>. Israel se recusou a aceitar a oferta, mantendo sua posição de que o Hamas deve primeiro acabar com a violência e reconhecer Israel.</p>
<p>Nos meses que antecederam a última escalada, as condições em Gaza se deterioraram ainda mais. O Fundo Monetário Internacional informou em setembro que a perspectiva econômica de Gaza “<a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/09/12/West-Bank-and-Gaza-Report-to-the-Ad-Hoc-Liaison-Committee-539149">continua péssima</a>”. As condições se tornaram ainda mais terríveis quando Israel anunciou, em 5 de setembro de 2023, que estava <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/5/israel-halts-exports-from-gaza-at-key-crossing-says-explosives-found#:%7E:text=Israeli%20forces%20have%20ordered%20the,ministry%20said%20in%20a%20statement.">interrompendo todas as exportações</a> de uma importante passagem de fronteira de Gaza.</p>
<p>Sem um fim à vista para o sofrimento causado pelo bloqueio, parece que o Hamas decidiu romper o status quo em um ataque surpresa contra israelenses, inclusive civis. Os ataques aéreos de represália de Israel e a imposição de um “cerco completo” à faixa de separação causaram ainda mais sofrimento aos cidadãos comuns de Gaza.</p>
<p>É um trágico lembrete de que os civis são os principais afetados por esse conflito.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215417/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maha Nassar não presta consultoria, trabalha, possui ações ou recebe financiamento de qualquer empresa ou organização que poderia se beneficiar com a publicação deste artigo e não revelou nenhum vínculo relevante além de seu cargo acadêmico.</span></em></p>O enclave ao lado de Israel foi descrito como a “maior prisão a céu aberto do mundo”. As condições se deterioraram para a população sob um bloqueio de 16 anos.Maha Nassar, Associate Professor in the School of Middle Eastern and North African Studies, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2153062023-10-10T18:16:28Z2023-10-10T18:16:28ZThe Gaza Strip − why the history of the densely populated enclave is key to understanding the current conflict<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553010/original/file-20231010-25-rr34z3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Destruction from the latest siege of Gaza.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-of-destroyed-buildings-and-debris-at-the-al-rimal-news-photo/1715969639?adppopup=true">Ashraf Amra/Anadolu via Getty Images)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The focus on conflict in the Middle East has again returned to the Gaza Strip, with Israel’s defense minister <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/09/middleeast/israel-gaza-hamas-fighting-monday-intl-hnk/index.html">ordering a “complete siege</a>” of the Palestinian enclave.</p>
<p>The military operation, which involves <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2023/10/8/israel-palestine-escalation-live-israeli-forces-bombard-gaza">extensive bombing of residences</a>, follows a <a href="https://theconversation.com/hamas-assault-echoes-1973-arab-israeli-war-a-shock-attack-and-questions-of-political-intelligence-culpability-215228">surprise attack on Oct. 7, 2023</a>, by Hamas militants who infiltrated Israel from Gaza and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/israel-hamas-war-gaza-10-10-23/h_acc9121c3e878d221f6e5ee32e74be80#:%7E:text=More%20than%20900%20people%20have,the%20conflict%20erupted%20on%20Saturday.">killed around 1,200 Israelis</a>. In reprisal airstrikes, the Israel military has <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/447-children-248-women-among-1417-killed-israeli-strikes-gaza-2023-10-12/">killed over 1,400 Gazans</a>. And that figure could escalate in the coming days. Meanwhile, an order to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67051292">cut off all food, electricity and water</a> to Gaza will only worsen the plight of residents in what has been <a href="https://www.nrc.no/news/2018/april/gaza-the-worlds-largest-open-air-prison/">called the “world’s largest open-air prison</a>.” </p>
<p>But how did Gaza become one of the most densely populated parts of the planet? And why is it the home to militant Palestinian action now? As a <a href="https://menas.arizona.edu/person/maha-nassar">scholar of Palestinian history</a>, I believe understanding the answers to those questions provides crucial historical context to the current violence.</p>
<h2>A brief history of Gaza</h2>
<p>The Gaza Strip is a narrow piece of land on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Roughly <a href="https://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2014arch/20140708_gazastrip.html">twice the size of Washington, D.C.</a>, it is wedged between Israel to its north and east and Egypt to its south.</p>
<p><iframe id="Ky3de" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Ky3de/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>An ancient trade and sea port, Gaza has long been part of the <a href="http://www.midafternoonmap.com/2013/07/ottoman-and-arab-maps-of-palestine.html">geographic region known as Palestine</a>. By the early 20th century, it was mainly inhabited by Muslim and Christian Arabs who lived under Ottoman rule. When <a href="https://www.un.org/unispal/history2/origins-and-evolution-of-the-palestine-problem/part-i-1917-1947/">Britain took control of Palestine</a> following World War I, intellectuals in Gaza joined the emergent Palestinian national movement.</p>
