tag:theconversation.com,2011:/nz/topics/ageing-36/articlesAgeing – The Conversation2024-03-14T04:34:35Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2241592024-03-14T04:34:35Z2024-03-14T04:34:35ZOnly walking for exercise? Here’s how to get the most out of it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581817/original/file-20240314-18-so6oe8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=97%2C315%2C4914%2C2938&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-man-exercising-green-1812006481">west_photo/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’re living longer than in previous generations, with <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/older-people/older-australians/contents/demographic-profile">one in eight</a> elderly Australians now aged over 85. But the current <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26561272/">gap</a> between life expectancy (“lifespan”) and health-adjusted life expectancy (“healthspan”) is about ten years. This means many of us live with significant health problems in our later years.</p>
<p>To increase our healthspan, we need planned, structured and regular physical activity (or exercise). The <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity">World Health Organization recommends</a> 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise – such as brisk walking, cycling and swimming – per week and muscle strengthening twice a week.</p>
<p>Yet few of us meet these recommendations. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0797-2">Only 10%</a> meet the strength-training recommendations. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32488898/">Lack of time</a> is one of the most common reasons. </p>
<p>Walking is cost-effective, doesn’t require any special equipment or training, and can be done with small pockets of time. <a href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s00421-024-05453-y?sharing_token=1vDsDJTN5WzPxi5YmSEkOfe4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY5hnPeFvF3FY4v2z1P9M2M0oiR78kXv1Yzj0ODMgckqhKOGHUABEd9UOPOfV5kPAj1jf1IYMIYkdIBv-DUEcKCOiDdNyj6MFypeDhSyeYQrWu_bvlAYtPUmOSaldFpmycA%3D">Our preliminary research</a>, published this week, shows there are ways to incorporate strength-training components into walking to improve your muscle strength and balance. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/am-i-too-old-to-build-muscle-what-science-says-about-sarcopenia-and-building-strength-later-in-life-203562">Am I too old to build muscle? What science says about sarcopenia and building strength later in life</a>
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<h2>Why walking isn’t usually enough</h2>
<p>Regular walking <a href="http://theconversation.com/health-check-in-terms-of-exercise-is-walking-enough-78604">does not appear</a> to work as muscle-strengthening exercise. </p>
<p>In contrast, exercises consisting of “eccentric” or muscle-lengthening contractions <a href="http://theconversation.com/its-ok-to-aim%20lower-with-your-new-years-exercise-resolutions-a-few-minutes-a-day-can-improve-your-muscle-strength-193713">improve</a> muscle strength, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31130877/">prevent muscle wasting</a> and improve other functions such as balance and flexibility. </p>
<p>Typical eccentric contractions are seen, for example, when we sit on a chair slowly. The front thigh muscles lengthen with force generation.</p>
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<img alt="Woman sits on chair" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581801/original/file-20240313-24-zjbiei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When you sit down slowly on a chair, the front thigh muscles lengthen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-who-trains-using-chair-1631210659">buritora/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31055678/">previous research</a> found body-weight-based eccentric exercise training, such as sitting down on a chair slowly, improved lower limb muscle strength and balance in healthy older adults. </p>
<p>We also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28291022/">showed</a> walking down stairs, with the front thigh muscles undergoing eccentric contractions, increased leg muscle strength and balance in older women more than walking up stairs. When climbing stairs, the front thigh muscles undergo “concentric” contractions, with the muscles shortening. </p>
<p>It can be difficult to find stairs or slopes suitable for eccentric exercises. But if they could be incorporated into daily walking, lower limb muscle strength and balance function could be improved. </p>
<p>This is where the idea of “eccentric walking” comes into play. This means inserting lunges in conventional walking, in addition to downstairs and downhill walking. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wAI7z3XdY9o?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Eccentric walking means incorporating deep lunges into your movement.</span></figcaption>
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<p>In our <a href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s00421-024-05453-y?sharing_token=1vDsDJTN5WzPxi5YmSEkOfe4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY5hnPeFvF3FY4v2z1P9M2M0oiR78kXv1Yzj0ODMgckqhKOGHUABEd9UOPOfV5kPAj1jf1IYMIYkdIBv-DUEcKCOiDdNyj6MFypeDhSyeYQrWu_bvlAYtPUmOSaldFpmycA%3D">new research</a>, published in the European Journal of Applied Physiology, we investigated the effects of eccentric walking on lower limb muscle strength and balance in 11 regular walkers aged 54 to 88 years. </p>
<p>The intervention period was 12 weeks. It consisted of four weeks of normal walking followed by eight weeks of eccentric walking. </p>
<p>The number of eccentric steps in the eccentric walking period gradually increased over eight weeks from 100 to 1,000 steps (including lunges, downhill and downstairs steps). Participants took a total of 3,900 eccentric steps over the eight-week eccentric walking period while the total number of steps was the same as the previous four weeks. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-ok-to-aim-lower-with-your-new-years-exercise-resolutions-a-few-minutes-a-day-can-improve-your-muscle-strength-193713">It's OK to aim lower with your new year's exercise resolutions – a few minutes a day can improve your muscle strength</a>
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<p>We measured the thickness of the participants’ front thigh muscles, muscle strength in their knee, their balance and endurance, including how many times they could go from a sitting position to standing in 30 seconds without using their arms. We took these measurements before the study started, at four weeks, after the conventional walking period, and at four and eight weeks into the eccentric walking period.</p>
<p>We also tested their cognitive function using a digit symbol-substitution test at the same time points of other tests. And we asked participants to complete a questionnaire relating to their activities of daily living, such as dressing and moving around at home. </p>
<p>Finally, we tested participants’ blood sugar, cholesterol levels and complement component 1q (C1q) concentrations, a potential <a href="https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1096/fj.14-262154">marker of sarcopenia</a> (muscle wasting with ageing).</p>
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<img alt="Person walks with small dog" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581816/original/file-20240314-16-le4nu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Regular walking won’t contract your muscles in the same way as eccentric walking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dog-walker-strides-his-pet-on-1399290365">alexei_tm/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>We found no significant changes in any of the outcomes in the first four weeks when participants walked conventionally. </p>
<p>From week four to 12, we found significant improvements in muscle strength (19%), chair-stand ability (24%), balance (45%) and a cognitive function test (21%).</p>
<p>Serum C1q concentration decreased by 10% after the eccentric walking intervention, indicating participants’ muscles were effectively stimulated. </p>
<p>The sample size of the study was small, so we need larger and more comprehensive studies to verify our findings and investigate whether eccentric walking is effective for sedentary people, older people, how the different types of eccentric exercise compare and the potential cognitive and mental health benefits. </p>
<p>But, in the meantime, “eccentric walking” appears to be a beneficial exercise that will extend your healthspan. It may look a bit eccentric if we insert lunges while walking on the street, but the more people do it and benefit from it, the less eccentric it will become. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-in-terms-of-exercise-is-walking-enough-78604">Health Check: in terms of exercise, is walking enough?</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ken Nosaka does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are ways to incorporate strength-training components into walking to improve your muscle strength and balance.Ken Nosaka, Professor of Exercise and Sports Science, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255512024-03-12T04:29:09Z2024-03-12T04:29:09ZWhat will aged care look like for the next generation? More of the same but higher out-of-pocket costs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581147/original/file-20240312-22-5zslsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=70%2C462%2C6629%2C4003&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/health-visitor-talking-senior-woman-during-1937848606">pikselstock/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Aged care financing is a vexed problem for the Australian government. It is already underfunded for the quality the community expects, and costs will increase dramatically. There are also significant concerns about the complexity of the system. </p>
<p>In 2021–22 the federal government spent <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/final-report-of-the-aged-care-taskforce?language=en">A$25 billion</a> on aged services for around 1.2 million people aged 65 and over. Around 60% went to residential care (<a href="https://www.gen-agedcaredata.gov.au/topics/people-using-aged-care#:%7E:text=On%2030%20June%202022%2C%20approximately,and%203%2C500%20using%20transition%20care.">190,000 people</a>) and one-third to home care (<a href="https://www.gen-agedcaredata.gov.au/topics/people-using-aged-care#:%7E:text=On%2030%20June%202022%2C%20approximately,and%203%2C500%20using%20transition%20care.">one million people</a>).</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/final-report-of-the-aged-care-taskforce?language=en">final report from the government’s Aged Care Taskforce</a>, which has been reviewing funding options, estimates the number of people who will need services is likely to grow to more than two million over the next 20 years. Costs are therefore likely to more than double. </p>
<p>The taskforce has considered what aged care services are reasonable and necessary and made recommendations to the government about how they can be paid for. This includes getting aged care users to pay for more of their care. </p>
<p>But rather than recommending an alternative financing arrangement that will safeguard Australians’ aged care services into the future, the taskforce largely recommends tidying up existing arrangements and keeping the status quo.</p>
<h2>No Medicare-style levy</h2>
<p>The taskforce <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/final-report-of-the-aged-care-taskforce?language=en">rejected</a> the aged care royal commission’s recommendation to introduce a levy to meet aged care cost increases. A 1% levy, similar to the Medicare levy, could have raised around <a href="https://www.thenewdaily.com.au/finance/finance-news/2021/03/03/cost-of-aged-care-levy#:%7E:text=Overall%2C%20a%201%20per%20cent%20levy%20would%20raise,necessary%20to%20provide%20decent%20aged%20care%20for%20all.">$8 billion a year</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/governments-aged-care-report-proposes-older-australians-pay-more-but-eschews-a-levy-225462">Government's aged care report proposes older Australians pay more but eschews a levy</a>
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<p>The taskforce failed to consider the mix of taxation, personal contributions and social insurance which are commonly used to fund aged care systems internationally. The <a href="https://www.oecd.org/els/health-systems/Japan-OECD-EC-Good-Time-in-Old-Age.pdf">Japanese system</a>, for example, is financed by long-term insurance paid by those aged 40 and over, plus general taxation and a small copayment.</p>
<p>Instead, the taskforce puts forward a simple, pragmatic argument that older people are becoming wealthier through superannuation, there is a cost of living crisis for younger people and therefore older people should be required to pay more of their aged care costs. </p>
<h2>Separating care from other services</h2>
<p>In deciding what older people should pay more for, the taskforce divided services into care, everyday living and accommodation. </p>
<p>The taskforce thought the most important services were clinical services (including nursing and allied health) and these should be the main responsibility of government funding. Personal care, including showering and dressing were seen as a middle tier that is likely to attract some co-payment, despite these services often being necessary to maintain independence.</p>
<p>The task force recommended the costs for everyday living (such as food and utilities) and accommodation expenses (such as rent) should increasingly be a personal responsibility. </p>
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<img alt="Aged care resident eats dinner from a tray" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581169/original/file-20240312-18-2tr0gt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Aged care users will pay more of their share for cooking and cleaning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/elderly-lady-eating-healthy-lunch-bed-2146362593">Lizelle Lotter/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Making the system fairer</h2>
<p>The taskforce thought it was unfair people in residential care were making substantial contributions for their everyday living expenses (about 25%) and those receiving home care weren’t (about 5%). This is, in part, because home care has always had a muddled set of rules about user co-payments. </p>
<p>But the taskforce provided no analysis of accommodation costs (such as utilities and maintenance) people meet at home compared with residential care. </p>
<p>To address the inefficiencies of upfront daily fees for packages, the taskforce recommends means testing co-payments for home care packages and basing them on the actual level of service users receive for everyday support (for food, cleaning, and so on) and to a lesser extent for support to maintain independence. </p>
<p>It is unclear whether clinical and personal care costs and user contributions will be treated the same for residential and home care. </p>
<h2>Making residential aged care sustainable</h2>
<p>The taskforce was <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/final-report-of-the-aged-care-taskforce?language=en">concerned</a> residential care operators were losing $4 per resident day on “hotel” (accommodation services) and everyday living costs. </p>
<p>The taskforce recommends means tested user contributions for room services and everyday living costs be increased. </p>
<p>It also recommends that wealthier older people be given more choice by allowing them to pay more (per resident day) for better amenities. This would allow providers to fully meet the cost of these services. </p>
<p>Effectively, this means daily living charges for residents are too low and inflexible and that fees would go up, although the taskforce was clear that low-income residents should be protected. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-new-way-to-pay-for-aged-care-but-it-cant-shut-out-those-on-low-incomes-212017">We need a new way to pay for aged care. But it can't shut out those on low incomes</a>
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<h2>Moving from buying to renting rooms</h2>
<p>Currently older people who need residential care have a choice of making a refundable up-front payment for their room or to pay rent to offset the loans providers take out to build facilities. Providers raise capital to build aged care facilities through equity or loan financing. </p>
<p>However, the taskforce did not consider the overall efficiency of the private capital market for financing aged care or alternative solutions. </p>
<p>Instead, it recommended capital contributions be streamlined and simplified by phasing out up-front payments and focusing on rental contributions. This echoes the royal commission, which found rent to be a more efficient and less risky method of financing capital for aged care in private capital markets. </p>
<p>It’s likely that in a decade or so, once the new home care arrangements are in place, there will be proportionally fewer older people in residential aged care. Those who do go are likely to be more disabled and have greater care needs. And those with more money will pay more for their accommodation and everyday living arrangements. But they may have more choice too.</p>
<p>Although the federal government has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-11/aged-care-task-force-hands-down-recommendations/103573554">ruled out an aged care levy</a> and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-02-15/no-plan-to-touch-aged-care-asset-test/103470442">changes to assets test on the family home</a>, it has yet to respond to the majority of the recommendations. But given the aged care minister chaired the taskforce, it’s likely to provide a good indication of current thinking.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lump-sum-daily-payments-or-a-combination-what-to-consider-when-paying-for-nursing-home-accommodation-207405">Lump sum, daily payments or a combination? What to consider when paying for nursing home accommodation</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hal Swerissen is Deputy Chair of the Bendigo Kangan Institute which provides training in aged care</span></em></p>Rather than bold reforms that will safeguard Australians’ aged care services into the future, the taskforce largely recommends tidying up and keeping the status quo. And getting users to pay more.Hal Swerissen, Emeritus Professor, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246802024-03-11T13:10:44Z2024-03-11T13:10:44ZHow alternative communities have evolved – from pacifist communes to a solution to the ageing population<p>People have sought solace and strength in communal living for thousands of years. But unlike traditional villages bound by kinship or geography, “intentional communities” are deliberately constructed by people who choose to share not just space, but also a specific set of values, beliefs or goals. Such forging of a collective path is often in response to times of social change. </p>
<p>Here are three instances where people have turned to intentional communities to seek sanctuary, purpose and alternative ways of living. </p>
<h2>Second world war</h2>
<p>As the war raged across Europe, one particular group of people was looking for alternative solutions. Conscientious objectors were people who refused to fight for moral or religious reasons. </p>
<p>It is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/tcbh/hwy002">estimated</a> that there were around 60,000 male conscientious objectors in Britain. Some took up non-combatant roles, such as medics, but others sought out less conventional opportunities. With farming identified as an exempt occupation, some conscientious objectors joined pacifist “back to the land” communities. </p>
<p>One such community was <a href="https://www.littletoller.co.uk/shop/books/little-toller/no-matter-how-many-skies-have-fallen-by-ken-worpole/">Frating Hall Farm</a> in Essex. It provided a safe haven for those who did not wish to fight in the war. As well as farming, the community lived, ate and worked together. </p>
<p>Another such community was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2017/dec/05/conscientious-objectors-lincolnshire-collow-abbey-farm-play-remembrance">Collow Abbey Farm</a> in Lincolnshire. This was a farming cooperative set up by a different set of conscientious objectors. Again, the principles of pacifism, farming and community brought individuals and families together in a time of need. </p>
<p>Many of these communities dissipated after the war ended, having served their purpose as safe havens for pacifists. </p>
<h2>1960s</h2>
<p>Still in the shadow of the second world war, the 1960s blossomed into a more permissive era which allowed for a freer sense of self and expression. This decade heralded a sense of social change with movements such as civil rights and women’s rights emerging. As the decade progressed, so did the different types of intentional communities. </p>
<p>The 1960s commune movement has been described by some experts as a <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203615171-18/sixties-era-communes-timothy-miller">hotbed</a> of free love, drug taking and loose morals. But others <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203790656-7/collective-profile-communes-intentional-communities-yaacov-oved">argue</a> they embodied something much more important and were representative of the social changes under way at the time. </p>
<p>In an attempt to escape “straight” society, many young people sought out spaces that allowed them to experiment with alternative forms of living and identity. These were communities that often embraced the non-nuclear family alongside other “counter cultural” ideas such as veganism and non-gendered childrearing. </p>
<p>One well documented example of this is <a href="https://www.braziers.org.uk/buildings-and-land/main-house/">Braziers Park</a> in Oxfordshire. It was a community that formed in the 1950s but flourished in the 1960s and 70s. Braziers was initially set up as an educational community. </p>
<p>Its alternative nature attracted the likes of Rolling Stones frontman, Mick Jagger, and his then girlfriend <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Faithfull/wLGpJ_8I6WYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover">Marianne Faithfull</a>, who had lived there during her early life.
She described it as “otherworldly” in her memoir. Braziers still exists today and now offers courses, workshops and retreats.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-reasons-to-consider-co-housing-and-housing-cooperatives-for-alternative-living-99097">Four reasons to consider co-housing and housing cooperatives for alternative living</a>
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<p>Another example was <a href="https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-a-beautiful-way-to-live-1971-online">Crow Hall</a> in Norfolk, which was founded in 1965. Although they denied they were a commune, it had all of the marks of being one, with elements such as shared accommodation and collective child rearing. The community operated an open door policy, inviting others to “come find themselves”. It eventually dispersed in 1997. </p>
<p>Like Braziers, some communities set up during the 1960s are still in place today such as <a href="https://www.postliphall.org.uk/">Postlip Hall</a> near Cheltenham, or the <a href="http://www.ashram.org.uk/">Ashram Community</a> near Sheffield. But many others ended as society moved on. Experts who have <a href="https://westminsterresearch.westminster.ac.uk/item/911v7/nineteen-sixties-radicalism-and-its-critics-radical-utopians-liberal-realists-and-postmodern-sceptics">reflected</a> on this period describe it as both a time of freedom and, for others, mistakenly liberal.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">New Ground Cohousing in High Barnet, north London.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Today</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://diggersanddreamers.org.uk/#">communities scene</a> continues to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/jan/17/is-the-boom-in-communal-living-really-the-good-life">flourish</a> but this time under new challenges such as an ageing population and climate change. It’s difficult to estimate how many such communities exist in the UK, as nobody keeps official figures. </p>
<p>Arguably, some of the same generation who were “tuning in and dropping out” in the 1960s are now seeking equally alternative solutions for their older age. For some, this is to be found in the phenomenon of <a href="https://cohousing.org.uk/news/how-the-rise-of-cohousing-is-enriching-seniors-lives/">“senior cohousing”</a>. These are intentional communities run by their residents where each household is a self-contained home alongside shared community space and facilities. </p>
<p>One example of senior cohousing is <a href="https://newgroundcohousing.uk">New Ground</a> in north London. This is a community of older women, founded in 1998, who took their housing situation into their own hands. Defying some of the more traditional models of housing for older people, such as sheltered accommodation, New Ground is an intentional community for women over 50. They live by the ethos of “looking out for, rather than looking after each other”.</p>
<p>For others, the solution involves joining an intergenerational community such as <a href="https://www.oldhall.org.uk/old-hall-community/">Old Hall</a> in Suffolk where octogenarians live alongside children and adults under one roof. This is a community of around 50 people who farm the land, share their meals and manage the manor house in which they live.</p>
<p>As society evolves, so too do the forms that intentional communities take.
