tag:theconversation.com,2011:/nz/topics/agriculture-24/articlesAgriculture – The Conversation2024-03-25T12:39:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2241522024-03-25T12:39:22Z2024-03-25T12:39:22ZWhat is dirt? There’s a whole wriggling world alive in the ground beneath our feet, as a soil scientist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582688/original/file-20240318-24-77z9su.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C3110%2C2057&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dig into soil and you'll find rock dust but also thousands of living species.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-childs-hands-digging-in-the-mud-royalty-free-image/619539728">ChristinLola/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<p><strong>What is dirt? – Belle and Ryatt, ages 7 and 5, Keystone, South Dakota</strong></p>
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<p>When you think about dirt, you’re probably picturing soil. There’s so much more going on under our feet than the rock dust, or “dirt,” that gets on your pants.</p>
<p>When <a href="https://arts-sciences.und.edu/academics/biology/brian-darby/index.html">I began studying soil</a>, I was amazed at how much of it is actually alive. Soil is teeming with life, and not just the earthworms that you see on rainy days.</p>
<p>Keeping this vibrant world healthy is <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qas9tPQKd8w">crucial for food, forests and flowers to grow</a> and for the animals that live in the ground to thrive. Here’s a closer look at what’s down there and how it all works together.</p>
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<img alt="Cupped hands holds soil against a dark background with a tendril of plant root dangling through the fingers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582689/original/file-20240318-20-8yglsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Soil is a vibrant ecosystem.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/bokeh-photography-of-person-carrying-soil-jin4W1HqgL4">Gabriel Jimenez via Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>The rocky part of soils</h2>
<p>If you scoop up a handful of dry soil, the basic dirt that you feel in your hand is actually very small pieces of <a href="https://passel2.unl.edu/view/lesson/c62dc027ae56/1">weathered rock</a>. These tiny bits eroded from larger rocks over millions of years.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.soils4teachers.org/physical-properties/">balance of these particles</a> is important for how well soil can hold water and nutrients that plants need to thrive. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sandy-soil-guide">sandy soil</a> has larger rock grains, so it will be loose and can easily wash away. It won’t hold very much water. <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/understanding-and-improving-clay-soil-2539857">Soil with mostly clay</a> is finer and more compact, making it difficult for plants to access its moisture. In between the two in size is <a href="https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/soil-fertilizers/what-is-silt.htm">silt, a mix of rock dust and minerals</a> often found in fertile flood plains.</p>
<p>Some of the most productive soils have a good balance of sand, clay and silt. <a href="https://www.masterclass.com/articles/how-to-create-loam-soil-for-your-garden">That combination</a>, along with the remnants of plants and animals that have died, helps the soil to retain water, allows plants to access that water and minimizes erosion from wind or rain.</p>
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<img alt="Three tipped over pots spill different types of soil – sandy is heavier grain, clay is finer grain and thicker, and loamy is darker." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581414/original/file-20240312-16-meqnvu.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Loamy soil, ideal for gardens, is a mix of sand, clay and silt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/learn-about-soil-types">NOAA</a></span>
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<h2>The wriggling, munching parts of soil</h2>
<p>Among all those rock particles is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113717">whole world of living things</a>, each busy doing its job.</p>
<p>To get a sense of just how many creatures are there, picture this: The zoo in Omaha, Nebraska, boasts <a href="https://www.omahazoo.com/">over 1,000 animal species</a>. But if you scooped up a small spoonful of soil in your backyard, it would likely contain <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/our-science/case-studies/case-study-why-do-soil-microbes-matter">at least 10,000 species</a> and around a billion living microscopic cells.</p>
<p>Most of those species are <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/newscentre/news_centre/story_archive/2018/first_soil_atlas">still largely a mystery</a>. Scientists don’t know much about them or what they do in soil. In fact, most species in soil don’t even have a formal scientific name. But each plays some kind of role in the vast soil ecosystem, including generating the <a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/farming/essential-plant-elements/">nutrients that plants need to grow</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two centipede-like creatures caught on camera immediately after a rock is lifted." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581410/original/file-20240312-20-vn3j2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Lifting a rock reveals a symphylan, or garden centipede, left, and a poduromorph, or plump springtail, munching through the soil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Symphylan_%26_poduromorph_springtail_(3406419924).jpg">Marshal Hedin via Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Imagine a leaf falling from a tree in late autumn.</p>
<p>Inside that leaf are a lot of nutrients that plants need, such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. There is also a lot of <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/earth-system/biogeochemical-cycles">carbon in that leaf</a>, which holds energy that can be used by other organisms such as bacteria and fungi.</p>
<p>The leaf itself is too large for a plant to take up through its roots, of course. But that leaf can be broken down into smaller and smaller pieces. This process of breaking down plant and animal tissue is <a href="https://youtu.be/IBvKKMzXYtY?feature=shared">known as decomposition</a>.</p>
<p>When the leaf first falls to the ground, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Finsects11010054">arthropods</a> – such as insects, mites and <a href="https://www.chaosofdelight.org/collembola-springtails">collembolans</a> – break the leaf down into smaller chunks by shredding the tissue. Then, an <a href="https://youtu.be/n3wsUYg3XV0?feature=shared">earthworm might come along</a> and eat one of the smaller chunks and break it down even more in <a href="https://www.pbs.org/video/how-do-worms-turn-garbage-into-compost-jwj6cm/">its digestive tract</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2Pa1FwmKZcQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">PBS explores how earthworms help turn dead plants into fertile soil.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Now the broken-up leaf is small enough for microbes to come in. <a href="https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/anr-36">Bacteria</a> and <a href="https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/anr-37">fungi secrete enzymes</a> into the soil that further break down organic material into even smaller pieces. If enough microbes are active, eventually this organic material will be broken down enough that it can dissolve in water and be taken up by plants that need it.</p>
<p>To aid in this process, there are many small animals, such as <a href="https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/are_soil_nematodes_beneficial_or_harmful">nematodes</a> and <a href="https://www.livingsoil.net/protozoa">amoebae</a>, that consume bacteria and fungi. There are also predatory nematodes that feed on other nematodes to make sure they don’t become too abundant, so everything remains in balance as much as possible. </p>
<p>It’s quite a complicated food web of interacting species in a delicate balance.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IBvKKMzXYtY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A time-lapse video filmed about 4 inches underground shows a leaf decomposing over 21 days in July. At the end, radish roots make their way down into the soil. Video by Josh Williams.</span></figcaption>
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<p>While some fungi and bacteria <a href="https://www.growingagreenerworld.com/bacteria-fungus-and-viruses-an-overview/">can harm plants</a>, there are many species that are considered beneficial. In fact, they <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/conservation-basics/natural-resource-concerns/soils/soil-health">may be the key</a> to figuring out how to grow enough crops to feed everyone without degrading and overburdening the soil.</p>
<h2>Figuring out your soil type</h2>
<p>Scientists have named <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/education-and-teaching-materials/soil-facts">over 20,000 different types</a> of unique soils. If you’re curious about the <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/learn-about-soil-types">soil and dirt in your area</a>, the University of California, Davis has a <a href="https://casoilresource.lawr.ucdavis.edu/gmap/">website where you can learn</a> more about local soils and their chemical and physical attributes.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.farmers.gov/conservation/soil-health">Caring for soil</a> to promote its living creatures’ benefits and minimize their harm takes work, but it’s essential for keeping the land healthy and growing food for the future.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Darby receives funding from the United States Department of Agriculture. </span></em></p>Rock dust is only part of the story of soil. Living creatures, many of them too tiny to see, keep that soil healthy for growing everything from food to forests.Brian Darby, Associate Professor of Biology, University of North DakotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2252652024-03-25T02:37:22Z2024-03-25T02:37:22ZAlternative proteins are here – the next 30 years could be crucial for NZ’s meat and dairy sectors<p>The history of farming is seeded with technological “big bang” moments that have changed the trajectory of whole industries and countries. </p>
<p>Some – such as mechanisation, and the arrival of synthetic fertiliser and pesticides, have transformed agricultural economic and technical systems. Others have involved substitute commodities – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016718309811">artificial flavourings, chemical dyes</a> or synthetic fibres to <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/centre-sustainability/research/foodagriculture/protein-20-understanding-the-synthetic-protein-transition">replace wool</a> – which have threatened the existence of whole farming sectors, including in New Zealand. </p>
<p>The next big disruption is arguably <a href="https://www.emergingproteins.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Unleashing-Aotearoa-New-Zealands-Next-Protein-Revolution_July-2023-WEB.pdf">alternative proteins</a>. They promise to introduce a brave new world of environmentally and animal-friendly proteins, produced by microbes in industrial vats or cell division in laboratories. </p>
<p>Proponents argue alternative proteins <a href="https://theconversation.com/nz-has-the-energy-resources-to-adopt-alternative-food-technologies-it-just-needs-a-plan-222348">offer a solution</a> to many of the world’s environmental and social problems. </p>
<p>Notably, the <a href="https://eatforum.org/eat-lancet-commission/">EAT-Lancet Commission on Food, Planet, Health</a> included non-animal proteins as integral to a sustainable diet for a stressed planet, making a significant contribution to climate change mitigation. </p>
<p>Most academic publications reflect this optimism about “promissory science”. They focus on technological advancement and solutions that require more investment of time and funding. In this version of the future, we can have our beef (equivalent) and eat it too. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/emerging-tech-in-the-food-transport-and-energy-sector-can-help-counter-the-effects-of-climate-change-180126">Emerging tech in the food, transport and energy sector can help counter the effects of climate change</a>
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<p>But what does a shift to alternative proteins mean for farming systems and landscapes in countries where animal protein production sectors are a significant element of rural economies? </p>
<p>For <a href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/environmental-humanities/article/14/1/71/294320/The-CAFO-in-the-BioreactorReflections-on">some critics</a>, questions remain as to who benefits, who is substituted out of existence, who captures value and who gets left behind?</p>
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<h2>Modelling the future</h2>
<p>These questions are particularly important for New Zealand, where agricultural sectors generate <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-zealand-food-and-fibre-exports-leap-533-billion-result">80% of export earnings</a>. In competing with traditional agricultural sector, alternative proteins can change the fortunes of entire sectors and regions.</p>
<p>As part of the <a href="https://ourlandandwater.nz/project/protein-future-scenarios/">Protein Futures NZ</a> project (funded through the <a href="https://ourlandandwater.nz/">Our Land and Water</a> National Science Challenge), we used economic modelling to investigate the impacts of alternative proteins on the primary sector and regional land use in New Zealand.</p>
<p>The first step involved finding credible projections of growth for alternative protein production globally. Because most are not yet produced at commercial scales, expectations of their potential and impacts vary significantly.</p>
<p>This uncertainty is evident in the diverse predictions of experts on primary sector. Their assessments ranged from expecting minimal competition for existing farming sectors to foreseeing the complete replacement of traditional animal-based proteins in New Zealand. </p>
<p>We turned to the <a href="https://www.bcg.com/capabilities/climate-change-sustainability/alternative-proteins">market assessments</a> conducted by management consulting groups to model what might happen. These pointed to a range of potential growth for alternative proteins that we captured in four scenarios projected to the year 2050.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-made-of-legumes-but-sizzles-on-the-barbie-like-beef-australias-new-high-tech-meat-alternative-124429">What's made of legumes but sizzles on the barbie like beef? Australia's new high-tech meat alternative</a>
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<p>The first of the scenarios used current growth trajectories for different forms of alternative protein (plant-based proteins, precision fermentation of protein ingredients, and cellular meat) until 2050. This provided a baseline for comparison. </p>
<p>In this first scenario the growth in global demand for protein outstripped any increases coming from alternative sources. Everyone benefits from the growth in escalating global demand for proteins.</p>
<p>The three other scenarios imagined what would happen to New Zealand’s meat and dairy sectors if there was significant growth in one or more of the alternative protein types. </p>
<p>Our modelling suggested the different alternative proteins would have mixed impact on New Zealand’s agricultural sector. The dairy sector would be particularly sensitive to developments in precision fermentation that produced direct substitutes for casein and whey protein. The number of sheep decreased in scenarios two, three and four while alternative proteins had an inconsistent impact on beef.</p>
<p>Broadly, our modelling showed any significant growth in one or more alternative proteins would result in fewer animals and more plants being grown in New Zealand. </p>
<p>Despite the negative impacts on the meat and dairy sectors, the modelling projected relatively moderate overall economic impacts for New Zealand. Increased production of alternative proteins also showed clear environmental benefits, including lower greenhouse gas emissions. </p>
<h2>Time to prepare for alternative proteins</h2>
<p>The findings of the project provide much food for thought. At the minimum, artificial proteins will change the world market for some major export sectors.</p>
<p>Our research indicates the need for policy that prepares the primary sector for changing protein markets and governing bodies for changing land use. </p>
<p>We also make the following observations:</p>
<p>• The appeal of alternative proteins lies in their reduced environmental impacts and increased animal welfare. For New Zealand to be competitive in these sectors, producers need to spotlight production practices that mitigate impacts on climate, water, soils, biodiversity and animal welfare. </p>
<p>• There are opportunities to shift production to plant proteins or to plant products that supply the nutrients, usually in a fluid base, which feed the microbes in precision fermentation and the cells in cellular meat. </p>
<p>• New Zealand may also benefit from investment in technologies that take advantage of renewable energy to produce proteins. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/less-meat-more-bugs-in-our-dietary-future-94853">Less meat, more bugs in our dietary future</a>
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<p>History tells us that substitutes for traditional agricultural products can significantly alter the viability of once-profitable commodities. </p>
<p>Alternative proteins will very likely lead to significant shifts in land use alongside improved outcomes for some key environmental and welfare factors. It’s now time to develop policy enabling a resilient response to this impact.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors wish to acknowledge the rest of the Protein Futures research team: Jon Manhire, Rob Burton, Stuart Ford, Klaus Mittenzwei, John Reid, Miranda Mirosa, John Saunders, Simon Barber, Sarah O’Connell, Kate Tomlinson, Ann Moriarty, Angus Sinclair Thompson and Brent Paehua. We also thank the industry experts who contributed to interviews.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Rosin receives funding from the Our Land and Water National Science Challenge.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugh Campbell receives funding from the Our Land and Water National Science Challenge. He also participates in development of Agricultural and Rural Policy for Te Pāti Kākāriki - the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand.</span></em></p>NZ’s sheep industry could be one of the biggest losers with the rise of alternative proteins. Once profitable industries will need to be ready to pivot away from animal-based products.Christopher Rosin, Senior Lecturer in Political Ecology, Lincoln University, New ZealandHugh Campbell, Professor of Sociology, Gender Studies and Criminology, University of OtagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256082024-03-22T14:32:08Z2024-03-22T14:32:08ZWhat your fruit bowl reveals about climate breakdown<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583435/original/file-20240321-21-cl7r8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1089%2C769&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_life#/media/File:Basket111.jpg">Fede Galizia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Spring arrived in style on March 26 2021 in Kyoto, Japan, as cherry trees reached <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-56574142">the peak of their bloom</a>. This marked the earliest recorded date when most flowers have opened in a series of annual records dating back to 812 AD – over 1,200 years. </p>
<p>The culprit is climate change. <a href="https://research.reading.ac.uk/research-blog/britains-notoriously-wet-and-cold-climate-is-changing-you-wont-like-what-replaces-it/">Milder, wetter winters</a> and warmer springs coupled with increasingly variable weather have caused blossom dates to advance across growing regions and a variety of fruit trees. </p>
<p>While this might scupper the travel plans of those hoping to catch a glimpse of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-56574142">the famous cherry blossom in Japan</a>, changing blossom dates are causing a much larger headache for those in charge of over 40 million hectares of fruit orchards <a href="https://data.apps.fao.org/catalog/dataset/crop-production-yield-harvested-area-and-processed-global-national-annual-faostat">worldwide</a>.</p>
<p>Fruit trees have a complex relationship with the climate. In winter, trees need a period of cold weather (known as <a href="https://orchardnotes.com/2021/01/10/what-are-chill-hours-and-why-do-they-matter/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CChill%20hours%20are%20the%20number,chill%20needed%20for%20fruit%20production.">chill accumulation</a>) to exit their dormant winter state and resume growth. This is followed by a period of warm weather (known as heat accumulation) which is necessary to produce blossoms in spring. </p>
<p>The amount of cold and warm weather required varies depending on the fruit and variety, but failure to fulfil either can damage fruit yield and quality.</p>
<p>Higher average temperatures and greater swings in temperature across both seasons have caused chaos for fruit trees, with increasingly frequent and severe heatwaves and <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-warming-may-be-behind-an-increase-in-the-frequency-and-intensity-of-cold-spells-223153#:%7E:text=Global%20warming%20makes%20extreme%20weather,to%20extreme%20winter%20cold%20spells.">cold snaps</a> disrupting the once stable cycle of seasons.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Do the seasons feel increasingly weird to you? You’re not alone. Climate change is distorting nature’s calendar, causing plants to flower early and animals to emerge at the wrong time.</em></p>
<p><em>This article is part of a series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/wild-seasons-152175?utm_source=InArticleTop&utm_medium=TCUK&utm_campaign=WS">Wild Seasons</a>, on how the seasons are changing – and what they may eventually look like.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Despite warming winters, many fruit trees are still comfortably meeting their requirement for chill accumulation in temperate realms like Europe and North America. But the same trees are fulfilling their heat accumulation requirement earlier because of warmer springs. </p>
<p>As a result, apples, pears, cherries, plums and apricots are all flowering earlier – by as much as <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2311-7524/8/2/110">a fortnight</a> in some cases.</p>
<p>You will notice these changes too, most vividly, in the quality and availability of fruit you can buy. Here’s how the contents of your fruit bowl will change to reflect the distorted seasons.</p>
<h2>How earlier blossoms affect fruit</h2>
<p>Changes in blossom dates have major consequences when the time comes to harvest. </p>
<p>In areas where blossom dates are advancing, experts are warning of an increased risk that delicate blossoms will be exposed to damaging frosts. Even relatively short cold snaps when trees are in blossom can devastate fruit production. <a href="https://environmentalevidencejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13750-021-00247-7">A single frosty night</a> in April 2017 caused a 24% drop in the European yield of apples and a 12% drop in pear production.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A white blossom on a tree in an orchard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583438/original/file-20240321-18-wnnm2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Orchards are counting the cost of seasons becoming more unpredictable.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/organic-farming-netherlands-rows-blossoming-pear-2089396108">Barmalini/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many fruit trees are also self-incompatible. This means they need cross pollination from a different variety to set fruit. Much of this pollination is carried out by insects, particularly wild bees, and, during my PhD, I have found that the climate is also affecting the timing of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.10284">wild bee lifecycles</a>. </p>
<p>Some species of bee are emerging at the wrong time to pollinate fruit blossoms, partly because bees and blossom <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168192322004671">respond differently to the climate</a>. Not enough pollinating insects can be costly. Research from the University of Reading highlighted an estimated £5.7 million (US$7.3 million) a year in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880913003848?pes=vor">lost production</a> of Gala apples due to too few insect pollinators. </p>
<p><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.190326">Lack of pollination</a> can slash crop yield and change dry matter content (a good indicator of sugar content and eating quality) and reduce the ratio of potassium to calcium in the fruit, which reduces the chance of fruit developing diseases post-harvest.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of colourful bee hives with blossoming fruit trees behind them and daffodils in front." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583437/original/file-20240321-30-9gh6hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Growers are relying more on domesticated honeybees for pollination as wild bees decline.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/row-bee-hives-field-flowers-orchard-404083366">Slatan/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Earlier blossom dates have even been linked to changes in the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3744200/">taste of fruit</a>. Research into Fuji and Tsugaru apples in Japan uncovered falling acid concentrations and increases in soluble sugars, resulting in sweeter-tasting fruit. Early indications suggest that, in temperate regions, these changes may be <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2311-7524/9/7/794#:%7E:text=Conclusions,fruit%20quality%20for%20both%20cultivars.">beneficial to fruit quality</a>.</p>
<p>But in regions that are already considered warm, such as the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.01054/full">Mediterranean, northern Africa and Brazil</a>, growers face different challenges as their orchards <a href="https://www.climatecentral.org/climate-matters/winter-chill-brings-summer-fruit-2023">aren’t getting enough cold weather</a>. </p>
<p>This means trees may not reach their chill accumulation threshold, resulting in slower growth and lower production. The UK is importing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7116398/">more fruit than ever</a> from such <a href="https://gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/matrix/">climate-vulnerable</a> countries, including <a href="https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/apples-and-pears/reporter/gbr">18.5% of apple and pears</a> in 2022. </p>
<p>This includes imports from South Africa and Brazil, where winter chill is already limited and predicted to shrink further under <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/12/6/740">future climate conditions</a>. Existing varieties with high chill requirements may need to be replaced by those with lower chill requirements, such as Granny Smith or Pink Lady, which could become more prevalent on UK shelves as a result.</p>
<p>Even in countries not classed as particularly vulnerable to climate change, Widespread changes in the varieties and fruits that farmers grow may be necessary if orchards are to persist. By the end of the 21st century it is predicted that the necessary <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2707005/">chill accumulation will be unattainable</a> for many selectively bred varieties of apricot and peach in California, prompting dramatic declines in yield and making large changes in crop selection necessary.</p>
<h2>A bitter harvest</h2>
<p>Any changes to orchards will inevitably mean changes on the shelves of supermarkets. In the UK, experts are warning that traditional apple varieties such as Pippin or Nonpareil, grown in the country since at least 1500, are likely to be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/11/climate-breakdown-british-apples-die-out#:%7E:text=Gala%20apples%20are%20a%20popular,overtake%20traditional%20varieties%20in%20Britain.">replaced</a> by apples more suited to warmer climates, such as Fuji and Gala, bred in different parts of the world but grown in the UK. </p>
<p>In the not too distant future, you may find your favourite varieties of many fruits increase in price, or simply become unavailable, should climate change continue on its current trajectory. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Crates of fresh fruit." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583441/original/file-20240321-19-bjh3us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A well-stocked fruit and vegetable aisle can no longer be taken for granted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fresh-healthy-bio-fruits-vegetables-on-448915267">MNStudio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Uncovering changes in blossom dates and their effect on fruit yield and quality requires a lot of data, often painstakingly collected by researchers at universities and horticultural research stations. The advent of smartphones and their ability to share photos has made it possible for members of the public to get involved in this crucial area of research. </p>