<p>During the 1948 war that established the state of Israel, the Israeli military <a href="https://www.palquest.org/en/militaryoperations/25299/operation-yoav">bombed 29 villages in southern Palestine</a>, leading tens of thousands of villagers to flee to the Gaza Strip, under the control of the Egyptian army that were deployed after Israel declared independence. Most of them and their descendants remain there today.</p>
<p>Following the <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-1967-six-day-war">1967 Six-Day War</a> between Israel and its Arab neighbors, the Gaza Strip came under Israeli military occupation. The occupation has resulted in “<a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/06/israel-occupation-50-years-of-dispossession/">systematic human rights violations</a>,” according to rights group Amnesty International, including forcing people off their land, destroying homes and crushing even nonviolent forms of political dissent.</p>
<p>Palestinians staged two major uprisings, in <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/women-war-and-peace/uncategorized/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-1987-intifada/">1987-1991</a> and in <a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170928-remembering-the-second-intifada/">2000-2005</a>, hoping to end the occupation and establish an independent Palestinian state.</p>
<p>Hamas, a Palestinian Islamist militant group centered in Gaza, was founded in 1988 to fight against the Israeli occupation. Hamas and other militant groups launched repeated attacks on Israeli targets in Gaza, leading to <a href="https://embassies.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Maps/Pages/Israels%20Disengagement%20Plan-%202005.aspx#:%7E:text=Israel's%20plan%20of%20unilateral%20disengagement,peace%20negotiations%20with%20the%20Palestinians.">Israel’s unilateral withdrawal</a> from Gaza in 2005. In 2006, Palestinian legislative elections were held. <a href="https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/legislative-elections-2006/">Hamas beat</a> its secular rival, Fatah, which had been <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/1/26/hamas-wins-huge-majority">widely accused of corruption</a>. Elections haven’t been held in Gaza since 2006, but polling from March 2023 found that <a href="https://pcpsr.org/en/node/938">45% of Gazans would back Hamas</a> should there be a vote, ahead of Fatah at 32%.</p>
<p>After a <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/battle-for-gaza-hamas-jumped-provoked-and-pushed/">brief conflict</a> between Hamas and Fatah militants in May 2007, Hamas took complete control of the Gaza Strip. Since then, Gaza has been under the administrative control of Hamas, even though it is still considered to be <a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2016-report-on-international-religious-freedom/israel-and-the-occupied-territories/israel-and-the-occupied-territories-the-occupied-territories/">under Israeli occupation</a> by the United Nations, the U.S. State Department and other international bodies.</p>
<h2>Who are the Palestinians of Gaza?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gaza-strip/">more than 2 million inhabitants</a> of the Gaza Strip are part of the <a href="https://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/129983">14 million-strong global Palestinian community</a>. About one third of Gaza’s inhabitants trace their family’s roots to land inside the Gaza Strip. The <a href="https://www.unrwa.org/palestine-refugees">remaining two-thirds</a> are refugees from the 1948 war and their descendants, many of whom hail from towns and villages surrounding Gaza.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A blue, red and yellow mural on a wall in which there is a window through which a young boys looks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553058/original/file-20231010-15-hd0kbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A freshly painted mural at the Shati camp for Palestinian refugees in Gaza City.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/palestinian-children-are-seen-next-a-freshly-painted-mural-news-photo/1259087700?adppopup=true">Majdi Fathi/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Palestinians of Gaza trend young: <a href="https://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/128691">nearly half the population is under 18</a>. The enclave is also very poor, with a <a href="https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_PSE.pdf">poverty rate that stands at 53%</a>.</p>
<p>Despite this grim economic picture, education levels are quite high. <a href="https://www.unicef.org/sop/what-we-do/education-and-adolescents">Over 95%</a> of Gazan children ages 6-12 are in school. The majority of Palestinian students in Gaza graduate from high school, and <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/islamic-university-gaza-0">57% of students</a> at the prestigious Islamic University of Gaza are female.</p>
<p>But because of the circumstances of their surroundings, young Palestinians in Gaza find it difficult to live fulfilling lives. For graduates between the ages of 19 and 29, the <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/27/gaza-graduates-demand-unrwa-solutions-for-high-unemployment-rate">unemployment rate stands at 70%</a>. And a World Bank survey earlier this year found <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/intersection-economic-conditions-trauma-and-mental-health-west-bank-and-gaza%20https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2023-07-16/ty-article/.premium/58-of-palestinians-show-depression-symptoms-new-world-bank-survey-reveals/00000189-5fa3-de4e-adeb-ffa73afd0000">71% of Gazans</a> show signs of depression and high levels of PTSD.</p>