While the specific challenges may change, the human desire for connection and a sense of belonging remains constant.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224680/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Stevens-Wood does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From conscientious objectors to hippies and seniors, intentional communities offer refuge and purpose for people seeking a different way of life.Kirsten Stevens-Wood, Senior Lecturer, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229122024-02-28T13:12:01Z2024-02-28T13:12:01ZWill Britons work until they’re 71? Expert examines proposed pension age rise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574609/original/file-20240209-22-wo3zz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=48%2C0%2C5385%2C3579&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The current pension age of 66 is set to rise to 67 by 2028.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/elderly-man-changing-light-bulbs-retired-2269968695">Andrew Angelov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The retirement age will need to rise to 71 for UK workers in future, according to a recent <a href="https://ilcuk.org.uk/ageing-populations-forced-to-increase-state-pension-age-to-71-by-2050-to-maintain-dependency-ratio/">report</a> looking at the effect of increasing life expectancy and falling birthrates on the state pension. </p>
<p>The current pension age of 66 is set to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/state-pension-age-review-2023-government-report/state-pension-age-review-2023#:%7E:text=The%20Pensions%20Act%202014%20brought,68%20between%202044%20and%202046.">rise</a> to 67 by 2028, and to 68 from 2044. But research by the International Longevity Centre (ILC), a thinktank focusing on ageing, says that doesn’t go far enough. </p>
<p>It suggests that anyone born after April 1970 may have to work until they are 71 years old in future. And there’s a possibility that the age limit may need to go even higher than that. The underpinning reason is the rising cost of pension provision because the number of pensioners and the value of payments are growing. </p>
<p>The government’s Office for Budget Responsibility <a href="https://obr.uk/forecasts-in-depth/tax-by-tax-spend-by-spend/welfare-spending-pensioner-benefits/#:%7E:text=Pensioner%20benefit%20spending%20in%202023,5.3%20per%20cent%20of%20GDP">estimates</a> the state pension will cost around £124 billion this financial year. The pension level is safeguarded by the <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/the-triple-lock-how-will-state-pensions-be-uprated-in-future/">triple lock</a>, which was first introduced in 2010. It means annual increases in payments are made in line with earnings growth, price inflation (currently 4%) or 2.5%, whichever is highest. </p>
<p>The Institute for Fiscal Studies has <a href="https://ifs.org.uk/publications/triple-lock-uncertainty-pension-incomes-and-public-finances">estimated</a> that continuing the triple lock will lead to an extra £45 billion of annual cost by 2050.</p>
<h2>It’s not just the UK</h2>
<p>The issue of rising pension costs isn’t merely a UK problem. Countries across Europe are currently grappling with the conundrum of how to look after their ageing populations in retirement. </p>
<p>Protests erupted across <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2023/06/06/in-france-a-14th-day-of-protest-to-derail-macron-s-pension-reform_6029218_7.html">France in 2023</a> in response to pension reforms which would increase the retirement age from 62 to 64. There have also been ongoing <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL8N12F3RN/">protests in Greece</a>, which has been struggling with pension reforms since 2010. </p>
<p>Pension age increases are also <a href="https://www.etk.fi/en/work-and-pensions-abroad/international-comparisons/retirement-ages/">planned</a> in numerous other countries such as Denmark, the Czech Republic, Spain and the Netherlands.</p>
<h2>How the state pension works</h2>
<p>Unlike company-sponsored pensions, which invest money in individual accounts for future payouts, the UK state pension operates on a different principle. Instead of accumulating a personal “pot” of money, the idea is that current workers essentially fund the pensions of retirees. So, the state pension is financed from national insurance contributions and general taxation.</p>
<p>For this model to sustain itself, each new retiree entering the “pensioner pool” needs to be matched by a new worker entering the “worker pool.” As long as this balance persists, and pension claim periods remain reasonable, the system maintains its solvency.</p>
<p>Less than five years after the introduction of the state pension in 1946, the <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/1954-11-15/debates/ed3805b1-dbb6-4f54-970e-58a43094a094/Old-AgeAndRetirementPensioners">pressures on the system</a> were already beginning to show. And the central issues are the same now as they were then – we are living longer and having fewer children. </p>
<p>In 1951, the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/lifeexpectancies/articles/howhaslifeexpectancychangedovertime/2015-09-09">UK life expectancy</a> was 66 for men and 71 for women. By 2011, it had increased to 79 for men and almost 83 for women.</p>
<p>This means that a 66-year-old in 2024 will receive a pension for an average of nearly 16 years. But since <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/281416/birth-rate-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/">birth rates have fallen</a> from 15 per 1000 in 1951 to 10 per 1000 in 2021, those retirees aren’t being replaced with fresh workers.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/matching-state-pension-to-the-national-living-wage-would-help-pensioners-maintain-their-dignity-217473">Matching state pension to the national living wage would help pensioners maintain their dignity</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/nationalaccounts/uksectoraccounts/compendium/economicreview/april2019/longtermtrendsinukemployment1861to2018#:%7E:text=Image%20.csv%20.xls-,The%20highest%20employment%20rates%20recorded%20were%20in%20the%20years%201872,average%20employment%20rate%20was%2073%25.">In 1951</a>, the UK population was 50 million with an employment rate of 70.4%. There were 35.2 million workers who were supporting 4.5 million pensioners, or 7.8 workers for every pensioner. </p>
<p>Today, the UK’s population is more than 67 million, which includes 33.17 million <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9366/">workers</a> and 12.8 million <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dwp-benefits-statistics-august-2023/dwp-benefits-statistics-august-2023#:%7E:text=The%20main%20headline%20figures%20for,5.6%25%20to%201.6%20million%20claimants">pensioners</a>. This means that every pensioner is being “supported” by just 2.6 workers. </p>
<p>Both central planks of the state pension system appear to be broken. And, to further complicate matters, we are seeing increasing levels of people <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/how-is-health-affecting-economic-inactivity/">leaving the workforce</a> before they reach pension age, largely due to ill-health.</p>
<p>The state (in other words, the taxpayer) cannot afford the current pension provision for an ageing population for longer periods, let alone improve it. So, tough decisions have to be made, and soon. </p>
<h2>Generation X and millennials</h2>
<p>The implications of a rising retirement age won’t be felt by baby boomers like me. Generally speaking, we have benefited from jobs for life, free education, affordable housing and good company pensions. </p>
<p>The first cohort to shoulder the changes to the pension age will be generation X, born between 1965 and 1980. And they do not possess the wealth and assets of previous generations. </p>
<p>In fact, recent government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/analysis-of-future-pension-incomes/analysis-of-future-pension-incomes">figures</a> show that a third of the UK’s 14 million gen Xers won’t have enough savings to comfortably cover their retirement. <a href="https://www.justgroupplc.co.uk/%7E/media/Files/J/Just-Retirement-Corp/news-doc/2023/majority-of-gen-x-worried-they-wont-save-enough-for-good-standard-of-living-in-retirement.pdf">More than half</a> are not confident about achieving a good standard of living in retirement.</p>
<p>This generation, sometimes described as the “<a href="https://www.pensionsage.com/pa/Gen-X-face-huge-pension-black-hole-with-two-thirds-not-saving-enough.php">forgotten generation</a>” by finance experts, stands at a disadvantage due to their lack of early access to defined benefit pensions, which were largely closed to new employees by the time they entered the workforce. They also missed out on the financial benefits of automatic enrolment in workplace pension schemes, which was introduced only after many members of this generation had already established their careers.</p>
<p>The situation doesn’t look any rosier for the millennials, who have <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/articles/moreadultslivingwiththeirparents/2023-05-10">struggled</a> to get onto the housing ladder and are paying back student loans. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/sep/04/britons-cut-pension-contributions-hargreaves-lansdown-abrdn">Research</a> last year showed that almost a third of 18 to 34-year-olds had either stopped or cut back on pension contributions to save money. </p>
<p>Perhaps it comes as no surprise that more than two thirds of this age group <a href="https://www.pensionsage.com/pa/one-fifth-unsure-over-future-certainty-of-state-pension.php">don’t believe</a> the state pension will even exist when they enter retirement. </p>
<p>While the future of the state pension in its current form remains uncertain, one thing is clear – ignoring the problem is no longer an option.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222912/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Parry does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Increasing life expectancy and falling birthrates means many of us may have to keep working until beyond 71 years of age.Chris Parry, Principal Lecturer in Finance, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231942024-02-27T05:35:56Z2024-02-27T05:35:56ZHow to be kind to yourself (without going to a day spa)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575550/original/file-20240214-26-e51x1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C998%2C664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mature-african-woman-looking-outside-window-2003674943">Ground Picture/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“I have to be hard on myself,” Sarah told me in a recent telehealth psychology session. “I would never reach my potential if I was kind and let myself off the hook.”</p>
<p>I could empathise with this fear of self-compassion from clients such as Sarah (not her real name). From a young age, we are taught to be kind to others, but self-kindness is never mentioned.</p>
<p>Instead, we are taught success hinges on self-sacrifice. And we need a healthy inner critic to bully us forward into becoming increasingly better versions of ourselves.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167212445599">research shows</a> there doesn’t have to be a trade-off between self-compassion and success. </p>
<p>Self-compassion can help you reach your potential, while supporting you to face the inevitable stumbles and setbacks along the way.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/self-love-might-seem-selfish-but-done-right-its-the-opposite-of-narcissism-205938">'Self-love' might seem selfish. But done right, it's the opposite of narcissism</a>
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<h2>What is self-compassion?</h2>
<p><a href="https://self-compassion.org/">Self-compassion</a> has <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15298860309027">three</a> key ingredients.</p>
<p><strong>1. Self-kindness</strong></p>
<p>This involves treating yourself with the same kindness you would extend towards a good friend – via your thoughts, feelings and actions – especially during life’s difficult moments.</p>
<p>For instance, if you find yourself fixating on a minor mistake you made at work, self-kindness might involve taking a ten-minute walk to shift focus, and reminding yourself it is OK to make mistakes sometimes, before moving on with your day.</p>
<p><strong>2. Mindfulness</strong></p>
<p>In this context, mindfulness involves being aware of your own experience of stress or suffering, rather than repressing or avoiding your feelings, or over-identifying with them. </p>
<p>Basically, you must see your stress with a clear (mindful) perspective before you can respond with kindness. If we avoid or are consumed by our suffering, we lose perspective.</p>
<p><strong>3. Common humanity</strong></p>
<p>Common humanity involves recognising our own experience of suffering as something that unites us as being human. </p>
<p>For instance, a sleep-deprived parent waking up (for the fourth time) to feed their newborn might choose to think about all the other parents around the world doing exactly the same thing – as opposed to feeling isolated and alone.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-was-an-expert-advisor-on-the-documentary-how-to-thrive-heres-what-happened-after-this-wellbeing-experiment-191500">I was an expert advisor on the documentary 'How to Thrive'. Here's what happened after this wellbeing experiment</a>
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<h2>It’s not about day spas, or booking a manicure</h2>
<p>When Sarah voiced her fear that self-compassion would prevent her success, I explained self-compassion is distinct from self-indulgence.</p>
<p>“So is self-compassion just about booking in more mani/pedis?” Sarah asked. </p>
<p>Not really, I explained. A one-off trip to a day spa is unlikely to transform your mental health.</p>
<p>Instead, self-compassion is a flexible <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-22348-8_7">psychological resilience factor</a> that shapes our thoughts, feelings and actions. </p>
<p>It’s associated with a suite of benefits to our <a href="https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aphw.12051">wellbeing</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15298868.2011.639548">relationships</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17437199.2019.1705872">health</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Massage therapist massaging woman's back" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575551/original/file-20240214-20-zag2w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A one-off trip to a day spa is unlikely to transform your mental health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-masseurs-hands-massaging-clients-back-181966475">baranq/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>What does the science say?</h2>
<p>Over the past 20 years, we’ve learned self-compassionate people enjoy a wide range of benefits. They tend to be <a href="https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aphw.12051">happier</a> and have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003">fewer psychological symptoms</a> of distress.</p>
<p>Those high on self-compassion <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167212445599">persevere</a> following a failure. They say they are more motivated to overcome a personal weakness than those low on self-compassion, who are more likely to give up. </p>
<p>So rather than feeling trapped by your inadequacies, self-compassion encourages a <a href="https://hbr.org/2018/09/give-yourself-a-break-the-power-of-self-compassion">growth mindset</a>, helping you reach your potential.</p>
<p>However, self-compassion is not a panacea. It will not change your life circumstances or somehow make life “easy”. It is based on the premise that life is hard, and provides practical tools to cope.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wellness-is-not-womens-friend-its-a-distraction-from-what-really-ails-us-177446">Wellness is not women's friend. It’s a distraction from what really ails us</a>
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<h2>It’s a factor in healthy ageing</h2>
<p>I research menopause and healthy ageing and am especially interested in the value of self-compassion through menopause and in the second half of life. </p>
<p>Because self-compassion becomes important during life’s challenges, it can help people navigate physical symptoms (for instance, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378512214001649?via%3Dihub">menopausal hot flushes</a>), life transitions such as <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797611429466">divorce</a>, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-22348-8_7">promote healthy ageing</a>.</p>
<p>I’ve also teamed up with researchers at <a href="https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/">Autism Spectrum Australia</a> to explore self-compassion in autistic adults. </p>
<p>We found autistic adults report significantly <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-022-05668-y">lower levels</a> of self-compassion than neurotypical adults. So we developed an online <a href="https://www.autismspectrum.org.au/blog/new-online-self-compassion-program-for-autistic-adults">self-compassion training program</a> for this at-risk population.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tiktok-is-teaching-the-world-about-autism-but-is-it-empowering-autistic-people-or-pigeonholing-them-192093">TikTok is teaching the world about autism – but is it empowering autistic people or pigeonholing them?</a>
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<h2>Three tips for self-compassion</h2>
<p>You <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jclp.21923">can learn</a> self-compassion with these three exercises.</p>
<p><strong>1. What would you say to a friend?</strong></p>
<p>Think back to the last time you made a mistake. What did you say to yourself?</p>
<p>If you notice you’re treating yourself more like an enemy than a friend, don’t beat yourself up about it. Instead, try to think about what you might tell a friend, and direct that same friendly language towards yourself.</p>
<p><strong>2. Harness the power of touch</strong></p>
<p>Soothing human touch <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.555058/full">activates</a> the parasympathetic “relaxation” branch of our nervous system and counteracts the fight or flight response. </p>
<p>Specifically, self-soothing touch (for instance, by placing both hands on your heart, stroking your forearm or giving yourself a hug) <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666497621000655">reduces</a> cortisol responses to psychosocial stress.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Middle-aged man hugging himself" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575557/original/file-20240214-28-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yes, hugging yourself can help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/middle-age-hoary-man-wearing-brown-1667780113">Krakenimages.com/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>3. What do I need right now?</strong></p>
<p>Sometimes, it can be hard to figure out exactly what self-compassion looks like in a given moment. The question “what do I need right now” helps clarify your true needs.</p>
<p>For example, when I was 37 weeks pregnant, I woke up bolt awake one morning at 3am.</p>
<p>Rather than beating myself up about it, or fretting about not getting enough sleep, I gently placed my hands on my heart and took a few deep breaths. By asking myself “what do I need right now?” it became clear that listening to a gentle podcast/meditation fitted the bill (even though I wanted to addictively scroll my phone).</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223194/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lydia Brown occasionally works as a clinical psychologist in private practice.</span></em></p>A one-off trip to a day spa is unlikely to transform your mental health. But these expert tips might help you cut yourself some slack.Lydia Brown, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220062024-02-15T13:15:55Z2024-02-15T13:15:55ZThe UK’s tiny houses are woefully ill-prepared for an ageing population<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574631/original/file-20240209-30-kbpzmh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An artist impression of a later living project that prioritises accessibility and adaptability.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Faye Sedgewick</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With babies born in the 21st century expected to live, on average, <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages">to 100</a>, by 2050, one in four people in the UK will be over 65. And they will all need somewhere to live that is <a href="https://ageing-better.org.uk/sites/default/files/2023-08/finding-the-right-place-to-grow-older.pdf">suited</a> to their needs. Most adults in later life <a href="https://ageing-better.org.uk/news/todays-children-reach-retirement-age-ill-health-and-disability">experience</a> some form of ill health, such as arthritis, cognitive impairment, heart problems or issues with hearing and vision. </p>
<p>The problem is that the UK housing stock is nowhere near ready to cater to this need. Only 9% of British homes meet basic <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-a-building-need-to-call-itself-accessible-and-is-that-enough-217278">accessibility</a> standards. </p>
<p>In 2023, over one in five people in the UK <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9602/">were living with a disability</a>. And yet, <a href="https://www.habinteg.org.uk/latest-news/wheelchair-users-subjected-to-decadeslong-wait-for-new-accessible-housing-2004/">there were more than 20,000 people</a> on English local authority waiting lists for wheelchair and accessible homes. Some people have been waiting for decades. Demand is far outstripping supply. </p>
<p>This matters not just to the people whose lives are impacted by ill-suited homes. Our <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyiU3Jrjjic&t=3s">research</a> shows that suitable housing not only supports health and wellbeing, but also plays a crucial role in reducing health inequalities and alleviating the long-term burden on health and social care systems. Every £1 invested in preventative home improvement measures <a href="https://ageing-better.org.uk/resources/homes-health-and-covid-19?gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQiAn-2tBhDVARIsAGmStVlj7IR7OBMBy6q_BuG7WFM7J85eRjd657Ryafsn4BgIw8XHjkXUdrgaApeVEALw_wcB">can save</a> up to £7 in healthcare costs. </p>
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</figure>
<h2>The impact of poor housing</h2>
<p>The UK builds the smallest new houses in the western world. And size matters: the smaller the house, <a href="https://www.habinteg.org.uk/living-not-existing-the-economic-social-value-of-wheelchair-user-homes/">the more difficult</a> it is for those people with disabilities to move around and live fulfilled lives. </p>
<p>Space limitations can lead to <a href="https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/step-free-access-to-all-homes-under-new-government-accessibility-rules#:%7E:text=The%20proposal%20will%20ask%20for,Dwellings'%20M4(1).">all kinds of problems</a>. Cramped entrance lobbies and hallways make coming and going difficult. Bathrooms located on upper floors are not accessible to people with mobility difficulties. Those located on the ground floor are often too small to accommodate disabilities. </p>
<p>The World Health Organisation has <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/26-11-2018-housing-impacts-health-new-who-guidelines-on-housing-and-health#:%7E:text=The%20quality%20of%20housing%20has,including%20tuberculosis%2C%20influenza%20and%20diarrhoea.">long highlighted</a> quite how much this compromises people’s ability to cater to their personal hygiene and care needs. On a societal level, it also has severe consequences for the healthcare system. As journalists Melissa York and Georgia Lambert <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-bad-homes-cost-nhs-1-4bn-times-health-commission-08zpsdpvn#:%7E:text=Poor%20quality%20housing%20costs,%C2%A34%20in%20health%20benefits.">put it</a> in 2023:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Poor quality housing costs the NHS £1.4 billion a year, yet the relationship between housing and health is rarely acknowledged.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Older adults, and those individuals with disabilities, <a href="https://www.health.org.uk/news-and-comment/blogs/improving-hospital-discharge-in-england-the-case-for-continued-focus">are often forced</a> to stay in the hospital longer than they need to, when their homes are unsuitable to their health needs. Pundits and experts alike have repeatedly warned that the UK’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-care-workers-are-feeling-less-valued-and-leaving-the-sector-after-the-pandemic-169961">social care</a> system is <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/england-government-nhs-age-uk-department-of-health-and-social-care-b1076797.html">at breaking point</a>. Poor housing is routinely cited as a major cause.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A blurred image of a hospital waiting room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574624/original/file-20240209-30-ftovcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Poor quality housing costs the NHS £1.4 billion a year.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/blur-image-inside-hospital-407772616">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why we need supportive housing design</h2>
<p>Built environment professionals, including architects, stress the importance of <a href="https://www.housinglin.org.uk/_assets/Resources/Housing/OtherOrganisation/Inclusive-Living-ageing-adaptations-and-futre-proofing-home.pdf">reimagining</a> housing design by establishing Part M Clause 2 (category 2) of the Building Regulations as the baseline to better support healthy ageing. In practical terms, this means <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336832933_The_Role_of_Housing_Design_in_Achieving_Aging_in_Place_in_China">creating homes</a> that are accessible and easily adaptable. </p>
<p>This means walls that can be easily be moved or removed to accommodate changing mobility requirements, or floors and walls equipped to support hoists and grab rails. A 90-year-old great-grandmother can live independently if her home features wide doorways, no-step entrances and a walk-in shower with grab bars. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graphic of internal layouts of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=809&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=809&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574632/original/file-20240209-20-kbpzmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=809&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Internal spaces that meet the Part M Clause 2 (category 2) of the Building Regulations requirements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Faye Sedgewick</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most people think that implementing these changes is costly. But actually, while more space is needed for a home to be made truly accessible and adaptable, the associated building costs are only <a href="https://prod.housing.org.uk/globalassets/files/supply/home-submission-dluhc-inquiry-2023-disabled-people-in-the-housing-sector.pdf">marginally</a> higher. Reinforced walls and floors or wider doorways can result in minimal additional expenses during the construction phase.</p>
<p>Introducing this kind of feature can, in fact, help to <a href="https://parliamentlive.tv/event/index/4f857c64-1fbf-49ea-9534-677301ea97cd?in=17:10:50&_gl=1*dymd2y*_ga*MTcyNzI5MjYuMTcwNzIxODA0Ng..*_ga_L0NJWDWMGN*MTcwNzIxODA0NS4xLjEuMTcwNzIxODA1NS41MC4wLjA.">level up standards</a> across the UK, which in turn can promote long-term cost effectiveness. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ribaj.com/buildings/john-morden-centre-mae-architects-elderly-care-social-centre">John Morden Centre</a> in Blackheath, London, illustrates how thoughtful design can support older residents’ <a href="https://bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/age-friendly-cities-and-communities">quality of life</a>. Designed by London-based architectural practice Mae Architects, this elderly daycare facility is housed in a sequence of red brick pavilions featuring <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371698416_Architecture_and_ageing_lessons_learned_from_a_cohousing_project">communal spaces</a> for <a href="https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/87663/ssoar-up-2022-4-lewis_et_al-Ageing_in_Place_and_Urban.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">social interaction</a>, activity areas and gardens. </p>
<p>In 2023, it won the Royal Institute of British Architects’s Stirling prize for design choices, the institute said, that “sensitively anticipate the varied needs, abilities and disabilities of users”. These choices include level door thresholds, concealed handrails, walkways with built-in seating and floor edging with high-contrast patterns that provide, the institute says, “dementia-friendly wayfinding”. This <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336832933_The_Role_of_Housing_Design_in_Achieving_Aging_in_Place_in_China">supportive environment</a> fosters independence and wellbeing in its users.</p>
<figure>
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<p>Of course, ideas need to be put into practice for them to really change the way people live. In construction terms, this means that supportive design needs to be enshrined in building regulations and the wider housing policy.</p>
<p>Right now, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/access-to-and-use-of-buildings-approved-document-m">UK building regulations</a> require builders to make reasonable housing provision for a wide range of occupants, including older people, those with reduced mobility and <a href="https://www.habinteg.org.uk/latest-news/more-wheelchair-user-homes-could-save-public-purse-millions-2248/">some wheelchair users</a>. This includes guidance for wider corridors and door opening widths, larger room sizes and provision of a ground floor wet room etc. </p>
<p>But this is not compulsory. The UK’s reliance on mass housebuilders to fulfil its housing needs explains why the government <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19491247.2019.1644020">has been reluctant</a> to make this more than a recommendation. </p>
<p>Making such design regulations compulsory would see the housing industry effectively contribute to reducing the burden on the NHS and our social care system. <a href="https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/163322/3/Final%200619-Jingjing-Wang_HS-journal-paper_4nd-revision.pdf">It would improve</a> the quality of life for older and disabled people at home. And it would promote independent living for longer. <a href="https://cp.catapult.org.uk/report/new-report-charts-way-forward-for-healthy-ageing/">A residential care place</a> can cost between £50-£90k for an average two-and-a-half-year stay, or £380-£700 per week. </p>
<p>Enabling individuals to remain in their homes for extended periods would result in savings for both residents and local councils. This is particularly crucial considering the mounting pressures confronting local authorities, many of which are teetering on the edge of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/aug/28/at-least-26-english-councils-at-risk-of-bankruptcy-in-next-two-years">bankruptcy</a> due to the escalating demand for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/jan/28/from-social-care-to-homelessness-what-are-the-cost-pressures-facing-english-councils">social care services</a>.</p>
<p>Architects talk about <a href="https://www.architecture.com/knowledge-and-resources/resources-landing-page/a-home-for-the-ages-planning-for-the-future-with-age-friendly-design">resilient housing</a> to describe homes that are built for the long-term with sustainable healthy ageing in mind. </p>
<p>Currently, the homes on most residential streets in the UK are not built for the long-term. The construction industry prioritises single-use homes and operates on a demolition-first mentality. </p>
<p>People’s needs change as they get older. But ageing and disability should not be barriers to health, wellbeing and everyday activities within the home. The homes we live in should allow us all to thrive and contribute to society, at every age.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Faye Sedgewick receives funding from Innovate UK and is a member of the Architects Registration Board.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Jones receives funding from Innovate UK, Research England, AHRC</span></em></p>By 2050, 25% of the UK population will be over 65, yet only 9% of the country’s current homes meet basic accessibility standards.Faye Sedgewick, KTP Research Associate in Architecture, Northumbria University, NewcastlePaul Jones, Professor of Architecture, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225332024-02-14T16:55:57Z2024-02-14T16:55:57ZMen become less fertile with age, but the same isn’t true for all animals – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573049/original/file-20240202-27-wscv4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C34%2C5833%2C3938&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/colorful-balloons-spermatozoid-shape-on-blue-1100465771">olliulli/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We take it for granted that humans find it <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/09513590.2010.501889">more difficult to conceive</a> as they grow older. But <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44768-4">our recent study</a>, which analysed data from 157 animal species, found that male reproductive ageing seems to be a lot less common in other male animals. </p>
<p>With fertility in men <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/305/6854/609">declining worldwide</a>, understanding ageing of sperm in other animals could give new insights into our own fertility. </p>
<p>Human fertility declines with age because sperm and eggs of older people are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/11/3/261/759255">more deteriorated</a> or fewer in number than those of young people. Reproducing at an older age not only affects your fertility, but can also <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrurol.2013.18">reduce the fertility</a>, survival rate and physical and cognitive performance of the children you conceive.</p>
<h2>Humans versus other animals</h2>
<p>Humans <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00239-019-09896-2">live considerably longer</a> than we did just a century ago. This <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0909606106">recent, rapid extension</a> in our longevity might be one reason why humans reproductively age at faster rates than other animals. Our reproductive ageing rate hasn’t slowed down yet to match our longer lifespans. </p>
<p>Animals might also face greater evolutionary pressure to maximise their reproductive potential at all ages, because most animals reproduce throughout their lives. But this isn’t the case for humans. We rarely <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/29/6/1304/625687">reproduce</a> in our late life. </p>
<p>Additionally, we have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/37/4/629/6515525">fewer offspring</a> compared to our ancestors. This makes it harder for natural selection to select genes that improve human reproduction due to less variation in the population’s fecundity. </p>
<h2>Females versus males</h2>
<p>Males and females in many species age reproductively at different rates. </p>
<p>For instance, in red wolves, male reproductive success declines with age but it <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-016-2241-9">does not</a> for females. Yet female killifish show stronger decline in fertility with age <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1365-2656.13382">than males</a>. Despite the fact human females live longer than males, they tend to become infertile <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.3755843">earlier than men</a>, and go through menopause. </p>
<p>In some species, including humans, where females help raise their grand-offspring (such as humans and whales), females live <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218316828?via%3Dihub">much beyond the age</a> of reproduction. An <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.191972">evolutionary explanation</a> for this is that older females can better pass on their genes by helping their relatives survive and rear young than by reproducing themselves.</p>
<p>There are some hypotheses that try to explain these <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acel.13542">sex-specific differences</a> in reproductive ageing. </p>
<p>Sperm are continuously produced in males, but eggs in many species, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8769179/">including humans</a>, are produced early in the life of females. This might lead eggs to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/6/6/532/616993">accumulate more damage</a> due to being stored for longer durations inside older females than sperm are stored in old males. </p>
<p>Another hypothesis suggests that males might age faster because sperm DNA <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/80008">accumulate more</a> mutations than egg DNA. Sperm have poorer DNA repair machinery than eggs, causing males to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05752-y">pass on more mutations</a> to the next generation than females with advancing age, a pattern observed across vertebrate animals.</p>
<p>Sexes also face different environmental pressures. For instance, in many mammals, males, <a href="https://theconversation.com/of-mice-and-matriarchs-the-female-led-societies-of-the-animal-kingdom-186875">but not females</a>, disperse away from the family group when they mature. This sort of environmental pressure leads to differences in the strategies males and females use to pass on their genes, which can create differences in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acel.13542">rates of reproductive ageing</a> between the sexes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Humpback whale mother with her calf" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Female whales live long after their reproductive window.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/humpback-whale-mother-calf-on-tonga-1907017690">Tomas Kotouc/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Patterns of reproductive ageing in animals</h2>
<p>In our study, we showed that reproductive ageing rates in males <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44768-4">vary vastly</a> across the animal kingdom. We found invertebrates such as crustacea and insects have some of the slowest rates of reproductive ageing, compared to lab rodents who had some of the fastest rates.