<p><a href="https://fruitwatch.org/">FruitWatch</a> in the UK and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/cherryblossom/bloom-watch.htm">Bloom Watch</a> in the US are appealing to the public to submit records of where and when they see fruit trees blossoming, to help scientists better predict when trees will blossom under climate change and provide growers a vital early-warning system for the risks posed by climate change to their livelihoods.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225608/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Wyver has received funding from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) through the Waitrose Collaborative Training Partnership.</span></em></p>Earlier springs due to climate change are wreaking havoc in orchards.Chris Wyver, PhD Candidate, Pollination and Climate Change, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221082024-03-22T12:34:47Z2024-03-22T12:34:47ZClimate change is shifting the zones where plants grow – here’s what that could mean for your garden<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583569/original/file-20240321-20-wkg9tp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C4019%2C2474&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Climate change complicates plant choices and care. Early flowering and late freezes can kill flowers like these magnolia blossoms.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matt Kasson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/the-vernal-equinox-marks-the-first-day-of-spring-what-does-that-mean">arrival of spring</a> in North America, many people are gravitating to the gardening and landscaping section of home improvement stores, where displays are overstocked with eye-catching seed packs and benches are filled with potted annuals and perennials. </p>
<p>But some plants that once thrived in your yard may not flourish there now. To understand why, look to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s recent update of its <a href="https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/">plant hardiness zone map</a>, which has long helped gardeners and growers figure out which plants are most likely to thrive in a given location. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A U.S. map divided into colored geographic zones with a numbered key." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583488/original/file-20240321-28-3mclw8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 2023 USDA plant hardiness zone map shows the areas where plants can be expected to grow, based on extreme winter temperatures. Darker shades (purple to blue) denote colder zones, phasing southward into temperate (green) and warm zones (yellow and orange).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Comparing the 2023 map to the previous version from 2012 clearly shows that as climate change warms the Earth, plant hardiness zones are shifting northward. On average, the coldest days of winter in our current climate, based on temperature records from 1991 through 2020, are 5 degrees Fahrenheit (2.8 Celsius) warmer than they were between 1976 and 2005. </p>
<p>In some areas, including the central Appalachians, northern New England and north central Idaho, winter temperatures have warmed by 1.5 hardiness zones – 15 degrees F (8.3 C) – over the same 30-year window. This warming changes the zones in which plants, whether annual or perennial, will ultimately succeed in a climate on the move.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="U.S. map showing large areas colored tan, denoting a 5-degree increase in average winter minimum temperatures." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583491/original/file-20240321-24-nsmj8j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This map shows how plant hardiness zones have shifted northward from the 2012 to the 2023 USDA maps. A half-zone change corresponds to a tan area. Areas in white indicate zones that experienced minimal change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://site.extension.uga.edu/climate/2023/11/new-usda-plant-hardiness-zone-map-shows-most-of-southeast-has-gotten-one-half-zone-warmer/">Prism Climate Group, Oregon State University</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=frEPl6IAAAAJ&hl=en">plant pathologist</a>, I have devoted my career to understanding and addressing plant health issues. Many stresses not only shorten the lives of plants, but also affect their growth and productivity. </p>
<p>I am also a gardener who has seen firsthand how warming temperatures, pests and disease affect my annual harvest. By understanding climate change impacts on plant communities, you can help your garden reach its full potential in a warming world.</p>
<h2>Hotter summers, warmer winters</h2>
<p>There’s no question that the temperature trend is upward. From 2014 through 2023, the world experienced the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news/world-just-sweltered-through-its-hottest-august-on-record">10 hottest summers ever recorded</a> in 174 years of climate data. Just a few months of sweltering, unrelenting heat can significantly affect plant health, especially <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/cool-season-vs-warm-season-vegetables">cool-season garden crops</a> like broccoli, carrots, radishes and kale. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Radishes sprouting in a garden bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583468/original/file-20240321-26-b3sckt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Radishes are cool-season garden crops that cannot withstand the hottest days of summer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matt Kasson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Winters are also warming, and this matters for plants. The USDA defines plant hardiness zones based on the coldest average annual temperature in winter at a given location. Each zone represents a 10-degree F range, with zones numbered from 1 (coldest) to 13 (warmest). Zones are divided into 5-degree F half zones, which are lettered “a” (northern) or “b” (southern). </p>
<p>For example, the coldest hardiness zone in the lower 48 states on <a href="https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/">the new map</a>, 3a, covers small pockets in the northernmost parts of Minnesota and has winter extreme temperatures of -40 F to -35 F. The warmest zone, 11b, is in Key West, Florida, where the coldest annual lows range from 45 F to 50 F. </p>
<p>On the <a href="https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/system/files/US_Map_2012.jpg">2012 map</a>, northern Minnesota had a much more extensive and continuous zone 3a. North Dakota also had areas designated in this same zone, but those regions now have shifted completely into Canada. Zone 10b once covered the southern tip of mainland Florida, including Miami and Fort Lauderdale, but has now been pushed northward by a rapidly encroaching zone 11a. </p>
<p>Many people buy seeds or seedlings without thinking about hardiness zones, planting dates or disease risks. But when plants have to contend with temperature shifts, heat stress and disease, they will eventually struggle to survive in areas where they once thrived. </p>
<p>Successful gardening is still possible, though. Here are some things to consider before you plant:</p>
<h2>Annuals versus perennials</h2>
<p>Hardiness zones matter far less for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/annual">annual plants</a>, which germinate, flower and die in a single growing season, than for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/perennial">perennial plants</a> that last for several years. Annuals typically avoid the lethal winter temperatures that define plant hardiness zones. </p>
<p>In fact, most annual seed packs don’t even list the plants’ hardiness zones. Instead, they provide sowing date guidelines by geographic region. It’s still important to follow those dates, which help ensure that frost-tender crops are not planted too early and that cool-season crops are not harvested too late in the year.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Orange flowers blooming with other plants and grasses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583497/original/file-20240321-19-q24j99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">California poppies are typically grown as annuals in cool areas, but can survive for several years in hardiness zones 8-10.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/FWtHc">The Marmot/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>User-friendly perennials have broad hardiness zones</h2>
<p>Many perennials can grow across wide temperature ranges. For example, hardy fig and hardy kiwifruit grow well in zones 4-8, an area that includes most of the Northeast, Midwest and Plains states. Raspberries are hardy in zones 3-9, and blackberries are hardy in zones 5-9. This eliminates a lot of guesswork for most gardeners, since a majority of U.S. states are dominated by two or more of these zones. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, it’s important to pay attention to plant tags to avoid selecting a variety or cultivar with a restricted hardiness zone over another with greater flexibility. Also, pay attention to instructions about proper sun exposure and planting dates after the last frost in your area. </p>
<h2>Fruit trees are sensitive to temperature fluctuations</h2>
<p>Fruit trees have two parts, the rootstock and the scion wood, that are <a href="https://extension.unh.edu/sites/default/files/migrated_unmanaged_files/Resource003733_Rep5323.pdf">grafted together to form a single tree</a>. Rootstocks, which consist mainly of a root system, determine the tree’s size, timing of flowering and tolerance of soil-dwelling pests and pathogens. Scion wood, which supports the flowers and fruit, determines the fruit variety. </p>
<p>Most commercially available fruit trees can tolerate a wide range of hardiness zones. However, stone fruits like peaches, plums and cherries are more sensitive to temperature fluctuations within those zones – particularly abrupt swings in winter temperatures that create unpredictable freeze-thaw events. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Packages for hardy fig and kiwi seedlings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583498/original/file-20240321-18-w6ef0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Following planting instructions carefully can maximize plants’ chances of success.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matt Kasson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These seesaw weather episodes affect all types of fruit trees, but stone fruits appear to be more susceptible, possibly because they flower earlier in spring, have fewer hardy rootstock options, or have bark characteristics that make them more vulnerable to winter injury. </p>
<p>Perennial plants’ hardiness increases through the seasons in a process called <a href="https://extension.umd.edu/resource/hardening-vegetable-seedlings-home-garden/">hardening off</a>, which conditions them for harsher temperatures, moisture loss in sun and wind, and full sun exposure. But a too-sudden autumn temperature drop can cause plants to die back in winter, an event known as <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/winterkill-of-turfgrasses">winter kill</a>. Similarly, a sudden spring temperature spike can lead to premature flowering and subsequent frost kill.</p>
<h2>Pests are moving north too</h2>
<p>Plants aren’t the only organisms constrained by temperature. With milder winters, southern insect pests and plant pathogens are expanding their ranges northward. </p>
<p>One example is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/blight">Southern blight</a>, a stem and root rot disease that affects 500 plant species and is caused by a fungus, <em>Agroathelia rolfsii</em>. It’s often thought of as affecting hot Southern gardens, but has become more commonplace recently in the Northeast U.S. on tomatoes, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-your-jack-o-lantern-from-turning-into-moldy-maggoty-mush-before-halloween-190526">pumpkins and squash</a>, and other crops, including <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/apple-disease-southern-blight">apples in Pennsylvania</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A stem dotted with small round growths." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583501/original/file-20240321-26-h3tdv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Southern blight (small round fungal structures) at the base of a tomato plant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ag.purdue.edu/department/arge/swpap/southern-blight-tomato.html">Purdue University</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other plant pathogens may take advantage of milder winter temperatures, which leads to prolonged saturation of soils instead of freezing. Both plants and microbes are less active when soil is frozen, but in wet soil, microbes have an opportunity to colonize dormant perennial plant roots, leading to more disease.</p>
<p>It can be challenging to accept that climate change is stressing some of your garden favorites, but there are thousands of varieties of plants to suit both your interests and your hardiness zone. Growing plants is an opportunity to <a href="https://theconversation.com/take-a-break-from-your-screen-and-look-at-plants-botanizing-is-a-great-way-to-engage-with-life-around-you-210616">admire their flexibility</a> and the features that enable many of them to thrive in a world of change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222108/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Kasson receives funding from the US Department of Agriculture.</span></em></p>The US Department of Agriculture has updated its plant hardiness zone map, which shows where various plants will grow across the country. Gardeners should take note.Matt Kasson, Associate Professor of Mycology and Plant Pathology, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2252772024-03-19T19:42:37Z2024-03-19T19:42:37ZEven far from the ocean, Australia’s drylands are riddled with salty groundwater. What can land managers do?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580832/original/file-20240310-25-gs1bb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C11%2C7464%2C4023&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nik Callow</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the 1890s, railway engineers noticed river water used by steam locomotives <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/managing-dryland-salinity/history-salinity-western-australia-%E2%80%93-salty-bunch-dates">started to become salty</a> when surrounding land was cleared for agriculture.</p>
<p>Over the next decades, the problem worsened. In 1917, a Royal Commission in Western Australia <a href="http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/intranet/libpages.nsf/WebFiles/RC+1917/$FILE/0002006.pdf">dismissed the threat</a> from salt and instead promoted more clearing of land. </p>
<p>Ignoring the problem didn’t solve it. Salt water began rising from below in many new agricultural regions. Crops could not use this salty water. In March 1924 – a century ago this month – the railway engineer W.E. Wood published the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/46488592#page/73/mode/1up">first scientific paper</a> on the causes of salinity in Australia. </p>
<p>Wood concluded land clearing was causing groundwater levels to rise, bringing salt stored underground to the surface. He correctly proposed the salt in this region had come from the oceans, after evaporated seawater with residual salt <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/sr/sr9760319">fell as rain</a>. </p>
<p>In 2002, our last comprehensive national estimate put <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4615.0#:%7E:text=Farms%20primarily%20involved%20with%20the,land%20showing%20signs%20of%20salinity.">salinity-affected land at around 1.75 to 2 million hectares</a> – about 7.5 times the size of the Australian Capital Territory.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="salt crust on ground western australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582704/original/file-20240319-22-tabhig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Salt crusts can form once shallow ponds evaporate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wide-open-plain-view-dry-salt-391820593">Taras Vyshnya/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is dryland salinity?</h2>
<p>Salt is a natural part of our oceans. Some parts of the land have plenty of salt and are naturally saline. Salt lakes are part of <a href="https://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/songlines">traditional songlines</a>. Globally, we also find salted earth where former inland seas have deposited salt and where irrigation has concentrated salt in the soil.</p>
<p>But other areas have become salty due to land clearing. This is dryland salinity. When deep-rooted trees and shrubs are present, they use most of the rainfall. Very little is left over to leak down into the groundwater. </p>
<p>When trees and shrubs are cut down to make way for farmland, more rain permeates the earth. This mixes with naturally salty groundwater and rises to the surface where it can damage plants and infrastructure.</p>
<p>Plants such as samphire are salt-tolerant and can live in salt lakes. Saltbush can absorb salty water and get rid of the salt by expelling it onto the outside of its leaves. But most plants can’t do this. Absorbing salt water will damage or kill them. </p>
<p>The cruel irony of dryland salinity is that plants can die in dry landscapes from there being too much water.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="eroded landscape and dead trees" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582701/original/file-20240319-24-hr02pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After dryland salinity killed these trees, serious erosion can begin. This image is of a mesa landscape west of Charters Towers in northern Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_4090_Dryland_salinity_has_induced_serious_hillslope_gully_and_sheet_erosion_at_base_of_Mesa_landscape_just_west_of_Charters_Towers_Northern_QLD.jpg">CSIRO/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The long search for solutions</h2>
<p>In Australia, dryland salinity is worst in southwest Western Australia, as well as the <a href="https://www.mdba.gov.au/climate-and-river-health/water-quality/salinity">southern and western reaches</a> of the Murray-Darling Basin. </p>
<p>We didn’t begin trying to fix the problem in earnest until the 1950s, when state-based <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/soil-and-land-conservation-council">Soil and Land Conservation</a> services started tackling salinity in Australia. </p>
<p>The 1990s saw the first nationally coordinated efforts through the <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-land/farm-food-drought/natural-resources/salinity">National Dryland Salinity Program</a>. This drew together farmers, community groups, <a href="https://nrmregionsaustralia.com.au/what-is-nrm/nrm_regional_model/">natural resource management organisations</a>, universities and government agencies such as CSIRO. <a href="https://data.wa.gov.au/land-monitor">Satellites</a> gave us a better understanding of the true extent of the problem, <a href="https://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/4615.0Main%20Features12002?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=4615.0&issue=2002&num=&view=">estimated to affect</a> around 20,000 farms.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, we no longer have a coordinated national approach. Government investments have shifted to focus on equally complex challenges such as improving water quality in <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/parks-heritage/great-barrier-reef/protecting/our-investments">Great Barrier Reef catchments</a> and trying to save <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened">threatened species</a> from extinctions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-have-always-wondered-why-is-the-sea-salty-83489">I have always wondered: why is the sea salty?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Saltbush, not ponds</h2>
<p>So what works against dryland salinity? Researchers have found some <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/soil-salinity/managing-dryland-salinity-south-west-western-australia">practical and economic solutions</a>.</p>
<p>Revegetating the landscape can work, but requires trees, shrubs and plantations to cover <a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/government/publications/stream-salinity-status-and-trends-south-west-wa">two-thirds of a cleared catchment</a> to manage a problem affecting a much smaller area. This is very expensive, and doesn’t work well with existing farms or for regional communities.</p>
<p>The most widely adopted methods of dealing with salt are based on adaptation, such as planting species <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/soil-salinity/saltbushes-dryland-salinity-management-western-australia">such as river and old man saltbush</a> on saline land and areas around it. Livestock can eat the leaves, and saltbush species are excellent at living in salty soils. </p>
<p>Other developing options include pumping up brackish groundwater and turning it into high-quality water through <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/water-management/groundwater-desalination-farms-western-australia">micro-desalination</a>. </p>
<p>Engineering solutions such as pumping out salty water and <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/water-management/deep-drainage-groundwater-drains-salinity-management-western-australia">deep drainage</a> run into problems with salt disposal, cost and challenges with clay soils, which do not drain well. </p>
<p>Subsurface drains in sandier soils near the surface can reduce waterlogging and salinity, and also increase crop productivity. </p>
<p>In areas prone to dryland salinity, reducing pooling of water reduces the salinity of water <a href="https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/717/2020/">flowing into ecosystems downstream</a>. This means landscape rehydration strategies such as natural sequence farming, which deliberately slow and pond water, can <a href="https://library.dpird.wa.gov.au/lr_consultrpts/11/">actually make salinity worse</a> in older, weathered landscapes.</p>
<h2>Less rain but still salinity</h2>
<p>The scale of the salinity challenge is further demonstrated by the impact of climate change.</p>
<p>Since 1970, annual rainfall has <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/change/trendmaps.cgi?map=rain&area=aus&season=0112&period=1970">fallen across Australia</a> by about 10–15%, particularly in Victoria and southwest Western Australia. This change in climate has <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/Our-water">impacted drinking water supplies</a> in WA, forcing an increasing reliance on desalination.</p>
<p>You might expect groundwater levels to also potentially drop. But for many areas such as south-western WA and the <a href="https://www.waterquality.gov.au/issues/salinity">Murray Darling Basin</a>, groundwater levels are actually still rising even as rainfall declines, due to the ongoing impact of historic land clearing.</p>
<p>A key lesson we have learned from the long fight against dryland salinity is it’s very hard to create profitable farms which mimic the original natural systems. </p>
<h2>The fight against salinity continues</h2>
<p>Salinity still <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/soil-salinity/dryland-salinity-western-australia-0">affects millions of hectares</a> of agricultural land across Australia, driven by the processes described 100 years ago. An award for excellence in salinity research named after railway engineer W.E. Wood was awarded five times in the early 2000s, and will return in 2024 to mark the <a href="https://www.uwaceep.org/wood-award">centenary of his paper</a>.</p>
<p>We’ve learned a lot about dryland salinity in a century, but the search continues for viable methods of combating or adapting to the salt below.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-south-west-a-hotspot-for-wildlife-and-plants-that-deserves-world-heritage-status-54885">Australia's south west: a hotspot for wildlife and plants that deserves World Heritage status</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225277/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nik Callow has received salinity-related funding as an employee of The University of Western Australia and previously when working for the WA Government Department of Food and Agriculture. He is a director of the Centre for Water and Spatial Science at UWA that receives private, industry and public funding to undertake research on salinity and water resources.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Pannell received salinity-related funding from the Grains Research and Development Corporation, the CRC for Plant-Based Management of Dryland Salinity, the Future Farm Industries CRC, the Australian Research Council, and the University of Western Australia. He was a member of a Ministerial Taskforce on salinity in 2001, the Salinity Investment Framework committee for the Western Australian Government, and various other salinity-related committees. He was the fifth winner of the W.E. Wood Award for Salinity Research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ed Barrett-Lennard is Senior Principal Soil Scientist in the Western Australian Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development and Professorial Fellow at Murdoch University. He has previously received research funding through the CRC for Plant-Based Management of Dryland Salinity and the Future Farm Industries CRC. He currently receives funding for salinity research through the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. He was fourth winner of the W.E. Wood Award for salinity research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard George works for the West Australian Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. He was second winner of the W.E. Wood Award for salinity research</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>I previously worked for CSIRO 1988-2014 and in 1999 was the first recipient of the W.E.Wood Award for Salinity Research.</span></em></p>We’ve known about dryland salinity for a century. But while we’ve made progress, the problem hasn’t yet been solved.Nik Callow, Associate Professor - Geography, The University of Western AustraliaDavid Pannell, Professor and Director, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy, The University of Western AustraliaEd Barrett-Lennard, Professorial fellow, Murdoch UniversityRichard George, Adjunct professor, Murdoch UniversityTom Hatton, Adjunct professor, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259922024-03-19T14:03:12Z2024-03-19T14:03:12ZCocoa beans are in short supply: what this means for farmers, businesses and chocolate lovers<p><em>A <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/african-cocoa-plants-run-out-beans-global-chocolate-crisis-deepens-2024-03-13/">shortage</a> of cocoa beans has led to a near shutdown of processing plants in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, the two countries responsible for <a href="https://theconversation.com/cocoa-prices-are-surging-west-african-countries-should-seize-the-moment-to-negotiate-a-better-deal-for-farmers-214305">60% of global production</a>. With chocolate makers around the world reliant on west Africa for cocoa, there is significant concern about the impact on the prices of chocolate and the livelihood of farmers. Cocoa researcher Michael Odijie explains the reasons for the shortage.</em></p>
<h2>Why has cocoa production declined sharply in west Africa?</h2>
<p>Three factors are at play: environmental, economic cycle related and human. </p>
<p>One environmental factor is the impact of the El Niño weather phenomenon, which has caused drier weather in west Africa. It has contributed to problems on farms, such as the swollen shoot virus disease. As a result, Ghana has lost harvests from nearly <a href="https://thecocoapost.com/ghana-loses-over-500000-hectares-of-cocoa-farms-to-swollen-shoot-disease/">500,000 hectares</a> of land in recent years.</p>
<p>The economic cycle of cocoa production refers to the inherent patterns of expansion and contraction in cocoa farming. For example, as cocoa trees age, they become susceptible to diseases, requiring high maintenance costs. Historically, farmers have tended to abandon old farms and start anew in fresh forests. Unfortunately, finding new forests is now increasingly difficult. Perhaps the most severe issue of all is the lack of fair compensation for sustainable cocoa production</p>
<p>The human factor includes challenges such as illegal mining, which has overtaken numerous farms in Ghana. Sometimes, farmers lease their land to illegal miners in exchange for payment. These mining activities degrade the quality of the land, making it unsuitable for cocoa cultivation. </p>
<p>The global market for chocolate and chocolate products is on the <a href="https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/cocoa-and-chocolate-market-100075">rise</a>. It is projected to grow faster than <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/chocolate-market#:%7E:text=The%20global%20chocolate%20market%20size,key%20driver%20of%20the%20market.">4% annually</a> over the next few years. This growing demand for cocoa underscores the urgency in addressing the intertwined issues that relate to the industry’s sustainability.</p>
<h2>Have west African governments intervened to help cocoa farmers?</h2>
<p>In February 2024, the Ghana Cocoa Board (Cocobod), regulator of the country’s cocoa sector, secured a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/ghanas-cocobod-taps-200-mln-world-bank-loan-rebuild-disease-hit-cocoa-farms-2024-02-16/">World Bank loan</a> of US$200 million to rehabilitate plantations affected by the cocoa swollen shoot virus. The board will take over the disease-ridden farms, remove and replace the afflicted cocoa trees, and nurture the new plantings to the fruiting stage before returning them to the farmers.</p>
<p>This practice of Cocobod taking out loans to assist farmers is a longstanding one in Ghana. For instance, in 2018, Cocobod <a href="https://thecocoapost.com/cocobod-afdb-loan/">used part</a> of a $600 million loan from the African Development Bank to rehabilitate aging plantations and those hit by diseases. And at the start of the current harvest season in October, the <a href="https://www.cighci.org/ghana-announces-cocoa-producer-price-for-2023-24-crop-season/">producer price was raised</a>: farmers are paid more, a move made inevitable by the surge in global prices. Also, Ghana Cocobod has established a <a href="https://starrfm.com.gh/2024/03/cocobod-taskforce-arrests-illegal-mining-gang-leaders-in-atobrakrom/">task force</a> to shield cocoa farms from the harmful impacts of mining. It has cooperated with police to stem the smuggling of cocoa to neighbouring countries, particularly those that offer a stronger currency.</p>
<p>In Côte d'Ivoire, relatively little action has been taken. It appears the government is still assessing the situation. But there have been <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2024-02-16/ivory-coast-seizes-100-tons-of-cocoa-at-the-border-with-guinea">measures</a> to curb smuggling of cocoa, prompted by the fact that the shortage is driving up prices in neighbouring countries. Côte d'Ivoire does benefit from numerous sustainability programmes initiated by multinational corporations. The current shortage has accelerated these initiatives. Regrettably, some of the programmes do not disclose their data, making it difficult for academics to access and analyse their information.</p>