<p>There are several factors that contribute to these conditions. A major factor is the crippling, <a href="https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/gaza-strip-humanitarian-impact-15-years-blockade-june-2022">16-year blockade</a> that Israel and Egypt – with U.S. support – have imposed on Gaza.</p>
<h2>Years of blockade</h2>
<p>Shortly after the 2006 elections, the Bush administration <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/04/gaza200804">tried to force Hamas from power</a> and bring in a rival leader from the Fatah party who was considered friendlier to Israel and the U.S. Hamas preempted the coup and took full control of Gaza in May 2007. In response, Israel and Egypt – with U.S. and European support – <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2008/01/some-history-and-background-on-the-gaza-strip.html">closed the border crossings</a> into and out of the Gaza Strip and <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/israel-strikes-and-seals-off-gaza-after-hamas-incursion#:%7E:text=Israel%20and%20Egypt%20have%20imposed,restricting%20travel%20in%20and%20out.">imposed a land, air and sea blockade</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/gaza-strip-humanitarian-impact-15-years-blockade-june-2022">blockade</a>, which is still in effect, limits the import of food, fuel and construction material; limits how far Gaza’s fishermen can go out to sea; bans almost all exports; and imposes strict limitations on the movement of people into and out of Gaza. In 2023, Israel has <a href="https://www.ochaopt.org/content/movement-and-out-gaza-update-covering-august-2023">allowed only around 50,000 people a month</a> to exit Gaza, according to U.N. figures. </p>
<p>The years of closure have devastated the lives of Palestinians in Gaza. Inhabitants there <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/failing-gaza-undrinkable-water-no-access-toilets-and-little-hope-horizon">don’t have enough water</a> for drinking and sanitation. They face <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/timeline-humanitarian-impact-gaza-blockade">electricity cuts</a> that run 12 to 18 hours each day. Without adequate water and electricity, Gaza’s fragile health care system is “<a href="https://www.map.org.uk/news/archive/post/1382-gazaas-health-system-on-the-brink-of-collapse-yet-again">on the brink of collapse</a>,” according to the medical rights group <a href="https://www.map.org.uk/">Medical Aid for Palestine</a>.</p>
<p>These restrictions hit the young and the weak of Gaza particularly hard. Israel <a href="https://www.btselem.org/gaza_strip/20230404_in_2022_too_israel_prevented_thousands_of_palestinians_in_need_of_medical_care_from_leaving_gaza_for_treatment">routinely denies sick patients</a> the permits they need to receive medical care outside of Gaza. Bright students with scholarships to study abroad often find that they are <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/4/gaza-scholarship-students-plead-for-rafah-exit-permit">unable to leave</a>. </p>
<p>U.N. experts say this blockade <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-un-gaza-rights/u-n-experts-say-israels-blockade-of-gaza-illegal-idUSTRE78C59R20110913">is illegal under international law</a>. They argue that the blockade <a href="https://imeu.org/article/israel-international-law-the-siege-blockade-of-gaza">amounts to a collective punishment</a> of the Palestinians of Gaza, a violation of the Hague Convention and the Geneva Conventions that form the backbone of international law.</p>
<h2>No end to the suffering</h2>
<p>Israel says that the blockade on Gaza is necessary <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/10/09/gaza-strip-israel-hamas-explained/">to secure the safety</a> of its population and will be lifted when Hamas renounces violence, recognizes Israel and abides by previous agreements.</p>
<p>But Hamas has consistently rejected this ultimatum. Instead, militant fighters stepped up the firing of homemade rockets and mortars into populated areas surrounding the Gaza Strip <a href="https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/27428">in 2008</a>, seeking to pressure Israel to lift the blockade. They have sporadically attacked Israel in this way in the years since.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three men in army clothing and armed stand by a wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553053/original/file-20231010-15-r39noz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Israeli soldiers take up a position in Gaza in 1993.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/israeli-soldiers-take-position-in-el-bureij-refugee-camp-news-photo/1538695765?adppopup=true">STR/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Israel has launched four major military assaults on Gaza – in 2008-09, 2012, 2014 and 2021 – in efforts to destroy Hamas’ military capabilities. Those wars <a href="https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-united-nations-israel-palestinian-gaza-hamas-186d89b5fa8ae171c166f6162d6ea3da">killed 4,000 Palestinians</a>, more than half of whom were civilians, along with 106 people in Israel. </p>
<p>During that time, the U.N. estimates that there has been more than <a href="https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-united-nations-israel-palestinian-gaza-hamas-186d89b5fa8ae171c166f6162d6ea3da">$5 billion worth of damage</a> to Gaza’s homes, agriculture, industry, electricity and water infrastructure.</p>