Generally though, male animals showed few signs of age-related declines in their ejaculate traits (such as sperm quality and quantity). </p>
<p>We also found that different ejaculate traits, such as sperm viability, number, motility or velocity, aged at different rates.</p>
<p>In species that grow throughout their lives, such as some fish and crustacea, old animals have a lower mortality risk and larger gonads than young males. This can cause old males <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2021.2146">in such species</a> to age at slower rates, with older males producing larger ejaculates than younger males.</p>
<p>In animals such as lab rodents, who have some genetic lines selected for accelerated ageing, reproductive ageing was universal across ejaculate traits. Lab rodents are generally kept in highly controlled environments where ageing is easier to detect – due to fewer confounding effects that could mask ageing. This suggests that a lot of the variation in male reproductive ageing between different species could be due to their environment. </p>
<p>We also discovered that closely related species showed similar rates of decline in ejaculates with age, suggested that ageing is also shaped by an animal’s evolutionary history. </p>
<p>Some of the patterns we mention above also reflected methodological differences between studies. For example, when studies kept male animals as virgins, old males can <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2009053117">accumulate more sperm</a> than young males, leading to old males producing larger ejaculates. </p>
<p>Additionally, studies that only sampled young to middle-aged males showed an increase in sperm quality and quantity with age, compared to studies that sampled middle-aged to old males, suggesting that fertility peaks around middle age in male animals generally.</p>
<h2>Reproductive ageing</h2>
<p>Reproductive ageing occurs because as individuals grow older, their sperm and eggs <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrurol.2013.18">accumulate damage</a>. Organisms have evolved to reproduce earlier in life rather than when old, which leads to a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/genetics/article/156/3/927/6051413">weaker ability of natural selection</a> to weed out bad genes that are expressed in old but not young organisms, in turn promoting ageing.</p>
<p>There are however, opposing forces that determine whether old individuals will leave more copies of their genes to successive lineages compared to young animals, and reproductive ageing is only one process determining this. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.201100157">An alternative hypothesis</a> is that parents who conceive at an older age would have more gene variants for longer lifespans which could benefit their offspring. This could lead to longer lived offspring from older conceiving parents. However evidence for this hypothesis is still limited. </p>
<p>While most scientists accept that at least some reproductive traits decline with age, biologists are still uncovering what the exact mechanisms and evolutionary reasons for these declines are. But by looking at other species to investigate the drivers of reproductive ageing, we can understand and perhaps even seek to alleviate our own reproductive decline with age.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222533/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krish Sanghvi receives funding from Society for the study of evolution (Rosemary grant award).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Irem Sepil receives funding from the Royal Society, BBSRC and Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Regina Vega-Trejo receives funding from Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.</span></em></p>Understanding how the ageing of sperm works in other animals is more important than ever as human male fertility is in decline.Krish Sanghvi, PhD student at the department of Biology, University of Oxford, University of OxfordIrem Sepil, Lecturer in Evolutionary Biology, University of OxfordRegina Vega-Trejo, Postdoctoral Research Assistant in Evolutionary Biology, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2227262024-02-06T15:20:45Z2024-02-06T15:20:45ZMoney and ageing: South African study shows cash grants help people live longer and have better memory function<p>Nearly <a href="https://theconversation.com/47-of-south-africans-rely-on-social-grants-study-reveals-how-they-use-them-to-generate-more-income-203691">half</a> of South Africa’s 60 million people receive social grants, ranging from child support to pensions. The grants are designed to provide financial assistance to people living in poverty.</p>
<p>The largest components of the South African social grant system were introduced, or expanded to include the full population, in the 1990s. Since then, the system has <a href="https://asq.africa.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/168/V19I1a3.pdf">evolved</a> into one of the most comprehensive in the global south.</p>
<p>In addition to their direct financial benefits, the grants have been found to have a wide range of positive effects. These include improvements in <a href="https://opensaldru.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11090/46/06_08.pdf?sequence=1">child nutrition</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03768350500322925">education</a>, and increased participation of women in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/47-of-south-africans-rely-on-social-grants-study-reveals-how-they-use-them-to-generate-more-income-203691">labour force</a>. </p>
<p>But the effects of social grants on the health of older adults have not been extensively explored. Until now. </p>
<p>Across a series of recent studies conducted as part of an extensive research project in a rural part of South Africa, we have established that social grants can help older South Africans protect their cognitive health and live longer. Cognitive health is the ability to clearly think, learn, and remember. </p>
<p>Using our collective expertise into cognitive and population health, we studied the health effects of three different cash transfer programmes in a sample of 5,059 adults 40 years and older in rural Mpumalanga province.</p>
<p>Our results consistently found strong and positive effects thanks to these programmes. </p>
<p>Older people will make up a much bigger portion of South Africa’s population over the next <a href="https://afrique.maisonphilo.com/doc/aging.pdf#page=20">20 years</a>. Our results provide good news about a social intervention programme the country already has in place to promote health and well-being among older adults. </p>
<h2>How we did the studies and what we learnt</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.agincourt.co.za/agincourt-maps-2">Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System</a> has been collecting data on more than 120,000 people living in 31 villages in north-east South Africa since 1992. </p>
<p>This rural campus of the University of the Witwatersrand was established to track and understand health and well-being in these rural environments. </p>
<p>The Agincourt project is also a platform for other studies to collect more detailed information on certain community members.</p>
<p>We used data from an experimental <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027795362300240X">cash transfer</a> trial within the larger Agincourt research platform that paid monthly cash transfers to households from 2011 through 2015 and compared them to control households with no payments. Just over 2,500 households originally enrolled in the trial. Monthly payments of R300 were split between a school-age female and her caregiver. </p>
<p>We also used data from Health and Aging in Africa: Longitudinal Studies in South Africa. This is a smaller Agincourt cohort of 5,059 men and women aged 40 and older with detailed information on memory function and dementia probability collected every three years from 2014/2015 through to 2021/2022.</p>
<p>We tested whether being in the group that received the cash transfers led to better cognitive health later in life, up to seven years after the trial concluded. </p>
<p>We found that people who received the cash were better off than those who did not. They had slower ageing-related memory decline and lower dementia probability in 2021/2022, the most recent wave of <a href="https://haalsi.org/">data collection</a>. </p>
<p>For some groups, we also observed an impact on mortality. In those who were relatively better off at baseline with regard to education and wealth, the addition of the cash transfer led to significantly reduced risk of mortality.</p>
<p>In a second study we examined the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08959420.2023.2195785">impact</a> of the older person’s grant, a public pension, on men’s later-life cognitive health. </p>
<p>From 2008 to 2010, the older person’s grant expanded its <a href="https://www.social-protection.org/gimi/Media.action;jsessionid=bEt4_DojTu9wWIPBWbJTZ0k4vDXkszJ2EpvEJTFXyjUV31SZ3GJL!1393577045?id=15519">age eligibility</a> for men from 65 to 60 years. This meant that men aged 60 through 64 at the time of expansion were newly eligible for between one and five “extra” years of pension income prior to turning 65. </p>
<p>Women had always become eligible at <a href="https://www.social-protection.org/gimi/Media.action;jsessionid=bEt4_DojTu9wWIPBWbJTZ0k4vDXkszJ2EpvEJTFXyjUV31SZ3GJL!1393577045?id=15519">60 years</a> of age, so they were not included in this analysis. </p>
<p>We found that men who received the full five extra years of pension income eligibility had significantly better cognitive function than expected if the grant had not expanded its eligibility. </p>
<p>We also observed a “stair step” pattern, where cognitive function was progressively better for each extra year of pension eligibility.</p>
<p>In our final study, we examined the impact of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9949209/">child support grant</a> on women’s later-life cognitive health. </p>
<p>When the child support grant was introduced in 1998, it was available only for children under <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-80542017000300006#:%7E:text=The%20CSG%20was%20introduced%20in%201998%20to%20cover%20children%20below,Toit%20%26%20Lues%2C%202014">seven</a> years old. Since then, a series of policy changes expanded the ages that children were eligible for the grant, eventually rising to age <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-80542017000300006#:%7E:text=The%20CSG%20was%20introduced%20in%201998%20to%20cover%20children%20below,Toit%20%26%20Lues%2C%202014">18</a> in 2012. These expansions over time mean that two women with the same number of children could have had access to very different amounts of child support grant income, depending on when those children were born.</p>
<p>Consistent with what we found for the older person’s grant expansion, higher access to child support grant income was associated with higher later-life cognitive function for maternal beneficiaries of the grant. </p>
<h2>Looking forward</h2>
<p>Our results so far clearly point to the benefits of South Africa’s social grant programmes for older adults as they are currently structured. </p>
<p>They suggest that as South Africa ages in the upcoming decades, sustained investments in these programmes will pay off in better health and well-being of the country’s most vulnerable older adults.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222726/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Molly Rosenberg receives funding from the United States National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health (grant number R01AG069128)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsay Kobayashi is supported by the National Institute on Aging of the US National Institutes of Health (grant numbers R01 AG069128 and R01 AG070953).
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chodziwadziwa Whiteson Kabudula and Kathleen Kahn do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nearly half of South Africa’s 60 million people receive social grants. Health experts say they improve cognitive health among the elderly.Molly Rosenberg, Associate Professor of Epidemiology, Indiana UniversityChodziwadziwa Whiteson Kabudula, Senior Researcher Rural Health in Transition and Agincourt Research Unit, University of the WitwatersrandKathleen Kahn, Professor: Health and Population Division, School of Public Health, University of the WitwatersrandLindsay Kobayashi, Assistant Professor, Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226242024-02-05T14:20:21Z2024-02-05T14:20:21ZThirty years of rural health research: South Africa’s Agincourt studies offer unique insights<p><em>In 1992 a group of academics from the University of the Witwatersrand introduced a health and socio-demographic surveillance system in remote, rural South Africa to track and understand health and wellbeing in these environments. This initiative built on pioneering work by a Wits team to establish a health systems development unit in a typical rural setting. Agincourt, in the Bushbuckridge district in rural north-eastern South Africa adjacent to Mozambique, was a microcosm of the neglected health and socioeconomic systems in rural areas during apartheid.</em></p>
<p><em>The Agincourt research centre now covers some 31 villages and 120,000 people. It is one of the longest-running research centres of its kind in sub-Saharan Africa, attracting multidisciplinary scholars and researchers from around the world. The scale of data collection has led to groundbreaking research in many fields, including genomics, HIV/Aids, cardiovascular conditions and stroke, cognition and ageing. Stephen Tollman and Kathleen Kahn talk to Nadine Dreyer about what makes this Wits and Medical Research Council Unit different, particularly its focus on health and ageing.</em></p>
<h2>Why is this work so important?</h2>
<p>Before the end of apartheid in 1994, healthcare provision was skewed towards a minority population who represented only <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2636545">13%</a> of the country’s people. Healthcare for the majority of South Africans was woefully neglected. </p>
<p>As academics focusing on public health we wanted to understand rural South Africa, the people living away from the hospital, away from the train line, away from the supermarket or the town. Key to this was establishing a relationship of mutual trust and understanding between ourselves and those communities.</p>
<p>Drawing on early experiences with community-oriented primary care, we resolved to establish a longitudinal research and development platform. Today it covers some 31 villages in the Bushbuckridge area 500km from Johannesburg. This involved recording every member of every household – residents and temporary migrants.</p>
<p>We gathered valuable data on age, sex and gender, household type and income – producing a robust population “denominator”. To better understand evolving population dynamics, local field staff walked house-to-house meeting residents and recording data on vital events: who is born, who dies, who moves. In other words births, deaths and migrations.</p>
<p>We apply a simple concept called “person years”. At baseline, and with their consent, a person is enrolled. After five years, the person will have been there for five “person years”. Given a population of some 120,000 people, all followed up (including labour migrants) over 30 years, we can analyse and interpret data in a way that is not really possible with one-off, cross-sectional studies. </p>
<p>Today, the data generated over the past couple of decades is enabling work that was not possible in the early years. </p>
<h2>In 2013 a project was launched to focus on ageing. Why?</h2>
<p>Health and Aging in Africa: Longitudinal Studies in South Africa (<a href="https://haalsi.org/data">Haalsa</a>) was started to build understanding of the social, economic, biological, behavioural and mental health features that characterise rural people aged 40 years and above.</p>
<p>Ageing is not only about old people; it starts at birth, even earlier, because experiences at key periods influence a person’s life. </p>
<p>Some time ago, we noticed a reversal in mortality was under way. People were dying at a younger age during the height of the HIV/Aids epidemic. </p>
<p>For women living in Agincourt, <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-017-4312-x">life expectancy</a> dropped from about 74 years in 1993 to around 57 years in 2005, a loss of 17 years. For men, it dropped from about 68 years in 1993 to 50 years in 2007. </p>
<p>As a result, fostering orphans became a norm. The importance of the older generation – especially of women – stood out. Far from seeing older adults as simply requiring healthcare and support in their later years, it became clear that older rural women played fundamental roles in childcare and household food security. </p>
<p>Of course men were involved too, but because of the way in which apartheid was engineered, women were generally expected to remain in the rural reserves while men migrated to work in the mines and cities. </p>
<p>What makes research in Agincourt so interesting and relevant is the rapidly changing socio-economic profile of the area. </p>
<p>Today we see an increase in life expectancy thanks largely to the widespread uptake of antiretroviral therapies for HIV/Aids. For women, <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-017-4312-x">life expectancy</a> had returned to around 70 years by 2013. For men it had increased to around 61 years by 2013.</p>
<p>This means that South Africa is also a “greying society” and more people face an increased risk of developing multiple chronic conditions along with cognitive impairment associated with growing older.</p>
<p>The changes in older people kick in far earlier in situations of adversity. In all probability, signs of ageing you might encounter in a 65-year-old in a high-income country would start to manifest in people aged 45 to 50 in situations of pervasive poverty. </p>
<h2>What stands out when you look back over 30 years?</h2>
<p>When Agincourt started, life was very different. </p>
<p>In the early 1990s when we worked in a small suite of offices at Tintswalo Hospital, there was simply a “wind-up” phone in the entrance to the unit. Now we’re all on email and using mobile phones. </p>
<p>Bushbuckridge has become the land of the shopping mall. Even a person living in what previously was talked about as a deep rural area can now easily reach a mall by taxi or walking. </p>
<p>The pace of social change has been extraordinary. </p>
<p>There’s tremendous poverty. But people are spending money. Some of it may be on credit, some may be earned income or from other sources. </p>
<p>The proportion of households with dwellings <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-017-4312-x">built</a> with either brick or cement walls increased from 76% in 2001 to 98% in 2013. The use of <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-017-4312-x">electricity</a> for lighting and cooking respectively increased from 69% and 4% of households in 2001 to 96% and 50% of households in 2013.</p>
<p>Migrant labour today involves large numbers of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90009869">women</a>, especially younger adults. </p>
<p>Our research identified a high prevalence of HIV/Aids among <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7417014/#:%7E:text=Disease%20acquisition%20seems%20to%20stop,high%20risk%20of%20HIV%20">older</a> people. As a result we piloted a home-based testing option for middle-aged and older adults, with promising results.</p>
<p>We are seeing an association between formal education and cognition. At a population level, <a href="https://karger.com/ned/article/55/2/100/226666/Incidence-of-Cognitive-Impairment-during-Aging-in">formal education</a> protects against conditions like dementia later in life – an insight that is important in an area with historically poor educational opportunity and attainment. </p>
<p>Another surprising – and welcome – finding is that levels of hypertension are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36752095/">falling</a>. This is especially encouraging because sub-Saharan Africa is in the midst of a profound health transition with infectious diseases paralleled by rapidly rising cardiometabolic conditions. </p>
<p>Despite all these changes, we’re still asking the question that’s guided us from the start: How do you build flourishing societies in a context where jobs are scarce, migrant labour is deeply embedded, but where aspirations and the desire to live a life of meaning are evident?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222624/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Tollman receives funding from the SAMRC, Dept of Science and Technology SA, National Institutes of Health USA, UK Medical Research Council, and, previously, Wellcome Trust UK. He is affiliated with the SA Population Research Infrastructure Network and INDEPTH Network of population-based health and socio-demographic information systems.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span> Kathleen Kahn receives funding from the South African Medical Research Council, Dept of Science and Innovation SA, and the National Institute on Aging, USA.