<p>African governments have yet to address significant structural issues in their interventions.</p>
<h2>How have cocoa farmers and cocoa-producing countries’ economies been affected?</h2>
<p>At the farm level, although the rise in prices may initially appear beneficial to farmers, the reality is not straightforward. A decrease in output leads to fewer harvests on average, which means that, overall, farmers are not earning more. This issue is compounded by recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/ghanas-economic-crisis-expert-insights-into-how-things-got-so-bad-and-what-the-fixes-are-193153">economic challenges in west Africa</a>, such as high inflation and currency devaluation, particularly in Ghana. These factors have resulted in farmers becoming poorer.</p>
<p>Another impact of the output decline is a reduction in local processing. Major African processing facilities in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana have either ceased operations or reduced their processing capacity because they cannot afford to purchase beans. This likely means that chocolate prices worldwide will surge. This, in turn, adversely affects the local production units that have been emerging in recent years. </p>
<p>However, the bargaining power of west African cocoa-producing countries seems to have increased. Now is an opportune moment for these nations to unite and negotiate more favourable terms for their cocoa farmers. </p>
<h2>Will chocolate makers eventually turn to cocoa alternatives?</h2>
<p>It’s inevitable because continuing to cultivate cocoa under current conditions is unsustainable. I don’t perceive this negatively; I hope it occurs sooner rather than later. In fact, it is already underway with the rise of cocoa butter equivalents, cocoa extenders and artificial flavours (synthetic or nature-identical flavours that mimic the taste of chocolate without the need for cocoa). </p>
<p>The German company Planet A Foods is a leader in this area. It produces cocoa-free chocolate, using technology to transform ingredients such as oats and sunflower seeds into substitutes for cocoa mass and butter. </p>
<p>Overall, this is beneficial for everyone. The demand for cocoa has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-real-cost-of-your-chocolate-habit-new-research-reveals-the-bittersweet-truth-of-cocoa-farming-in-africas-forests-206082">resulted</a> in mass deforestation and significant carbon emissions, issues that are likely to worsen due to climate change. Moreover, the push for cultivation has led to various forms of labour abuses. Exploring cocoa alternatives is certainly part of the solution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225992/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael E Odijie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Major African cocoa plants in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana have stopped or cut processing because they cannot afford to buy beans.Michael E Odijie, Research associate, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223312024-03-13T20:37:18Z2024-03-13T20:37:18ZDespite positive steps in British Columbia, animal welfare in disaster management remains overlooked<p>Disasters serve as focusing events, providing a “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brent-Doberstein/publication/372308431_The_post-disaster_window_The_2021_British_Columbia_atmospheric_rivers_phenomenon_as_a_focusing_event_for_policy_change/links/64aecdc995bbbe0c6e2f0a85/The-post-disaster-window-The-2021-British-Columbia-atmospheric-rivers-phenomenon-as-a-focusing-event-for-policy-change.pdf">window of opportunity</a>” to reassess practices, propose new policies and animate the human decisions that make communities vulnerable to <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/news/2019/04/canadas-climate-is-warming-twice-as-fast-as-global-average.html">climate-related</a> disasters. </p>
<p>Elisabeth Stoddard, associate professor at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and I set out to understand the relationship between <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.ca/news/understanding-2021-abbotsford-floods">animal agriculture and climate change</a>. To do so, we focused on the impacts of disasters, alongside examining the common disaster management practices deployed in Canada, using the example of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-an-atmospheric-river-drenched-british-columbia-and-led-to-floods-and-mudslides-172021">Abbotsford Floods</a>.</p>
<p>On Nov. 17, 2021, the Lower Mainland of British Columbia was inundated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2022.100441">atmospheric floodwaters</a> resulting in the deaths of at least 500 cows, thousands of pigs and over a hundred thousand birds. The Abbotsford flood was the <a href="https://theconversation.com/farm-animals-suffered-in-b-c-floods-despite-existing-disaster-management-guidelines-172353">largest-ever agricultural and animal welfare disaster in B.C. history</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-canada-needs-to-dramatically-update-how-it-prepares-for-and-manages-emergencies-221959">Why Canada needs to dramatically update how it prepares for and manages emergencies</a>
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<p>In 2023, the province announced the <a href="https://www.leg.bc.ca/Pages/BCLASS-Legacy.aspx#%2Fcontent%2Fdata%2520-%2520ldp%2Fpages%2F42nd4th%2F3rd_read%2Fgov31-3.htm">Emergency and Disaster Management Act</a> that pivoted away from a response-based approach to one centred around four distinct phases: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. Despite updating the legislation, our research shows animal disaster management remains overlooked. </p>
<p>This research highlights the need for sustained civil engagement and legislative interventions on two key issues: 1) the nuances of animal rescue and welfare; and 2) the strained resiliency of agricultural communities. </p>
<h2>Animal rescue and welfare</h2>
<p>B.C. emergency management protocols give producers four options regarding farmed animals during disasters. Farmers can either a) shelter-in-place, b) relocate on-farm, c) evacuate off-farm or d) release their livestock. We also found that options were further restricted depending on the farmed species.</p>
<p>For example, to shelter-in-place often remains the only option for pigs, chickens and turkeys due to biosecurity concerns, logistical challenges and simple cost-benefit analysis from an agricultural perspective. Indeed, we found — through a <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/enSearch/detail?id=7AFDBC16F15F42E289E9F7DDB0F80C40&recorduid=AGR-2022-21591">Freedom of Information request</a> — that most of the reimbursements for relocation distributed by the <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/agriculture-seafood/business-market-development/emergency-management/livestock-relocation">Livestock Relocation Policy</a> went to dairy and beef producers. </p>
<p>Of those producers, many opted to evacuate their animals directly to an auction yard or abattoir due to the loss of rangeland or destroyed farm infrastructure.</p>
<p>These considerations are further complicated by the different production lifespans of various species. Long-term welfare impacts are mostly only relevant within dairy and beef production since on average, chickens only live around 40 days before slaughter — and pigs only around six months. By comparison, cows can live upwards of five years in production before slaughter — a fact which helps to partly explain the extreme disparity in <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food">water, land and energy costs in beef production</a> as opposed to other animal products. </p>
<p>Studies show that cows rescued from floods have compromised immune systems, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/w14243984">slower rates of growth</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33045630/">higher rates of miscarriages</a>, and even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.08.012">increased methane emissions</a>. These long-term impacts can lead to the eventual decision by producers to euthanize animals.</p>
<p>In fact, the 2021 <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/agriculture-seafood/programs/agriculture-insurance-and-income-protection-programs/flood-recovery">Canada-British Columbia Flood Recovery Program for Food Security</a> anticipated these continued losses and extended coverage for costs associated with post-disaster welfare and losses for an additional year.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-must-address-the-interconnected-harms-to-people-animals-and-ecosystems-in-train-derailments-210357">Why we must address the interconnected harms to people, animals and ecosystems in train derailments</a>
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<p>This flags the need for transparency, and a mandatory reporting mechanism concerning post-disaster animal welfare to accurately represent the <a href="https://doi.org/10.4000/irpp.1868">long-term</a> repercussions of disasters. </p>
<h2>Strained resiliency</h2>
<p>Increasingly, disaster relief is becoming the <a href="https://www.plutobooks.com/9780745339542/disasters-and-social-reproduction/">responsibility of individual communities and civil society</a>. However, these communities are often under-resourced, untrained and not integrated formally into emergency response. </p>
<p>Our research pointed to the oversized role agricultural communities have in responding to disasters, often leading to <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-related-disasters-leave-behind-trauma-and-worse-mental-health-housing-uncertainty-is-a-major-reason-why-206861">post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychological harms</a>. There are also instances where producers will even decide to leave agricultural production entirely.</p>
<p>Many members of the Abbotsford community felt abandoned and exploited by the government after the floods, leading to resentment, frustration and mistrust towards formal emergency management. </p>
<p>While communities took pride in their ability to support each other with the limited resources they had, interviews and post-disaster research revealed the immediate and long-term impacts of this approach should be taken seriously, including acknowledging the barrier it creates for future collaboration between communities and emergency management.</p>
<p>It is essential that we build capacity in communities by supporting, resourcing, and legitimizing <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/DPM-05-2018-">community-first responder models</a>. In doing so, we can help communities and farmers gradually become integral aspects of formal emergency management systems as <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/emergency-management/local-emergency-programs/volunteers">public safety volunteers</a>. </p>
<h2>Real change has yet to come</h2>
<p>Following the floods, the Abbotsford municipal government focused on returning producers to production by restocking barns and drafting plans to improve <a href="https://letstalkabbotsford.ca/abbotsfordfloodresponse">flood-mitigation infrastructure</a>. On the provincial side, the government has begun to update emergency legislation with its Emergency and Disaster Management Act. </p>
<p>These are important steps, but they fail to engage with the more thorny issues related to animal disaster management. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/canada-must-stop-treating-climate-disasters-like-unexpected-humanitarian-crises-216153">Canada must stop treating climate disasters like unexpected humanitarian crises</a>
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<p>Our research shows the need for transparency regarding animal rescue and welfare issues, as well as mobilization around community-based solutions, such as by formalizing the community first-responder model and integrating it into official emergency management. </p>
<p>Without these critical interventions at the social and political level, we can continue to expect the same outcomes for communities living on the front lines of climate-fuelled disasters.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222331/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Eccles receives funding from World Animal Protection (Canada), FRQSC, NSERC-CREATE, and Concordia University.</span></em></p>Despite improvements in disaster response management since the Abbotsford floods of 2021, long-term animal welfare remains woefully underappreciated in B.C.Stephanie Eccles, PhD Candidate, Department of Geography, Planning, and Environment, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2253472024-03-13T12:38:06Z2024-03-13T12:38:06ZClimate-friendly beef? Argentina’s new ‘carbon-neutral’ certification could help reduce livestock emissions – if it’s done right<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580769/original/file-20240308-17800-vh4rq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=134%2C0%2C5856%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cattle are major producers of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ArgentinaFarmersStrike/32b525a49646407fb02737682544e817/photo">AP Photo/Victor R. Caivano</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Argentina, where beef is a <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210522-argentina-s-beloved-beef-becomes-bone-of-contention-as-prices-soar">symbol of national pride</a>, a government-led partnership has started <a href="https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/campo/cambio-climatico-certificaron-en-la-argentina-la-primera-produccion-de-carne-vacuna-carbono-negativo-nid12022024/">certifying certain livestock</a> as carbon neutral. It’s a big step that shouldn’t be underestimated, but getting the certification process right is crucial. </p>
<p>The world’s livestock sector is a key driver of climate change, contributing around <a href="https://foodandagricultureorganization.shinyapps.io/GLEAMV3_Public/">12% of global greenhouse gas emissions</a>. <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb1922en/cb1922en.pdf">Two-thirds</a> of agriculture’s annual greenhouse gas emissions come from livestock, with raising cattle for meat typically being the <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food">most emissions-intensive</a> activity. While shifting diets to plant-based foods and <a href="https://gfi.org/initiatives/climate/">alternative proteins</a> can help reduce emissions, global <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb5332en/Meat.pdf">meat consumption</a> is growing with an expanding population and rising prosperity.</p>
<p>There are ways that livestock producers can reduce those emissions. However, beyond social pressure, ranchers have few incentives to do so. Unless those steps to reduce emissions also increase productivity, they typically become costs with little immediate benefit in return.</p>
<p>With formal certification, farmers can earn a higher price. This has been the case with certified organic or fair-trade products. If livestock could be raised in ways that produce fewer emissions and certified as climate-friendly, the resulting higher prices they could fetch might give producers an incentive to invest in reducing their herds’ emissions.</p>
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<img alt="A cow photographed through a tree canopy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580582/original/file-20240307-24-5jlkgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Argentina’s new ‘carbon-neutral’ certification hinges on the grazing landscape sequestering carbon in trees and in the soil to offset methane produced by the cattle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cattle_-_Eldorado,_Misiones_(31449238075).jpg">Papa Pic, Eldorado, Argentina</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Argentina’s certification approach <a href="https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/campo/cambio-climatico-certificaron-en-la-argentina-la-primera-produccion-de-carne-vacuna-carbono-negativo-nid12022024/">relies on a silvopastoral system</a>, which integrates tree growth with grazing or production of grasses or grains for fodder. Livestock are raised in forest interspersed with native natural grasslands and cultivated pastures. The pasture and grazing are managed to return nutrients and organic matter to the soil. </p>
<p>The trees and soil regeneration methods both store carbon, leading to the certification’s claim that the cattle, despite the greenhouse gases they produce, are carbon neutral. </p>
<p>The certification, approved in early 2024, is a collaboration between Argentina’s National Agricultural Technology Institute and National Industrial Technology Institute and the Argentinian private sector, <a href="https://epd.inti.gob.ar/assets/uploads/libreria/S-P-07361-Eng.pdf">with certification</a> from the <a href="https://www.environdec.com/about-us/the-international-epd-system-about-the-system">International Environmental Product Declaration System</a>, one of the first and longest operating third-party verification systems of environmental claims.</p>
<p>This silvopastoral system may be hard to replicate elsewhere, but it’s only one way to reduce livestock emissions. I’m an <a href="https://keough.nd.edu/people/paul-winters/">agricultural and resource economist</a> and executive director for the <a href="https://innovationcommission.uchicago.edu/">Innovation Commission for Climate Change, Food Security and Agriculture</a>, led by Nobel Laureate Michael Kremer. Here are some other emerging innovations that could lead to livestock certifications that reduce emissions:</p>
<h2>1. Feed additives</h2>
<p>Innovative feed additives, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247820">such as red seaweed</a>, could reduce livestock methane emissions by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/AN20295">26% to 98%</a>, depending on the type of additive and how it is administered.</p>
<p>Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with many times the warming potential of carbon dioxide. About 12% of ruminants’ gross energy intake goes into digestive processes that generate methane, which the cows belch into the air. So reducing methane emissions via feed additives could also <a href="https://theconversation.com/feeding-cows-a-few-ounces-of-seaweed-daily-could-sharply-reduce-their-contribution-to-climate-change-157192">increase productivity</a> while <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/climate/news/can-seaweed-cut-methane-emissions-on-dairy-farms">maintaining milk quality</a>. If cattle can conserve energy in the digestive process, they can redirect it toward animal growth and milk production.</p>
<p>Startup companies, such as <a href="https://blueoceanbarns.com/">Blue Ocean Barns</a> and <a href="https://www.future-feed.com/">FutureFeed</a>, have started to produce feed additives to reduce methane. However, products like these aren’t widely used yet, largely because cattle producers have no incentive to invest in changing their practices.</p>
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<h2>2. Gene editing</h2>
<p>Research underway into gene editing – intentionally altering the genetic code of a living organism – <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/food/news/can-crispr-cut-methane-emissions-cow-guts">may also have the potential</a> to change the microbes that produce methane in livestock’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-021-01014-7">gut microbiomes</a>. That could substantially reduce livestock emissions.</p>
<p>This type of innovation <a href="https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/news/igis-audacious-new-frontier-crispr-editing-microbiomes-climate-and-health">might benefit farmers</a> who let their livestock graze in fields rather than provide them with feed. Compared to additives like seaweed, gene editing is meant to be a long-term solution, which would make it more cost-effective over time. But like feed additives, currently there is limited incentive for breeders and producers to consider this direction.</p>
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<h2>3. Advanced farm-management practices</h2>
<p>Advanced farm-management practices, such as improved feeding software, could also help reduce methane emissions intensity. These practices tend to be more affordable than other options.</p>
<p>For example, dairy production in sub-Saharan Africa is much more <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/CA2929EN/ca2929en.pdf">emissions intensive</a> per gallon of milk than production in North America or Europe, and cows in the region are only 5%-7% as productive. This is due to a host of management limitation in low-income settings.</p>
<p>Existing technologies for animal management can be adapted to <a href="https://www.athian.ai/knowledge-hub/post/dfa-purchases-first-verified-carbon-credits-in-livestock-inset-marketplace">increase production efficiency</a> and <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/ab129327-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/ab129327-en#section-d1e24585">reduce overall emissions</a>. Methods of providing better nutrition and animal care for livestock that limit excess methane production are already <a href="https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16576">widely used in higher-income countries</a>. These methods could also be adapted for producers in low- and middle-income regions, with support and the right incentives.</p>
<h2>Certification as a path forward</h2>
<p>Certification can give livestock producers incentive to use these methods, but certification systems must be carefully designed. </p>
<p>Claims like Argentina’s should be <a href="https://www.environdec.com/home">reliably verified</a> to ensure that the certification is credible. Argentina took an important step by including a proven third-party verification system, going beyond similar “climate-friendly” national programs <a href="https://www.climateactive.org.au/sites/default/files/2023-09/NAPCo%20Public%20Disclosure%20Statement_CY2022_Final.pdf">initiated in Australia</a> and <a href="https://modernfarmer.com/2021/12/low-carbon-beef-certification/">the United States</a>.</p>
<p>The organizations that verify certificates should play a role in establishing the rules, but so should governments. For example, feed additives alone are unlikely to reach “carbon-neutral,” but organizations are exploring whether <a href="https://www.athian.ai/knowledge-hub/post/dfa-purchases-first-verified-carbon-credits-in-livestock-inset-marketplace">lesser reductions</a> could be sufficient for livestock to be certified as “climate friendly” and earn a higher price for producers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cattle cross a dirt road with trees and rangeland in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580771/original/file-20240308-24-c14550.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cattle graze in Argentina.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ArgentinaElectionsFarmers/c017cec73c3d425a91263832aca47bd3/photo">AP Photo/Natacha Pisarenko</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, certification will only work if consumers are willing to pay a higher price for carbon-neutral, or even just climate-friendly, meat and dairy products.</p>
<p>Higher payments can come directly from consumers buying certified products or through government regulations requiring all meat and dairy products be certified. For example, under its <a href="https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_en">Farm to Fork Strategy</a>, the European Commission encourages food systems that can mitigate climate change. If the commission were to only accept meat and dairy products certified as climate-friendly, that would create an incentive to pursue certification to enter the large European market.</p>
<p>Some environmental groups have complained that climate certification for beef and <a href="https://www.athian.ai/knowledge-hub/post/dfa-purchases-first-verified-carbon-credits-in-livestock-inset-marketplace">related carbon credits</a> result <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/175337/bs-behind-usdas-new-climate-friendly-beef-label">in greenwashing</a>, allowing companies and the industry to burnish their reputations while continuing to release emissions. But certification can also encourage livestock producers to take steps they otherwise wouldn’t to reduce overall emissions for a better planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225347/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Winters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cattle are major producers of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. But there are methods that can reduce their climate impact – if ranchers have incentive to use them.Paul Winters, Professor of Global Affairs, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2164232024-03-12T12:30:14Z2024-03-12T12:30:14ZSolar power occupies a lot of space – here’s how to make it more ecologically beneficial to the land it sits on<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580757/original/file-20240308-22-g0m361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3019%2C1783&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Solar panels shade grassland at Jack's Solar Garden, an agrovoltaic farm in Longmont, Colo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Sturchio</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As societies look for ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and slow climate change, large-scale solar power is playing a central role. Climate scientists view it as the tool with <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/">the greatest potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 2030</a>. In the U.S., the Department of Energy predicts that solar will <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61424">account for nearly 60%</a> of all new utility-scale electricity-generating capacity installed in 2024. </p>
<p><iframe id="k06YW" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/k06YW/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>But ideal locations for solar development often overlap with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47803-3">croplands or grasslands used for livestock grazing</a>. Typically, large-scale solar arrays are designed to maximize energy generation, without much consideration for the ecosystems in which they are placed. </p>
<p>For example, grading land and removing vegetation can <a href="https://www.popsci.com/environment/solar-farm-construction-epa-water-violations/">cause erosion and send runoff into waterways</a>. Solar developers have been fined for such environmental violations in <a href="https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/05/10/u-s-court-orders-developer-to-pay-135-5-million-in-100-mw-solar-property-damage-case/">Georgia</a>, <a href="https://www.gazettenet.com/Developer-to-pay-$1-14-million-for-wetlands-stormwater-violations-38651958#">Massachusetts</a>, <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/settlements-resolve-clean-water-act-violations-four-solar-farm-construction-sites-alabama">Alabama, Idaho and Illinois</a>. </p>
<p>There also are concerns about how large solar installations affect <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/02/11/climate/climate-change-wildlife-solar.html">animal movement patterns</a>. In the western U.S., removing native vegetation to make room for solar farms can threaten endangered animals and insects that rely on these plants as food and habitat. Native plant communities take a long time to reestablish themselves in these water-limited areas after they are disturbed.</p>
<p>I am <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Oyns6e8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">an ecologist</a> and a member of a research team led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=e5RTvRMAAAAJ&hl=en">Alan Knapp</a> at Colorado State University. We investigate how solar development affects grassland ecosystem health – in particular, how plants’ growth and water use patterns and response to light change once solar panels are installed overhead. Through this work, we hope to inform a more sustainable future for solar energy. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A row of solar photovoltaic panels with bushy tomato plants in front of them" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580762/original/file-20240308-20-ka23d0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This agrivoltaic solar array uses the space between rows of panels to grow tomatoes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Sturchio</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Two land uses are better than one</h2>
<p>A growing alternative to using land solely for solar power generation is called agrivoltaics. As its name suggests, this strategy combines agriculture and solar power on the same piece of land. Agrivoltaic projects can take place on croplands, grazing lands and habitat for agriculturally important pollinators. This dual-use approach to solar development <a href="https://science.osti.gov/-/media/sbir/pdf/Market-Research/SETO---Agrivoltaics-August-2022-Public.pdf">has become popular worldwide</a></p>
<p>The <a href="https://openei.org/wiki/InSPIRE/Agrivoltaics_Map">vast majority</a> of agrivoltaic projects in the U.S. are on lands managed for livestock grazing and pollinator habitat. These sites are ideal for solar power colocation because, unlike croplands, they do not require irrigation or the use of large machinery. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/T6PEk_OZUmI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">One version of agrivoltaics is combining solar arrays and livestock grazing.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, these lands rely on rainfall to support plant growth, and the presence of solar panels affects how water reaches the soil. Most agrivoltaic arrays use sun-tracking programs that maximize energy production by tilting panels to follow the sun across the sky. As this happens, the panels create distinct micro-environments that are quite different from natural conditions. </p>
<p>For example, in Colorado, most precipitation occurs in the afternoon, when solar panels are tilted west toward the sun. As a result, most rainfall on agrivoltaic sites is concentrated at the panels’ western edges where it drops to the ground. This redistribution can multiply rainfall at panel edges by up to a factor of four, while restricting rainfall in other patches. </p>