<p>Each of those wars ended in a fragile cease-fire but no real resolution to the conflict. Israel seeks to <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2021/05/why-has-gaza-frequently-become-a-battlefield-between-hamas-and-israel/">deter Hamas</a> from launching rockets. Hamas and other militant groups say that even when they have upheld previous cease-fires, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2013/2/22/what-a-period-of-calm-looks-like-in-the-occupied-territories">Israel has continued to attack Palestinians</a> and <a href="http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/7/16/gaza-ceasefire-accountability.html">has refused to lift the blockade</a>.</p>
<p>Hamas has offered a long-term truce in exchange for Israel <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-offers-long-term-ceasefire-in-exchange-for-end-of-blockade/">ending the blockade on Gaza</a>. Israel has refused to accept the offer, sticking to its position that Hamas must first end violence and recognize Israel.</p>
<p>In the months leading up to the latest escalation, conditions in Gaza have deteriorated even further. The International Monetary Fund reported in September that Gaza’s economic outlook “<a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/09/12/West-Bank-and-Gaza-Report-to-the-Ad-Hoc-Liaison-Committee-539149">remains dire</a>.” Conditions became more dire when Israel announced on Sept. 5, 2023, that it was <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/5/israel-halts-exports-from-gaza-at-key-crossing-says-explosives-found#:%7E:text=Israeli%20forces%20have%20ordered%20the,ministry%20said%20in%20a%20statement.">halting all exports</a> from a key Gaza border crossing.</p>
<p>Without an end in sight to the suffering caused by the blockade, it appears that Hamas has decided to upend the status quo in a surprise attack on Israelis, including civilians. Israel’s reprisal airstrikes and its imposition of a “complete siege” on the strip have heaped even further suffering on ordinary Gazans.</p>
<p>It is a tragic reminder that civilians bear the brunt of this conflict. </p>
<p><em>This article was updated on Oct 12, 2023 to reflect the change in casualty figures.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215306/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maha Nassar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The enclave abutting Israel has been described as the world’s ‘largest open-air prison.’ Conditions have deteriorated for the population there under a 16-year blockade.Maha Nassar, Associate Professor in the School of Middle Eastern and North African Studies, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2110902023-09-25T15:03:20Z2023-09-25T15:03:20ZImplants like pacemakers and insulin pumps often fail because of immune attacks − stopping them could make medical devices safer and longer-lasting<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549651/original/file-20230921-21-b8f110.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Foreign body responses can cause insulin pumps to degrade.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-diabetic-patient-keeps-an-insulin-pump-in-the-royalty-free-image/1041117870">Click_and_Photo/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Biomedical implants – such as pacemakers, breast implants and orthopedic hardware like screws and plates to replace broken bones – have improved patient outcomes across a wide range of diseases. However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbtm2.10300">many implants fail</a> because the body rejects them, and they need to be removed because they no longer function and can cause pain or discomfort.</p>
<p>An immune reaction called the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202007226">foreign body response</a> – where the body encapsulates the implant in sometimes painful scar tissue – is a key driver of implant rejection. Developing treatments that target the mechanisms driving foreign body responses could improve the design and safety of biomedical implants.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TG52tUAAAAAJ&hl=en">biomedical engineer</a> who studies why the body forms scar tissue around medical devices. Along with my colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XMWljcMAAAAJ&hl=en">Dharshan Sivaraj</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UcM7zG8AAAAJ&hl=en">Jagan Padmanabhan</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=zY_J9IQAAAAJ&hl=en">Geoffrey Gurtner</a>, we wanted to learn more about what causes foreign body responses. In our research, recently published in the journal Nature Biomedical Engineering, we <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41551-023-01091-5">identified a gene</a> that appears to drive this reaction because of the increased stress implants put on the tissues surrounding them.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4h9nfYbov38?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Many implants need to be replaced because the immune system damages them over time.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Mechanics of implant rejection</h2>