</span></em></p>Agincourt, the University of the Witwatersrand’s rural research centre 500km from Johannesburg, has documented the lives of 120,000 people over decades.Stephen Tollman, Director: MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), University of the WitwatersrandKathleen Kahn, Professor: Health and Population Division, School of Public Health, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209252024-01-31T18:28:57Z2024-01-31T18:28:57ZFear of ageing is really a fear of the unknown – and modern society is making things worse<p>For the first time in human history, we have entered an era in which reaching old age is taken for granted. Unlike in ages past, when living to an older age was a luxury afforded mainly to the privileged, globally around <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TO65.FE.ZS?locations=1W">79% of women</a> and <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TO65.MA.ZS?locations=1W">70% of men</a> can expect to reach the age of 65 and beyond.</p>
<p>Despite longer life expectancy, many people in the contemporary west see growing old as undesirable and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/apr/02/ageing-and-the-mortality-alarm-i-started-panicking-about-future-me">even scary</a>. Research shows, however, that anxiety about ageing may in fact be <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0164027500225004">fear of the unknown</a>. </p>
<p>Society’s <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199409/learning-love-growing-old">focus on youthfulness</a> and <a href="https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psychology-teacher-network/introductory-psychology/ableism-negative-reactions-disability">capability</a> can cause anxiety about becoming weak and unwanted. Adverts for anti-ageing products <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-20th-century-rejuvenation-techniques-gave-rise-to-the-modern-anti-ageing-industry-133569">are everywhere</a>, reinforcing the idea that growing older is inherently unattractive. </p>
<p>Some people fear ageing so much that it becomes a pathological condition <a href="https://mind.help/topic/gerascophobia/">called gerascophobia</a>, leading to irrational thoughts and behaviour, for example, a fixation on health, illness and mortality and a preoccupation with hiding the signs of ageing.</p>
<p>We frequently hear about attempts to reverse ageing, often by the super rich. For example, <a href="https://fortune.com/well/2023/01/26/bryan-johnson-extreme-anti-aging/">Bryan Johnson</a>, a 45-year-old American entrepreneur, is spending millions of dollars a year to obtain the physical age of 18. </p>
<p>While the desire to reverse ageing is not a new phenomenon, advancements in biomedicine have brought it closer. </p>
<p>Work published by genetics professor <a href="https://lifespanbook.com/">David Sinclair</a> at Harvard University in 2019 suggests that it may be possible to challenge the limits of cell reproduction to extend our lifespan, for example. His <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-023-00527-6">information theory of ageing</a> argues that <a href="https://epigeneticsandchromatin.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-8935-6-3">reprogramming DNA</a> can improve damaged and old tissues, and delay or even reverse ageing. However, these new possibilities can also heighten our fear of ageing.</p>
<h2>From the unproductive to undervalued</h2>
<p>People haven’t always dreaded growing older. In many societies, older people used to be widely regarded as wise and important – and in some they still are. </p>
<p>In ancient China, there was a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/605890">culture</a> of respecting and seeking advice from older family members. There is still an ethos of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6363941/">filial piety</a> (showing reverence and care for elders and ancestors) today, even if it’s not as pronounced as it used to be. The same went for <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/abs/old-age-in-the-dark-ages-the-status-of-old-age-during-the-early-middle-ages/3699DC4100DE852BDA1E1B3BBF33DDBC">medieval Europe</a>, where older people’s experiences and wisdom were highly valued. </p>
<p>However, the industrial revolution in the west from the 18th century led to a cultural shift where older people <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1014358415896">became excluded from society</a> and were considered unproductive. People who had surpassed the age to work, alongside those with incurable diseases, were regarded by society as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13607860903228762">“evils”</a> in need of assistance.</p>
<p>The treatment of older people has taken a different form since the early 20th century. The introduction of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/30/business/retirement/why-the-world-needs-to-rethink-retirement.html">universal pension systems</a> made ageing a central concern in welfare systems. But as the demands for social and health care have increased, journalists increasingly portray ageing as a <a href="https://www.ageuk.org.uk/latest-news/archive/older-people-feel-a-burden-to-society/">burden</a> on society. </p>
<p>Consequently, growing older is often associated with managing the risk of ill health and alleviating the onus of care from younger relatives. This can result in the <a href="https://utpjournals.press/doi/abs/10.3138/utq.90.2.09">institutionalisation</a> of older people in residential facilities that keep them hidden, sequestered from the awareness of younger generations.</p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0164027500225004">Research</a> analysing the responses of 1,200 US adults from the American Association of Retired Persons’ Images of Ageing survey shows that much of the perceived fear of ageing is closely aligned with the fear of the unknown, rather than the ageing process itself. This fear is only exacerbated by the largely separate lives lived by older and younger generations.</p>
<p>The prevalence of nuclear families and the decline of <a href="https://www.cpc.ac.uk/docs/BP45_UnAffordable_housing_and_the_residential_separation_of_age_groups.pdf">traditional mixed-generational communities</a> have deprived younger people of the opportunity to more fully understand the experiences of older people. Plus, the rapid increase in <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/why-its-more-difficult-for-young-people-to-buy-a-house-now-than-it-was-fifty-years-ago-12537254">house prices</a> means many young people cannot afford to live near their older relatives.</p>
<p>The separation of older people from children and young people has sparked generational conflicts that seemingly continue to <a href="https://www.economist.com/britain/2017/05/04/britains-generational-divide-has-never-been-wider">grow wider than ever</a>. Older people are frequently portrayed in the media as conservative and privileged, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jan/12/old-young-gap-britain-generation-dysfunctional-family">making it difficult</a> for younger generations to comprehend why older people act and think the way they do. </p>
<h2>Intergenerational interactions</h2>
<p>Academics suggest that creating <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2022.996520/full">a system</a> for older and younger generations to interact in everyday settings is vital. </p>
<p>A set of three <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5031197/#bjso12146-bib-0004">UK-based studies</a> in 2016 analysed and compared the effects of direct contact, extended contact and interactions between younger (aged 17 to 30) and older people (65 and over). The findings indicated that good quality direct intergenerational contact can improve young people’s attitudes towards older adults (especially when sustained over time). </p>
<p>Intergenerational programmes have been adopted globally, including mixed and <a href="https://www.cohousing.org/multigenerational-cohousing/">intergenerational housing</a>, <a href="https://www.nurseryinbelong.org.uk/intergenerational-choir-hits-high-note-at-belong-chester/">community choirs</a> and <a href="https://www.shareable.net/how-sharing-can-bring-japans-elderly-and-youth-together/">senior volunteers reading to young children in nurseries</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10433-018-00497-4">Studies show</a> that these activities can not only enhance the wellbeing of older people but also help younger people gain an appreciation of ageing as a valuable and fulfilling life stage. </p>
<p>Getting worried about growing older is normal, just as we experience anxieties in other stages of life, such as adolescence and marriage. But here’s the thing – instead of seeing ageing as a looming figure, it is important to realise it is just a part of life.</p>
<p>Once we understand ageing as a regular experience, <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/changepower/202106/do-you-have-fogo-taming-the-fear-getting-old">we can let go</a> of these worries and approach the journey through different life stages with a positive attitude and a fortified will to enrich our lives and the lives of those around us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220925/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Anxiety about ageing is also often a fear of the future.Chao Fang, Lecturer in Sociology, Deputy Director of the Centre for Ageing and the Life Course, University of LiverpoolAlastair Comery, PhD Candidate, Sociology, Centre for Death and Society, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2191552024-01-21T08:55:26Z2024-01-21T08:55:26ZSouth Africa’s ageing population comes with new challenges. How best to adapt to them<p><em>Young people – under the age of 15 – currently make up 29% of South Africa’s population. But this will soon change: the aged portion of the population is forecast to rise from 2030, bringing many challenges. Lauren Johnston, an economics and political economy expert, recently published a <a href="https://saiia.org.za/research/poor-old-brics-demographic-trendsand-policy-challenges/">paper</a> on the subject. We asked her to put the developments into perspective.</em></p>
<h2>What is South Africa’s current population profile?</h2>
<p>South Africa is “young” among the Brics countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China), but “old” by African standards. For example, seniors make up 5.9% of South Africa’s population and children 28.6%. This <a href="https://saiia.org.za/research/poor-old-brics-demographic-trendsand-policy-challenges/">compares</a> with Russia’s 15.8% seniors and 17.2% children, and China’s 13.7% seniors and 17.7% children. </p>
<p>The sub-Saharan average is 3.0% for seniors and 41.8% for children. </p>
<h2>What’s up ahead?</h2>
<p>South Africa faces no fears of a substantially diminished working-age population, unlike a number of high-income countries. Nonetheless, population structure estimates suggest that it will be home to a rising number of seniors. </p>
<p><strong>Projected population structure, South Africa</strong></p>
<p>In general, the increase in population share of seniors is driven by falling rates of mortality and birth, leading to fewer younger people relative to elders. In South Africa’s case, a falling fertility rate <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN">from over six births per woman in 1960 to just over two today</a> is a key driver. </p>
<p>An ageing population is statistically defined as a population with 7% or more of people aged 65 and over. </p>
<p>In 2022, seniors made up 5.9% of South Africa’s population. So, it is not yet home to an ageing population. But the <a href="https://population.un.org/wpp/">United Nations</a> forecasts it will join the “population ageing” club as early as 2030. By around 2060 it will be home to an “aged” population – with seniors accounting for 14% of the population. </p>
<h2>What unique challenges lie ahead?</h2>
<p>In general, an ageing population puts added pressure on the working-age population. Each worker has to be more productive, just to maintain total output. Fiscal resources also come under pressure because there are fewer people of working age – net contributors to the economy. There are also more seniors requiring resources for their health and welfare. </p>
<p>For developing countries this can be especially precarious because budgets are often under strain. So are the resources needed for pursuing basic national development. Moreover, a trend of population ageing arising in developing countries is relatively new – just a few decades old. </p>
<h2>How prepared is South Africa for the challenges?</h2>
<p>One challenge for “young” South Africa is that the slower pace of demographic change reduces imminent and more obvious demographic change pressure. The very steady increase in the share of elders alongside pressing broader socioeconomic challenges gives the government little incentive to prioritise social or economic ageing-related issues on its policy agenda.</p>
<p>The array of socioeconomic challenges, including <a href="https://www.parliament.gov.za/storage/app/media/1_Stock/Events_Institutional/2020/womens_charter_2020/docs/19-02-2021/20210212_Womens_Charter_Review_KZN_19th_of_Feb_afternoon_Session_Final.pdf">poverty</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-police-are-losing-the-war-on-crime-heres-how-they-need-to-rethink-their-approach-218048">crime</a>, entrenched <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africa-cant-crack-the-inequality-curse-why-and-what-can-be-done-213132">inequality</a> and <a href="https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/news-insights/shedding-the-load-power-shortages-widen-divides-in-south-africa/">energy access</a>, means that the need to respond to the demographic transition is less of an immediate priority. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/millions-of-young-south-africans-are-jobless-study-finds-that-giving-them-soft-skills-like-networking-helps-their-prospects-202969">Millions of young South Africans are jobless: study finds that giving them 'soft' skills like networking helps their prospects</a>
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<p>As a result, very few older South Africans benefit from aged care services, and then only the very frail, with inconsistent reach across provinces. Moreover, according to an October 2023 University of Cape Town study, there is little support for older persons who have high care needs and are at home, <a href="https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2023-10-02-funding-elder-care-in-south-africa-new-report#:%7E:text=Based%20on%20estimates%2C%20it%20is,older%20persons%20who%20need%20it.">or for active older persons</a>. Most elders do not have access to services that support their needs, but also fear rising healthcare costs, owing to the rising incidence of non-communicable diseases. These include strokes, cancer and diabetes.</p>
<p>Overall the basic national social welfare net is inadequate. For example, retirees living off less than 16% of their pre-retirement salaries are among those with the highest risk of <a href="https://theconversation.com/retired-women-in-south-africa-carry-a-huge-burden-of-poverty-177379">living in poverty</a>. This group is three times more at risk of poverty than any other group in South Africa. Black female widows are most at risk.</p>
<p>While the economic value of support to older persons has grown over time, the increase has been insufficient to <a href="https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2023-10-02-funding-elder-care-in-south-africa-new-report#:%7E:text=Based%20on%20estimates%2C%20it%20is,older%20persons%20who%20need%20it.">meet the needs of this growing population</a>. Statistics South Africa estimates that population ageing alone is already adding around 0.3% to <a href="https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=13445">expected health-related expenditures annually</a>. These trends suggest that without change, South Africa’s seniors will become even less adequately served with time.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done to prepare better?</h2>
<p>South Africa has committed to establishing frameworks for healthy ageing based on the <a href="https://www.who.int/initiatives/decade-of-healthy-ageing#:%7E:text=The%20United%20Nations%20Decade%20of,communities%20in%20which%20they%20live.">United Nations Decade of Healthy Ageing from 2020 to 2030</a>. The agenda has four core areas of priority – age-friendly environments, combating ageism, integrated care, and long-term care. To realise these goals, difficult political decisions would need to be made around taxation and redistribution, as more revenue is required to ensure basic dignity for South African seniors. </p>
<p>Guided by the <a href="https://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/acts/2006-013_olderpersons.pdf">Older Persons Act</a> and the <a href="https://social.desa.un.org/issues/ageing/madrid-plan-of-action-and-its-implementation-main/madrid-plan-of-action-and-its">Madrid Plan of Action on Ageing</a>, the Department of Social Development in partnership with other departments, and the <a href="https://saopf.org.za/">South African Older Persons Forum</a> should further implement <a href="https://www.gov.za/news/media-advisories/government-activities/minister-lindiwe-zulu-officially-opens-2022-active">South Africa’s Active Ageing Programme</a> to empower senior citizens to stay physically and intellectually active, to continue to enjoying healthy, purposeful lives. This should help reduce pressure on more intensive care sectors and needs. </p>
<p>As explained in my <a href="https://saiia.org.za/research/poor-old-brics-demographic-trendsand-policy-challenges/">paper</a>, South Africa should take advantage of the Brics grouping’s new population structure and <a href="https://brics2023.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Jhb-II-Declaration-24-August-2023-%201.pdf">development cooperation agenda</a>. That way, state officials, civil society and entrepreneurs may be better positioned to take advantage of opportunities to reduce healthcare and aged care costs. </p>
<p>To direct sustain the economy as the population ages, South Africa needs to ensure that the economy is robust enough to accommodate a worsening dependency burden. For example, young people must be proportionately empowered to drive productivity growth and innovation. That way, the increasing costs associated with the ageing population could be accommodated while <a href="https://www.uneca.org/stories/eca-discusses-african-middle-income-countries%E2%80%99-challenges-and-solutions-to-accelerate">continuing to drive national development</a>. </p>
<p>Digitisation trends and the Brics population and development agenda may, as examples, also foster opportunities for education and training among not only young South Africans, but all working-age people. This will help raise productivity potential per worker and <a href="https://saiia.org.za/research/poor-old-brics-demographic-trendsand-policy-challenges/">extend productive working lifespans</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/drc-has-one-of-the-fastest-growing-populations-in-the-world-why-this-isnt-good-news-209420">DRC has one of the fastest growing populations in the world – why this isn't good news</a>
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<p>South African policy makers and entrepreneurs should also be cognisant of how population ageing affects <a href="https://saiia.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/OP-351-AGDP-Johnston-FINAL-WEB.pdf">not only other Brics economies</a>, but also patterns of trade and investment. For example, over the coming decades, population decline in middle-income China, and the rapid decline of its working-age population, is likely to push China away from labour-intensive industries, and <a href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/222235/1/GLO-DP-0593.pdf">towards capital-intensive industries and sectors</a>.</p>
<p>In other words, population ageing at home and abroad will shift economic demography-weighted opportunities and challenges at home. The more responsive South Africa can be to these changes, the better off will the nation be.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Johnston does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In general, an ageing population puts added pressure on the working-age population to be more productive – just to maintain total output – amid growing fiscal constraints.Lauren Johnston, Associate Professor, China Studies Centre, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2196402024-01-08T12:09:28Z2024-01-08T12:09:28ZSunscreen: why wearing it even in winter could be a good idea<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567833/original/file-20240104-27-a4kzki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3854%2C2590&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Sun's radiation can still damage our skin even in winter.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-using-sunscreen-257081962">Stanislav Nikolov/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sunscreen has taken centre stage in many skincare routines, especially among those hoping to prevent visible signs of ageing. But while it makes sense to wear sunscreen every day in the summer when the sun’s rays are most powerful, many may wonder whether there’s any benefit of wearing sunscreen daily in the winter months.</p>
<p>The sun’s radiation can reach us during all times of the year. This means that in both summer and winter, we are exposed to infrared radiation, as well as UVA and UVB rays.</p>
<p>UVB is mainly responsible for sunburn and DNA damage – and can also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3709783/">cause skin cancers</a> as a result of long-term exposure. UVA radiation does contribute to these processes somewhat, but it’s less effective at doing so. UVA can penetrate deeper into the skin, however, which can damage the collagen – a key part of the skin that keeps it firm and elastic. This can cause the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25234829/">skin to age faster</a>, leading to wrinkles, fine lines and changes in pigmentation.</p>
<p>The amount of UVA and UVB radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface changes across the seasons. This is due to the angle of the Sun in the sky, as well as other factors such as latitude and time of day.</p>
<p>For example, let’s compare how <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/php.12422">UVA and UVB radiation varies</a> at solar noon in London, UK and Kuala Lampur, Malaysia (which is near the equator).</p>
<p>In latitudes closer to the equator (such as in Kuala Lampur), the amount of UVA and UVB radiation throughout the year remains fairly consistent. But in higher latitudes, such as London, there’s almost no UVB radiation throughout the winter months – whereas there’s still some UVA radiation.</p>
<p>Not only that, but people living further from the equator may tend to spend less time exposed to the Sun in winter due to the colder temperatures and variable weather. And when they do go outside, they may cover their skin up – usually leaving only their face exposed to the Sun for much shorter periods of time.</p>
<p>But UVA radiation can still penetrate through clouds and windows. While our exposure to these rays is probably minimal, skin damage from UV exposure is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610706000162">accumulated over decades</a>, so anything that can be done to reduce exposure (and damage) over time may be beneficial. This is also true of UVB exposure – although it is less relevant in winter months at higher latitudes.</p>
<p>This may be where daily sunscreen use during the winter is still of benefit. Sunscreens are formulated to reduce exposure to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6978633/">both UVB and UVA rays</a> – although they are usually more effective at reducing exposure to UVB radiation. They have been designed in this way to prevent the most damaging effects of the Sun, such as sunburn and DNA damage. The impact of exposure to UVA radiation has only been considered more recently.</p>
<p>Numerous studies have shown regular sunscreen use over many years is effective at <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phpp.12109">preventing skin damage</a>, photoaging and skin cancers. The most robust trials suggest daily sunscreen use is most effective, but this will be dependent on the factors discussed above.</p>
<h2>The effects of altitude and snow</h2>
<p>One place where winter sunscreen use is especially important is when skiing or snowboarding – or when you’re otherwise going to be outside for extended periods of time, at higher altitudes on snow-covered mountains.</p>
<p>Both altitude and snow can increase the doses of <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/radiation-ultraviolet-(uv)">UVA and UVB radiation</a> a person receives. Snow can reflect up to 80% of UV radiation emitted by the Sun – effectively almost doubling the doses received. Also, for every 1,000-foot increase in altitude, there’s a 10% increase in UV exposure. This is why it’s essential to protect the skin and eyes by wearing sunscreen, protective clothing and sunglasses that block both types of UV ray. This is also true when spending time in snowy environments, such as when hiking or skating.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man and a woman snowshoe through a snowy field on a sunny day." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567835/original/file-20240104-19-ml8ihz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Snow reflects UV radiation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/snowshoe-walkers-running-powder-snow-beautiful-1279921384">Lukas Gojda/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Sunscreens are generally regarded as safe and tend to have few adverse effects, so you don’t need to worry too much about wearing one throughout the year. However, there are some points to consider, especially if you have skin conditions. For example, sunscreen can <a href="https://www.byrdie.com/does-sunscreen-cause-acne-or-help-it-7546147">exacerbate acne</a> and cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7759112/">irritation and allergic reactions</a> – although these are rare.</p>
<p>There are also emerging concerns from regulatory agencies about the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2759002">absorption of UV filters into the body</a>. However, the consequences of such absorption and the potential affects on health are not well defined and require more research.</p>
<p>Still, the benefits of sunscreen have been widely demonstrated – as has their safety. So if you want to prevent premature signs of ageing, it’s important to use sunscreen at all times you may be exposed to the Sun – especially in the summer months. While the benefits of wearing sunscreen in winter are less well defined, there’s probably no harm in wearing one if you want to.</p>
<p>If you decide to use sunscreen in winter, use ones that have broad spectrum five-star UVA protection. For day-to-day use, high SPF sunscreens are unlikely to provide a large benefit, particularly if spending only short periods outside. However, if skiing, a <a href="https://www.jaad.org/article/S0190-9622(17)31086-1/fulltext">high-SPF sunscreen</a> with five-star UVA protection would be beneficial.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219640/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karl Lawrence has previously received funding from the sunscreen industry and hold patents related to sunscreen ingredients.</span></em></p>Regular sunscreen use over many years is shown to be effective at preventing skin damage, photoaging and skin cancers.Karl Lawrence, Research fellow, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2188712024-01-05T16:14:27Z2024-01-05T16:14:27ZThe curious link between animal hibernation and ageing – and what humans could learn from it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566564/original/file-20231219-23-pbwlq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C24%2C5355%2C3535&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-being-cold-rubbing-her-hands-2234194923">Nicoleta Ionescu/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the cold and dark winter is setting in, some of us envy animals that can hibernate. This long, deep rest is an example of how nature develops clever solution to difficult problems. In this case, how to survive a long, cold and dark period without much food and water. </p>
<p>But hibernation has closer links to human history than you might expect. </p>
<p>An article in a copy of the British Medical Journal from 1900 describes a strange human dormancy-like hibernation called “<em>lotska</em>” that was <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1117993/">common among farmers</a> in Pskov, Russia. In this area, food was so scarce during the winter that the problem was solved by sleeping through the dark part of the year. </p>
<p>Once a day people woke up to eat a piece of bread and drink a glass of water. After the simple meal, they went back to sleep and family members then took turns keeping the fire alive. You will also find descriptions in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15881270/">Inuit Greenlandic</a> stories of a prolonged hibernation-like sleep during the long dark winter months. In parts of Greenland it is dark from November to the end of January.</p>
<p>There is a study from 2020 which suggests the ancient ancestors of man, called hominins, may have been able to hibernate 400,000 years ago. Bones discovered in a cave in Spain show seasonal disruption in growth, suggesting that one of man’s predecessors may have used <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347706305_Hibernation_in_hominins_from_Atapuerca_Spain_half_a_million_years_ago">the same strategy</a> as cave bears to survive long winters.</p>
<h2>Animals and hibernation</h2>
<p>Hibernation is deeper and more complex than usual sleep, including dramatic changes in metabolism. This long resting period combines several conditions linked to longevity, reduced calorie intake, low body temperature and lowered metabolism.</p>