<p>Another factor is that solar panels introduce shade on grasslands that are adapted to high light conditions. Because the arrays are optimized to intercept sunlight, much less light reaches plants beneath the panels.</p>
<h2>The ecology behind ecovoltaics</h2>
<p>So far, our work shows that the distinct micro-environments created by solar arrays produce similarly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4334">varied patterns of plant growth</a>. This finding is encouraging: It means that the environmental variation created by solar panels passively tracking the sun is enough to make plants respond differently. These micro-environments could potentially support a mosaic of plant communities that benefit from different conditions.</p>
<p>In some cases, mixed conditions like these, with varying levels of light and water, can be a good thing. A well-tested concept in restoration ecology – the science of restoring damaged ecosystems – is that environments with more variety support more diverse mixes of plants and animals.</p>
<p>In a 2023 paper, we outlined a concept that calls for an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02174-x">ecologically informed approach to solar development</a>. This approach, called ecovoltaics, requires giving equal priority to energy production and <a href="https://www.climatehubs.usda.gov/ecosystem-services">ecosystem services</a>. </p>
<p>An ecovoltaic approach allows land managers to use solar to their advantage. Designing and managing solar arrays in ways that are rooted in fundamental ecological concepts can produce more synergies between ecosystems and solar energy.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram showing ways to space rows of solar panels, alter their angles or adjust height to achieve various ecological outcomes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580834/original/file-20240310-26-auaqrp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ecovoltaic systems can be configured in different ways to achieve specific ecological goals, such as reducing water loss from soil or creating shady zones for grazing livestock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Sturchio</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Land managers could use ecovoltaic approaches to improve degraded lands by designing solar arrays to enhance natural processes. For example, since the edges of solar panels redistribute and concentrate rainfall, making the soil beneath them wetter, they could aid in seedling establishment in those spots. </p>
<p>In arid regions, arrays could be designed to promote this effect and improve restoration. If water is scarce, arrays could be designed to reduce the amount of exposed ground, which in turn would reduce the amount of water lost to the atmosphere through evaporation. </p>
<h2>Doing solar differently</h2>
<p>Many factors influence land management decisions. The land’s history, access to water, soil types, vegetation and topography all play a role. Ecovoltaics adds another factor: balancing energy production per unit area with the ecological effects of a particular solar array. </p>
<p>An ecovoltaic approach to solar power requires fundamentally rethinking how solar development decisions are made. Today, access to electricity transmission lines limits where solar power can be deployed in many areas. If transmission lines and substations are too far away, or undersized, solar power is unlikely to be developed. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/10/30/fact-sheetbiden-harris-administration-announces-historic-investment-to-bolster-nations-electric-grid-infrastructure-cut-energy-costs-for-families-and-create-good-paying-jobs/">New transmission projects</a> that ease this geographic constraint could provide more options. With greater flexibility in choosing sites, developers could shift away from highly sensitive natural ecosystems and install solar arrays on abandoned, water-limited or otherwise degraded lands instead. Ecovoltaics could be a solution for stabilizing the economy of communities where productive land has been <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/a-top-colorado-farming-region-is-running-out-of-water-must-retire-land-to-avoid-well-shutdown/ar-BB1jgzFe">retired to conserve resources</a></p>
<p>Solar power is scaling up to levels that make it central to a clean energy transition. My colleagues and I believe that solar development should proceed in a way that reflects ecological thinking. In our view, an ecovoltaic approach to solar can produce positive ecological outcomes and make solar energy even more sustainable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216423/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Sturchio receives funding from the US Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture.</span></em></p>Solar development isn’t always good for the land, but pairing it with agriculture can produce multiple benefits.Matthew Sturchio, PhD Student in Plant and Ecosystem Ecology, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2248322024-03-10T13:10:41Z2024-03-10T13:10:41ZHow nature-based knowledge can restore local ecosystems and improve community well-being<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580297/original/file-20240306-16-iukteg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=39%2C29%2C6032%2C3674&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Regenerative agricultural strategies can reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from food production, restore local ecosystems and enhance community well-being.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Organizations in the food and agriculture sector have been <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-insights/perspectives/three-things-nature-based-solutions-agriculture">looking to nature for inspiration</a> to improve soil health, maintain water quality and foster local food security in the places where they operate.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/17/cop28-sustainable-agriculture-food-greenhouse-gases">evidence is clear</a> that our current food and agriculture systems are severely impacting global greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater usage and deforestation.</p>
<p>In response to these issues, activists, policymakers and corporate executives have been exploring <a href="https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/land-use-biodiversity/analysis-cop28-put-food-system-transformation-menu-who-will-pick-up-bill-2023-12-21">new strategies</a> for making our food systems more resilient and sustainable. </p>
<p>Regenerative agricultural strategies, in particular, can reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from food production, restore local ecosystems and enhance community well-being in specific geographical locations. </p>
<p>But they also require a foundation of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/29/climate/the-farming-conundrum.html">nature-based or ecological knowledge</a> in order to be effective. Our recent research sheds light on how organizations can gain and make use of this knowledge.</p>
<h2>Regenerating local communities</h2>
<p>In the face of current global ecological challenges, there is a need to explore how organizations can help revitalize local communities and ecosystems. Our research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10860266231220081">farming organizations on Vancouver Island</a>, British Columbia, aims to explore this.</p>
<p>We studied nine certified organic farming organizations to examine how they were harnessing and using ecological knowledge. Certified organic farming involves business operations that are <a href="https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2020/ongc-cgsb/P29-32-310-2020-eng.pdf">“sustainable and harmonious with nature</a>.” In B.C., farms are awarded <a href="https://organicbc.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/BCCOP-Accreditation-Manual-v4.pdf">certification annually</a> after a rigorous evaluation process. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Piles of strawberries and cherries on sale at an indoor market." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580299/original/file-20240306-24-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Consumers have been increasing demand for locally sourced, pesticide-free and certified organic products.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike <a href="https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr54.c2">conventional farming practices</a> that prioritize short-term gains through the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and monocropping, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2009.11.002">organic farms focus on long-term health and ecological balance</a>.</p>
<p>The farms we studied were actively engaged in community initiatives aimed at conserving nature and strengthening local food and nutrition security.</p>
<p>Through a series of in-depth interviews with farmers, owners and other key decision-makers, we found these organizations were helping regenerate their local communities by committing to environmental stewardship, and pursuing, acquiring and applying new ecological knowledge.</p>
<h2>Environmental stewardship</h2>
<p>The leaders and decision-makers of the farming organizations we interviewed were strongly committed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-018-9749-0">environmental stewardship</a>. Environmental stewardship refers to actions and decisions that prioritize the conservation and enhancement of ecosystems and biodiversity, and the interests of future generations.</p>
<p>This commitment was evident through two main factors. First, decision-makers demonstrated a genuine appreciation for nature, leading them to feel strongly about safeguarding it from harm.</p>
<p>During our interviews, one farmer described how the goals of building sustainable communities and healthy ecosystems influenced her business’ long-term goals. She said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“In the long term if you don’t have a really solid, values-based business, then you’re going to disappear anyway. [We] put our values behind our environmental footprint and [our efforts to make] this community a better place.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Second, these leaders had a deep understanding of how their organizations relied on the health of the surrounding ecosystems. The farming practices adopted by them were based on building mutually beneficial relationships between their organizations, local ecosystems and communities. </p>
<p>One board member we interviewed emphasized their reliance on the surrounding ecosystems in an interview, stating that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“By enhancing biodiversity, we can bring back beneficial ecosystems that directly benefit our farmers. We recognized the importance of pollinators and took steps to increase biodiversity by reintroducing native bees.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This dedication to environmental stewardship led decision-makers to seek out ecological knowledge about the local ecology to help them foster the creation of healthy and diverse ecosystems.</p>
<h2>Restoring local ecosystems and well-being</h2>
<p>The decision-makers we interviewed decided to seek out new knowledge to improve their organization’s performance and promote long-term social and ecological well-being. They often did this in response to <a href="https://organicbc.org/media-release-organic-market-2021">rising demand from customers and community members</a> for locally sourced, pesticide-free and certified organic products. </p>
<p>Organizations acquired ecological knowledge by collaborating with scientists, academics and non-profit organizations through knowledge exchanges. In our study, for example, some farmers integrated scientific knowledge with their farming methods, resulting in improved crop yield and quality. </p>
<p>Organizations then put their newly acquired ecological knowledge into practice by transforming it into manuals, reports, operating procedures or other similar formats. This allowed the knowledge to be accessed easily and updated as necessary. Applying new knowledge required flexibility, a hands-on learning approach, and the willingness to discard outdated practices.</p>
<p>Once organizations fully integrated new ecological knowledge, they were able to contribute to regenerating their communities, which enhanced financial and ecological sustainability.</p>
<h2>A growing urgency</h2>
<p>With the world’s population projected to reach <a href="https://sustainablefoodbusiness.com/regenerative-agriculture-jbs-global/">10 billion by 2050</a>, there’s even more of a growing urgency to address environmental impacts and ensure community well-being, ecosystem health and food security, particularly in vulnerable places.</p>
<p>As businesses navigate today’s complex social and environmental challenges, the importance of <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/climate-and-environment/win-win-win-how-regenerative-farming-can-help-the-planet-farmers-and-you-1.5330180?cache=tzbrsjtr">turning to nature for inspiration is becoming increasingly evident</a>. </p>
<p>Businesses, in particular large corporations, have the responsibility to address the environmental impacts of the food system by committing to promote regenerative farming practices. </p>
<p>By situating themselves within their communities and prioritizing ecological knowledge, businesses have the potential to not only improve their own sustainability, but also to ignite positive change within the communities they operate in.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224832/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Saeed Rahman received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Doctoral Fellowships.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie Slawinski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the face of growing social and environmental challenges, organizations in the food and agriculture sector are increasingly turning to nature for inspiration.Saeed Rahman, Assistant Professor of Strategy and Sustainability, University of The Fraser ValleyNatalie Slawinski, Professor of Sustainability and Strategy, University of VictoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239012024-03-08T13:35:19Z2024-03-08T13:35:19ZWhy are farmers up in arms? The view from Wales<p>Across Europe, farmers are protesting against changes to regulations and subsidy schemes. Smaller protests have spread through the UK – particularly in Wales, where thousands have turned out to air their grievances with the recent update to the Sustainable Farming Scheme (SFS). </p>
<p>This is the Welsh government’s proposed scheme to replace the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP), which dedicated the majority of its budget to payments for every hectare of land managed. The new scheme aims to give farmers public money for public goods – in other words, pay farmers from the public purse for the ecosystem services they provide that aren’t remunerated through the sale of produce. These include carbon sequestration, the maintenance of habitats, and the preservation of cultural landmarks.</p>
<p>To receive payments from the new voluntary scheme, farmers must comply with 17 actions that are aimed at improving biodiversity and general farm management.</p>
<p>Farmers have taken particular exception to the requirement to have 10% of their land under tree cover. Typically, this will not include hedgerows, as the aim is to increase the size and number of woodlands on farms. On top of this, farmers will be required to manage 10% of their land for semi-natural habitat, such as species-rich grasslands. Organisations such as Coed Cadw (Woodland Trust Cymru) <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/press-centre/2024/02/welsh-farm-tree-cover-requirement/">stress</a> that tree cover on the average Welsh farm is already around 6-7%.</p>
<p>The tree planting requirement, however, may be difficult for tenant farmers, who will need permission from landowners, while those with mortgages might be refused by banks as tree planting could reduce land values.</p>
<p>At a recent event I attended in Narberth in South Wales, the president of the National Farmers’ Union Cymru, Aled Jones, said the 10% requirements are too much and would hit food production (the UK already <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/united-kingdom-food-security-report-2021/united-kingdom-food-security-report-2021-theme-2-uk-food-supply-sources">imports</a> around 46% of its food) and the rural economy. There is also the continuation of the Welsh language to consider: <a href="https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/consultations/2023-12/sustainable-farming-scheme-Integrated-impact-assessment.pdf">43%</a> of agricultural workers speak Welsh, the highest of any industry by far.</p>
<h2>Economic crisis is brewing</h2>
<p>Governments are obliged to meet <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-scientists-concept-of-net-zero-is-a-dangerous-trap-157368">net zero</a> targets while farmers are clinging to their livelihoods in a difficult economic climate. Farmers receive very little of the retail value of their produce. Dairy farmers in the UK typically receive less than <a href="https://www.sustainweb.org/reports/dec22-unpicking-food-prices/">1p</a> of the retail value of a 480g block of cheese. </p>
<p>Production costs are rising globally. Prices of feed, fuel and fertiliser have soared along with interest rates and energy costs, making it harder than ever to turn a profit. Many farmers could go out of business if their subsidy income falls, <a href="https://statswales.gov.wales/Catalogue/Agriculture/Farm-Business-Survey/farmincome-by-farmsize">particularly on smaller farms</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/consultations/2023-12/potential-economic-effects-of-the-scheme-phase-4-universal-actions-modelling-results.pdf">Research</a> commissioned by the Welsh government suggests the new scheme will shrink farm incomes and cause an overall annual hit of £199 million (US$250 million) to the Welsh farming economy. It predicts that livestock numbers will decrease, with an associated loss of farm jobs. </p>
<p>And this figure doesn’t include the indirect impact on rural economies, which are often highly dependent on farming. It comes after years of UK farmers being told they’ll be financially supported to make a green transition. Many feel a sense of betrayal. The exact payment details for SFS won’t be announced until later in 2024, and this uncertainty is making many anxious.</p>
<p>With declining subsidy levels, some UK farmers will be <a href="https://www.newstatesman.com/ideas/2023/04/eat-profits-england-food-system-focused-over-sustainability-new-scheme#:%7E:text=A%20democratic%20vision%20for%20England's%20tormented%20farmlands.&text=It%20is%20a%20poorly%20hidden,It's%20about%20creating%20profits.">forced to sell up</a>. Some farms are already being bought by large investment funds for timber production and the sale of carbon credits to companies looking to “offset” their emissions, a practice that has been <a href="https://rdcu.be/dyZAX">criticised</a> as <a href="https://policy.friendsoftheearth.uk/insight/dangerous-distraction-offsetting-con">greenwashing</a>. One <a href="https://fghl-ar-online-summary.foresightgroup.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/FGHL_AR23_web.pdf">investment firm</a> has already purchased several Welsh farms with the stated aim of buying as much as <a href="https://media.umbraco.io/foresight/fwsolvv0/foresight-sustainable-forestry-company-plc-prospectus.pdf">166,000 hectares in Wales</a>, which would make it one of the country’s largest landowners.</p>
<h2>A new form of politics</h2>
<p>We are witnessing the limits of a green transition constrained by <a href="https://undisciplinedenvironments.org/2020/09/15/19570/">austerity</a>, which in this case forces the onus of decarbonisation onto individual farm businesses. This is instead of tackling the systemic challenges.</p>
<p>Government investment in Welsh agriculture has <a href="https://business.senedd.wales/documents/s142927/WGDB_24-25%2010%20NFU%20Cymru.pdf">declined</a> in real terms over the last decade. Farmers are concerned that funding for the new scheme will not continue far enough into the future to make it worthwhile planting trees and creating habitats. A low uptake, with many farms instead being sold, may not be a bad thing for the Welsh government if it only seeks to reduce public spending and emissions from agriculture. This would also make more land available for forestry, which will help Wales reach its tree-planting <a href="https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/statistics-and-research/2023-11/workshops-to-discuss-the-future-of-tree-planting-with-welsh-farmers.pdf">targets</a>.</p>
<p>However, if food production declines, more food will be imported, which merely displaces the environmental consequences of food production to other parts of the world. Alternatives such as agroforestry could <a href="https://www.iddri.org/sites/default/files/PDF/Publications/Catalogue%20Iddri/Etude/202111-ST1021-TYFA%20UK_0.pdf">bridge the gap</a> between these competing demands, with trees aiding, not hindering, food production. One example, called <a href="https://www.agroforestry.co.uk/about-agroforestry/silvopasture/">silvopasture</a>, involves planting rows of trees in fields at regular intervals, allowing animals to graze or crops to be cultivated either side.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cattle grazing among trees." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579869/original/file-20240305-26-2mrqkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cattle grazing in a grove near Lake Vänern, Sweden.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/concept-agroforestry-silvopasture-exemplified-by-grazing-1830249536">UllrichG/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A farming system transition will take time, requiring wider reforms and greater economic security for farmers. Given that the UK is the world’s <a href="https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/2023/09/Ch9_International_FS2023.pdf">third-largest</a> importer of timber products, and only <a href="https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/forestry-statistics/forestry-statistics-2023/2023-1-woodland-area-and-planting/">15%</a> of Wales is forested compared with <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Forests,_forestry_and_logging#Forest_areas_in_the_EU_are_expanding">39%</a> of total EU land, more trees are needed. But it is counterproductive for the Welsh government to alienate farmers – the scheme needs to take into account the constraints being placed on them. </p>
<p>European farmers’ protests have already led to governments relinquishing some of the proposed changes, such as <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68218907">scrapping plans</a> to halve pesticide use. But while frustration is justifiable among farmers, the urgent need to tackle climate and ecological breakdown remains.</p>
<p>The scale of this challenge demands a new form of politics, rooted not in austerity but renewed public spending on food and farming systems, combined with prompt action against the parts of the supply chain that are hoarding all the profits.</p>
<p>Supermarkets continue to post eye-watering profits, while farmers endure low prices and consumers face <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/may/02/uk-supermarkets-face-calls-for-profiteering-investigation-as-inflation-soars">high prices</a> from profiteering. The answer isn’t to renounce decarbonisation or environmental regulations. The answer is to fight for a just green transition, where farmers are better supported to make the necessary changes towards a more socially and ecologically just food system.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Heffron does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Green reforms are piling additional pressure on farmers struggling to make ends meet.Alex Heffron, PhD Candidate in Geography, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245512024-03-05T15:56:29Z2024-03-05T15:56:29ZFrom the end of CAP quotas to the present day, 20 years of failed European agricultural policies<p>For days, those images of farmers were all you could see on TV. The script was well-worn one: farmers leaving their farms to block roads and roundabouts, and checking on refrigerated lorries. They converged in Paris or <a href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/economie/crise/blocus-des-agriculteurs/direct-colere-des-agriculteurs-des-tracteurs-attendus-a-bruxelles-ou-les-dirigeants-europeens-se-reunissent-pour-un-sommet_6338776.html">Brussels</a>, but also set up shop throughout Europe outside government quarters, camping tractors and forestry trucks at junctions and on motorways.</p>
<p>Are these examples of yet another agricultural crisis? Or is it better to read them as a modern version of France’s <a href="https://www.sudouest.fr/economie/agriculture/colere-des-agriculteurs-le-cauchemar-de-tous-les-gouvernements-18306654.php">Jacqueries</a>, the peasants’ revolt against the nobles that took place in northern France in 1357–8? Perhaps not. It’s true that the anger of the farming community is expressed in waves, depending on price trends or climate disasters. But observers of the sector note that this crisis differs from previous ones for at least two reasons.</p>
<p>On the one hand, there has been a rather unusual convergence of <a href="https://www.publicsenat.fr/actualites/economie/colere-des-agriculteurs-fnsea-ja-coordination-rurale-qui-sont-les-syndicats-agricoles">all the farming unions</a> on the ground, with similar if not common demands. And for the first time in history, the <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/protesting-farmers-jam-brussels-with-tractors-ministers-meet-2024-02-26/">demonstration is becoming “coordinated” at European level</a> since almost all the countries have experienced social movements linked to the agricultural world at the same time. Previously, these were often local and concerned only one sector (milk, meat, etc.): until now, no agricultural crisis has had such cohesion.</p>
<p>A cursory glance at the situation might lead us to believe that agricultural crises follow one another with varying frequency. In truth, <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-sesame-2017-1-page-60.htm">the agricultural world has been in a permanent crisis for the last 20 years</a>. At its root: the gradual dismantling of the original <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/politique-agricole-commune-pac-25756">Common Agricultural Policy</a> (CAP). Dating back to 1962, the CAP was set out in the Treaty of Rome of March 1957, one of the bedrocks of the European Economic Community (EEC). It had the distinctive feature of being genuinely common and, above all, of offering producers a steering wheel and safety nets.</p>
<h2>Fewer guarantees against unforeseen events</h2>
<p>At its beginnings, the <a href="https://agriculture.gouv.fr/la-politique-agricole-commune-pac-60-ans-dhistoire">European policy</a> had boasted ambitious goals: increased competitiveness, security of supply, more stable markets and decent incomes for farmers. It was a common policy because it had regulatory tools at European level that enabled the EEC Member States to think about their agricultural policy not only at a national level, but also <a href="https://www.touteleurope.eu/histoire/histoire-de-la-politique-agricole-commune/">supranational one</a>.</p>
<p>Market regulation was the first pillar of the CAP. Annual quotas were defined at a European level and then broken down by country and then by individual farms. These mechanisms offered farmers a degree of visibility and relative price stability, which was reassuring for a sector that was subject to <a href="https://www.pleinchamp.com/les-guides/le-guide-de-l-assurance-recoltes%7Esecuriser-l-agriculture-face-aux-aleas-climatiques">climatic hazards and diseases</a>. The European regulation also controlled <a href="https://www.ina.fr/ina-eclaire-actu/video/cnc9206141989/explication-de-la-reforme-de-la-politique-agricole-commune">production volumes and by extension, prices</a>. The theory was that policy-makers would chip away it year after year until quotas officially disappeared in 2015.</p>
<p>Accounting for a quarter of the CAP budget, the second pillar of agricultural policy supports rural development and occasionally helps to influence production through aids and subsidies. The last sectors to be governed by quotas were <a href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/replay-radio/histoires-d-info/quand-les-agriculteurs-manifestaient-contre-les-quotas-laitiers-1984_1774893.html">milk</a> and sugar, while the fruit and vegetable sectors abandoned them much earlier. This deprived the CAP of a powerful lever. Europe, now having embarked on a more liberal path, has in fact favoured a more open and deregulatory approach that, for many observers, has given way to <a href="https://www.liberation.fr/futurs/2015/03/29/la-fin-des-quotas-laitiers-une-mesure-vache_1230958/">more volatility</a> in agricultural commodity markets.</p>
<p>As a result, European agricultural markets have <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-l-homme-et-la-societe-2012-1-page-181.htm">slackened</a>, with the lack of regulation at a European level (particularly on volumes) prompting <a href="https://www.lesechos.fr/2015/08/agriculture-le-grand-tournant-1107922">intra-European competition</a> that can be damaging. Farmers, pitted against each other when they used to know who would produce what volume for what remuneration, have been unable to compensate for the erosion of prices and have had to grapple with more uncertain incomes. In concrete terms, Irish milk found itself in direct competition with Danish, Belgian and French milk. As our <a href="https://www.quae.com/produit/1699/9782759233588/gouverner-les-cooperatives-agricoles">research</a> shows, this has led the major cooperatives and manufacturers to enter into a race for size in order to pre-empt markets and <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-recma-2020-4-page-23.htm?ref=doi">take up positions</a>.</p>
<p>Some sectors have subsequently experienced crises of overproduction, leading to a collapse in prices. What’s more, since Europe no longer allows strategic food stocks (<a href="https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/news/eu-food-stocks-should-gear-up-for-a-rise-of-food-protectionism/">even though their usefulness was demonstrated during the Covid crisis</a>) markets are left without the buffering or cushioning mechanisms that existed in the past.</p>
<h2>Forcing to negotiate (in an unfavourable position)</h2>