<p>Researchers hypothesize that foreign body responses are triggered by the chemical and material composition of the implant. Just as a person can tell the difference between touching something soft like a pillow versus something hard like a table, cells can tell when there are changes to the softness or stiffness of the tissues surrounding them as a result of an implant.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.202101354">increased mechanical stress</a> on those cells sends a signal to the immune system that there is a foreign body present. Immune cells activated by mechanical pressure respond by building a capsule made of scar tissue around the implant in an attempt to shield it off. The more severe the immune reaction, the thicker the capsule. This protects the body from getting an infection from injuries like a splinter in your finger.</p>
<p>All biomedical implants cause some level of foreign body response and are surrounded by at least a small capsule. Some people have very strong reactions that result in a large, thick capsule that constricts around the implant, impeding its function and causing pain. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbtm2.10300">Between 10% to 30% of implants</a> need to be removed because of this scar tissue. For example, a neurostimulator could trigger the formation of a dense capsule of scar tissue that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115857119">inhibits electrical stimulation</a> from properly reaching the nervous system.</p>
<p>To understand why the immune systems of some people build thick capsules around implants while others do not, we gathered capsule samples from 20 patients whose breast implants were removed – 10 who had severe reactions, and 10 who had mild reactions. By genetically analyzing the samples, we found that a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41551-023-01091-5">gene called RAC2</a> was highly expressed in samples taken from patients with severe reactions but not in those with mild reactions. This gene is found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.21.7645-7657.2002">only in immune cells</a>, and it codes for a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M306491200">member of a family of proteins</a> involved in cell growth and structure.</p>
<p>Because this protein seemed to be linked to a lot of the downstream reactions that lead to foreign body responses, we decided to explore how RAC2 affects the formation of capsules. We found that immune cells activate RAC2 along with other proteins <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41551-023-01091-5">in response to mechanical stress</a> from implants. These proteins summon additional immune cells to the area that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fma8095269">combine into a massive clump</a> to attack a large invader. These combined cells spit out fibrous proteins like collagen that form scar tissue.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Clinician holding a silicone breast implant" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549655/original/file-20230921-25-uccyoe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The mechanical stress that medical devices like breast implants place on surrounding tissues can trigger a foreign body response.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/plastic-surgeon-holding-breast-silicone-implant-royalty-free-image/1300316377">megaflopp/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To confirm RAC2’s role in foreign body responses, we artificially stimulated the mechanical signaling proteins surrounding silicone implants surgically placed in mice. This stimulation produced a severe and humanlike foreign body response in the mice. In contrast, blocking RAC2 resulted in an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41551-023-01091-5">up to threefold reduction</a> in foreign body responses.</p>
<p>These findings suggest that activating mechanical stress pathways triggers immune cells with RAC2 to generate severe foreign body responses. Blocking RAC2 in immune cells may significantly reduce this reaction.</p>
<h2>Developing new treatments</h2>
<p>Implant failure is conventionally treated by using <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13036-019-0209-9">biocompatible materials</a> that the body can better tolerate, such as certain polymers. These don’t completely remove the risk of foreign body reactions, however.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I believe that treatments that target the pathways associated with RAC2 could potentially mitigate or prevent free body responses. Heading off this reaction would help improve the effectiveness and safety of medical implants.</p>
<p>Because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.21.7645-7657.2002">only immune cells express RAC2</a>, a drug designed to block only that gene would theoretically target only immune cells without affecting other cells in the body. Such a drug could also be administered via injection or even coated onto an implant to minimize side effects.</p>
<p>A complete understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving foreign body responses would be the final frontier in developing truly bio-integrative medical devices that could integrate with the body with no problems for the recipient’s entire life span.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211090/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kellen Chen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From breast implants to prosthetic knees, implants can trigger a foreign body response that results in your body rejecting them. Suppressing an immune cell gene could reduce this risk.Kellen Chen, Assistant Professor of Surgery, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.