<p>Animals that hibernate <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2011.0190">usually live longer</a> compared to other species of the same size. Recent studies using epigenetic clocks, which map activity within genes over time, suggest that hibernation slows down <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01679-1">ageing in marmots</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35946154/">bats</a>. So hibernation may hold important clues on how to slow down ageing processes. </p>
<p>There are different forms of ageing – chronological and biological age. </p>
<p>Chronological age is actually only about how many revolutions the earth has circled around the sun since we were born. </p>
<p>It is not time itself that ages us but rather “wear and tear”. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37635161/">Biological age</a> measures wear and tear. It is a more comprehensive and personal measure of health than chronological age and a better predictor of longevity. A 2023 study established that biological age varies and that a temporary increase, for example during surgery and stress, is reversed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37086720/">when you have recovered</a>. </p>
<p>Diseases that are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8331090/">linked to lifestyle</a> and accumulate with age, such as such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, dementia and chronic kidney disease are driven by “wear and tear”. This result in inflammation, altered composition of the gut microbiota and increased <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/omcl/2017/8416763/">oxidative stress</a>. Oxidative stress is when there are too many <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318652">free radicals</a> (unstable atoms that damage cells) in your body. </p>
<p>New science based on epigenetic clocks and lessons from hibernating animals could help us to treat patients who have diseases driven by “wear and tear”. We could use drugs that may slow down ageing. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/metformin/">metformin</a> is the main first-line medication for the treatment of type-2 diabetes. It regulates inflammation, insulin-sensitivity and slows down DNA damage caused by oxidative-stress. There is growing evidence it may help manage other “wear and tear” diseases such as <a href="https://cardiab.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12933-019-0860-y">cardiovascular disease</a> and long term use of the drug may be associated with <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2021.773797/full">lower cognitive impairment</a>. </p>
<p>Learning more about hibernation may benefit human medicine for the treatment of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0891584901006281?via%3Dihub">traumatic brain injuries</a>, <a href="https://journals.lww.com/shockjournal/fulltext/2018/07000/hibernation_based_approaches_in_the_treatment_of.3.aspx">severe blood loss</a>, preservation of muscle and bone mass and providing better protection during <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ars.2017.7127">organ transplantation</a>.</p>
<p>A 2018 study found that mimicking hibernation conditions for the storage of renal grafts from deceased donors seemed to improve their preservation. Muscular skeletal degeneration is often determined by genes, but these genes seemed to be deactivated in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0215489">hibernating bears</a>. </p>
<h2>Animals and longevity</h2>
<p>There are long-lived, non-hibernating animals we can learn from too such as the Greenland shark, naked mole rat, Icelandic clam and Rougheye rockfish. These species have developed superior mechanisms that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31366472/">protect them against ageing</a>. It seems like protection against inflammation, oxidative stress and modifications of proteins that happen with age are mechanism that in general benefit all long-lived animals. </p>
<p>Genetic studies of rougheye rockfish, which can <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/species/sebastes-aleutianus">live for over 200 years</a>, suggest that a food group called flavonoids is related to longevity. Citrus fruits, berries, onions, apples and parsley are high in flavonoids, which have anti-inflammatory properties and protect against organ damage, for example, from chemicals or ageing. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.add2743">2023 study</a> of rougheye rockfish found that one set of its genes which could be linked to longevity were associated with flavonoid metabolism. So a long-lived fish may have something to teach us about what to eat to live longer. </p>
<p>Lessons from nature and hibernating animals tell us that preserving cells, regulation metabolism and genetic adaptions play key roles in longevity. Our life style and eating habits are our best tools to mimic some of these mechanisms. </p>
<h2>Forty winks</h2>
<p>There is still so much we don’t understand about hibernation but we do know that normal sleep is connected to longevity too. For example, a March 2023 study showed that with <a href="https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/S0735-1097%2823%2902119-8">good quality sleep</a>, you can add five years to the life of men and two and a half years if you are a woman. The researchers defined good quality sleep as getting seven to eight hours of sleep per day, not needing sleep medication and waking up feeling rested at least five days a week. </p>
<p>Animals have huge variations in their sleeping patterns, from bears and marmots hibernating for eight months of the year to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0171903">elephants that get only two hours a day</a>.<br>
How elephants can become so old while sleeping so little is still a mystery to scientists. </p>
<p>Finding out how nature resolved these extremes may help scientists decipher new ways to improve human health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218871/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Stenvinkel receives funding from Astra Zeneca, Fresenius, Baxter, Novo Nordisk, Bayer, Invizius, Vifor for lectures and scientific advisory boards</span></em></p>Animals that hibernate live longer, so could hold clues on how to slow down ageing.Peter Stenvinkel, Professor of Nephrology, Karolinska InstitutetLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2193712024-01-03T17:41:22Z2024-01-03T17:41:22ZGlobal triggers: why these five big issues could cause significant problems in 2024<p>The <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2023/11/20/us-china-will-try-to-limit-rising-tensions-amid-domestic-challenges-control-risks.html">tensions</a> between the US and China made the global economy shudder in 2023. The ramifications of the Ukrainian war echoed beyond the country’s border. In Africa, the coup d’état in Niger and Gabon contributed to the global <a href="https://freedomhouse.org/issues/democracies-decline">democratic retreat</a> of recent years and the Hamas/Israel conflict has so far resulted in thousands of <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/15/us-presses-israel-on-civilian-deaths-move-to-lower-intensity-war-in-gaza#:%7E:text=US%20President%20Joe%20Biden%20says,to%20protect%20civilians%20in%20Gaza.&text=The%20United%20States%20has%20ramped,lower%20intensity%E2%80%9D%20war%20against%20Hamas.">deaths</a>.</p>
<p>Such trends of global power tensions, open war, democratic decline and extreme job market fluctuations are likely to continue in 2024. With this in mind, here are five global geopolitical and economic trends to watch out for.</p>
<h2>Power shifts</h2>
<p>As the Brics (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) organisation expands to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia and the UAE, its growing economic influence could dramatically change the global balance of power. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.euronews.com/business/2023/08/29/how-the-brics-expansion-could-shake-up-the-world-economy">From January 2024</a>, Brics will represent about 46.5% of the world’s population, US$30.8 trillion (£23.7 trillion) about a third of global GDP and 45% of global oil production. A related economic consequence is that the Brics’ expanded trade network can reduce their dependence on western markets, particularly through <a href="https://www.bernstein.com/our-insights/insights/2023/articles/brics-expansion-a-journey-of-a-thousand-miles.html">preferential trade agreements</a> and possibly the use of a common currency. </p>
<p>For countries that have been sanctioned by the west, <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2023/taylor-fravel-brics-expansion-0926">such as Iran</a>, becoming a Brics member increases their diplomatic options. This may make Brics attractive to other sanctioned countries. The Brics’ expansion can also enable members to strengthen their impact by pursuing their political and economic interests more easily. <a href="https://digitalcommons.dartmouth.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3652&context=facoa">Challenging the west</a> may not take the form of direct confrontation, but occur by gradually <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ethics-and-international-affairs/article/abs/soft-balancing-institutions-and-peaceful-change/BBC6E5E3549848F27B5ABFA17F488105">moving away from</a> current institutions such as the IMF.</p>
<h2>Global election cycle</h2>
<p>The list of general elections in 2024 includes countries from all continents and the participation of billions of people. At the core is the US election where former president Donald Trump is likely to be the Republican candidate. If re-elected, he may continue with his policy of “global engagement abstention” as evidenced by his <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/14/us/politics/nato-president-trump.html">past willingness</a> to <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2024/01/trump-2024-reelection-pull-out-of-nato-membership/676120/">disengage from Nato</a>. </p>
<p>Such a stance may weaken the global economic and political system and contribute to the rise of other countries searching for greater global clout. Another important aspect emerging from the cornucopia of general elections is the potential erosion of democracy. In the US, for instance, there is talk of a possible <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-67667198">Trump dictatorship</a>. In Russia, a win by <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67660745">President Vladimir Putin</a> can see him remaining as president until 2030 with the possibility of a further sixth term up to 2036 (or about 32 years in power). </p>
<p>In other countries, such as El Salvador, some politicians are willing to <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/0241105c-ab30-40f6-ac87-b879ffb6c84c">circumvent their constitutions</a> to be re-elected or to <a href="https://www.newarab.com/news/tunisia-kais-saied-bar-foreign-election-monitors">ban efforts to monitor</a> elections, as is happening in Tunisa. Such practices are likely to weaken democratic institutions or constrain their development.</p>
<h2>Heightened tensions in the Middle East</h2>
<p>The Israel/Hamas war will continue to have repercussions beyond the Middle East. The risk of further <a href="https://theconversation.com/israel-gaza-conflict-how-could-it-change-the-middle-easts-political-landscape-expert-qanda-215473">escalation of the conflict</a> regionally has <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/01/02/israel-hamas-war-latest-news-updates-gaza-day-88-live/">intensified</a> after an air strike in Beirut. Some nearby states, for example, have strongly condemned Israel’s overall response to Hamas’ attack. Jordan called that response a “<a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20231027-jordan-fm-condemns-collective-punishment-by-israel-in-gaza-as-a-war-crime/">war crime</a>” and Egypt a “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/israel-palestinians-egypt-usa-idAFS8N39M02L/">collective punishment</a>.” The war is likely to compound regional uncertainty and instability.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0927538X19303609">evidence</a> suggests that increasing political instability will also <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFC-09-2023-0229/full/html?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=rss_journalLatest">affect the health</a> of the region’s financial institutions. </p>
<p>In turn, greater instability could increase refugee flows to the US and Europe. The latter will exacerbate the already tense political debate over immigration policy. The Israel/Gaza war is also likely to <a href="https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-geopolitical-uncertainty-hits-india-europe-middle-east-corridor-as-hamas-israel-war-erupts-3267399/">discourage investment</a> in the Middle East and disrupt trade routes leading to increasing shipping costs.</p>
<h2>China’s economic pressures</h2>
<p>Recently, China’s economy has been described as a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-66636403">“ticking time bomb”</a> as a result of slow economic growth, high youth unemployment, the property sector crisis, lower Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and weaker exports. Growth prospects are expected to remain <a href="https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2023/12/07/will-china-leave-behind-its-economic-woes-in-2024">“structurally weaker”</a> with low consumer confidence and spending and declining external demand.</p>
<p>Lower internal Chinese consumption means <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66840367">lower demand for raw material and commodities</a> which, in turn, will affect larger exporters such as Australia and Brazil. </p>
<p>Multinational corporations are likely to experience some negative impact on their profits as relocation of production and <a href="https://flow.db.com/more/dossier-asean/navigating-china-s-slowdown">supply chain</a> diversification continues as a result of trade frictions and armed conflicts. This may have a <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66840367">knock-on effect</a>, not only on their suppliers but also on their workforce in terms of salary growth, if not, downsizing and job losses.</p>
<p>More generally, the increased risks for China’s economy will <a href="https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/world-growth-outlook-for-2024-deteriorates-as-china-risks-rise-13-09-2023">hit global growth</a>, according to the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/economic-outlook/september-2023/">OECD</a>.</p>
<h2>Ageing populations</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.statista.com/chart/29345/countries-and-territories-with-the-highest-share-of-people-aged-65-and-older/">2022</a>, Japan, Italy, Finland and Germany were among the countries with the greatest share of populations over 65 years of age and by 2050 it is projected that the list will include Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. By <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health">2050</a> the percentage of the world’s over 60 population will increase from 12% to 22%. At the same time, <a href="https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/ghe-life-expectancy-and-healthy-life-expectancy">life expectancy</a> is increasing. Such a population trend has implications for social security and other parts of the economy. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health">Demands on governments and health providers</a> to deliver greater volumes of care will grow because of potential escalating risks of disease among the elderly. The <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/sites/default/files/2017-06/WPAM.pdf">ratio of workers to pensioners</a> is falling which is also putting pressure on the sustainability of current pensions systems. </p>
<p>In addition, there is <a href="https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2016/wp16238.pdf">evidence</a> that the ageing of the population affects labour productivity and labour supply. It can, therefore, have an <a href="https://globaleurope.eu/globalization/effects-of-aging-population/">effect</a> on economic growth, trade, savings and investment. All in all, 2024 could be another rocky year.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219371/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jose Caballero does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trends of global power tensions, open war, democratic decline and extreme job market fluctuations are likely to continue in 2024Jose Caballero, Senior Economist, IMD World Competitiveness Center, International Institute for Management Development (IMD)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2183432024-01-01T20:35:27Z2024-01-01T20:35:27ZThink you’re good at multi-tasking? Here’s how your brain compensates – and how this changes with age<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565375/original/file-20231213-19-b09oz2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C197%2C2995%2C1800&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/unknown-persons-using-computer-indoors-nFLmPAf9dVc">Arlington Research/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’re all time-poor, so multi-tasking is seen as a necessity of modern living. We answer work emails while watching TV, make shopping lists in meetings and listen to podcasts when doing the dishes. We attempt to split our attention countless times a day when juggling both mundane and important tasks. </p>
<p>But doing two things at the same time isn’t always as productive or safe as focusing on one thing at a time.</p>
<p>The dilemma with multi-tasking is that when tasks become complex or energy-demanding, like driving a car while talking on the phone, our performance often drops on one or both. </p>
<p>Here’s why – and how our ability to multi-task changes as we age. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/women-arent-better-multitaskers-than-men-theyre-just-doing-more-work-121620">Women aren't better multitaskers than men – they're just doing more work</a>
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<h2>Doing more things, but less effectively</h2>
<p>The issue with multi-tasking at a brain level, is that two tasks performed at the same time often compete for common neural pathways – like two intersecting streams of traffic on a road. </p>
<p>In particular, the brain’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763416300604">planning centres</a> in the frontal cortex (and connections to parieto-cerebellar system, among others) are needed for both motor and cognitive tasks. The more tasks rely on the same sensory system, like vision, the greater the interference. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Regions of the brain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566167/original/file-20231217-25-l8zcdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The brain’s action planning centres are in the frontal cortex (blue), with reciprocal connections to parietal cortex (yellow) and the cerebellum (grey), among others.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/brain-areas-parts-functions-regions-anatomy-2159624763">grayjay/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>This is why multi-tasking, such as talking on the phone, while driving can be risky. It <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6521777/#:%7E:text=These%20findings%20show%20that%20when,dangerous%20or%20risky%20behavioral%20responses.">takes longer</a> to react to critical events, such as a car braking suddenly, and you have a higher risk of missing critical signals, such as a red light. </p>
<p>The more involved the phone conversation, the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7487625_Using_Mobile_Telephones_Cognitive_Workload_and_Attention_Resource_Allocation">higher the accident risk</a>, even when talking “hands-free”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man drives car, while chatting" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565378/original/file-20231213-26-mh6h0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Having a conversation while driving slows your reaction time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-asian-man-drives-car-on-2291045823">GBJSTOCK/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Generally, the more skilled you are on a primary motor task, the better able you are to juggle another task at the same time. Skilled surgeons, for example, can <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1553350611430673">multitask more effectively</a> than residents, which is reassuring in a busy operating suite. </p>
<p>Highly automated skills and efficient brain processes mean <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304394023003671?via%3Dihub">greater</a> flexibility when multi-tasking. </p>
<h2>Adults are better at multi-tasking than kids</h2>
<p>Both brain capacity and experience endow adults with a greater capacity for multi-tasking compared with children. </p>
<p>You may have noticed that when you start thinking about a problem, you walk more slowly, and sometimes to a standstill if deep in thought. The ability to walk and think at the same time gets better over childhood and adolescence, as do other types of multi-tasking. </p>
<p>When <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00222895.2020.1791038">children</a> do these two things at once, their walking speed and smoothness both wane, particularly when also doing a memory task (like recalling a sequence of numbers), verbal fluency task (like naming animals) or a fine-motor task (like buttoning up a shirt). Alternately, outside the lab, the cognitive task might fall by wayside as the motor goal takes precedence. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tiktok-may-be-bad-for-privacy-but-is-it-also-harming-our-cognitive-abilities-203156">TikTok may be bad for privacy, but is it also harming our cognitive abilities?</a>
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<p>Brain maturation has a lot to do with these age differences. A larger prefrontal cortex helps share cognitive resources between tasks, thereby reducing the costs. This means better capacity to maintain performance at or near single-task levels. </p>
<p>The white matter tract that connects our two hemispheres (the corpus callosum) also takes a long time to fully mature, placing limits on how well children can walk around and do manual tasks (like texting on a phone) together. </p>
<p>For a child or adult with motor skill difficulties, or <a href="https://canchild.ca/en/diagnoses/developmental-coordination-disorder">developmental coordination disorder</a>, multi-tastking errors are more common. Simply standing still while solving a visual task (like judging which of two lines is longer) is hard. When walking, it takes <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27428781/">much longer</a> to complete a path if it also involves cognitive effort along the way. So you can imagine how difficult walking to school could be. </p>
<h2>What about as we approach older age?</h2>
<p>Older adults are more prone to multi-tasking errors. When walking, for example, adding another task generally means older adults walk much slower and with less fluid movement than younger adults. </p>
<p>These age differences are <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fneur.2018.00913/full">even more pronounced</a> when obstacles must be avoided or the path is winding or uneven. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two older people walk together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565383/original/file-20231213-25-6cs3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our ability to multi-task reduces with age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/couple-elderly-people-walk-park-748880338">Shutterstock/Grizanda</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Older adults <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/20445911.2022.2143788">tend to</a> enlist more of their prefrontal cortex when walking and, especially, when multi-tasking. This creates more interference when the same brain networks are also enlisted to perform a cognitive task. </p>
<p>These age differences in performance of <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/japa/25/4/article-p671.xml">multi-tasking</a> might be more “compensatory” than anything else, allowing older adults more time and safety when negotiating events around them. </p>
<h2>Older people can practise and improve</h2>
<p>Testing multi-tasking capabilities can <a href="https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12877-022-03271-5">tell clinicians</a> about an older patient’s risk of future falls better than an assessment of walking alone, even for healthy people living in the community. </p>
<p>Testing can be as simple as asking someone to walk a path while either mentally subtracting by sevens, carrying a cup and saucer, or balancing a ball on a tray. </p>
<p>Patients can then <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-11489-x">practise and improve these abilities</a> by, for example, pedalling an exercise bike or walking on a treadmill while composing a poem, making a shopping list, or playing a word game. </p>
<p>The goal is for patients to be able to divide their attention more efficiently across two tasks and to ignore distractions, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37772294/">improving</a> speed and balance.</p>
<h2>There are times when we do think better when moving</h2>
<p>Let’s not forget that a good walk can help unclutter our mind and promote creative thought. And, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966636221001156?via%3Dihub">some research shows</a> walking can improve our ability to search and respond to visual events in the environment.</p>
<h2>But often, it’s better to focus on one thing at a time</h2>
<p>We often overlook the emotional and energy costs of multi-tasking when time-pressured. In many areas of life – home, work and school – we think it will save us time and energy. But the reality can be different. </p>
<p>Multi-tasking can sometimes sap our reserves and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/9/11/290">create stress</a>, raising our cortisol levels, especially when we’re <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17437199.2022.2071323">time-pressured</a>. If such performance is sustained over long periods, it can leave you feeling fatigued or just plain empty. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-energy-do-we-expend-thinking-and-using-our-brain-197990">How much energy do we expend thinking and using our brain?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Deep thinking is energy demanding by itself and so caution is sometimes warranted when acting at the same time – such as being immersed in deep thought while crossing a busy road, descending steep stairs, using power tools, or climbing a ladder. </p>
<p>So, pick a good time to ask someone a vexed question – perhaps not while they’re cutting vegetables with a sharp knife. Sometimes, it’s better to focus on one thing at a time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218343/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Wilson has received prior funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC), studying the motor and cognitive development of children. He currently receives funding from the Australian Automobile Association (AAA), studying hazard perception in older adult pedestrians. </span></em></p>Doing two things at the same time isn’t always as productive, healthy or safe as focusing on one thing at a time.Peter Wilson, Professor of Developmental Psychology, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2194352023-12-20T16:05:40Z2023-12-20T16:05:40ZCould dinosaurs be the reason humans can’t live for 200 years?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565275/original/file-20231212-17-7baa92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C23%2C4000%2C2640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/human-hand-compare-real-dinosaur-footprint-1205774944">Rattana/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>All human beings age. It is part of our biology and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4010874/">limits our lifespan</a> to slightly over 120 years.</p>
<p>Not all animals <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925443917302193">experience ageing</a> during their lives. Some animals’ bodies do not gradually degenerate as they get older the way our bodies do.</p>
<p>But for humans once they reach about age 30 their <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/your-probability-of-dying-doubles-every-eight-years-180948228/">chance of dying</a> <a href="https://arxiv.org/PS_cache/q-bio/pdf/0411/0411019v3.pdf">doubles roughly</a> every eight years. So even if you are fortunate enough to become a centenarian, your chance of dying each year will be high. </p>
<p>This high mortality reflects numerous other health problems, such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2804956/#R4">loss of muscle mass</a> and general frailty, <a href="https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0035-1555115">cognitive decline</a>, loss of vision and hearing and many other degenerative changes that characterise the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10041/#:%7E:text=Aging%20is%20the%20time%2Drelated,disease%20(which%20affect%20individuals).">human ageing process</a>. </p>
<p>And the reason humans age so markedly may be due to the fact our ancestors evolved during the <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.15252/embr.202051617">time of the dinosaurs</a>.</p>
<p>Compared to other mammals, humans have a long life. We have the longest lifespan of all land-based mammals, and of all mammals <a href="https://news.liverpool.ac.uk/2015/01/06/scientists-sequence-genome-longest-lived-mammal/">only whales probably</a> outlive us. I say “probably” because you need to keep animals in captivity to do a detailed study on lifespan, which for whales is virtually impossible due to their size and longevity. </p>