<p>The destabilisation of the market impacts upon all the links in the agricultural chain: each player will have a strategic interest in hedging its position by shifting part of its problems and the risks inherent in the sector to another player (for instance in grain or milk markets, <a href="https://www.farmersjournal.ie/dairy/news/report-recommends-more-milk-price-volatility-tools-for-farmers-793519">industrial or distributors tends to deport the volatility of international prices on farmers</a> since they are not able to bargain on prices and volumes). This goes some way to explaining why trade negotiations within agricultural sectors <a href="https://www.rtl.fr/actu/debats-societe/colere-des-agriculteurs-derniere-ligne-droite-tendue-dans-les-negociations-commerciales-7900347658">are often tense</a>, with everyone trying to preserve their margins at someone else’s expense.</p>
<p>The centre of gravity of market regulation has thus shifted from Europe and its common tools to national and international markets, giving free rein to unbalanced power relations. Take a dairy farmer producing one million litres of milk will generate between €400 and 500,000 euros in revenue for his farm. He may have to “negotiate”, for example, with the dairy company Lactalis, which is worth 25 billion euros and which itself negotiates with the Leclerc group, which is worth 45 billion euros. In other words, the balance of power is clearly in favour of the downstream sectors (processing and distribution) and farmers have <a href="https://www.ladepeche.fr/2023/12/23/prix-du-lait-la-colere-sexprime-devant-lactalis-11660564.php">no power</a> to negotiate or influence discussions.</p>
<h2>Insufficient responses</h2>
<p>Faced with this unequal balance of power, both Europe and France have tried to respond. The first response was fairly mechanical and consisted of beefing up the upstream sector by allowing producers to group together so that they could carry more weight. We have therefore seen some <a href="https://www.artisansdumonde.org/documents/organisationsprod_oct2015.pdf">producer organisations</a> emerge, but they typically suffer hostility from some manufacturers in particular.</p>
<p>The second response compelled distributors to cover farmers’ costs (more than income). In France, the 2019 <a href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/economie/crise/blocus-des-agriculteurs/on-vous-explique-les-lois-egalim-qui-cristallisent-la-ranc-ur-des-agriculteurs_6332368.html">Egalim laws</a> include a concept (the threshold of resale at a loss) which is supposed to guarantee a floor price to farmers so that they do not lose money. But it has to be said that some players are trying <a href="https://www.lefigaro.fr/societes/ces-centrales-d-achat-a-l-etranger-accusees-de-contourner-les-regles-pour-ecraser-les-prix-20240129">above all to get round these laws</a> in order to maintain their negotiating position and be able to preserve their margins.</p>
<p>So part of the answer to the farmers’ malaise seems to lie halfway between Europe, which needs to regain a much stronger capacity to regulate, or even intervene, and the Member States, which need to rebalance, even artificially, the <a href="https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x8rxxcf">negotiating powers between players in the various agricultural sectors</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224551/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Xavier Hollandts ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>The end of CAP quotas has forced European farmers to compete with each other. The result: lower incomes, greater uncertainty and less bargaining power with distributors.Xavier Hollandts, Professeur de stratégie et entrepreneuriat, Kedge Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2241652024-03-05T13:13:59Z2024-03-05T13:13:59ZThese tiny worm-like creatures in the soil can destroy pests but they can also kill crops - an expert’s guide to nematodes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578226/original/file-20240227-16-a0262c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">PeopleImages/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether you’re a gardener growing food for your household, a small scale farmer or a commercial producer, soil matters. You cannot really tell the difference between healthy and unhealthy soil just by looking at it. But there are organisms in the soil – creatures you can’t see with your naked eye – which scientists use to measure soil health. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/nematode">Nematodes</a> are among the creatures that scientists look for. These multicellular, <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-space-travelling-nematode-a-worm-like-no-other-47949">wormlike animals</a> differ from most other organisms in the soil, such as bacteria and fungi, which are single celled. Nematodes are equipped with a digestive system. They’re also transparent, making it easy for scientists to examine their feeding habits.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-space-travelling-nematode-a-worm-like-no-other-47949">All you need to know about the space travelling nematode: a worm like no other</a>
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<p>I study nematodes to use as biological control agents and also represent Stellenbosch University, South Africa, in the <a href="https://nemedussa.ugent.be">NEMEDUSSA project</a>. This is a consortium of 16 research and educational institutes across Africa and Europe who work on and study nematodes. We want to increase awareness, research and teaching about nematodes, especially in agricultural disciplines.</p>
<p>We also believe it’s important for everyone, especially those working in the <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/soybean-pest-management/soybean-cyst-nematode-management-guide">agricultural sector</a>, and even just casual food gardeners, to know about nematodes. If you grow tomatoes in your garden, for instance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8820211">root-knot nematodes</a> can cause total crop failure.</p>
<p>Four main types of nematodes occur in soil. Each group has expert scientists studying their behaviour and how they can be managed in agricultural practice to minimise the amount of damage they cause. </p>
<h2>Free-living nematodes</h2>
<p>Free-living nematodes are non-parasites. They tend to feed on almost anything in the soil, including fungi, bacteria and other nematodes. In fact, without these free-living nematodes, soil is regarded as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2018.08.008">biologically dead</a> and unhealthy for plant growth. </p>
<h2>Plant-parasitic nematodes</h2>
<p>The unchecked build-up of plant-parasitic nematodes in unbalanced soil is every farmer’s nightmare. Such nematodes feed through a needle-like stylet, which they use as a syringe for obtaining food from the roots of plants. They have adapted their lifestyle from feeding on the outside of the root to inside it, where they are protected against the harsh soil environment.</p>
<p>Plant-parasitic nematodes can never be fully controlled. However, researchers have developed ways to keep them from multiplying to damaging levels. These techniques include planting crops that are resistant to specific nematodes or rotating with crops that the nematodes do not like.</p>
<h2>Entomopathogenic nematodes</h2>
<p>Entomopathogenic nematodes as biological control agents are <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Antoinette-Malan">my special interest</a>. They are plant allies. They feed on pest insects such as larvae and pupae that are in contact with the soil, rather than on plants. Researchers recommend that every farmer or food gardener should have entomopathogenic nematodes present in their soil because they help to keep insect numbers low. Yes, you can buy them: they’re <a href="https://www.e-nema.de/en/about-us/">available commercially</a>, including from <a href="https://biobee.co.za/solutions/biosf/">some South African companies</a>.</p>
<h2>Slug-parasitic nematodes</h2>
<p>Many slug species are in close contact with soil, so certain nematodes have adapted their feeding habits over millions of years to feed on slugs, as well as <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-44210-5_23">some snails</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers realised that the slug nematode could be used as a biological control agent. Biocontrol involves using living organisms like pathogens or insects to control pests, rather than using more environmentally damaging chemical products. A commercial product, available under the trade name <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JopdT8cmrh0">Nemaslug</a>®, was created in 1994 which harnessed the slug nematodes’ feeding habits for biocontrol. But it’s only available in Europe: research is ongoing to identify whether the nematode species used in the commercial product is found in South Africa and whether it’s non-toxic to local endangered molluscs.</p>
<h2>Monitor soil health</h2>
<p>My advice to gardeners and farmers, even those working at a small scale, is to regularly send soil samples for laboratory testing. This will allow you to find out what sorts of nematodes are living among your tomato plants – the “good guys” who take care of pests, or the plant parasites. There are a number of private companies (<a href="https://www.nemlab.co.za">Nemlab</a> is one example) in South Africa to do these sorts of analyses and offer advice based on the results.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224165/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Antoinette Paula Malan receives funding from NEMEDUSA, Erasmus+ NEMEDUSSA project, Capacity Building in Higher Education (CBHE): Nematology Education in Sub-Sahara Africa (NEMEDUSSA). The project is funded by the European Union.</span></em></p>Four types of nematodes occur in soil.Antoinette Paula Malan, Researcher in Nematology, Parasitology, Systematics, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159892024-03-05T03:00:57Z2024-03-05T03:00:57ZLumpy skin disease is a threat to Australia and could decimate our cattle industries – we need to know how it could enter and spread<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577190/original/file-20240221-22-67ggd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C8%2C5964%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/calf-has-sick-lumpy-skin-disease-2028066140">assiduousness, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian authorities are on high alert amid the spread of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2022-03-04/lumpy-skin-disease-detected-in-indonesia/100881842">lumpy skin disease</a> in cattle and buffalo across South-East Asia. While <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/lumpy-skin-disease/australias-freedom-from-lsd">Australia remains free of the disease</a>, the virus is likely to breach our borders at some stage.</p>
<p>Detection of the disease in Australia’s livestock industries would lead to <a href="https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/download/1653/">restrictions on cattle, meat and dairy exports</a>, with serious consequences for the economy. </p>
<p>The federal government has a <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/lumpy-skin-disease/australias-freedom-from-lsd">plan to detect and respond</a> to an outbreak. But we need to go one better – to predict where the disease is likely to appear and how it might spread. </p>
<p>Our team is developing a model we hope will provide this vital information. It will help Australia prepare and respond not just to the current threat, but to any future biosecurity breach.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Lumpy skin disease is on Australia’s doorstep, with fears the threat is going unnoticed | ABC News (September 2022)</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stop-killing-brown-snakes-they-could-be-a-farmers-best-friend-222142">Stop killing brown snakes – they could be a farmer's best friend</a>
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<h2>What is lumpy skin disease?</h2>
<p><a href="https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/lumpy-skin-disease/">Lumpy skin disease is a viral disease</a> that affects cattle and buffalo, not humans. The incubation period is up to 28 days. </p>
<p>First reported in Zambia in 1929, the <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2022.2764-2771">disease has spread</a> across Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe and Asia. It reached <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2022-03-04/lumpy-skin-disease-detected-in-indonesia/100881842">Indonesia in 2022</a>.</p>
<p>Early symptoms include fever and increased tear production. Lumps then appear on the skin and can cover the entire body, gradually hardening as the disease develops. Sometimes the lumps slough off, leaving holes on the skin that are susceptible to infections. </p>
<p>Typically only 1-5% of cattle die from the disease, but those that recover may not return to full health.</p>
<p>Milk production is reduced in cows. Meat yield from infected cattle is likely to be reduced, although it does not contain lumps and is safe to eat. Temporary or permanent infertility in both cows and bulls can also develop during the first month of infection.</p>
<p>The virus is mainly spread by biting insects such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.g5808">mosquitoes, stable flies and ticks</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-021-02786-0">Higher temperature</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.434">increased rainfall</a> can increase insect populations and activity, and have triggered outbreaks of disease overseas.</p>
<p>The disease can also be transmitted by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-43-1">close contact between cattle</a>, such as exposure to body fluids.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing where lumpy skin disease has been reported in South-East Asia over the last five years" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576654/original/file-20240220-18-l9zg5j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Where lumpy skin disease has been reported over the last five years in South-East Asia, as at February 19 this year, using data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The University of Queensland</span></span>
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<h2>A testing time with Indonesia and Malaysia</h2>
<p>In July last year, Indonesian authorities claimed 13 cows from Australia had <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-31/lumpy-skin-disease-cattle-from-australia-exports-indonesia/102668870">tested positive</a> days after arrival. At the time, Australian authorities <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/about/news/lsd-detection-in-cattle-exported-to-indonesia">demonstrated</a> that the nation was free of the disease. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, trade between Indonesia and four of Australia’s cattle export holding yards was <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-30/lsd-in-australian-cattle-in-indonesia/102666812">suspended</a> immediately. Then <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/second-country-suspends-live-cattle-exports-from-australia-over-disease-fears/news-story/d94648994297f0be4497ca0eeda965b5">Malaysia went further and stopped accepting</a> any Australian live cattle and buffalo. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/about/news/malaysian-authorities-lift-temporary-suspension">Malaysia</a> and <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/about/news/indonesia-lifts-trade-restrictions">Indonesia</a> each lifted their restrictions in early September, after <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/about/news/australia-remains-free-from-lumpy-skin-disease">more than 1,000 cattle</a> were tested across Western Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory. The Australian government also <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/indonesia-lifts-ban-on-live-cattle-exports-from-australia/news-story/891378279957dfb5dec102a9fe504749">agreed</a> to boost surveillance and biosecurity measures, including testing on farms and <a href="https://www.beefcentral.com/live-export/alec-welcomes-resumption-of-indonesian-cattle-trade/">disinfecting departing export vessels</a>.</p>
<p>Since the lifting of restrictions, the Indonesian government has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-11/cattle-rejected-live-export-indonesia-skin-blemishes-lsd/102956626">reportedly</a> rejected Australian cattle with skin blemishes – in some cases, this comprised up to 30% of cattle in a shipment.</p>
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<h2>How could lumpy skin disease enter Australia?</h2>
<p>The Australian government has introduced <a href="https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/download/1653/">strict biosecurity measures</a> at international ports to minimise the risk of infected animals entering the country. These include disinfection and disinsection (spraying to remove insects) of vessels and cargo.</p>
<p>However, there’s a high risk of <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/ausvet-lsd-quantitative-assessment.pdf">infected insects entering Australia</a> through international ports or by travelling across the sea to northern Australia. Some infected flying insects may be able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12378">cover long distances, aided by strong winds</a>.</p>
<p>Another possible mode of entry for infected insects is through <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2023-12-13/illegal-fishing-in-wa-sparks-biosecurity-fears/103195314">illegal fishers landing on the Australian coast</a>.</p>
<h2>What can be done to prevent the spread of lumpy skin disease?</h2>
<p>In countries where lumpy skin disease is common, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.g5808">live vaccines have been used to control the disease</a>. However, this is not practical in disease-free countries such as Australia, because vaccinated animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.i2800">cannot be distinguished</a> from infected animals. This means Australia could not be confirmed free of disease, leading to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.g5808">international trade restrictions</a>.</p>
<p>The Australian government <a href="https://minister.agriculture.gov.au/Watt/media-releases/lsd-vaccine-supply-secured">secured a supply of lumpy skin disease vaccines</a> in October. These are being securely stored overseas in case of an outbreak. The vaccines will also be available to neighbouring Papua New Guinea and Timor-Leste.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.woah.org/en/document/lumpy-skin-disease-technical-disease-card/">Preventing the spread of lumpy skin disease</a> requires early detection of the disease, isolation of potentially infected animals and restrictions around their movement. Once initial diagnosis is confirmed, culling of infected animals and insect control would likely follow.</p>
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<h2>What can be done to prepare Australia?</h2>
<p>Australia has a <a href="https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/download/1653/">veterinary emergency response plan</a> to enact if the disease enters the country. The federal government has also <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/lumpy-skin-disease/australias-freedom-from-lsd">boosted surveillance</a> and begun <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/about/news/getting-ready-to-respond">offering training</a> for veterinarians, industry and government staff on how to prevent and control the spread of the disease.</p>
<p>However, innovative models are needed to assess the likely introduction and spread of the disease in Australia. Our team is developing a framework to carry out such modelling. Our model will include data describing the current status of reports of the disease outside of Australia, Australia’s landscape and climate, distribution and movement of cattle, and local insect populations.</p>
<p>These models will produce maps that can be used to identify areas in Australia more suitable to receiving the disease, such as areas with favourable environmental conditions for the survival of imported infected insects. These maps will inform decisions around surveillance and response plans, and help farmers prepare for a potential outbreak of the disease.</p>
<p>Maintaining a high level of preparedness and awareness of the disease among cattle producers, farmers, veterinarians and other relevant individuals is paramount if we are to maintain our disease-free status as an international exporter. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-shot-hole-borer-beetle-invasion-has-begun-but-we-dont-need-to-chop-down-every-tree-under-attack-222610">Australia's shot-hole borer beetle invasion has begun, but we don't need to chop down every tree under attack</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kei Owada works for the University of Queensland. The research team at the University of Queensland working on lumpy skin disease modelling is jointly supported by the Queensland Government Department of Agriculture and Fisheries and the University of Queensland.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Hayes receives funding from the University of Queensland and the Queensland Government Department of Agriculture and Fisheries.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ricardo J. Soares Magalhaes receives funding from the University of Queensland and the Queensland Government Department of Agriculture and Fisheries.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy J. Mahony works for the University of Queensland. The research team at the University of Queensland working on lumpy skin disease modelling and vaccine development is jointly supported by the Queensland Government Department of Agriculture and Fisheries and the University of Queensland.</span></em></p>A disfiguring disease of cattle and buffalo has arrived on our doorstep. We need to keep lumpy skin disease out of Australia, while preparing for the almost inevitable outbreak.Kei Owada, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, School of Veterinary Science, The University of QueenslandBen Hayes, Director, Centre for Animal Science, The University of QueenslandRicardo J. Soares Magalhaes, Professor, School of Veterinary Science, The University of QueenslandTimothy J. Mahony, Professor, Centre for Animal Science, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220922024-02-29T17:37:32Z2024-02-29T17:37:32ZIndians are fleeing their growing economy to work abroad – even in conflict zones. Here’s how to create more jobs at home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576217/original/file-20240216-18-l70jpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C59%2C7951%2C5237&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/people-workers-standing-line-outside-construction-728813566">Rahul Ramachandram/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Israel <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-68027582">plans</a> to bring in 70,000 workers from abroad, including 10,000 from India, to boost its construction sector. A labour shortage has emerged after 80,000 Palestinian workers were barred from entering the country after the October 7 Hamas-led attacks.</p>
<p>Figures suggest that India is one of the <a href="https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/india-seizes-crown-of-fastest-growing-g20-economy-dec23.html">fastest-growing</a> economies in the world. Between July and September of 2023, it grew at a pace of 7.6%. If it continues along this current growth trajectory, India will become the world’s <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/benjaminlaker/2024/02/23/india-to-become-third-largest-economy-by-2027-implications-for-leaders/">third-largest</a> economy by 2027.</p>
<p>The fact that thousands of Indian workers are nonetheless queuing up to secure a job in a conflict zone abroad is a consequence of a jobs crisis at home. Despite the country’s apparent economic growth, many Indians – even those with a university degree – are struggling to secure stable employment.</p>
<p>Casual work makes up <a href="https://eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/10/indias-workforce-woes/#:%7E:text=About%2052%20per%20cent%20of,cent%20are%20regular%20salaried%20workers.">25% of the workforce</a>, while only 23% of workers are paid a regular salary. The remainder are self-employed, and quite vulnerable to irregular and insecure income too.</p>
<p>But India has a large working-age population (people between 15 and 64 years of age), so the demand for jobs is immense. India needs to create an <a href="https://eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/10/indias-workforce-woes/">estimated</a> 10 million to 12 million jobs each year for the unemployed, new workforce entrants, and surplus agricultural workers to be able to secure non-farm work.</p>
<p>How can India provide jobs for its increasingly educated young? It needs even faster economic growth and for this growth to be labour intensive. This will, in turn, generate demand in the economy from all sections of society (not just the middle class and above).</p>
<h2>Structural change</h2>
<p>Between 2004 and 2014, India’s economy grew at a rate of <a href="https://thewire.in/economy/modi-claims-india-saw-a-lost-decade-between-2004-and-14-is-that-true">nearly 8% per year</a> (despite the global financial crisis in 2008). This rapid growth was accompanied by a hastening of structural change in employment.</p>
<p>During that period, the economy created on average <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/ijlaec/v64y2021i2d10.1007_s41027-021-00317-x.html">7.5 million</a> new non-farm jobs every year. The number of manufacturing jobs in India rose from 53 million in 2004 to 60 million by 2012.</p>
<p>However, ₹500 (£4.78) and ₹1000 (£9.56) notes were <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.34.1.55">taken out of circulation</a> in 2016, making 86% of India’s currency illegal. The cash recall was intended to accelerate the country’s transition towards a formal economy. But it led to acute shortages of cash, destroying jobs in the construction and manufacturing sectors.</p>
<p>Growth slowed to 2020 when, at the beginning of the COVID pandemic, the Indian government imposed a nationwide lockdown at <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-52081396">four hours’ notice</a>. The lockdown caused India’s gross domestic product (GDP) to <a href="https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/">contract by 5.8%</a> – more than twice the rate at which the global economy shrank.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Six Indian police officers wearing masks and standing on a city street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576586/original/file-20240219-22-2qhktj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Police in Gujarat, India, enforcing the COVID lockdown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bharuch-gujarat-india-april-05-2020-1702650391">Kunal Mahto/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Employment in manufacturing jobs fell again, especially in labour-intensive manufacturing where employment had already been in decline for five years following the botched implementation of demonetisation. Around <a href="https://thewire.in/economy/what-we-know-about-indias-post-covid-economy-recovery-and-rising-inequality">60 million workers</a> returned to jobs in agriculture, reversing the structural change in employment that had been underway for 15 years.</p>
<p>To take advantage of its bulging working-age population, India needs to create more non-farm jobs. In his new book, “Breaking the Mould”, the former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, Raghuram Rajan, <a href="https://www.penguin.co.in/book/breaking-the-mould/">says</a> that India needs to focus on exports of services, drawing on the country’s new digital infrastructure and IT-based services growth for the domestic (and export) market.</p>
<p>But a focus on services alone will not suffice. This “New India” economy currently constitutes <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/indian-economy-gdp-growth-capex-global-market-share-digital-public-infrastructure-9073549/">less than 15%</a> of the country’s economy and a fraction of that in employment. Such a strategy will generate jobs mainly for highly skilled people, rather than the millions of Indian workers that are searching for non-farm jobs.</p>
<p>What India needs is a <a href="https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/02/03/make-in-india-a-work-in-progress/">manufacturing strategy</a> akin to China’s that focuses on labour-intensive manufacturing. China has pursued an industrial policy since the 1950s, which has become even more evolved since the 1980s, helping the country establish dominance in global high-tech manufacturing.</p>
<h2>Creating jobs in India</h2>
<p>In India, the demand for jobs will only be met if several different factors come together. Construction activity needs to continue at its current brisk pace. But, for the next year or two, it must be led by public sector investment as private investment remains sluggish. </p>
<p>India’s investment-to-GDP ratio is <a href="https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/">still below 30%</a>, and has remained below the 31% inherited by the current government when it came to power ten years ago. The potential for a twofold increase in construction employment (a trend that was observed between 2004 and 2012) over the next five years hinges on the revival of private investment.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of workers in hi-vis jackets at a construction site." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576587/original/file-20240219-28-phmg80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Labour workers building an overhead metro in Bangalore, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bangalore-karnataka-india-january-21-2014-282302282">PI/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Labour-intensive manufacturing by micro, small and medium enterprises also needs a sustained fillip. The government’s focus is currently on large companies – so-called “national champions” like industrial conglomerates Tata and Mahindra – which are being encouraged through <a href="https://thewire.in/political-economy/why-the-modi-government-policy-of-national-champions-is-unravelling">subsidies</a>.</p>