<p>We know that species of whales and dolphins <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1903844116">exhibit menopause</a>, and all mammals show some form of reproductive decline with age. In fact, all studied mammals show physiological ageing and increased mortality with age, even if some species – like mice and voles – age much faster than others – such as humans, whales, and elephants. </p>
<p>But many species of reptiles, amphibians and fish do not show signs of ageing. <a href="https://genomics.senescence.info/species/nonaging.php">Examples include</a> turtles and tortoises, salamanders and rockfishes. </p>
<p>One study of 77 species of reptiles and amphibians published in Science in 2022 showed that age-related increases in mortality <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm0151">are not seen</a> in many species of reptiles and amphibians. It is as if these animals do not age at all. Some of these animals, such as turtles, probably live longer than humans.</p>
<p>Perhaps if we study these apparently non-ageing species for long enough they will show signs of ageing. But good luck studying animals such as the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703">Greenland shark</a>, which has been estimated to live nearly 400 years. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H3al2YI_128?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>For now we can at least say that among reptiles, amphibians and fish, some species not only live longer than the longest living mammals, but they age substantially slower. Besides, some of these non-ageing species grow throughout their lives, which means that older females <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0531556500002424">lay more eggs</a>, again in stark contrast to what happens in mammals. </p>
<p>These animals die mainly from being eaten by predators and diseases. Indeed, most animals in the wild do not die of old age and, until the 20th century, of course, most people died of infectious diseases.</p>
<p>Some reptiles, amphibians and fish are also known for their <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2221-3759/9/3/36">ability to regenerate</a> tissue. </p>
<h2>Pressure on mammals</h2>
<p>Amphibians evolved from fish about 370 million years ago, and about 50 million years later reptiles evolved from amphibians. <a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/12%3A_Vertebrates/12.07%3A_Vertebrate_Evolution">Mammals then evolved</a> from reptiles about 250-300 million years ago. </p>
<p>We are all products of evolution, which we see in relics such as <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.09.14.460388v1">our tailbone</a>. Our evolutionary history can have a profound influence in modern times. For example, humans maintain evolutionary traits from when our ancestors roamed the savannah that are no longer fit for the modern world, from <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-sugar-why-were-hardwired-to-love-it-and-what-eating-too-much-does-to-your-brain-podcast-175272">craving sugar</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-morbid-curiosity-can-lead-people-to-conspiracy-theories-214532">behaviour</a> that leads to prejudices. </p>
<p>About 200 million years ago, massive volcanic eruptions <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/end-Triassic-extinction">wiped out 76%</a> of marine and land species. Afterwards, the dinosaurs became the dominant predators in the land. To survive and avoid being hunted to extinction by dinosaurs, mammals became small, nocturnal and short-lived. </p>
<p>Our ancestors of this time were not like us at all. They were more like <a href="https://www.livescience.com/60888-rat-creatures-were-earliest-eutherian-mammal-ancestors.html">voles and mice</a>, small animals going out in the dark to catch insects. Under the pressure from the dinosaurs, ancestral mammals had to reproduce rapidly, just like mice and rats do now. And just like mice, rats and voles, our ancestors had short lifespans. </p>
<p>For 100 million years, during the time of the dinosaurs, mammals were at or near the bottom of the food chain. Mammals were more often prey than predators. During this time there was no reason for mammals to keep processes and genes related to long life, such as DNA repair and tissue regeneration systems. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/bies.202300098">longevity bottleneck hypothesis</a> proposes that repair and regeneration systems were lost, mutated or inactivated by the evolution of early mammals. This imposed biological constraints that shape how mammals age to this day. </p>
<p>After the dinosaurs disappeared when an asteroid hit the Earth <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/how-an-asteroid-caused-extinction-of-dinosaurs.html">66 million years</a> ago, mammals conquered the world. An astonishing diversity of species evolved with a variety of lifespans. Some species, like humans, evolved a long lifespan, but they may have done it under constraints, remnants from the time of the dinosaurs.</p>
<h2>Why dinosaurs made a difference</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lizard rests on the ground" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Tuatara lives for over a hundred years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tuatara-310936394">BeautifulBlossoms/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We can take a guess by looking at species that did not undergo the same evolutionary pressures as early mammals. For example, the tuatara, a reptile endemic to New Zealand, may look like a lizard but it diverged from snakes and lizards about 250 million years ago. It is sometimes referred to as a “living fossil”, due to its slow evolution. </p>
<p>Tuataras are thought to live for more than 100 years and age much slower than human beings, as a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm0151">2022 DNA analysis study showed</a>. Perhaps they have kept their anti-ageing genes, unlike even the longest lived mammals. </p>
<p>Our lifespan may be limited because of our evolutionary history.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219435/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joao Pedro de Magalhaes receives funding from the Wellcome Trust, Longevity Impetus Grants, LongeCity, and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.</span></em></p>Our mammal ancestors evolved to compete with dinosaurs but may have lost something in the process.Joao Pedro de Magalhaes, Chair of Molecular Biogerontology, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2121982023-12-20T00:14:19Z2023-12-20T00:14:19ZWhat happens to your vagina as you age?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565380/original/file-20231213-23-r8q3y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C2276&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/realistic-3d-paper-cut-human-uterus-2210475317">Dedraw Studio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The vagina is an internal organ with a complex ecosystem, influenced by circulating hormone levels which change during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, breastfeeding and menopause.</p>
<p>Around and after menopause, there are normal changes in the growth and function of vaginal cells, as well as the vagina’s microbiome (groups of bacteria living in the vagina). Many women won’t notice these changes. They don’t usually cause symptoms or concern, but if they do, symptoms can usually be managed.</p>
<p>Here’s what happens to your vagina as you age, whether you notice or not.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-grey-haired-and-radiant-reimagining-ageing-for-women-182336">Friday essay: grey-haired and radiant – reimagining ageing for women</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Let’s clear up the terminology</h2>
<p>We’re focusing on the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545147/">vagina</a>, the muscular tube that goes from the external genitalia (the vulva), past the cervix, to the womb (uterus). Sometimes the word “vagina” is used to include the external genitalia. However, these are different organs and play different roles in women’s health.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of female reproductive system including the vagina" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565381/original/file-20231213-17-grlu25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We’re talking about the internal organ, the vagina.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/female-reproductive-system-image-diagram-243154639">Suwin66/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vulvas-periods-and-leaks-women-need-the-right-words-to-seek-help-for-conditions-down-there-53638">Vulvas, periods and leaks: women need the right words to seek help for conditions 'down there'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What happens to the vagina as you age?</h2>
<p>Like many other organs in the body, the vagina is sensitive to female sex steroid hormones (hormones) that change around puberty, pregnancy and menopause. </p>
<p>Menopause is associated with a drop in circulating oestrogen concentrations and the hormone progesterone is no longer produced. The changes in hormones affect the vagina and its ecosystem. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564341/">Effects</a> may include:</p>
<ul>
<li>less vaginal secretions, potentially leading to dryness </li>
<li>less growth of vagina surface cells resulting in a thinned lining</li>
<li>alteration to the support structure (connective tissue) around the vagina leading to less elasticity and more narrowing</li>
<li>fewer blood vessels around the vagina, which <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2989746/">may explain</a> less blood flow after menopause</li>
<li>a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-022-01083-2">shift</a> in the type and balance of bacteria, which can change vaginal acidity, from more acidic to more alkaline. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/essays-on-health-microbes-arent-the-enemy-theyre-a-big-part-of-who-we-are-79116">Essays on health: microbes aren't the enemy, they're a big part of who we are</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What symptoms can I expect?</h2>
<p>Many women do not notice any bothersome vaginal changes as they age. There’s also little evidence many of these changes cause vaginal symptoms. For example, there is no direct evidence these changes cause vaginal infection or bleeding in menopausal women. </p>
<p>Some women notice vaginal dryness after menopause, which may be linked to less vaginal secretions. This may lead to pain and discomfort during sex. But it’s not clear how much of this dryness is due to menopause, as younger women also commonly report it. In <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6136974/pdf/nihms957122.pdf">one study</a>, 47% of sexually active postmenopausal women reported vaginal dryness, as did around 20% of premenopausal women.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two cut grapefruit, one drier than the other" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562316/original/file-20231129-21-kae382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vaginal dryness is common but it can also affect younger women.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fresh-grapefruit-stale-on-pink-background-1115302421">ECOSY/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other organs close to the vagina, such as the bladder and urethra, are also affected by the change in hormone levels after menopause. Some women experience recurrent urinary tract infections, which may cause pain (including pain to the side of the body) and irritation. So their symptoms are in fact not coming from the vagina itself but relate to changes in the urinary tract. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-does-menopause-last-5-tips-for-navigating-uncertain-times-195211">How long does menopause last? 5 tips for navigating uncertain times</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Not everyone has the same experience</h2>
<p>Women vary in whether they notice vaginal changes and whether they <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/research/vitalmeno">are bothered</a> by these to the same extent. For example, women with vaginal dryness who are not sexually active may not notice the change in vaginal secretions after menopause. However, some women notice severe dryness that affects their daily function and activities.</p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://www.imsociety.org/2021/06/21/a-core-outcome-set-for-vasomotor-symptoms-associated-with-menopause-the-comma-core-outcomes-in-menopause-global-initiative/">researchers globally</a> are taking more notice of women’s experiences of menopause to inform future research. This includes prioritising symptoms that matter to women the most, such as vaginal dryness, discomfort, irritation and pain during sex.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vaginas-pheromones-and-tiktok-what-is-the-strange-new-trend-of-vabbing-187431">Vaginas, pheromones and TikTok: what is the strange new trend of 'vabbing'?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>If symptoms bother you</h2>
<p>Symptoms such as dryness, irritation, or pain during sex can usually be effectively managed. Lubricants may reduce pain during sex. Vaginal moisturisers may reduce dryness. Both are available over-the-counter at your local pharmacy. </p>
<p>While there are many small clinical trials of individual products, these studies <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8942543/">lack the power</a> to demonstrate if they are really effective in improving vaginal symptoms. </p>
<p>In contrast, there is robust evidence that vaginal oestrogen is <a href="https://www.cochrane.org/CD001500/MENSTR_use-postmenopausal-women-creams-pessaries-or-vaginal-ring-apply-oestrogen-vaginally-symptoms-vaginal">effective</a> in treating vaginal dryness and reducing pain during sex. It also <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005131.pub2/full">reduces</a> your chance of recurrent urinary tract infections. You can talk to your doctor about a prescription. </p>
<p>Vaginal oestrogen is usually inserted using an applicator, two to three times a week. Very little is absorbed into the blood stream, it is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31913230/">generally safe</a> but longer-term trials are required to confirm safety in long-term use beyond a year. </p>
<p>Women with a <a href="https://www.menopause.org.au/hp/position-statements/the-use-of-vaginal-estrogen-in-women-with-a-history-of-estrogen-dependent-breast-cancer">history of breast cancer</a> should see their oncologist to discuss using oestrogen as it may not be suitable for them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-vagina-cleans-itself-why-vagina-cleaning-fads-are-unnecessary-and-harmful-88150">Your vagina cleans itself: why vagina cleaning fads are unnecessary and harmful</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Are there other treatments?</h2>
<p>New treatments for vaginal dryness are under investigation. One avenue relates to our growing understanding of how the vaginal microbiome adapts and modifies around changes in circulating and local concentrations of hormones.</p>
<p>For example, a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29381086">small number of reports</a> show that combining vaginal probiotics with low-dose vaginal oestrogen can improve vaginal symptoms. But more evidence is needed before this is recommended.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-should-healthy-people-take-probiotic-supplements-95861">Health Check: should healthy people take probiotic supplements?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>The normal ageing process, as well as menopause, both affect the vagina as we age.</p>
<p>Most women do not have troublesome vaginal symptoms during and after menopause, but for some, these may cause discomfort or distress. </p>
<p>While hormonal treatments such as vaginal oestrogen are available, there is a pressing need for more non-hormonal treatments.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Dr Sianan Healy, from Women’s Health Victoria, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212198/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martha Hickey previously received research funding for a study of an ultrasound device for vaginal dryness (Madorra)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louie Ye does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dryness, irritation, or pain during sex can be managed. But not everyone has these symptoms or is bothered by them.Louie Ye, Clinical Fellow, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of MelbourneMartha Hickey, Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2157862023-12-13T02:00:58Z2023-12-13T02:00:58ZWhat happens to teeth as you age? And how can you extend the life of your smile?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563479/original/file-20231204-29-83y9fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=159%2C0%2C5447%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/elderly-person-toothache-174163370">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A healthy smile <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37314011/">helps us</a> live long, well and happy lives. But just <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37436910/">like our bodies</a>, our teeth succumb to age-related changes. </p>
<p>So what happens to teeth as you age? And what can you do to ensure your smile lasts the distance?</p>
<h2>First, what are teeth made of?</h2>
<p>The tooth crown is covered by a hard enamel coat that surrounds softer, brown dentine, which protects a centrally located pulp. </p>
<p>Enamel is a complex weave of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2584618/">brittle</a>, honeycomb-clustered strands that interact with light to make teeth appear opalescent (a pearly, milky iridescence).</p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1601-1546.2012.00269.x">Dentine under enamel</a> forms most of the tooth crown and root, and is made of collagen, mineral, water and proteins. Collagen strands are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003996922002102?via%3Dihub#bib12">woven</a> to stretch and spring back, to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003996922002102?via%3Dihub#bib12">prevent teeth</a> from cracking and breaking when we grind and chew.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-is-inside-teeth-187258">Curious Kids: what is inside teeth?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The pulp has blood vessels and nerves that communicate with the rest of your body. </p>
<p>Enmeshed in the dentine mineral and collagen are small, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8809302/">interconnected tubules</a> formed by specialised cells called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1047847799940960">odontoblasts</a> that settle around the pulp, once our teeth completely form.</p>
<p>Each tooth contains a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23803461/">finite number of odontoblasts</a>, unlike the constantly replenished special bone cells that renew. </p>
<h2>How do our teeth change as we age?</h2>
<p>Unable to renew, our teeth <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003996922002102?via%3Dihub#bib19">become brittle</a>, and prone to fracture as dentine loses its spring. </p>
<p>This is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002817714613532?casa_token=1K9Y6CJXmsAAAAAA:t6y_b_Iy02AWpUGaiz4H8Fk0Kdfx6z1ypHiGOEjFqFNlU1jvSRCVjfYOyysgIErJvgCzh33c2hfX">more common</a> in teeth with existing crack lines, large fillings or root canal treatments. </p>
<p>With time, the outer surface of enamel <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022391305004348?casa_token=xXfdecXrLaoAAAAA:YE_0swAFtT3RyCUeJmPwciixQ0hwL-foLyC2RGtnlyUSJ9O-pPLQz0B8XNd4Gq1AMtCN2BgnCrqo">thins</a> to reveal the relatively opaque dentine that darkens as we age.</p>
<p>The dentine darkens because the collagen weave <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1047847722000697">stiffens and shrinks</a>, and the fluid in the tubules <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590152422000010?via%3Dihub">fills with mineral</a>.</p>
<p>The odontoblasts continue to form dentine inside the tooth to reduce the translucent pulp space. The increase in dentine makes our teeth appear <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003996913003294">opaque</a> and insulates from hot and cold sensations. This is why <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300571215000494?casa_token=iiLtoxOZOYQAAAAA:RfaGR7lrq9dgWuO_nh6hLETzVUiIWdu-mB-Ev019vZH5t6meVyAHs3YpZzcu9FNrDBYQL6OExu6j">X-rays</a> are useful to detect cavities we may not feel. </p>
<p>Food and drink particles fill micro-gaps and age-related fine crack lines that run up and down enamel to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yash-Kapadia/publication/322509199_Tooth_staining_A_review_of_etiology_and_treatment_modalities/links/5b4cd922a6fdcc8dae245b7d/Tooth-staining-A-review-of-etiology-and-treatment-modalities.pdf">discolour and stain</a>. These stains are easily managed by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772559622000207">tooth whitening</a>.</p>
<p>How else can you extend the life of your teeth and brighten your smile? Here are seven tips to avoid dental decline:</p>
<h2>1. Avoid unnecessary forces</h2>
<p>Avoid <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/sj.bdj.2012.722">using</a> your teeth to hold things such as working tools or to open packaging. </p>
<p>Take measures to avoid forces such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1882761622000059">grinding or clenching</a> by wearing a night guard. </p>
<p>If you have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0109564122002421">large fillings</a> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0109564122001579?casa_token=kQPjGNgU2iQAAAAA:ytMnT5MLV8aRehNyyWD7qC7FXSBE5xpPCxnzZ2ryKsuyJePq1jHisue1udtN0Cs6NDYJ37xYHy_5">root canal-treated</a> teeth, speak to your dentist about <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/aej.12002?casa_token=RwMhhwmgjwwAAAAA%3AGCWVA9vjFX68S2DdKbCFl4jwTAjMeqVDoT3GtXTSjA7SMEc3ksktOMCUSz9ArikD4XhBM5v08nGCvmVF0g">specific filling materials or crowns</a> that can protect your teeth from cracking or breaking.</p>
<h2>2. Share the load</h2>
<p>If you are missing molars or premolars, distribute chewing forces evenly to prevent overloading your remaining teeth. </p>
<p>Replace missing teeth with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S010956411100858X?casa_token=4vrj3ssj0PEAAAAA:UODaFxNDCKmQ_lQs1faL6lh0xIeIfSFrRQBq-s0KF1ZvUJd6ytbXX37TVaiHLRzJPJaSDF_2aVmL">bridges</a>, <a href="https://aap.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1902/jop.2008.080188?casa_token=uA0r7imcRbUAAAAA%3AeXGszI5-Dcu4oKi33FCrRRviiAj0uyoP7V5wApIRQD1-1Zu-rkLAcoLhKMAJYVnC9tEnxj33UdNJIndEBA">implants</a> or well-fitted <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/13/6776">dentures</a> to support your bite. Get your dentures <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022391320301554">checked regularly</a> to ensure they fit and support adequately, and replace them at least every ten years. </p>
<h2>3. Preserve your enamel</h2>
<p>Reduce <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jcpe.12330?casa_token=W2Ib34A77-QAAAAA%3AnLZtwwqZuueyHf1CMX0K9MERSW_Pvc3w0KlpArFT1KNusuopjEUcWmGd8pDUA7fQcj6DMkcS-JnXISFV1w">further enamel and dentine loss</a> by selecting soft-bristled <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00016350802195041?casa_token=E-ErdP543QUAAAAA%3A0Wz5AWwQxntBIc3UndFX_5nVbAYoPDx-PX1tg7Umxjr_QepX3CSIFVXYcrrxWV9iTx99Afk8c_zff-o">tooth brushes and non-abrasive toothpastes</a>. </p>
<p>Certain whitening toothpastes can be abrasive, which can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8874033/">roughen and wear</a> the tooth surfaces. If you are unsure, stick with toothpastes that are labelled “sensitive”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-brush-your-teeth-properly-according-to-a-dentist-177219">How to brush your teeth properly, according to a dentist</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Reduce your exposure to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/sj.bdj.2012.722">acid</a> in food (think lemons or apple cider vinegar) or illness (reflux or vomiting) where possible to maintain enamel and prevent erosion. </p>
<h2>4. Enhance your saliva</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jtxs.12356?casa_token=1moXbwnrDQIAAAAA%3AHz3Im9lmR3h75TmG8FSUQH-8_0UGnQ9TNkgaPL79LlrCmwC3kzZZJaAB2mSZHf4X7PX5y3GKaVoY5cm5JA">Saliva</a> protects against acid attacks, flushes our teeth, and has antibacterial properties to reduce erosion and decay (holes forming). </p>
<p>Saliva is also important to help us chew, swallow and speak. </p>
<p>But our saliva quality and quantity reduces because of age-related changes to our salivary glands as well as certain medications prescribed to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19392837/">manage chronic illnesses</a> such as depression and high blood pressure. </p>
<p>Speak to your doctor about other medication options to improve your saliva or manage reflux disease to prevent erosion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man looks at medicine bottle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563889/original/file-20231206-15-e9rzdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some medications can reduce your saliva production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-worried-senior-man-medicine-pills-2301033245">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Treat gum disease</h2>
<p>Aesthetically, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37358230/">treating gum disease (periodontitis)</a> reduces gum shrinkage (recession) that typically exposes the relatively darker tooth roots that are more <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00220345231166294">prone to developing holes</a>.</p>
<h2>6. Manage and prevent senescence</h2>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36908187/">Cellular senescence</a> is the process that changes DNA in our cells to reduce our ability to withstand physical, chemical or biological damage. </p>
<p>Cellular senescence enhances new cancer formation, the spread of existing cancers and the onset of chronic illnesses such as Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, osteoporosis and heart disease. </p>
<p>You can prevent cell damage by managing lifestyle factors such as smoking, uncontrolled diabetes and chronic infections such as gum disease. </p>
<h2>7. Adapt and ask for help</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jan.15769?casa_token=SC-LouFQThsAAAAA%3A4jcvLRuJ56dGEm7ttvMad65hvUoZ7V5nvILg5sLFVZo8jxyQGR6YFeTcfM8sByTbdVrCWR1O5ytI3Z_crA">Ageing</a> can affect our cognition, hand dexterity and eyesight to prevent us from cleaning our teeth and gums as effectively as we once could. </p>
<p>If this describes you, talk to your dental care team. They can help clean your teeth, and <a href="https://www.magonlinelibrary.com/doi/full/10.12968/bjon.2020.29.9.520?casa_token=_rol0NXx9c8AAAAA%3Aq8zgxiMSASwF1MRQZnZzfzmttn2x7FfGwsiIv71C_s_PTTmGD9JOIbqqtLNXa0oF9ogOjOCZwwpwB94">recommend products and tools</a> to fit your situation and abilities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reform-delay-causes-dental-decay-its-time-for-a-national-deal-to-fund-dental-care-217914">Reform delay causes dental decay. It’s time for a national deal to fund dental care</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215786/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arosha Weerakoon's PhD research was funded by the UQ School of Dentistry Research Fund and Colgate Palmolive Australia. </span></em></p>Just like our bodies, our teeth succumb to age-related changes. Here are seven ways to keep your teeth healthier for longer.Arosha Weerakoon, Senior Lecturer, School of Dentistry, The University of Queensland and General Dentist., The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116752023-11-21T23:30:20Z2023-11-21T23:30:20ZHere’s what happens to your penis as you age<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558209/original/file-20231108-29-2x75fz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1000%2C664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-stethoscope-yellow-banana-on-blue-1070813387">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>All parts of your body age and the penis is no exception. </p>
<p>Changes to how your penis looks or works can be signs of underlying health issues and can affect your quality of life. So understanding which changes are normal and when to seek help is important.</p>
<p>Here’s what you can expect to happen to your penis as you age, and when to be concerned.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-i-clean-my-penis-125135">'How do I clean my penis?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Will my penis shrink?</h2>
<p>There is no definitive evidence your <a href="https://bjui-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bju.13010">penis length and girth</a> will naturally change as you age, despite what you may <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/mens-health/penis-shrinkage">read</a>.</p>
<p>This is because there is no study that follows the same adults and their penis measurements over decades; existing studies only compare penis size between different adults of different ages. </p>
<p>There are also many different ways to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41443-019-0157-4">measure</a> penis size – including stretched, flaccid (floppy) and erect. This makes it difficult to compare studies.</p>
<p>However, for some people, conditions associated with ageing can appear to decrease penis length. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>obesity (which hides the base of the penis)</p></li>
<li><p>the effects of <a href="https://www.auajournals.org/doi/10.1016/j.juro.2007.03.119">prostate surgery</a> (temporarily)</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/mens-health/peyronies-disease">Peyronie’s disease</a> (where scarring in the fibrous layer of the penis causes it to bend abnormally).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Erect penis length may also decrease with age due to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>erectile dysfunction (the inability to achieve erections sufficient for sexual activity)</p></li>
<li><p>less <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1459150/">penile elasticity</a>, which reduces how much the penis expands.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-chemicals-shrinking-your-penis-and-depleting-your-sperm-heres-what-the-evidence-really-says-160007">Are chemicals shrinking your penis and depleting your sperm? Here's what the evidence really says</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Will I still have erections?</h2>
<p>Erectile dysfunction affects 15% of men in their 50s to almost 90% of men over 80, according to an <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-014-0465-1">English study</a> of more than 6,000 people. Existing health conditions increased the risk significantly, and the risk was more than doubled in those who rated their health as fair to poor.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/mens-health/erectile-dysfunction">Medications</a> such as sildenafil (Viagra) and tadalafil (Cialis) can help. But they do not reverse the underlying blood vessel and nerve damage that cause erectile dysfunction. Eventually other treatments – such as injections or <a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/news/what-are-penis-pumps-and-how-do-they-work">penile pumps</a> – may be options.</p>
<p>Other changes that occur with age include <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9836563/">decreased penis sensitivity</a>, which might reduce arousal. Ejaculation is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8254833/">delayed</a> and happens <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0302283816003778">less often</a>.</p>
<p>Semen volume and the force of ejaculation <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27652226/">decrease</a> with age. The time taken to “recover” from ejaculating and become sexually responsive again (known as the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31405769/">post-ejaculatory refractory time</a>) also increases with age. </p>
<p>Reaching orgasm is “impossible” or “moderately difficult” for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25624001/">33% of men</a> in their 70s.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weekly-dose-the-hard-facts-on-viagra-58289">Weekly dose: the hard facts on Viagra</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Will the shape of my penis change?</h2>
<p>The shape of your penis is not usually expected to change with age. However, Peyronie’s disease (an abnormally bent or curved penis) becomes <a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/mens-health/peyronies-disease">more common</a> with age. This may be because of accumulation of damage from minor injuries over time.</p>
<p>This condition affects <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11890244/">6.5% of men</a> over 70 and can cause short-term pain and long-term erectile dysfunction.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Older smiling man holding banana in each hand, one large, one small" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558561/original/file-20231109-15-6so9wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">No, your penis doesn’t automatically change shape as you age. But you might notice other changes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/old-country-doctor-smiling-while-comparing-758197381">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Will I pee more?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/mens-health/urinary-problems-luts">Lower urinary tract symptoms</a> such as incontinence, a weak urine stream, problems with starting and stopping peeing, and nocturia (frequent night time urination) increase as we get older. </p>
<p>These symptoms are moderate to severe in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17070357/">almost 50% of men</a> over 65, and in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18554695/">70% of men</a> over 80. This is likely due to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6206240/">higher rates</a> of benign prostatic hyperplasia (enlarged prostate) as men age, which has various effects, including on urine flow.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-can-your-doctor-tell-from-your-urine-74990">Health Check: what can your doctor tell from your urine?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Changes can take their toll …</h2>
<p>Physical and functional changes in the penis can affect a man’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25624001/">health and wellbeing</a>. </p>
<p>Problems with erections or ejaculating can reduce someone’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30554952/">quality of life</a> if they still want to have sex. So <a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/partners-guide">open discussion</a> with a partner, seeking support and professional advice can help.</p>
<p>Lower urinary tract symptoms can also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15814179/">affect</a> a man’s mental health and personal relationships. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Older gay couple sitting on sofa, one with hand on shoulder, looking at open laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558565/original/file-20231109-25-sl40tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Be open with your partner about any concerns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/older-same-sex-male-couple-browsing-2356931529">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>… but can be sign of disease</h2>
<p>Erectile dysfunction can also hint at serious health problems <a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/mens-health/erectile-dysfunction">such as</a> heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes and disorders of the nervous system.</p>
<p>In this way, the penis reflects vascular health in the rest of the body. So having erectile dysfunction can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30665816/">predict</a> your risk of a future heart attack or stroke.</p>
<p>Lower urinary tract symptoms are also often associated with sexual dysfunction, and can <a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au/mens-health/urinary-problems-luts">increase the risk</a> of urinary tract infections and chronic kidney disease.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-it-matter-if-you-sit-or-stand-to-pee-and-what-about-peeing-in-the-shower-206869">Does it matter if you sit or stand to pee? And what about peeing in the shower?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s normal and when should I see my GP?</h2>
<p>Normal ageing includes changes to the penis’ blood vessels, nerves, and associated organs, such as the prostate. So, as you age, it is normal to have:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>minor changes in the size and shape of the penis</p></li>
<li><p>a gradual decrease in erectile function and sensitivity</p></li>
<li><p>mild urinary symptoms that don’t bother you.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28217447/">Staying healthy</a>
and regularly seeing your GP to <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/essential-screening-tests-for-men">check for</a> common conditions (such as high blood pressure) should slow down these age-related changes. Other health conditions (such as diabetes) accelerate these changes.</p>
<p>However, it is important to seek medical attention if:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>there is a significant change in size or shape of the penis, or if you develop unusual lumps</p></li>
<li><p>there is pain or discomfort in or around your penis</p></li>
<li><p>erectile dysfunction becomes persistent or bothers you</p></li>
<li><p>urinary symptoms occur suddenly or bother you.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p><em>For more information about men’s health, including resources for partners, see the <a href="https://www.healthymale.org.au">Healthy Male website</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211675/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Moss works for Healthy Male, a website to promote men's health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jinghang Luo and Rob McLachlan do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Understanding which changes are normal and when to seek help is important. Here’s what you need to know.Rob McLachlan, Professor and clinician in fertility medicine, Hudson InstituteJinghang Luo, Andrology Fellow, Hudson InstituteTim Moss, Adjunct Associate Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163642023-11-13T03:02:44Z2023-11-13T03:02:44ZInsecure renting ages you faster than owning a home, unemployment or obesity. Better housing policy can change this<p>People’s experiences of private rental housing are linked to faster biological ageing, our recent <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2023-220523">research</a> finds. </p>
<p>While chronological ageing happens at the same speed for everyone, biological ageing varies greatly. It depends on the lives we lead and the risks we’re exposed to. Biological age reflects the gradually accumulating damage to cells and tissues in the body.</p>
<p>Our research explored associations between pace of ageing and many aspects of housing and other social determinants of health. Our strongest finding about housing was that people living in a privately rented home tended to age faster than those who owned their home outright. Every year of private renting was associated with an extra 2.4 weeks of ageing on average. </p>
<p>Our findings also suggest being a private renter has a greater effect on biological age than being unemployed (adding about 1.4 weeks of ageing per year), obesity (about 1 week), or being a former smoker (about 1.1 weeks). </p>
<p>The insecurity of private renting appears to be the key factor in its biological ageing effect. The good news is that policies that improve housing security can redress this. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-insecurity-of-private-renters-how-do-they-manage-it-77324">The insecurity of private renters – how do they manage it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1711980428100505981"}"></div></p>
<h2>How do we measure biological age?</h2>
<p>Faster ageing is associated with poorer health. Outcomes include <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/54870">poorer</a> physical and cognitive function and a higher risk of chronic illness and even <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acel.12421">early</a> <a href="https://www.aging-us.com/lookup/doi/10.18632/aging.101020">death</a>.</p>
<p>To measure ageing, we use an indicator of <a href="https://theconversation.com/difficult-childhood-experiences-could-make-us-age-prematurely-new-research-102807">DNA methylation</a>. This is an epigenetic process – a way in which the environment can affect how our genes are expressed. By analysing the locations of DNA methylation across a person’s DNA, we can estimate their pace of biological ageing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/difficult-childhood-experiences-could-make-us-age-prematurely-new-research-102807">Difficult childhood experiences could make us age prematurely – new research</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s hard to get the data for this sort of analysis. We needed blood samples that have gone through complex processing to estimate biological ageing, as well as survey data on many aspects of people’s lives. We controlled for income and health behaviours, among other things.</p>
<p>The data we used describe the <a href="https://www.understandingsociety.ac.uk/documentation/health-assessment">British</a> population, but our findings are directly transferable to Australians. Given the <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-welfare/home-ownership-and-housing-tenure">increasing numbers of renters</a> in Australia, many in insecure housing, our findings are directly relevant to our current housing debate.</p>
<iframe title="Proportion of Australian households by housing tenure type" aria-label="Interactive line chart" id="datawrapper-chart-EXiZn" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/EXiZn/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400" data-external="1"></iframe>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-rented-more-mortgaged-less-owned-what-the-census-tells-us-about-housing-185893">More rented, more mortgaged, less owned: what the census tells us about housing</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The experiences of private renting are similar in Britain and <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Worseningrentalcrisis/Interim_Report">Australia</a>. Short tenancy agreements (<a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/new-insights-rental-market">12 months</a> on average in Australia) mean insecurity is a feature of private renting in both nations. </p>
<p>No-fault/no-grounds/no-cause evictions in some states further undermine renters’ security. Even renters who do everything right can be evicted at short notice.</p>
<h2>Insecure housing is bad for your health</h2>
<p>We found no negative effects for people renting social housing. In both Britain and Australia, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/english-housing-survey">social renters</a> have far greater security of tenure than private renters. This suggests it is not renting itself that is related to faster ageing, but specifically the insecurity of private renting. </p>
<p>These findings are important for Australian housing policy. The social housing sector – managed by state or community providers – has shrunk. Today <a href="https://www.ahuri.edu.au/analysis/brief/what-right-level-social-housing-australia">less than 4%</a> of households are in social housing. </p>
<p>Governments have edged away from publicly provided social housing. They prefer to subsidise renters in the private sector.</p>
<p>The role of private rental housing has also changed in both countries. Rather than being a form of housing in which a relatively small number of people live in for a short time while studying or starting their career, more people are living in privately rented homes for longer. As access to both <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-social-housing-system-is-critically-stressed-many-eligible-applicants-simply-give-up-183530">social housing</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-rented-more-mortgaged-less-owned-what-the-census-tells-us-about-housing-185893">home ownership</a> becomes harder, many will probably rent for life. </p>
<p></p>
<p>This means more people are exposed to housing insecurity and the negative health impacts for longer.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"867168711857373184"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stability-and-security-the-keys-to-closing-the-mental-health-gap-between-renters-and-home-owners-179481">Stability and security: the keys to closing the mental health gap between renters and home owners</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What does this mean for policy?</h2>
<p>Public debate and health messaging often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy045">focus on individual</a> behaviours and characteristics such as smoking and obesity. Our research emphasises how important housing is for people’s health. It’s also an area where policy changes can make a big difference.</p>
<p>The insecurity of private renting in Australia and Britain is not inherent to private renting itself. It’s a result of policy choices that:</p>
<ul>
<li>emphasise housing <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-financialisation-of-housing-and-what-can-be-done-about-it-73767">as an asset</a></li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/shh-dont-mention-the-public-housing-shortage-but-no-serious-action-on-homelessness-can-ignore-it-124875">minimise the state’s role</a> in providing or regulating housing</li>
<li>do little to <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-tenancy-reforms-to-protect-renters-cause-landlords-to-exit-the-market-no-but-maybe-they-should-194900">protect renters</a>. </li>
</ul>
<p>This approach can change, and the appetite for change appears to be increasing. There are efforts to end no-fault/no-grounds evictions in both Australia and Britain. </p>
<p>State governments have talked about ending no-grounds evictions. <a href="https://www.rentersrights.org.au/no_grounds_evictions">New South Wales</a> has yet to do anything about it. Despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-5-key-tenancy-reforms-are-affecting-renters-and-landlords-around-australia-187779">reforms in other states</a>, they still <a href="https://www.tenants.org.au/blog/end-fixed-term-evictions-are-unfair-no-grounds-evictions-part-2">permit</a> no-grounds evictions when fixed-term leases end.</p>
<p>Scotland has adopted a new model of tenancy that does not permit no-fault evictions with few exceptions – to allow landlords to sell the property, for example. The UK government has been talking about ending such evictions since <a href="https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/comment/comment/open-ended-prs-tenancies-the-quickest-change-of-government-housing-policy-in-recent-memory-61043">2019</a>, but progress has been slow. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1562285681342562305"}"></div></p>
<p>However, there are glimmers of hope. The <a href="https://indaily.com.au/news/2023/08/16/albanese-hails-deal-with-states-for-housing-shortage/">Australian government</a> is paying <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Worseningrentalcrisis/Interim_Report">more attention</a> to renters’ needs. <a href="https://www.cbs.sa.gov.au/news/no-cause-evictions-to-be-banned-in-south-australia">South Australia</a> is working to end no-grounds evictions for both fixed and periodic tenancies. In NSW, the new government has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/jul/21/renter-evicted-ndis-shower-rail">promised to end such evictions</a>. </p>
<p>In the UK, the <a href="https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3462/stages">Renters (Reform) Bill</a> finally had its second reading on October 23.</p>
<p>Private renting can work <a href="https://theconversation.com/renting-rights-what-england-can-learn-from-fairer-systems-around-the-world-103779">better for tenants</a>, but shouldn’t be the only option for people who don’t own their homes. Our finding that renting social housing was no different to outright ownership lends weight to calls for greater support for social housing. Housing should be good for everyone’s health, whether or not they own their home.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216364/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Baker receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Health and Medical Research Council, and the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. She holds a voluntary board position with Habitat for Humanity. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meena Kumari receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ES/T014083/1; ES/S012486/1). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Clair does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People age differently depending on the lives they lead. DNA testing shows every year of living in a privately rented home add 2.4 weeks of ageing compared to those who own their home.Amy Clair, Lecturer, Australian Centre for Housing Research, University of Adelaide, and Research Associate, ESRC Research Centre on Micro-Social Change, University of EssexEmma Baker, Professor of Housing Research, University of AdelaideMeena Kumari, Professor of Biological and Social Epidemiology,, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2156112023-11-06T10:30:24Z2023-11-06T10:30:24ZYour biological age predicts dementia and stroke regardless of your actual age – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557607/original/file-20231105-27-bb4wsv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C31%2C6939%2C4594&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/concept-image-on-age-characters-young-2274077339">tomertu/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we journey through life, the risk of developing chronic diseases, including cancer, heart disease and neurological disorders, increases significantly. However, while we all grow older chronologically at the same pace, biologically, our clocks can tick <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02296-6">faster or slower</a>. Relying solely on chronological age – the number of years since birth – is inadequate to measure the body’s internal biological age.</p>
<p>This discrepancy has prompted scientists to find ways to determine a person’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.08.003">biological age</a>. One way is to look at “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00077-8">epigenetic clocks</a>” which consider chemical changes that occur in our DNA as we age. Another approach uses <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-021-00480-5">information from medical tests</a>, such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels and other physiological measurements.</p>
<p>By using these “biomarkers”, researchers have discovered that when a person’s biological age surpasses their chronological age, it often signifies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43587-021-00044-4">accelerated cell ageing</a> and a higher susceptibility to age-related diseases. </p>
<p>Our new research suggests your biological age, more than the years you’ve lived, may predict your risk of dementia and stroke in the future. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awad252">Previous studies</a> have shed light on this association but they were often limited in scale. This has left gaps in our understanding of how biological ageing relates to various neurological disorders, including Parkinson’s disease and motor neuron disease.</p>
<p>To bridge this gap, our study, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2023-331917">published in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry</a>, examined over 325,000 middle-aged and older British adults. We investigated whether advanced biological age increases the future risks of developing neurological diseases, including dementia, stroke, Parkinson’s disease and motor neuron disease.</p>
<p>To assess biological age, we analysed 18 biomarkers collected during medical checkups conducted between 2006 and 2010. These included blood pressure, blood glucose, cholesterol levels, inflammation markers, waist circumference and lung capacity. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man reading his own blood pressure." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557608/original/file-20231105-21-98b0vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A number of biomarkers were measured, including blood pressure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hypertension-older-age-senior-black-man-2066841269">Pro-stock Studio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We then followed participants for nine years to see who developed neurological diseases. Those with older biological ages at the study’s start had significantly higher risks of dementia and stroke over the next decade – even after considering differences in genetics, sex, income and lifestyle.</p>
<p>Imagine two 60-year-olds enrolled in our study. One had a biological age of 65, the other 60. The one with the more accelerated biological age had a 20% higher risk of dementia and a 40% higher risk of stroke.</p>
<h2>Strong association</h2>
<p>It is worth noting that while advanced biological age showed a strong association with dementia and stroke, we saw a weaker link with motor neuron disease and even an opposite direction for Parkinson’s disease.</p>
<p>Parkinson’s disease often exhibits unique characteristics. For instance, although smoking typically <a href="https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.59479">accelerates ageing</a>, it paradoxically exerts a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000009437">protective effect</a> against Parkinson’s disease.</p>
<p>Our findings show that biological ageing processes probably contribute substantially to dementia and stroke later in life. Together with our previous research showing a significant association between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41416-023-02288-w">advanced biological age and cancer risks</a>, these results suggest that slowing the body’s internal decline may be key to preventing chronic diseases in late life.</p>
<p>Assessing biological age from routine blood samples could someday become standard practice. Those with accelerated ageing could be identified decades before dementia symptoms arise. While currently incurable, early detection provides opportunities for preventive lifestyle changes and close monitoring.</p>
<p>For example, research starts to suggest that biological age may be slowed down or even reversed by <a href="https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.202913">lifestyle intervention</a> including exercise, sleep, diet and nutritional supplements.</p>
<p>Replicating our results in diverse groups of people is next step. We also hope to unravel connections between genetic background, biological ageing and other major diseases, such as diabetes and heart diseases.</p>
<p>For now, monitoring internal ageing processes could empower people to delay cognitive decline, providing hope for a healthier and more fulfilling life in later years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215611/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Hägg receives funding from the Swedish Research Council, the Swedish Cancer Society, the National Institute on Aging.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Ka Long Mak does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why we should all try to be biologically younger.Jonathan Ka Long Mak, PhD Candidate, Karolinska InstitutetSara Hägg, Associate Professor, Molecular Epidemiology, Karolinska InstitutetLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2150742023-11-02T19:13:32Z2023-11-02T19:13:32ZI was a geriatrician on Old People’s Home for Teenagers. Here’s why I joined this TV experiment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555958/original/file-20231025-23-112he5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C20%2C6884%2C4565&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EndemolShine Australia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people will have heard about “intergenerational practice” via the TV.</p>
<p>This is the purposeful <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/18/11254">bringing together</a> of different generations, aiming to benefit all involved. It’s the idea central to ABC TV’s <a href="https://iview.abc.net.au/show/old-people-s-home-for-teenagers">Old People’s Home for Teenagers</a>, and its predecessor <a href="https://iview.abc.net.au/show/old-people-s-home-for-4-year-olds">Old People’s Home for 4 Year Olds</a>. Both show the positive aspects of mixing age groups, for the older people featured, as well as the teenagers or preschoolers.</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://anzsgm.org/publicinformation/">geriatrician</a>, a doctor who specialises in the medical care of older people, one of two geriatricians who took part in this TV experiment. Here’s why I got involved.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-people-get-old-190142">Curious Kids: why do people get old?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The benefits of mixing it up</h2>
<p>The positive aspects of mixing age groups may seem intuitive. Just think of how special it can be when grandparents spend time with their grandchildren. When older and younger people are together, each <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajag.12761">can share</a> their experiences and perspectives. Meaningful connections can develop.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Addison talking with Annalise during filming" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555960/original/file-20231025-19-dsc0zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Meaningful connections can develop, such as between teenager Addison and Annalise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EndemolShine Australia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But in Australia today, many older people have no such opportunities. Multi-generational households are the exception, not the norm. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/older-people/older-australians/contents/housing-and-living-arrangements">One quarter</a> of people aged 65 and over living in private homes live alone. <a href="https://www.propertycouncil.com.au/media-releases/retirement-villages-approaching-capacity-where-will-our-seniors-live-2">Nearly 200,000</a> live in retirement villages and <a href="https://www.gen-agedcaredata.gov.au/www_aihwgen/media/2021-22-GEN-Topic-Updates/People%20using%20aged%20care/People-using-aged-care-fact-sheet_2022.pdf">around the same number</a> live in residential aged care. Both of the latter, by definition, accommodate only a single generation. </p>
<p>Intergenerational programs overcome these barriers by creating a <a href="https://shop.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/product/rip2101/">structured and supported</a> forum in which two age groups can regularly connect. </p>
<p>These programs can involve <a href="https://www.metronorth.health.qld.gov.au/news/grandfriends-reduces-loneliness-isolation">different populations</a>: from toddlers through to university students, from independent, active retirees through to aged care residents and hospital patients.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-project-shows-combining-childcare-and-aged-care-has-social-and-economic-benefits-99837">A new project shows combining childcare and aged care has social and economic benefits</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Programs can take several forms, for example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>playgroups are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1476718X211059662">conducted in</a> aged care facilities</p></li>