<p>If these subsidies were instead redirected towards smaller enterprises, they might do more for employment generation. Large corporations <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/planning-in-the-20th-century-and-beyond/817DA53ABC693583B3E3D052CA5B2CE5#fndtn-information">typically</a> use highly capital-intensive methods of production, whereas smaller ones tend to absorb more labour. Historically, it is the latter that has generated <a href="https://archive.org/details/developmentwithh0000unse/mode/2up">most</a> of the non-farm jobs in developing countries.</p>
<p>The third area where employment can be generated is, indeed, services. Public expenditure should prioritise public health, education, vocational training and universities.</p>
<p>These sectors are labour-intensive, contribute to the creation of public goods, and will build the human capital needed by both manufacturing and modern export-oriented services. That is the only way India’s health and education services can reach the <a href="https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/385696/hcd-sa.pdf">levels observed</a> in east Asia and attract more foreign investment.</p>
<p>A renewed focus on smaller enterprises across these sectors is needed. Inclusive growth requires providing jobs rapidly at the bottom of the pyramid, not only at the top of the wage – and skill – distribution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222092/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Santosh Mehrotra does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>India needs to follow a path akin to China’s to find answers to its job woes.Santosh Mehrotra, Visiting Professor at the Centre for Development Studies, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2178832024-02-28T12:33:55Z2024-02-28T12:33:55ZThe true cost of food is far higher than what you spend at the checkout counter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577158/original/file-20240221-22-p0v0vh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5822%2C3872&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Stickers don't tell the whole story.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/customer-shops-at-a-grocery-store-on-february-13-2024-in-news-photo/2008637358">Scott Olson/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After several years of pandemic-driven <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105846">price spikes at the grocery store</a>, retail food price inflation is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/20/business/economy/food-price-inflation-cools.html">slowing down</a>. That’s good news for consumers, especially those in low-income households, who spend a <a href="https://theconversation.com/swelling-grocery-bills-are-pummeling-the-poorest-who-spend-over-a-quarter-of-their-incomes-on-food-186980">proportionally larger share of their income on food</a>.</p>
<p>But there’s more to the cost of food than what we pay at the store. Producing, processing, transporting and marketing food creates costs all along the value chain. Many are borne by society as a whole or by communities and regions. </p>
<p>For example, farm runoff is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-reduce-harmful-algal-blooms-and-dead-zones-the-us-needs-a-national-strategy-for-regulating-farm-pollution-186286">top cause of algae blooms and dead zones</a> in rivers, lakes and bays. And <a href="https://refed.org/food-waste/the-problem?gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQiA5rGuBhCnARIsAN11vgSiHk7wAwmYKS-jz9eGPkOcGbEmBtbSUvPCULQTHcrDZ39d5AlQA28aAvHzEALw_wcB">food waste</a> takes up one-fourth of the space in U.S. landfills, where it rots, generating methane that <a href="https://theconversation.com/about-one-third-of-the-food-americans-buy-is-wasted-hurting-the-climate-and-consumers-wallets-194956">warms Earth’s climate</a>. </p>
<p>Exploring these lesser-known costs is the first step toward reducing them. The key is a method called <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003050803/true-cost-accounting-food-barbara-gemmill-herren-lauren-baker-paula-daniels">true cost accounting</a>, which examines the economic, environmental, social and health impacts of food production and consumption to produce a broader picture of its costs and benefits. </p>
<h2>Trillions of dollars in uncounted costs</h2>
<p>Every year since 1947, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization has released an important and widely read report called <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/home/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-food-and-agriculture/en">The State of Food and Agriculture</a>, known in the food sector as SOFA. <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/home/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-food-and-agriculture/en">SOFA 2023</a> examines how much more our food costs beyond what consumers pay at the grocery store. </p>
<p>Using true cost accounting, the report calculates that the global cost of the agrifood system in 2020 was up to US$12.7 trillion more than consumers paid at retail. That’s equivalent to about 10% of global gross domestic product, or $5 per person per day worldwide. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/u1mV5S2QvlA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">True cost accounting is designed to measure the full impacts of producing, transporting and consuming food.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In traditional economics-speak, hidden costs are <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/externality.asp">known as externalities</a> – spillover effects from production that are caused by one party but paid for by another. Some externalities are positive. For example, birds, butterflies and insects pollinate crops at no charge, and everyone who eats those crops benefits. Others, such as pollution, are negative. Delivery trucks emit pollution, and everyone nearby breathes dirtier air. </p>
<p>True cost accounting seeks to make those externalities visible. To do this, scholars analyze data related to environmental, health, social and other costs and benefits, add them together and calculate a price tag that represents what food really costs. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://globalfutures.asu.edu/food/">Swette Center for Sustainable Food Systems</a> at Arizona State University, which I direct, recently conducted a <a href="https://cdn.globalfutures.asu.edu/food/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2023/07/04252023-Unveiling-Hidden-Capitals_web.pdf">true cost accounting study</a> of <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2011/june/beef-cow-calf-production/">cow-calf operations</a> in the Western U.S., in partnership with Colorado State University. It found that the climate costs of these operations are very high – but that solving for climate change alone could threaten the livelihoods of 70,000 ranchers and the rural communities in which they live. A true cost accounting approach can illuminate the need for multidimensional solutions. </p>
<p>I study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GRi_wHAAAAAJ&hl=en">sustainable food systems</a> and am one of 150 scholars across 33 countries who worked together over several years to <a href="https://teebweb.org/publications/teebagrifood/">design and test this new methodology</a>. Our work was led by the U.N. Environment Program and partially funded by the <a href="https://futureoffood.org/">Global Alliance for the Future of Food</a>, a coalition of philanthropic foundations. </p>
<p>In many ways, true cost accounting is a modern and <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003050803-12/embedding-tca-within-us-regulatory-decision-making-kathleen-merrigan">improved version of cost-benefit analysis</a>, a method embedded in governmental decision-making in most advanced economies around the world. This approach <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/cost-benefitanalysis.asp">quantifies expected rewards and costs</a> associated with taking a particular action and then compares them to see whether the action is likely to produce a net gain or loss for the public.</p>
<p>Advocates of true cost accounting assert that its <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc7724en/online/state-of-food-and-agriculture-2023/true-cost-accounting-assessment.html">more nuanced approach</a> will address shortcomings in traditional cost-benefit analysis – particularly, failing to consider social and health externalities in depth. The hope is that because these two methods have many similarities, it should be relatively easy for governments to upgrade to true cost accounting as it becomes more widely adopted. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dozens of young pigs feed in pens inside a large modern barn." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577165/original/file-20240221-24-uqywqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Large-scale livestock farms produce food efficiently at a low cost, but they generate odors and huge quantities of animal waste that can affect adjoining communities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/FactoryFarmFuror/7e9ceabcae514e9e8111ee867ed05244/photo">AP Photo/Charlie Neibergall</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>True costs of food vary across countries</h2>
<p>The 2023 State of Food and Agriculture report <a href="https://www.fao.org/interactive/state-of-food-agriculture/en/">reveals some clear patterns</a>. Of the $12.7 trillion in worldwide hidden costs that it tallies, 39% are generated by upper-middle-income countries and 36% by high-income countries. </p>
<p>For wealthy countries, 84% of hidden costs derive from unhealthy dietary patterns, such as eating large quantities of red meat and heavily processed foods, which is associated with <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/whats-the-beef-with-red-meat">elevated risk of heart disease, cancer and other illnesses</a>. Getting sick takes people away from work, so these health effects also reduce productivity, which affects the economy.</p>
<p>In contrast, 50% of the hidden costs of food in low-income countries are social costs that stem from poverty and undernourishment. SOFA 2023 estimates that incomes of poor people who produce food in low-income countries would need to increase by 57% for these workers to obtain sufficient revenue and calories for productive lives. </p>
<p>Food insecurity on farms is also an issue in the U.S., where the people who produce our food <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-023-10448-0">sometimes go hungry themselves</a>. The food system’s reliance on <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/#size">undocumented and low-paid workers</a> yields <a href="https://youthtoday.org/2022/10/youth-agricultural-workers-arent-protected-equally-under-u-s-labor-law/">undernourished children who often are unable to learn</a>. </p>
<p>The fact that many U.S. farmworkers lack access to health insurance also generates costs, since hospitals <a href="https://www.ppic.org/publication/health-care-access-among-californias-farmworkers/">treat them at public expense</a> when these workers fall sick or are injured. </p>
<p>Food production also has environmental costs. <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-few-heavy-storms-cause-a-big-chunk-of-nitrogen-pollution-from-midwest-farms-146980">Nitrogen runoff</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/epa-has-tightened-its-target-for-deadly-particle-pollution-states-need-more-tools-to-reach-it-223610">ammonia emissions</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-amazon-land-grab-how-brazils-government-is-clearing-the-way-for-deforestation-173416">deforestation</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-reduce-harmful-algal-blooms-and-dead-zones-the-us-needs-a-national-strategy-for-regulating-farm-pollution-186286">water pollution</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/food-production-generates-more-than-a-third-of-manmade-greenhouse-gas-emissions-a-new-framework-tells-us-how-much-comes-from-crops-countries-and-regions-167623">greenhouse gas emissions</a> combined represent about 20% of the global hidden costs of food production. Other environmental costs, such as those associated with species loss and pesticide exposure, are not included in the SOFA analysis. </p>
<h2>Should food cost more?</h2>
<p>The first question people ask me about true cost accounting is whether using it will make food more expensive. Some advocates do argue for pricing food at a level that internalizes its hidden costs. </p>
<p>For example, a Dutch organization called <a href="https://trueprice.org/">True Price</a> works with food companies to help them <a href="https://tonyschocolonely.com/us/en/our-mission/news/why-we-wont-stop-paying-a-higher-price-for-cocoa">charge more accurate prices</a>. The group operates a <a href="https://trueprice.org/supermarket-de-aanzet/">grocery store in Amsterdam</a> that charges conventional prices but provides receipts that also <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/how-much-do-things-really-cost">display “true” prices</a>, reflecting the goods’ hidden costs. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/ChH0pHdMbic/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Consumers are encouraged to pay these higher prices. When they do, the store shares the proceeds with two nonprofit organizations that promote <a href="https://landandlife.foundation/">land and wildlife conservation</a> and <a href="https://www.givedirectly.org/">poverty reduction</a> in Africa. </p>
<p>Rather than raising prices, I believe the most effective way to address the hidden costs of food would be to change government policies that provide <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb6562en/cb6562en.pdf">$540 billion in agricultural subsidies</a> worldwide every year. Of this amount, 87% goes to support production systems that produce cheap food, fiber and biofuels but also generate social and environmental harms. Examples include subsides that promote chemical fertilizer and pesticide use, overuse of natural resources and cultivation of emission-intensive products such as rice. </p>
<p>U.N. agencies have urged world leaders to redirect these subsidies to reduce negative impacts – a strategy they call “<a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-report-calls-repurposing-usd-470-billion-agricultural-support">a multibillion-dollar opportunity to transform food systems</a>.” While it may seem that eliminating subsidies would raise retail prices, that’s not necessarily true – especially if they are repurposed to support sustainable, equitable and efficient production.</p>
<p>Using true cost accounting as a guide, policymakers could reallocate some of these vast sums of money toward production methods that deliver net-positive benefits, such as expanding <a href="https://theconversation.com/organic-food-has-become-mainstream-but-still-has-room-to-grow-164220">organic agriculture</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/trees-can-make-farms-more-sustainable-heres-how-to-help-farmers-plant-more-222030">agroforestry</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-information-age-is-starting-to-transform-fishing-worldwide-179352">sustainable fisheries</a>. They also could invest in training and supporting next-generation food and agriculture leaders.</p>
<p>By creating transparency, true cost accounting can help shift money away from harmful food production systems and toward alternatives that protect resources and rural communities. Doing so could reduce the hidden costs of feeding the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217883/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathleen Merrigan served as a reviewer for the SOFA 2023 report described in this article. She has received funding from the Global Alliance for the Future of Food.</span></em></p>A new UN report finds that the true global cost of producing food is $12.7 trillion more than consumers pay at the checkout counter. We pay those uncounted costs in other ways.Kathleen Merrigan, Executive Director, Swette Center for Sustainable Food Systems, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172532024-02-26T13:39:14Z2024-02-26T13:39:14ZWhat ancient farmers can really teach us about adapting to climate change – and how political power influences success or failure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576820/original/file-20240220-22-4dkk2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C15%2C5160%2C3391&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A farmer paddles to his fields on an artificial island among canals, part of an ancient Aztec system known as chinampas, in 2021. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ae1d688be96145e38f16681367992bca?ext=true">AP Photo /Marco Ugarte</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In dozens of archaeological discoveries around the world, from the once-successful reservoirs and canals of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2020.101166">Angkor Wat</a> in Cambodia to the deserted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2209615120">Viking colonies</a> of Greenland, new evidence paints pictures of civilizations struggling with unforeseen climate changes and the reality that their farming practices had become unsustainable.</p>
<p>Among these discoveries are also success stories, where ancient farming practices helped civilizations survive the hard times. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2209615120">Zuni farmers</a> in the southwestern United States made it through long stretches of extremely low rainfall between A.D. 1200 and 1400 by embracing small-scale, decentralized irrigation systems. <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520343757/the-scarcity-slot">Farmers in Ghana</a> coped with severe droughts from 1450 to 1650 by planting indigenous African grains, like drought-tolerant pearl millet. </p>
<p>Ancient practices like these are gaining new interest today. As countries face unprecedented heat waves, storms and melting glaciers, some farmers and international development organizations are reaching deep into the agricultural archives to revive these ancient solutions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A canal running through a mountain side with snowy peaks in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576825/original/file-20240220-18-dywyn0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An ancient irrigation method used by the Moors involving water channels is being revisited in Spain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/water-channel-for-irrigation-known-as-an-acequia-sierra-news-photo/525482563?adppopup=true">Geography Photos/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Drought-stricken farmers in Spain have reclaimed medieval <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/19/world/europe/spain-drought-acequias.html">Moorish irrigation</a> technology. International companies hungry for carbon offsets have paid big money for <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/ancient-farming-practice-draws-cash-from-carbon-credits-a803aee1">biochar made using pre-Columbian</a> Amazonian production techniques. Texas ranchers have turned to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/29/rio-grande-valley-farmers-study-ancient-technique-cover-cropping-climate-crisis">ancient cover cropping</a> methods to buffer against unpredictable weather patterns.</p>
<p>But grasping for ancient technologies and techniques without paying attention to historical context misses one of the most important lessons ancient farmers can reveal: Agricultural sustainability is as much about power and sovereignty as it is about soil, water and crops.</p>
<p>I’m an archaeologist who studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-019-09138-5">agricultural sustainability</a> in the past. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1914211117">Discoveries in recent years</a> have shown how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.07.022">the human past</a> is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145941">full of people</a> who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03190-2">dealt with climate change</a> in both sustainable and unsustainable ways. Archaeologists are finding that ancient sustainability was tethered closely to politics. However, these dynamics are often forgotten in discussions of sustainability today.</p>
<h2>Maya milpa farming: Forest access is essential</h2>
<p>In the tropical lowlands of Mexico and Central America, Indigenous Maya farmers have been practicing milpa agriculture for thousands of years. Milpa farmers adapted to drought by gently steering forest ecology through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/120344">controlled burns</a> and careful <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gVyTDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Maya+milpa+forest+garden&ots=1ozG6sVYyg&sig=KZNXSDWX2ZR_Em7qGY37CqdeIG0#v=onepage&q=Maya%20milpa%20forest%20garden&f=false">woodland conservation</a>.</p>
<p>The knowledge of milpa farming empowered many <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cX7SEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=chan+Cynthia+robin&ots=yErzYIWFsz&sig=vNrtsYW7IC0X2UnieHxor4Hiiiw#v=onepage&q=chan%20Cynthia%20robin&f=false">rural farmers</a> to navigate climate changes during the notorious <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114838109">Maya Collapse</a> – two centuries of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1419133112">political disintegration and urban depopulation</a> between A.D. 800 to 1000. Importantly, later Maya political leaders worked with farmers to keep this flexibility. Their light-handed approach is still legible in the artifacts and settlement patterns of <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Political_Geography_of_the_Yucatan_M.html?id=52BlAAAAMAAJ">post-Collapse farming communities</a> and preserved in the flexible <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-020-00134-8">tribute schedules</a> for Maya farmers documented by 16th century Spanish monks.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/96rIEVptFwo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Maya farmers and researchers explain milpa farming.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520395879/rooting-in-a-useless-land">my book</a>, “Rooting in a Useless Land: Ancient Farmers, Celebrity Chefs, and Environmental Justice in Yucatán,” I trace the deep history of the Maya milpa. Using archaeology, I show how ancient farmers adapted milpa agriculture in response to centuries of drought and political upheaval.</p>
<p>Modern Maya milpa practices began drawing public attention a few years ago as <a href="https://www.cimmyt.org/news/helping-farming-families-thrive-while-fighting-climate-change-in-mexico/">international development organizations</a> partnered with celebrity chefs, like <a href="https://www.cimmyt.org/es/noticias/el-restaurante-noma-llega-a-tulum-y-utilizara-maices-sustentables-de-yaxunah-2/">Noma’s René Redzepi</a>, and embraced the concept. </p>
<p>However, these groups condemned the traditional milpa practice of burning new areas of forest as unsustainable. They instead promoted a “no-burn” version to grow certified <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/dining/noma-tulum-pete-wells-mexico-rene-redzepi.html">organic maize for high-end restaurants</a>. Their no-burn version of milpa relies on fertilizers to grow maize in a fixed location, rather than using controlled fire ecology to manage soil fertility across vast forests.</p>
<p>The result restricted the traditional practices Maya farmers have used for centuries. It also fed into a modern political threat to traditional Maya milpa farming: land grabs. </p>
<p>Traditional milpa agriculture requires a lot of forested land, since farmers need to relocate their fields every couple of years. But that need for forest is at odds with hotel companies, industrial cattle ranches and green energy developers who want cheap land and see Maya milpa forest management practices as inefficient. No-burn milpa eases this conflict by locking maize agriculture into one small space indefinitely, instead of spreading it out through the forest over generations. But it also changes tradition. </p>
<p>Maya milpa farmers are now fighting to practice their ancient agricultural techniques, not because they’ve forgotten or lost those techniques, but because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12520">neocolonial</a> land <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1215305">privatization policies</a> actively undermine farmers’ ability to manage woodlands as their ancestors did. </p>
<p>Milpa farmers are increasingly left to either adopt a rebranded version of their heritage or quit farming all together – as many have done.</p>
<h2>Mexico’s fragile artificial islands: Threats from development</h2>
<p>When I look to the work of other archaeologists investigating ancient agricultural practices, I see these same entanglements of power and sustainability.</p>
<p>In central Mexico, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24931564?casa_token=Mnjg8lpMxdEAAAAA:xtiTRUNdJVlBTAR3voVS3IszoyqO-VSb8MSohjUlxpYEdNtVKu0QPefJMjiSyvobBMO94-zcDj2E6DOXbNoUl1d-MNm3UO6TDKVsG4JLVxpWkHtFIg">chinampas</a> are ancient systems of artificial islands and canals. They have enabled farmers to cultivate food in wetlands for centuries. </p>
<p>The continuing existence of chinampas is a legacy of deep ecological knowledge and a resource enabling communities to feed themselves.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571516/original/file-20240125-21-sq17hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chinampa techniques use canals and artificial islands. This photo shows one in 1912.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinampas.jpg">Karl Weule, Leitfaden der Voelkerkunde via Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A well-maintained farming island among canals near Mexico City." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571517/original/file-20240125-19-ug1yul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The chinampas of Xochimilco are a UNESCO world heritage site today, but development expanding from Mexico City has put their survival in danger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sergiosf/12546098673">Sergei Saint via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But archaeology has revealed that generations of sustainable chinampa management could be overturned almost overnight. That happened when the expansionist Aztec Empire decided to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101164">re-engineer Lake Xaltocan</a> for salt production in the 14th century and rendered its chinampas unusable.</p>
<p>Today, the future of chinampa agriculture hinges on a pocket of protected fields <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/history-and-civilisation/2022/07/in-mexico-city-the-pandemic-revived-aztec-era-island-farms">stewarded by local farmers</a> in the marshy outskirts of Mexico City. These fields are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.07.018">now at risk</a> as demand for housing drives informal settlements into the chinampa zone.</p>
<h2>Andean raised fields: A story of labor exploitation</h2>
<p>Traditional Andean agriculture in South America incorporates a diverse range of ancient cultivation techniques. One in particular has a complicated history of attracting revival efforts.</p>
<p>In the 1980s, government agencies, <a href="https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/30-3/Raised.pdf">archaeologists</a> and development organizations spent a fortune trying to persuade Andean farmers to <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315810997/inventing-indigenous-knowledge-lynn-swartley">revive raised field farming</a>. Ancient raised fields had been found around Lake Titicaca, on the border of Peru and Bolivia. These groups became convinced that this relic technology could curb hunger in the Andes by enabling back-to-back potato harvests with no need for fallowing.</p>
<p>But Andean farmers had no connection to the labor-intensive raised fields. The practice had been abandoned even before the rise of Inca civilization in the 13th century. The effort to revive ancient raised field agriculture collapsed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A view from a plane shows the outlines where fields were raised." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571518/original/file-20240125-21-4uobzz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An aerial photograph shows pre-Colombian raised fields in Bolivia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/861590">Umberto Lombardo, University of Bern, Switzerland</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since then, more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2005.03.002">archaeological discoveries</a> around Lake Titicaca have suggested that ancient farmers were forced to work the raised fields <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2004.08.001">by the expansionist Tiwanaku empire</a> during its peak between AD 500 and 1100. Far from the politically neutral narrative promoted by development organizations, the raised fields were not there to help farmers feed themselves. They were a technology for exploiting labor and extracting surplus crops from ancient Andean farmers.</p>
<h2>Respecting ancient practices’ histories</h2>
<p>Reclaiming <a href="https://www.soulfirefarm.org/media/farming-while-black/">ancestral farming</a> techniques can be a <a href="https://www.icollectiveinc.org/">step toward sustainable food systems</a>, especially when descendant communities lead their reclamation. The world can, and I think should, reach back to recover agricultural practices from our collective past.</p>
<p>But we can’t pretend that those practices are apolitical.</p>
<p>The Maya milpa farmers who continue to practice controlled burns in defiance of land privatizers understand the value of ancient techniques and the threat posed by political power. So do the Mexican chinampa farmers working to restore local food to disenfranchised urban communities. And so do the Andean farmers refusing to participate in once-exploitive raised field rehabilitation projects. </p>