<li><p>childcare and aged care facilities are <a href="https://agedcarenews.com.au/2022/06/21/the-herd-proudly-blazing-a-trail-for-the-future-of-intergenerational-care-and-learning/">in the same location</a></p></li>
<li><p>older volunteers in the community take part in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-03/ophft-making-connections-in-your-community/102908402">formal mentorship programs</a> for young adults.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33567363/">common aim</a> is to improve wellbeing, restore purpose, and bring joy to older participants, while helping to develop social skills, confidence and empathy in young people. These programs can potentially also address <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/ageism#tab=tab_1">ageism</a>, by creating understanding and empathy for each generation and by challenging negative stereotypes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kids-dressing-up-as-older-people-is-harmless-fun-right-no-its-ageist-whatever-bluey-says-212607">Kids dressing up as older people is harmless fun, right? No, it's ageist, whatever Bluey says</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>There are challenges ahead</h2>
<p>There are wide-ranging challenges ageing may throw at us – an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21925398/">increased burden</a> of chronic disease and frailty, a decline in physical and cognitive abilities, or changes in hearing, vision and balance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Maz with walker, taking a puppy for a walk, Ayden holds out hand to puppy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555961/original/file-20231025-15-xonqpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The program encouraged both young people, such as Ayden, and older people, such as Maz, to be more active.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EndemolShine Australia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/steep-physical-decline-with-age-is-not-inevitable-heres-how-strength-training-can-change-the-trajectory-213131">Steep physical decline with age is not inevitable – here's how strength training can change the trajectory</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Changes in occupational and social roles often also occur as we get older, for instance, as older people retire from paid work or care for a sick partner. Conversely, older people may lose their role as caregivers, after grandchildren grow up, or after the loss of a loved one. </p>
<p>All these ageing-related changes can lead to a loss of social connection and <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-tell-everyone-i-love-being-on-my-own-but-i-hate-it-what-older-australians-want-you-to-know-about-loneliness-166109">loneliness</a>. Loneliness itself is bad for health. Loneliness <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-022-00355-9">increases risks</a> for depression, cardiovascular disease, dementia and may even lead to a shorter life span. Reducing loneliness in older adults remains a challenge.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-tell-everyone-i-love-being-on-my-own-but-i-hate-it-what-older-australians-want-you-to-know-about-loneliness-166109">'I tell everyone I love being on my own, but I hate it': what older Australians want you to know about loneliness</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How I got involved</h2>
<p>So when a chance to become involved in Old People’s Home for 4 Year Olds, I eagerly jumped on board. This featured an experimental intergenerational preschool. Young and old took part in a series of structured and supported activities such as playing dress-ups, going on walks and having a sports carnival.</p>
<p>At the time, intergenerational programs were far from mainstream, especially in Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Annelise and Alix walking outside on grass, trees in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555962/original/file-20231025-29-yvrjxr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Annelise said she was lonely at the start of the series, but formed a bond with teenager Amelie.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EndemolShine Australia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I joined the TV program with a panel of experts including a physiotherapist and psychologist. </p>
<p>We screened the older adults at the start of the experiment for issues such as <a href="https://dementiaresearch.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/geriatric_depression_scale_short.pdf">depression</a>, and assessed signs of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/56/3/M146/545770?login=false">physical frailty</a> including speed of walking, muscle strength and activity levels. We then assessed them again after six weeks.</p>
<p>While we were cautiously hopeful, the overall improvements were better than anticipated, and some of the individual transformations were extraordinary. </p>
<p>For instance, three of four participants who originally screened positive for depression had scores in the normal range by the end of the program. For one woman in her 80s her score improved by eight points on a 15-point scale. Improvements in fitness levels across the group were impressive too.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dale and Abi outside, standing on grass, trees in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555963/original/file-20231025-15-d2fqb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dale was concerned about how her visual impairment affected her day-to-day life, but soon connected with Abi.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EndemolShine Australia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since then, the series has evolved to involve differing populations: from residents of aged care facilities and retirement villages, to older adults living in the community, and from preschoolers to teenagers.</p>
<p>Each program has been adapted to the needs of each group involved. At times, we have focused on a particular issue, such as loneliness, depression, concerns about memory, physical frailty and falls.</p>
<p>But in each we have continued to see benefits for both age groups, in line with what a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568163721001471">growing evidence base</a> is telling us about the potential benefits of such programs. </p>
<p>This is perhaps even more so in the Old People’s Home for Teenagers series, with the second season currently on air. The teenage participants are articulate in describing how truly valuable it is for younger people to spend enriched time with older mentors. Their confidence increases, they take on new challenges, and new meaningful connections develop, many of which continue to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-01/old-peoples-home-for-teens-ongoing-intergenerational-friendships/102885166">enrich lives</a> long after the cameras stop rolling.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-think-my-teen-is-depressed-how-can-i-get-them-help-and-what-are-the-treatment-options-206702">I think my teen is depressed. How can I get them help and what are the treatment options?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>No-one is pretending such intergenerational programs are going to end loneliness for all older people, or can remove all the challenges they may face later in life. And equally, people do not need to be lonely, frail or isolated to participate.</p>
<p>Alongside the TV programs, there has been an <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/backstory/2023-10-03/old-peoples-home-4-year-olds-impact-and-success/102868168">upswing</a> in community interest in intergenerational practice, from researchers to educators to aged care providers, to hospitals/health services and schools. </p>
<p>We need continued investment into workforce training, support for such programs to develop, and robust evaluation of each program to ensure they meet the goals of all the stakeholders involved – especially those of the participants themselves. </p>
<p>The “Old People’s Home” model did not invent the concept of intergenerational programs. Nor are the models of practice used in each series the only way intergenerational programs must run. But they do demonstrate what intergenerational programs could achieve. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Learn more about <a href="https://aiip.net.au/resources/">intergenerational programs</a> in Australia and find one <a href="https://aiip.net.au/about-us/intergenerational-programs-in-australia">near you</a>. If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Ward has received some financial compensation for her time spent involved in the Old People's Home for 4 Year Olds/ Teenagers series for the Australian Broadcasting Commission and EndemolShine Australia. She has previously been a recipient of a research training stipend for a PhD on sleep apnoea and dementia risk. She is a chief investigator on several studies that have received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Medical Research Future Fund. Stephanie Ward is also a geriatrician at the Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney.</span></em></p>Could teenagers get on with older people and vice versa? Turned out, they could. And both flourished.Stephanie Ward, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2167402023-11-01T19:24:31Z2023-11-01T19:24:31ZShould people who had disability before they turned 65, be allowed to become NDIS participants after 65? We asked 5 experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556985/original/file-20231101-27-242t0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C0%2C6193%2C4147&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/life-insurance-disability-medical-policy-seniors-1930690763">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The question of whether there should be an age limit to joining the National Disability Scheme (NDIS) has been debated <a href="https://theconversation.com/ndis-for-under-65s-ageism-or-a-battle-over-priorities-11774">since its inception</a> a decade ago.</p>
<p>It is being asked again as we wait for the <a href="https://www.ndisreview.gov.au/">NDIS Review</a> to release its final report. The report is expected to explore eligibility, sustainability and how costs should be split between the scheme and other government departments to provide an <a href="https://www.ndisreview.gov.au/news/ecosystem-supports">ecosystem of supports</a> for people with disability.</p>
<p>Currently, once someone turns 65 they are no longer eligible to apply for NDIS support, even if they had disability before then. (NDIS support can <a href="https://www.ndis.gov.au/participants/changing-your-plan/leaving-scheme">extend beyond 65</a> for people who are already participants in the scheme.) Some <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-31/ndis-age-cap-complaint-united-nations/103013742">people</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/feb/21/ndis-over-65s-age-exclusions-national-disability-insurance-scheme-class-action">groups</a> say this is discriminatory. </p>
<p>So, should people who had disability before they turned 65, be allowed to become NDIS participants after 65? We asked five experts. </p>
<h2>Four out of five said yes</h2>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-965" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/965/dfa6d9060604b6e5612b33533a915784285cdb2c/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
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<p><em>Disclosure statements: <strong>Elizabeth Kendall</strong> does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment; <strong>Helen Dickinson</strong> receives funding from the Australian Research Council, National Health and Medical Research Council and Children and Young People with Disability Australia; <strong>Henry Cutler</strong> currently sits on the Investment Effectiveness Program Academic Advisory Panel for the National Disability Insurance Agency; <strong>Kathy Boschen</strong> was formerly a senior compliance officer for the NDIS Quality and Safeguards Commission, an advisor for the NDIA Administrative Appeals Tribunal Team, and an NDIA subject matter expert on mental health access; <strong>Mark Brown</strong> is an Honorary Research Fellow at La Trobe University and a Senior Research Fellow at the Summer Foundation. He is also an NDIS participant.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216740/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Currently, when someone turns 65 they are not eligible to apply for NDIS support, even if they had disability before then. We asked experts if that should change.Lucy Beaumont, Health + Disability EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2142362023-10-09T13:31:59Z2023-10-09T13:31:59ZWitchcraft in Ghana: help should come before accusations begin<p>Witchcraft is generally understood to refer to a supernatural power possessed by an individual. In Ghana, particularly in the northern parts of the country, the subject continues to <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/Should-witch-camps-in-Ghana-be-closed-down-1023430">spark fierce debates</a>.</p>
<p>In regions such as Northern, Savanna and North East, people accused of witchcraft are banished from their communities. In response, other communities have provided refuge for displaced people. These places of refuge have themselves <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/witch-camps-elderly-women-die-ghana-1754907">sparked controversy</a>. Critics contend that they have become centres of “abuse” and have called for their closure. </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/profile/821110-matthew-mabefam">lecturer</a> in anthropology and development studies. I set out to understand the controversy around what are often called “witch camps” and whether they should be abolished. I conducted a year long ethnographic study in the Gnani-Tindang community in northern Ghana. Gnani-Tindang provides refuge for people accused of witchcraft who have been banished from their communities.</p>
<p>I conclude from my <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681392.2023.2232052">findings</a>
that government and NGOs aren’t proving capable of managing the problem, because they are starting at the wrong place. The focus is on witchcraft accusations, by which time people have already been stripped of their “social citizenship” and been forced to relocate. </p>
<p>Engaging with the experiences of people accused of witchcraft and their communities shows that intervening at an earlier point matters more.</p>
<h2>The background</h2>
<p>Victims of witchcraft accusations face alienation or exclusion from their communities. Exclusions can be social, physical, economic or psychological.</p>
<p>Some villages in northern Ghana have become known as places that provide refuge to people banished from their communities. These villages were not created for this purpose. Rather, they are already existing communities that have chosen to provide such refuge. </p>
<p>Banishment happens when someone accused of witchcraft is no longer welcomed in their community. They are asked to leave and never return. Not heeding such advice comes with consequences including violence, abuse, social exclusion and murder. </p>
<p>Sometimes people relocate to a village that’s offering them safety after they’ve been forced to leave their homes following direct threats. In some instances people move when they hear rumours that they risk being accused of witchcraft. </p>
<h2>What people who had been banished told me</h2>
<p>The purpose of my research inquiry was to gain insights into how individuals accused of witchcraft speak about themselves and their circumstances.</p>
<p>The experiences of those accused varied. As one told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>They finally threatened that they were going to do their juju, and if I had any knowledge about the child’s sickness, I was going to die within four days. I told them they should go ahead; I was willing to die if I were the one responsible for the child’s sickness. After the ritual, I didn’t die. However, they said I could no longer stay with them in the community.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another gave this account: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>After the death of my husband, the relatives accused me of witchcraft. My in-laws said I killed my husband, but I don’t know anything about it. He fell sick and died afterwards. How can I kill my husband? I was lucky I wasn’t killed. There were lots of chaos, and some of the people suggested that I should be killed. Others disagreed and suggested that I should be brought to Gnani-Tindang … It’s my husband’s people who brought me here.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We also observed that elderly people with little strength to fend for themselves were often targeted. One person, who was 80 years old, said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Look at me; I’m old and weak now. I can’t do much for myself. But I must fetch water, firewood and beg for food to eat. It is lonely here. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>What next</h2>
<p>Ghana’s parliament has recently <a href="https://www.songtaba.org/wp-content/uploads/Press-Release_antiWitchcraftBill-28072023.pdf">passed</a> an anti-witchcraft bill. It seeks to criminalise the practice of declaring, accusing, naming, or labelling people as witches. Making such an accusation would lead to a prison sentence.</p>
<p>But, in my view, the bill alone isn’t the solution. This is because declaring certain behaviour illegal – and therefore punishable in a court of law – doesn’t address the issue of prejudice and discrimination which often relates to people’s age, gender and economic status. In other words, the law won’t deal with the tensions that emerge when culture intersects with the reality of people who become victims of witchcraft accusations.</p>
<p>Additional steps need to be taken. </p>
<p>Firstly, attention needs to be given to the underlying social issues driving accusations of witchcraft. For example, extreme inequalities among men and women, old and young, rich and poor. Creating avenues that provide a balance in society will have an effect on witchcraft accusation and banishment. </p>
<p>Early gender-tailored education needs to be introduced by the government and development actors on the value of both boys and girls. This is particularly important in the patriarchal societies of northern Ghana. This could help address gender inequalities that lead to witchcraft accusations. Witchcraft accusation is gendered: more women than men are accused, confronted and banished. </p>
<p>There is a need to engage widely with the Ghanaian society about the dangers of witchcraft accusation and to put in mechanisms to protect those who are abused and violated as a result of such accusations. </p>
<p>Finally, there is a need to listen to the voices and experiences of those who are victims of witchcraft accusations. This will ensure that interventions aren’t detached from their reality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Mabefam does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Victims of witchcraft accusations face alienation or exclusion from their communities.Matthew Mabefam, Lecturer, Development Studies, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2136532023-09-24T20:01:58Z2023-09-24T20:01:58ZAmerica’s leaders are older than they’ve ever been. Why didn’t the founding fathers foresee this as a problem?<p>The US Congress has had no shortage of viral moments in recent months. Senator Dianne Feinstein seemingly became <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/congress/sen-dianne-feinstein-told-just-say-aye-awkward-senate-committee-moment-rcna96697">confused</a> over how to vote. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/senate-set-return-after-mitch-mcconnells-freeze-episodes/story?id=102907135">experienced</a> two extended “freeze episodes” during press conferences. And several members of Congress <a href="https://www.vox.com/technology/23653884/tiktok-hearing-shou-chew-winners-losers">mistook</a> TikTok for the name of a breath mint (Tic Tac). </p>
<p>The world’s oldest democracy currently has its <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/aging-congress-boomers/">oldest-ever</a> Congress. President Joe Biden (80 years old) is also the <a href="https://potus.com/presidential-facts/age-at-inauguration/">oldest</a> US president in history. His leading rival in the 2024 presidential race, former President Donald Trump, is not far behind at 77. </p>
<p>Biden and Trump are both older than <a href="https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2020s-national-detail.html">96%</a> of the US population. Unsurprisingly, they are both facing widespread questions about their ages and cognitive abilities.</p>
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<h2>How did we get to this ‘senior moment’?</h2>
<p>America’s increasingly geriatric political leadership is not a surprising phenomenon. As the authors of the book, <a href="https://press.umich.edu/Books/Y/Youth-without-Representation">Youth Without Representation</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/politicians-are-getting-older-shutting-young-people-out-of-decision-making-around-the-world-197140">pointed out</a> earlier this year, the average age of US members of Congress has <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S026137942200110X">consistently risen</a> over the past 40 years. </p>
<p>Some of this shift can be attributed to actuarial realities: much like the ageing US electorate, American politicians are living longer and fuller lives in old age than they did before, particularly compared to the time of America’s “founding fathers” (many of whom were <a href="https://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2013/08/18/Most-US-Founding-Fathers-were-age-40-and-younger/63491376874813/">under the age of 40</a> when the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776).</p>
<p>Some of this may also be attributed to older Americans being far more likely to vote than their younger counterparts. In 2016, for instance, nearly three-quarters of eligible voters over the age of 65 <a href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/09/03/america-gerontocracy-problem-politics-old-politicians-trump-biden-sanders-227986/">reported</a> they had voted, compared to less than half of those aged under 30. And those older Americans may prefer electing politicians closer to their age range.</p>
<p>Yet lifespans have increased around the world and the ageing of US politicians still stands out compared to other developed nations. The average age of government leaders in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has actually <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/16/opinion/america-presidents-old-age.html">decreased</a> since 1950 – and today is nearly 25 years younger than Biden.</p>
<p>Florida governor and Republican presidential hopeful Ron DeSantis <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/video/desantis-founding-fathers-would-probably-put-age-limit-on-elected-officials/">said</a> the country’s founding fathers would “probably” implement maximum age limits on elected officials if they “could look at this again”. But this raises the question of why they didn’t do it the first time.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-joe-biden-is-old-and-has-low-approval-ratings-but-this-is-why-hes-still-confident-of-re-election-204529">Yes, Joe Biden is old and has low approval ratings, but this is why he's still confident of re-election</a>
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<h2>What did the founding fathers think about term limits?</h2>
<p>The founding fathers fiercely debated term limits for both presidents and members of Congress and even included them for members of the Continental Congress in the first <a href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/articles-of-confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>. However, they ended up not being written into the Constitution. </p>
<p>As much as Americans cherish the idea of the nation being founded on a constitution and laws instead of traditions and monarchy, the founding fathers ultimately did not legislate any term limits. Instead, they largely assumed custom, tradition and <a href="https://guides.loc.gov/federalist-papers/text-51-60#:%7E:text=The%20greater%20the%20proportion%20of,of%20Representatives%20and%20the%20Senate.">democratic elections</a> would dictate the terms of office. </p>
<p>In fact, the first president, George Washington, helped begin the custom of a president not seeking longer than two terms in office. </p>
<p>Mirroring <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lucius-Quinctius-Cincinnatus">Cincinnatus</a>, a Roman leader who became legendary for being given dictatorial control over Rome during a crisis but then voluntarily relinquishing control once the crisis was over, Washington left the presidency after two four-year terms. </p>
<p>For more than a century after that, US presidents adhered to Washington’s convention (which historians <a href="https://www.tamupress.com/book/9781603449915/presidential-term-limits-in-american-history/">contend</a> that Thomas Jefferson, America’s third president, in reality ended up setting) and did not serve a third term in office. </p>
<p>The first to break that tradition was Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who won <a href="https://www.history.com/news/fdr-four-term-president-22-amendment">four terms</a> in office, including a third just before the second world war. After he died in office at the age of 63, Congress ratified the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution that limited presidents to two four-year terms.</p>
<p>While US presidents have faced term limits for most of the past century, members of Congress continue to serve as long as they like. (There are currently <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/08/us/politics/oldest-members-of-congress.html">20 members</a> over the age of 80. Feinstein, the oldest at 90, has served six terms as a senator from California.)</p>
<p>Part of the reason for this omission may be that the founding fathers and early American leaders did not expect members of Congress to stay in office as long as they now do. In the years after the Constitution was ratified, members of Congress simply did not seek re-election as frequently. </p>
<p>For example, the average length of service for US senators has more than doubled from about <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CRPT-104srpt158/html/CRPT-104srpt158.htm">4.8 years</a> back then to <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47470">11.2 years</a> today. </p>
<h2>The price of elected office and who can afford it</h2>
<p>Beyond demographics and changing habits of US politicians, one underestimated contributor to America’s increasingly elderly political leadership is that running for political office in America is more expensive than ever. </p>
<p>The 2020 election was not only contentious, but it was also the most expensive in US history. It cost more than <a href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2021/02/2020-cycle-cost-14p4-billion-doubling-16/">US$14.4 billion</a> (A$22.5 billion) for the presidential and congressional races – more than double what was spent in the 2016 elections. </p>
<p>The 2022 elections also <a href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2023/02/midterms-spending-spree-cost-of-2022-federal-elections-tops-8-9-billion-a-new-midterm-record/">broke a record</a> for spending in a midterm election at US$8.9 billion (A$13.9 billion).</p>
<p>On an individual level, the <a href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2023/02/midterms-spending-spree-cost-of-2022-federal-elections-tops-8-9-billion-a-new-midterm-record/">average</a> winner of a House of Representatives race in 1990 spent around US$400,000. By 2022 that had risen to US$2.79 million. The average winner of a Senate race in 1990 spent nearly US$3.9 million, compared to US$26.5 million in 2022.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-voters-have-to-pick-a-republican-or-a-democrat-in-the-us-203830">Why do voters have to pick a Republican or a Democrat in the US?</a>
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<p>It should come as no surprise that the ten <a href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2021/02/2020-cycle-cost-14p4-billion-doubling-16/">most expensive</a> House and Senate races in US history took place in the past five years.</p>
<p>Those with the resources necessary to afford such expensive campaigns are more likely to be older than not. Whether it be independently <a href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2020/04/majority-of-lawmakers-millionaires/">wealthy</a> business owners or well-established politicians with extensive fundraising networks, the high cost of admission for political office undeniably favours the old.</p>
<p>In an era of extensive polarisation, it can often seem like Americans cannot agree on much. One area of agreement, however, is that their politicians are simply <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/670200251/cbsnews-20230910-SUN#">too old</a>. </p>
<p>Yet while a majority of Americans may tell pollsters that, most still consistently end up voting for a candidate who is considerably older than them. That will very likely be the case again in the 2024 presidential election. At least one of those probable candidates (Trump or Biden), though, will be barred by term limits from being on the ballot again in 2028.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213653/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jared Mondschein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Term limits for presidents were only written into the Constitution after the second world war. And members of Congress can still serve as long as they wish.Jared Mondschein, Director of Research, US Studies Centre, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.