<p>Depending on how they are used, ancient agricultural practices can either reinforce social inequalities or create more equitable food systems. Ancient practices aren’t inherently good – it takes a deeper commitment to just and equitable food systems to make them sustainable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217253/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chelsea Fisher has received research funding from the National Science Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, and the Fulbright-Hays Program.</span></em></p>Agricultural sustainability is as much about power and sovereignty as it is about soil, water and crops.Chelsea Fisher, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2234042024-02-23T12:57:14Z2024-02-23T12:57:14ZNanotechnology promises to help farmers cut pesticide use – but could also make chemicals more toxic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576824/original/file-20240220-23-kaqnct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nano-enabled pesticides may be efficient but could be hazardous to the surrounding environment beyond target crop pests. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/farmer-agronomist-spraying-pesticide-on-field-1843140232">NataliAlba/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nanotechnology has pervaded numerous industrial sectors over the past decades. Although many of us may not be aware of it, nanomaterials are now embedded within <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-guide-to-the-nanotechnology-used-in-the-average-home-59312">many of the the products</a> we use in our daily lives. <a href="https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5829">Recent developments</a> suggest that agriculture could be next in line. </p>
<p>Pesticide products based on nanoscale materials – nano-enabled pesticides – are currently heralded as a promising new solution that could enhance the protection of crops from pests and disease, while posing minimal risk to the environment.</p>
<p>But, together with a team of environmental scientists, we argue in this <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c10207">new study</a> that despite <a href="https://www.azonano.com/news.aspx?newsID=38847">claimed sustainability benefits</a>, adding nanomaterials to this equation is likely to do more harm than good. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=7853.php">High expectations and bold promises</a> of enhanced efficiency and sustainability have surrounded nanotechnology since its initial large-scale commercialisation two decades ago. There is little doubt that nanotechnology has delivered on some of these criteria. Spectacular examples include <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-ways-nanotechnology-is-securing-your-future-55254">applications in solar cells</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/lithium-air-a-battery-breakthrough-explained-50027">batteries</a> that help society transition away from fossil fuels. </p>
<p>At the same time, there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-nanotechnology-is-more-than-just-a-buzzword-97376">ample evidence</a> of cases where the prefix “nano” has been over-hyped for <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-bs-and-the-science-of-nanotechnology-97317">marketing</a> rather than scientific purposes. These range from overpromised efficacy of nanoparticles for <a href="https://www.science.org/content/blog-post/nanoparticles-mix-it-reality">cancer-targeting applications</a> to downright scams where nano-products are sold under the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicholasreimann/2021/12/28/feds-crack-down-on-nano-silver-covid-treatmentonly-the-latest-unproven-cure/?sh=5071fdbf3bbf">claim of curing COVID</a>. </p>
<p>More importantly, there are instances where the <a href="https://theconversation.com/nanomaterials-are-changing-the-world-but-we-still-dont-have-adequate-safety-tests-for-them-101748">risks</a> of nanomaterials to human and environmental health outweigh their benefits. Concerns regarding genotoxicity – or damage to DNA – recently resulted in a <a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/titanium-dioxide-e171-no-longer-considered-safe-when-used-food-additive">ban of titanium dioxide nanoparticles</a> for use as food colourants in the EU. </p>
<p>Pesticides of any class warrant particular caution when it comes to risks to human health and the environment. In contrast to the majority of chemicals we produce, pesticides are designed to be toxic and are purposefully released to the environment. </p>
<p>Only a small fraction of pesticide applied reaches the pests being targeted under conventional agricultural practices – on average that volume ranges from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10668-011-9325-5">less than 1%</a> up to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wenjun-Zhang-10/publication/323302056_Global_pesticide_use_Profile_trend_cost_benefit_and_more/links/5a8cda3fa6fdcc786eafe3d7/Global-pesticide-use-Profile-trend-cost-benefit-and-more.pdf">approximately 25%</a>. The remaining fraction of applied pesticides often ends up <a href="https://phys.org/news/2021-03-global-farmland-high-pesticide-pollution.html">polluting soils, groundwater and surface water</a>. This poor efficiency represents a significant loss from both an economic and environmental perspective. It’s a waste. </p>
<h2>The promise of nano-enabled pesticides</h2>
<p>Nano-enabled pesticides claim to address this lack of efficiency. Packaging pesticide molecules in nanoscale carriers – less than <a href="https://youtu.be/38Vi8Dm0kdY?feature=shared">one hundredth of the size of a grain of sand</a> – could make pesticides stick or adhere better to crops. It could also improve their absorption into the tissues of pests.</p>
<p>The nanoscale carriers can be tailored to release the pesticide molecules they carry more slowly or restrict their release to occur only under the desired conditions. Consequently, nano-enabled pesticides could be equally or even more effective than conventional pesticide products when applied in lower volumes and less frequently. This cuts the amount of pesticide being released into the surrounding environment.</p>
<p>But reducing volumes is only part of the solution. As illustrated in our paper, many of the properties that improve the performance of nano-enabled pesticides in pest control may equally exacerbate their impacts on organisms other than the pests being targeted. Plainly put, little is gained from lowering levels of pollution, when the pollutants themselves are more harmful. </p>
<p>To illustrate, nano-enabled pesticides that are more readily taken up in the tissues of targeted pests can often be assumed to be more readily taken up by other organisms as well. Similarly, using nanoscale carriers to extend the durability of pesticides after application also increases the time pesticides will pollute the soil and freshwater. This has an impact on aquatic life, pollinators and natural predators of pest organisms. </p>
<p>The nanoscale carriers that are used may affect the environment as well. In a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749123008965?via%3Dihub">study published last year</a>, we demonstrated that nanoscale carriers can adversely affect freshwater zooplankton in the long term. The behaviour of nanomaterials in the environment also tends to be less well known and harder to predict than for conventional chemicals. Due to their minuscule size, accurate routine monitoring of nanomaterial residues in the environment or on food is unfeasible. </p>
<h2>Proceed with caution</h2>
<p>The first nano-enabled pesticides have already entered the market in <a href="https://farmtario.com/news/vive-crop-protection-receives-first-canadian-product-registration/">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/vive-crop-protection-receives-epa-approval-for-the-worlds-first-three-way-biological-chemical-and-allosperse-fungicide-301286798.html">US</a>. More products and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0110-1">other regions</a> such as the EU are likely to follow soon. </p>
<p>For better or worse, the agricultural sector could be on the cusp of a new era for pesticides. By acting now, regulators can prevent nano-enabled pesticides from becoming a regrettable path in the future of farming. Our paper outlines the benefits of nano-enabled pesticides, but emphasises their environmental risks and how these should be assessed.</p>
<p>While our role as environmental scientists is to improve our understanding of these consequences, we urge regulators to consider these risks when evaluating whether nano-enabled pesticides should be bought to market. </p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martina G. Vijver receives funding from European Union's ERC-consolidator grant agreement No 101002123.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Nederstigt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nano-enabled pesticides could pose huge risks and they aren’t being regulated effectively enough yet.Tom Nederstigt, Postdoctoral research fellow, Leiden UniversityMartina G. Vijver, Professor of Ecotoxicology, Leiden UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2236102024-02-22T13:43:36Z2024-02-22T13:43:36ZEPA has tightened its target for deadly particle pollution − states need more tools to reach it<p>Tens of millions of Americans, including many Texans like me, live in counties that will soon be <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-02/table_annual-pm25-county-design-values-2020-2022-for-web.pdf">violating air pollution particle standards</a> for the first time. It’s not that our air is getting dirtier – it’s because the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency just <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/final-reconsideration-national-ambient-air-quality-standards-particulate-matter-pm">tightened its cap</a> on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GH000711">deadliest air pollutant: fine particulate matter</a>, or PM2.5.</p>
<p>The EPA acted because the Clean Air Act requires it to periodically <a href="https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/process-reviewing-national-ambient-air-quality-standards">review existing standards</a> for six major air pollutants to ensure that the targets protect public health. Its <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/isa/recordisplay.cfm?deid=354490">2022 scientific review</a> showed that fine particles increase rates of illnesses and death even when inhaled at levels below existing standards. </p>
<p>The EPA estimates that meeting its new standard would yield up to US$77 in health benefits for each $1 of control costs and would <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-finalizes-stronger-standards-harmful-soot-pollution-significantly-increasing">save up to 4,500 lives in 2032</a>. </p>
<p>Now, states must develop plans that meet the standard. As an atmospheric scientist who has <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=U4vSW6MAAAAJ&hl=en">studied air pollution</a> for a quarter century, I’m concerned that a lack of detailed measurement data will leave many states flying blind. </p>
<p>Furthermore, the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-02/naaqs_pm_reconsideration_ria_final.pdf">regulatory analysis</a> that the EPA issued alongside its rule focused only on a narrow set of local control options, neglecting some of the most important upwind sources of particulate matter. That myopic approach could lead to plans that save fewer lives – and at higher costs – than states could achieve with better data and more comprehensive strategies. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GVBeY1jSG9Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Fine particle pollution contributes to many deadly diseases, including heart attack, stroke, lung disease and cancer.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s in a particle?</h2>
<p>The EPA’s <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/final-reconsideration-national-ambient-air-quality-standards-particulate-matter-pm">new standard</a> limits PM2.5, the smallest regulated particles, to 9 micrograms per cubic meter of air. This is the midpoint of a <a href="https://casac.epa.gov/ords/sab/r/sab_apex/casac/ar?session=32311776731473">recommended range</a> from the agency’s Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee and a 25% cut from the prior cap. This new cap is <a href="https://www.airclim.org/air-quality-standards-worldwide">among the toughest in the world</a>.</p>
<p>Although federal standards lump all fine particles together as a single pollutant, they’re more like a stew of ingredients. Some, like sea salt, dust and black carbon, are emitted to the air directly as particles. Others, like sulfate, nitrate and ammonium, start out mainly as gases that interact in the atmosphere to form particles downwind. Organic carbon, the leading type of PM in many regions, originates as both gases and particles that react in complex ways.</p>
<p>Countless natural sources such as trees and soils, and human-made ones such as vehicles, factories and fertilizers, add various mixes of these ingredients to the stew.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic comparing PM2.5 to human hair and beach sand grains" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576853/original/file-20240220-26-1zrtec.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fine particulates (red dots) are 2.5 microns in diameter – far smaller than the width of a human hair.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/images/2022-04/particulate-size.gif">USEPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>States operate <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-06/PM_2022.pdf">more than 1,000 monitors</a> that measure the total amount of PM in the air. Unfortunately, only about 150 of those monitors are sophisticated versions called speciation monitors that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/amtic/chemical-speciation-network-csn">measure what the PM is made of</a> – information that’s critical for developing effective controls. Thousands of counties don’t even have a total PM monitor, despite satellite evidence showing that <a href="https://www.rff.org/news/press-releases/new-satellite-data-show-twice-as-many-americans-live-in-counties-not-meeting-fine-particulate-air-quality-standards-than-previously-thought/">many would exceed the new standard</a>.</p>
<p>When the EPA first regulated fine particles separately from coarse ones, known as PM10, in the late 1990s, it <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/rced-99-215.pdf">developed a plan</a> to routinely measure the content of PM at over 300 metropolitan sites. It also funded <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?Lab=NERL&TIMSType=PUBLISHED+REPORT&actType=Product&dirEntryId=161403&displayIt=Yes&searchAll=Climate+and+Modeling&showCriteria=0&sortBy=revisionDate&startIndex=51&subject=Climate+Change+Research">temporary Supersites</a> at which scientists intensely studied particles in eight of the most polluted cities.</p>
<p>When I worked on reducing particle pollution for Georgia’s air agency in the early 2000s, those speciation monitors and the <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryId=66293&Lab=NERL">Atlanta Supersite</a> provided crucial data to inform our efforts. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of PM2.5 formation in the air." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576871/original/file-20240220-18-k88ayo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Three major emissions form inorganic fine airborne particulate matter: nitrogen oxides (NOx), largely from cars and trucks; sulfur dioxide (SO2) from power plants and factories; and ammonia (NH3) from agriculture. Sunlight and chemical reactions in the atmosphere convert the emissions to new chemical species that can combine to form tiny particles known as PM2.5.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://energy.mit.edu/news/regulating-particulate-pollution-novel-analysis-yields-new-insights/">MIT Energy Initiative</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Now, about half of the speciation monitors are gone for lack of funding, and the EPA hasn’t announced a follow-up to its Supersite program. The agency’s inspector general <a href="https://19january2021snapshot.epa.gov/sites/static/files/2015-12/documents/pmreport20030930.pdf">warned as far back as 2003</a> that better measurements were needed to inform timely reductions of PM. Instead, Congress cut EPA’s budgets in the early 2000s, driving the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10962247.2014.956904">closure of dozens of monitors</a> after the size of the network <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-08/PM_2021.pdf">peaked in 2005</a>.</p>
<p>The composition of particles has changed dramatically since then as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climate-change/smog-soot-and-other-air-pollution-transportation">vehicles have gotten cleaner</a>, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/power-sector/latest-emission-comparisons-pollution-controls">power plant emissions have plummeted</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06522-6">wildfires have intensified</a>. EPA tightened the PM2.5 standard in <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-04/documents/2012_aqi_factsheet.pdf">in 2012</a> and again this year, so it’s more important than ever to know what these particles are made of now. </p>
<p>Many counties whose PM levels exceed the new standard lack speciation monitors and have never been the focus of an intensive scientific field study. Others lack sufficient data to develop a comprehensive plan.</p>
<h2>A Texas illustration</h2>
<p>My home state of Texas illustrates the data void. In the early 2000s, Houston <a href="http://dept.ceer.utexas.edu/ceer/texaqs/superfacts.html">hosted a Supersite</a> and various <a href="https://csl.noaa.gov/projects/2006/">other</a> <a href="https://www2.acom.ucar.edu/campaigns/discover-aq-houston">temporary</a> <a href="https://earth.gsfc.nasa.gov/acd/campaigns/tracer-aq">studies</a>. Today, our only <a href="https://gispub.epa.gov/air/trendsreport/2023/#pm2_5_composition">remaining speciation monitor</a> sits near the refinery-lined Houston Ship Channel, but our highest PM is measured <a href="https://www17.tceq.texas.gov/tamis/index.cfm?fuseaction=report.view_site&CAMS=1052">18 miles away</a>, where a busy interstate loop transects trendy neighborhoods near a concrete plant.</p>
<p>That data gap pales in comparison to the ones facing Hidalgo, Cameron and Webb counties along the Texas-Mexico border, home to the cities of McAllen, Brownsville and Laredo. Like Houston, their total particulate levels fall between the new and old standards. However, their particle pollution has never been analyzed in a major field study, and there’s no speciation monitor within <a href="https://tceq.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=ab6f85198bda483a997a6956a8486539">over 100 miles</a>.</p>
<p>This isn’t just a Texas problem.</p>
<p><a href="https://www3.epa.gov/airquality/greenbook/map/mappm25both.pdf">Several regions</a> of California, Pennsylvania, Utah and Ohio, along with small portions of Alaska, Arizona, Idaho and Oregon, violated previous PM standards, so those states have some experience developing PM control plans. The new limit will require them to redouble their control efforts. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-02/table_annual-pm25-county-design-values-2020-2022-for-web.pdf">various counties in 18 other states</a>, including Colorado, Florida, Michigan, Mississippi and Tennessee, have PM levels that fall between the previous and new standards. They will likely need to develop plans for the first time.</p>
<p>Cities such as Nashville, Tennessee; Kansas City, Kansas; Fort Lauderdale and Pensacola in Florida; and Hattiesburg and Gulfport in Mississippi also exceed the new standards but lack speciation monitors.</p>
<p><iframe id="ENtxQ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/ENtxQ/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>A need for broader controls</h2>
<p>Lacking better data, states may fall back on the types of strategies outlined in the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-02/naaqs_pm_reconsideration_ria_final.pdf">EPA’s regulatory analysis</a>. The agency suggested that states focus on controlling <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-02/naaqs_pm_reconsideration_ria_final.pdf">local sources that directly emit particles</a>, such as road dust, agricultural dust and cooking emissions.</p>
<p>But this approach neglects particles that form from gases emitted far upwind. For example, ammonia from agriculture reacts with sulfur dioxide from coal burning and nitrogen oxides from various sources to form ammonium, sulfate and nitrate, which are among the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000297">leading components of particulate matter</a>. </p>
<p>Controlling ammonia is one of the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2296406-cutting-ammonia-emissions-may-be-the-best-way-to-reduce-air-pollution/">most cost-effective opportunities</a> to <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es060379a">improve air quality</a>. Reducing emissions of this <a href="https://www.clean-air-farming.eu/en/activities/abatement-measures">long-neglected pollutant</a> will require better practices for managing livestock, fertilizers and manure on farms.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Aerial view of a large power plant with tall smokestacks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577079/original/file-20240221-24-lwmpu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The W.A. Parish coal-fired power plant in Fort Bend County, Texas, just west of Houston, is one of the largest SO2 emitters in the U.S. Three of its four units lack scrubbers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:W.A._Parish_Generating_Plant_Aerial.jpg">RM VM/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sulfur dioxide has <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/sulfur-dioxide-trends">already been slashed</a> but could be cut further by requiring outdated coal-fired power plants that still lack sulfur scrubbers – a technology <a href="https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1111495">mandated at new plants since 1979</a> – to install them, switch to natural gas or retire. Nitrogen oxides can be reduced by replacing old trucks and installing industrial controls. Controlling all of these gases requires help from upwind counties but can achieve broader progress than local dust controls alone.</p>
<p>With growing shares of particulate matter coming from natural sources and wildfires, states will need all the help they can get to meet the tough new standard. Better data and upwind controls of ammonia and other gases can help states save lives and meet standards as cost-effectively as possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Cohan has previously received research grants from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and serves on its Board of Scientific Counselors but is writing in a personal capacity. He worked from 2004-2006 for the Georgia Environmental Protection Division and has previously received research funding from the Texas Air Quality Research Program.</span></em></p>Reducing particle pollution can save thousands of lives, but states need more data to inform better controls. An atmospheric scientist explains what data and actions are needed.Daniel Cohan, Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2228092024-02-19T17:10:11Z2024-02-19T17:10:11ZPotassium in our soil is running low, threatening global food security – new study proposes a way out<p>Soils around the world are running low on potassium, a key nutrient needed for plants to grow. This ultimately means we may not be able to grow enough food for everyone. </p>
<p>But it’s not too late: we have just <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00929-8.epdf?sharing_token=qhRQ1iepxmbV7dxrbcIgGtRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NCdnu7x8IwXr3USOl-E8-A5H2Nqj_gLRuSjtW7hxPh_hd72uJ4hiStFDWxhn_AyhCkX0KybktR6HIOHHgWMkTCyIwR-8GuUGO79NJZw-1ezaLJ7AzLGlkAWaP0TusHPhw%3D">published research</a> identifying six things we must do to safeguard potassium supplies and food production. </p>
<p>Potassium is required for plant growth alongside nitrogen and phosphorus (known as kalium in latin, potassium is the K in NPK fertilisers). While <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.016">nitrogen</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17834.08645">phosphorus</a> sustainability issues are widely known, potassium remains in the shadows. Yet <a href="https://doi.org/10.5772/53185">around 20%</a> of agricultural soils worldwide grapple with potassium deficiency, especially in east Asia, south-east Asia, Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.</p>
<p>Globally, more potassium is being extracted in harvests – small quantities of potassium are essential for every crop we grow – than are being added to fields in fertilisers. This unsustainable phenomenon is known as soil-nutrient mining. </p>
<p>For instance around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4242342/">75% of China’s rice paddy soils</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0520-1">66% of southern Australia’s wheat belt</a> don’t have enough potassium. In India, a lack of potassium is already causing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59197-7">smaller crop yields</a>. </p>
<p>Although it may seem straightforward to address the issue by adding more potassium to the soil, the reality is far more complex.</p>
<h2>Supplies are concentrated in a few countries</h2>
<p>Potassium is generally extracted from potash, a crystal-like mineral found in layers of underground rocks. The world’s reserves are concentrated in a handful of countries which means most other countries rely on imports, making their food systems vulnerable to supply disruptions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Small reddish lump of potash." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576560/original/file-20240219-17940-h8efx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Potash collected from a mine in Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-sample-potash-collected-canadian-mine-1871645284">Wirestock Creators / shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Canada, Belarus and Russia collectively possess around 70% of the world’s potash reserves. Together with China, those four countries produce <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/potash-statistics-and-information">80% of the global output</a> and dominate a <a href="https://resourcetrade.earth/">US$15 billion (£12 billion) international market</a> for potassium fertiliser.</p>
<p>Potash prices are prone to volatility and there have been two big spikes since 2000. The first was in 2009, when prices <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/commodity-markets">more than tripled</a>. Despite widespread concern about fertiliser-driven <a href="https://theconversation.com/further-food-price-rises-could-cause-up-to-1-million-additional-deaths-in-2023-199120">food price instability</a>, little action was taken to shield against future shocks. </p>
<p>In 2021 increased fertiliser demand, post-COVID-19 economic recovery, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and soaring fuel costs led to another <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1088776/full">rapid price escalation</a>. <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/soaring-fertilizer-prices-add-inflationary-pressures-and-food-security-concerns">Sanctions</a> on Belarus added to the disruption. By April 2022, potash was <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/commodity-markets">six times more expensive</a> than it had been in January 2021.</p>
<p>Prices have since dipped a little. While this respite may be welcome, the volatility underscores the pressing need to fortify agriculture against unforeseen shocks.</p>
<p>Potash mining also has a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/mining3020011">considerable environmental impact</a>. For each tonne of potassium that is extracted, around three tonnes of mine waste is generated – mostly salt. This is generally left piled up in “salt mountains”. Without proper management that salt can be washed by rains into surrounding rivers and groundwaters where it can significantly damage ecosystems.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mine with large piles of wastes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576557/original/file-20240219-23-pi1lsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A potash mine in Belarus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Olga Maksimava / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also still don’t know exactly what impact increasing potassium concentrations from fertiliser use will have on life in rivers and lakes. Certainly in lab studies it has proven highly toxic to a range of animals. We need to know more about this before we support simply putting more potassium in soils.</p>
<h2>Six things we must do</h2>
<p>To address soil potassium deficiencies and guard against yield fluctuations, price volatility and environmental impacts, we propose <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00929-8.epdf?sharing_token=qhRQ1iepxmbV7dxrbcIgGtRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NCdnu7x8IwXr3USOl-E8-A5H2Nqj_gLRuSjtW7hxPh_hd72uJ4hiStFDWxhn_AyhCkX0KybktR6HIOHHgWMkTCyIwR-8GuUGO79NJZw-1ezaLJ7AzLGlkAWaP0TusHPhw%3D">six targeted actions</a>:</p>
<p><strong>1. Review current potassium stocks and flows.</strong> We still don’t have a global assessment of potassium soil stocks which would identify at-risk countries and regions.</p>
<p><strong>2. Get better at predicting price fluctuations.</strong> With volatile potassium prices causing food price spikes, we’ll need to develop our monitoring and forecasting capabilities. An international scheme for reporting potassium resources would give us better data.</p>
<p><strong>3. Help for farmers.</strong> “Sufficient” potassium levels should be defined for each area, based on local assessments considering things like how much potassium was already in the soil and what crops are grown there. There could then be targeted fertiliser recommendations for local farmers.</p>
<p><strong>4. Evaluate the environmental effects.</strong> We need to synthesise all available evidence on environmental damage from potash mining, and a potential increase in potassium fertilisers. We especially need to know what it means for rivers and lakes. Potash alternatives such as polyhalite (a potassium mineral with a lower chloride content) should be considered.</p>
<p><strong>5. Develop a circular potassium economy.</strong> Potassium can be recycled and reused. Creating a circular potassium economy will mean capturing more potassium from human and animal sewage and adding it back on crops to grow more food, so we can eat it again, and so on. Promote diets with lower potassium footprints to reduce reliance on mined potassium sources.</p>
<p><strong>6. More cooperation between governments.</strong> Similar to actions on phosphorus and nitrogen, we need an intergovernmental mechanism to consolidate knowledge on potassium, set globally agreed targets and quantify economic benefits.</p>
<p>As phosphorus and nitrogen gain global attention, potassium must not be left behind. A proposal for a resolution on potassium at a future United Nations environment assembly holds the key to intergovernmental action, setting the stage for positive change and integrated nutrient management to achieve global biodiversity targets.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222809/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Will Brownlie receives funding from NERC, ESPRC and the GEF to conduct collaborative international science research projects. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Maslin is the UNFCCC designated point of contact for UCL. He is co-director of the London NERC Doctoral Training Partnership and a member of the Climate Crisis Advisory Group. He is a member of the Sopra-Steria CSR Board, Sheep Included Ltd, Lansons and NetZeroNow advisory boards. He has received grant funding from the NERC, EPSRC, ESRC, DFG, Royal Society, DIFD, BEIS, DECC, FCO, Innovate UK, Carbon Trust, UK Space Agency, European Space Agency, Research England, Wellcome Trust, Leverhulme Trust, CIFF, Sprint2020, and British Council. He has received funding from the BBC, Lancet, Laithwaites, Seventh Generation, Channel 4, JLT Re, WWF, Hermes, CAFOD, HP and Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Alexander receives funding from ESRC, BBSRC, NERC, Innovate UK, European Commission, Wellcome Trust and Royal Society.</span></em></p>This key fertiliser ingredient is subject to sudden price spikes.Will Brownlie, Senior Science Project Manager, UK Centre for Ecology & HydrologyMark Maslin, Professor of Natural Sciences, UCLPeter Alexander, Senior Lecturer in Global Food Security, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2230792024-02-16T04:57:13Z2024-02-16T04:57:13ZAustralians are washing microplastics down the drain and it’s ending up on our farms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576094/original/file-20240215-30-6i3a89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C34%2C5725%2C3794&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-woman-doing-laundry-home-1491577367">Pixel-Shot, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian wastewater treatment plants produce thousands of tonnes of treated sewage sludge every year. This nutrient-rich material is then dried to make “biosolids”, which are used to fertilise agricultural soil. </p>
<p>Unfortunately every kilogram of biosolids also contains thousands of tiny pieces of plastic. These pieces are so small they can only be seen under a microscope, so they’re called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/microplastics">microplastics</a>.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135423015117">our new research</a>, we sampled biosolids from three states and calculated the average contribution of microplastics per person: 3g in New South Wales and 4.5g in Queensland. But the average in South Australia was 11.5g – that’s about the same amount of plastic as a plastic bag.</p>
<p>Roughly 80% of this microplastic comes from washing clothes. We need to protect agricultural soil from contamination by making simple changes at home, mandating filters on washing machines and introducing more effective wastewater treatment. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/microplastics-are-common-in-homes-across-29-countries-new-research-shows-whos-most-at-risk-189051">Microplastics are common in homes across 29 countries. New research shows who's most at risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Biosolids as fertiliser</h2>
<p>Most domestic wastewater comes from household kitchens, bathrooms and laundries. </p>
<p>Wastewater treatment separates most of the water and leaves sewage sludge behind. This mixture of water and organic material can then be sent to landfill for disposal or dried to form a material called “biosolids”.</p>
<p>In Australia, two-thirds of the <a href="https://www.biosolids.com.au/guidelines/australian-biosolids-statistics/">340,000 tonnes produced annually</a> are used on farms to improve soil quality and stimulate plant growth. This not only boosts agricultural productivity but also allows for more sustainable disposal of treated sewage sludge. The waste becomes a resource, a useful and economically viable fertiliser, rather than ending up in landfill.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-1-200-tonnes-of-microplastics-are-dumped-into-aussie-farmland-every-year-from-wastewater-sludge-137278">More than 1,200 tonnes of microplastics are dumped into Aussie farmland every year from wastewater sludge</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Microplastics in Australian biosolids</h2>
<p>Wastewater treatment plants can capture anywhere from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.107831">60% to more than 90%</a> of the microplastics in sewage before the wastewater is discharged. But plastic is durable and does not degrade during treatment. So the microplastic particles removed from the wastewater are simply transferred to the sludge. </p>
<p>We assessed the abundance, characteristics and size ranges of microplastics in biosolids collected from 13 wastewater treatment plants across three states.</p>
<p>We found every kilogram of biosolid contains between 11,000 and 150,000 microplastic particles. </p>
<p>Most of the microplastics found were invisible to the naked eye, ranging from 20 to 200 micrometres in size. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Grid showing four separate microscopy images of microplastics in biosolid samples" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575745/original/file-20240214-24-di49kb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Various microplastic particles from biosolid samples can be as seen under the microscope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shima Ziajahromi</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most common type of microplastic was microfibres from fabric. We found more microplastic fibres during cold seasons. We suspect this corresponds to people washing more synthetic fleece clothing and blankets. </p>
<p>Microbeads are tiny balls of microplastic sometimes added to personal care products and detergents. We did not find any microbeads in samples from South Australia and New South Wales. These states were among the first to support a <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/plastics-and-packaging/plastic-microbeads">voluntary industry phase-out of plastic microbeads</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast, we found a small amount of microbeads in samples from Queensland, which only <a href="https://statements.qld.gov.au/statements/98573">banned microbeads in September last year</a>. That was more than a year after samples were collected for this study.</p>
<p>We estimate Australians release between 0.7g and 21g of microplastics per person into wastewater every year. This wide range is based on our results, which varied from state to state: 0.7g to 5.9g in NSW, 1g to 7.2g in Queensland and 1.9g to 21g in SA. We don’t know why it varies so much between states.</p>
<p>This contributes to the amount of microplastics in biosolids. Our biosolid samples contained anywhere from 1kg to 17kg of microplastics per tonne. Remember this is being transported into our farmlands.</p>
<h2>What’s the problem?</h2>
<p>Microplastics are steadily accumulating in agricultural soils, where they will remain for hundreds of years. While natural weathering processes such as sunshine and rain will slowly break down microplastics into smaller and smaller particles, that only makes matters worse. Smaller particles cause more harmful effects to soil organisms.</p>
<p>Eating small pieces of plastic can cause internal abrasions and blockages in the digestive tract. In very small aquatic animals such as zooplankton, microplastics can reduce absorption of nutrients from food, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.7b03574">decrease reproduction rates, and cause death</a>.</p>
<p>These tiny particles also contain a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7355763/">cocktail of toxic chemicals</a>, either added during manufacturing to improve the product or soaked up from the environment. This makes them <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389420319026?casa_token=4Ny10i4YQ_UAAAAA:71b3vKN1UUA7TaSKkWQ76Up0TiRR_MoE6enVmKLeynDLo_2alsz_5aWeNS_Eal5LchEt91Gedg">even more dangerous</a>.</p>
<p>Smaller microplastics (less than 100 micrometres in size) are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304389423005113">even more harmful for soil organisms</a>. </p>
<p>Microplastics in soil can be ingested by soil organisms such as earthworms and cause harmful effects on these vital organisms. Microplastic exposure has also been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149338">adversely affect soil health and plant growth</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.biosolids.com.au/wp-content/uploads/Emerging-Contaminants-in-Biosolids-Research-report.pdf">Australian regulations</a> govern the amounts of heavy metals, nutrients, pathogens and some emerging contaminants allowed in biosolids, but there is no guideline for microplastics concentrations. We think that has to change. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Stockpiles of biosolids from sludge lagoons with a tractor in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574840/original/file-20240212-18-j43xxo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biosolids from sludge lagoons in South Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SA Water</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Here’s what we can do</h2>
<p>Our research shows biosolids are a significant source of microplastics in agricultural systems. More research is needed to better understand the risks. </p>
<p>We need to put effective control measures in place to minimise the accumulation of microplastic in productive agricultural soils. </p>
<p>The most effective way to do this is to reduce the level of microplastics in biosolids at the source. </p>
<p>We know most microplastics in biosolids come from washing clothes. While it may not be possible to eliminate the use of synthetic fabrics, there are some measures we can all take to reduce the amount of microplastic washing off our clothes into the wastewater stream. Properly installed <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865">filters in washing machines</a> have been shown to significantly reduce microplastic levels in wastewater. </p>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-plastics-plan-2021.pdf">National Plastics Plan</a> recommends the Australian government work with industry to “phase-in” microfibre filters on all washing machines by 2030. But why wait until 2030? </p>
<p>Several jurisdictions, including <a href="https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/loda/id/JORFTEXT000041553759">France</a>, <a href="https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-42/session-1/bill-279">Ontario</a> and <a href="https://fastdemocracy.com/bill-search/ca/20212022/bills/CAB00022073/">California</a>, have already made microfibre filters on washing machines mandatory. It’s time Australia did the same. </p>
<p>In the meantime, there are simple things everyone can do at home. Wash clothes in cold water, avoid running the machine for light loads if you can wait to do a full load, and wash synthetic fabrics less frequently. These steps will also save energy and money. </p>
<p>It’s far better to stop microplastics entering the wastewater stream than <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213343722007047?via%3Dihub">trying to remove them at the wastewater treatment plant</a>. Prevention is always better than a cure. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humanitys-signature-study-finds-plastic-pollution-in-the-worlds-lakes-can-be-worse-than-in-oceans-209487">'Humanity's signature': study finds plastic pollution in the world's lakes can be worse than in oceans</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223079/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shima Ziajahromi receives funding from the Queensland Government through Advance Queensland Industry Research Project. This project was co-sponsored by Urban Utilities, Sydney Water, SA Water, Water Corporation (WA) and Eurofins Environment Testing Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frederic Leusch receives funding related to this research topic from the Queensland Government through an Advance Queensland Industry Research Project, Water Research Australia, and various Australian water utilities. This project was co-sponsored by Urban Utilities, Sydney Water, SA Water, Water Corporation (WA) and Eurofins Environment Testing Australia.</span></em></p>We sampled sewage sludge from 13 wastewater treatment plants across three states. We found every resident adds microplastics to farmland, in dried sewage sludge (biosolids) used as fertiliser.Shima Ziajahromi, Advance Queensland Research Fellow, Griffith UniversityFrederic Leusch, Professor of Environmental Science, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221072024-02-13T15:04:44Z2024-02-13T15:04:44Z17 million South Africans live on communal land – new study of a rural valley offers insights on how to manage it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572398/original/file-20240131-19-f7h2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tyhume Valley in Eastern Cape, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wonga Masiza</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tyhume River, flowing from the forested Amathole Mountains in South Africa’s Eastern Cape province, gives its name to a valley of 20 villages on communal land. Much of the land is being used to keep livestock, as crop production has declined over the years. This land is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837712001998?via%3Dihub">under the custodianship of traditional leaders</a>.</p>
<p>The valley is typical of South Africa’s communal land: affected by <a href="https://doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2022.2138973">soil erosion</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00207233.2021.1886557">bush encroachment</a> and <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0301-603X2022000200005">water scarcity</a>. </p>
<p>About one third (over 17 million) of <a href="https://www.parliament.gov.za/storage/app/media/Pages/2017/october/High_Level_Panel/Commissioned_Report_land/Commisioned_Report_on_Tenure_Reform_LARC.pdf">South Africa’s population lives on communal land</a>, which makes up around <a href="https://sarpn.org/documents/d0002695/index.php">13%</a> of all land in the country. The <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201707/40965gen510.pdf">Communal Land Tenure Bill, 2017</a> defines communal land as “owned, occupied or used by members of a community subject to shared rules or norms and customs”. It can also be owned by the state.</p>
<p>This land can benefit rural communities by providing ecosystem goods and services, such as shelter, water, fuelwood, food and cultural amenities. But natural processes and human activity can transform the land. </p>
<p>Unmonitored and poorly managed land changes can trigger soil erosion, overgrazing, loss of biodiversity and water scarcity. In South Africa, communal land is considered to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10260">more degraded than privately owned land</a>. This can negatively affect the livelihoods of people who derive ecosystem services from it.</p>
<p>Common indicators and causes of land degradation are generally understood. But less is known about how people living in communal lands interpret land changes and their impact. It’s unclear what they perceive as land degradation or which kinds of land changes matter most to them. This helps explain the lack of sound policies and practical strategies to rehabilitate land.</p>
<p>Our team of geoinformation scientists at South Africa’s Agricultural Research Council and the University of the Free State carried out <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2023.1205750/full">a study</a> which mapped land use and land cover change in the Tyhume Valley over 30 years. </p>
<p>To understand the extent, causes and impact of communal land change, we analysed a series of historical satellite images from 1989 to 2019 and conducted interviews with locals. Instead of interviewing experts and leaders, the study measured the most common perceptions among community members.</p>
<p>As far as we know, this study is one of the first in South Africa to combine satellite data and local perceptions. This offered a more complete view of communal land change, and valuable insights on its impacts. </p>
<p>We suggested some ways in which this land could be managed better to provide ecosystem services and livelihoods. </p>
<h2>Satellite imagery and community perceptions</h2>
<p>Our study set out to discover whether satellite-measured trends of land use and land cover corresponded with those perceived by the community. We also explored the causes, rate and impact of these trends.</p>
<p>Satellite imagery from 1989 to 2019 revealed increases of the sweet thorn tree (<em>Vachellia karroo</em>) by 25% and the residential area (2.5%). It showed declines of grazing land (18%), cropland (9.6%) and dams (1.1%). </p>
<p>Assisted by 102 long-standing residents, most above 50 years of age, we asked about the causes and impacts of the observed changes. </p>
<p>Most respondents (over 80%) noted the encroachment of the sweet thorn tree on grazing land and abandoned cropland. They said contributing factors were a decrease in fuelwood harvesting due to increased reliance on electricity, the abandonment of cropland (providing habitat for the sweet thorn) and seed dispersal caused by unrestricted movement of animals. Many saw the tree as beneficial because goats like to eat it and it makes good fuel. Others were concerned that this tree was invading productive agricultural land and causing a loss of biodiversity. They mentioned increased scarcity and disappearance of medicinal and culturally significant plants.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/smallholder-crop-farming-is-on-the-decline-in-south-africa-why-it-matters-119333">Smallholder crop farming is on the decline in South Africa. Why it matters</a>
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<p>Most respondents noted a decrease in grazing land, cropland and surface water. As reasons, they cited lack of access control (poor management, allowing bush encroachment), lack of farmer support and equipment, and poor rainfall.</p>
<p>New houses had been erected on grazing land. This was seen as a result of population increase and inward migration. Livestock farmers saw this as a problem because they had to buy fodder or trek their cattle long distances to graze. The population increase also put strain on water resources.</p>
<p>Every village in the area had at least one communal dam that had dried up. Despite 14 years of below-average rainfall and a negative rainfall trend between 1989 and 2019, the trend was not statistically significant. The community perceived that water resources had declined because of overuse and poor maintenance of dams. They said the government no longer desilted community dams, and that the community had abandoned traditional practices such as the maintenance of surface water channels and homestead ponds. </p>
<p>They gave water scarcity as one of the main reasons that croplands had been abandoned.</p>
<p>Most said the communal lands were healthier and offered more resources when areas were fenced off and people had to get permits to use land. Local residents had <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10745-006-9062-9">cut fences</a> to give their animals unlimited access to grazing and water.</p>
<p>Overall, the changes to the Tyhume Valley environment were not positive. The respondents said the decline in agricultural activity had resulted in increased unemployment and consumption of unhealthy food.</p>
<p>Similar changes have been reported on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2014.943525">many other communal lands</a>.</p>
<h2>Better land management</h2>
<p>The land can be better managed through interventions by village committees, tribal authorities and extension services, and by following spatial planning and land use guidelines.</p>
<p>The sweet thorn can be controlled by stocking more browsing animals. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/10220119.2016.1178172">Studies</a> have demonstrated that this plant has a high nutritive value.</p>
<p>The community, with help from the government, needs to reinstate water harvesting practices and the regular desilting of dams. Other communal <a href="https://www.drdar.gov.za/restoreddamsreducelivestockmortality/">dam restoration projects</a> in the Eastern Cape have succeeded by dredging and augmentation of stock dams.</p>
<p>This study shows that the combination of <a href="https://theconversation.com/technique-developed-in-kenya-offers-a-refined-way-to-map-tree-cover-76709">satellite imagery</a> and local perceptions provides valuable insights about the extent, causes and impacts of land change in communal areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wonga Masiza receives funding from Agricultural Research Council.</span></em></p>Satellite images and community perceptions combine to give a fuller picture of land use changes.Wonga Masiza, Researcher, Agricultural Research CouncilLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2183312024-02-13T13:20:40Z2024-02-13T13:20:40ZOur robot harvests cotton by reaching out and plucking it, like a lizard’s tongue snatching flies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571200/original/file-20240124-15-t230yk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C6%2C4001%2C2593&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cotton in bloom in Oklahoma.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/field-of-cotton-royalty-free-image/148704945">John Elk/the image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cotton is one of the most valuable crops grown in the U.S., with a harvest value of <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/cotton-and-wool/cotton-sector-at-a-glance/">some US$7 billion yearly</a>. It is cultivated across a crescent of 17 states stretching <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/cotton-and-wool/cotton-sector-at-a-glance/">from Virginia to California</a> and is used in <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/cotton-and-wool/cotton-sector-at-a-glance/">virtually every type of clothing</a>, as well as in medical supplies and home goods such as upholstery. </p>
<p>Cotton grows inside a hard, fibrous case called a boll. About 100 days after planting, the bolls mature and split open, revealing thousands of fluffy white fibers inside. Each boll contains 20 to 40 seeds with fibers attached to them, which is why the cotton plant’s fruit is called seed cotton. </p>
<p>Picking cotton manually, as is still done in some <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/cotton-production-by-country">major producing countries</a>, is a meticulous task. Workers have to bend to reach the bolls and can hurt their hands on <a href="https://libguides.nybg.org/c.php?g=1003078&p=7264406">hard, dry parts of the plants</a>. To harvest the seed cotton, they have to grab and twist it to separate it from the boll without leaving fiber behind. </p>
<p>Starting in the 1930s, cotton farmers in the U.S. shifted from manual labor to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/cotton-harvester">large, heavy harvesters</a>. Now the industry is entering a new stage that promises to be more efficient and precise. </p>
<p>I am an engineer and have <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=AGlJEMQAAAAJ&hl=en">nearly 20 years of research experience</a> working on agricultural machinery. My current focus is on agricultural robotics and automation. During my Ph.D. program at Mississippi State University, I worked with <a href="https://www.abe.msstate.edu/people/faculty/j-alex-thomasson/">Alex Thomasson</a>, who heads the <a href="https://www.abe.msstate.edu/">agricultural and biological engineering department</a> and the <a href="https://www.aai.msstate.edu/">Agricultural Autonomy Institute</a>, to develop a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2023.107943">robotic cotton harvester</a> that picks cotton with less damage to the product and the soil where it grows.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man stands in front of a cotton field, next to a wheeled machine with a computer screen on top and wires hanging from it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571202/original/file-20240124-23-258u5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mississippi State University engineering professor Hussein Gharakhani with a prototype robotic cotton harvester.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hussein Gharakhani</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why use robotics?</h2>
<p>Cotton farmers have economic, environmental and agricultural reasons to want a better option for harvesting. Traditional mechanical harvesters can be up to 14 feet long and weigh more than 30 tons. They remove cotton effectively without damaging the plants but also can cause problems. </p>
<p>One issue is prolonged fiber exposure. Cotton bolls don’t all mature at the same time; the first open bolls in a field may wait for up to 50 days to be picked, until more bolls around them ripen. </p>
<p>Another challenge is that harvesting machines compact the soil as they roll over it. This makes it harder for water and fertilizer to penetrate down to plant roots. And the machines cost roughly US$1 million apiece but are used for only two to three months each year. </p>
<p>Robotics is a potential solution that farmers are already using for other crops, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11119-022-09913-3">fruits and vegetables</a>. Harvesting robots use cameras and sensors to detect when crops are ready to pick and can remove them without damaging the plant. </p>
<p>For cotton, robotics offers more targeted picking of bolls that are ready to harvest. It produces better-quality cotton fiber by picking seed cotton as soon as the bolls open, without leaving it exposed to the weather. The robot targets the seed cotton and avoids touching other parts of the plant. </p>
<p>With robotic picking, cotton farmers <a href="https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/cotton/scheduling-defoliation/">don’t need to use defoliants</a> to remove leaves from the plants prior to harvesting, which is a common practice now. And small, nimble robots don’t compress the soil as they move over it, so they help maintain soil health.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large green machine drives through a cotton field with a man riding on an observation deck. The harvester is more than twice the man's height." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571208/original/file-20240124-17-ekvdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mechanical harvester picking cotton in Alabama in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2myChzr">Katie Nichols/Alabama Extension/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A bioinspired ‘picking hand’</h2>
<p>Our work focuses on designing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2022.100043">an end-effector for robotic cotton harvesting</a>. An end-effector is a robotic hand that enables the robot to interact with other objects. Ours is a three-fingered version designed for delicate and efficient cotton picking. It draws inspiration from nature, mimicking the hunting prowess of a lizard.</p>
<p>Each finger is a 3D-printed structure that contains a moving belt with pins attached to it. The pins help the hand grasp and pull in the seed cotton. Like a lizard <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3oh73amxQo">snatching prey with its sticky tongue</a>, our end-effector’s three fingers approach the seed cotton delicately. On contact, the cotton fibers stick to the machine’s fingers, much as an insect sticks to a lizard’s tongue. </p>
<p>Next, the hand retracts quickly, like the lizard’s tongue. The end-effector keeps working to “swallow” the seed cotton, transferring it out of the plant. As the harvester picks and transfers seed cotton out of the plant, the end-effector touches parts of the cotton boll with remaining seed cotton multiple times to pick as much as possible.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IztKk3E7zSc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A robotic harvester picks cotton in a field test.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To pick cotton efficiently, our robot has to do three things: detect bolls that are ready for harvest, determine exactly where they are located in a three-dimensional space and pick the cotton.</p>
<p>The robot uses a deep-learning algorithm that we have trained to recognize open bolls on cotton plants. It uses a stereovision camera to calculate their 3D spatial coordinates, which it transfers to the robotic arm. A control algorithm monitors each cotton boll to ensure that the robot picks as much seed cotton as possible. </p>
<h2>Testing and results</h2>
<p>So far, we have tested the robotic cotton harvester in <a href="https://youtu.be/WnzJNlSS5iU?si=HkSDbRiQp3Y-HSUj">the laboratory</a> and in <a href="https://youtu.be/IztKk3E7zSc?si=8iC9gVI3wfXZktPf">cotton fields</a>. The detection system found 78% of ripe cotton bolls; the localization system calculated 3D coordinates for 70% of the detected bolls; and the picking system successfully harvested 83% of these bolls. Overall, the robot picked about 50% of the cotton bolls that were within its reach. </p>
<p>Our harvester picked cotton at a speed of 8.8 seconds per boll. If we can decrease this required time to 0.3 seconds and increase the robot’s efficiency to pick at least 90% of the cotton bolls it can reach, by optimizing the system and adding more arms on a robot, a fleet of 50 robots could harvest a cotton field as quickly as a mechanical harvester, with a comparable yield.</p>
<p>To improve the robot’s overall performance, we plan to adopt better artificial intelligence algorithms, improve our system’s camera and add another degree of movement to the robotic arm – for example, enabling the end-effector to rotate – to increase its dexterity. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman wearing a sun visor and with a cloth bag slung around her waist bends over plants in a cotton field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571214/original/file-20240124-23-1cp4yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman picks cotton at a plantation in Birlik, Uzbekistan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-uzbek-woman-picks-cotton-buds-at-a-cotton-plantation-in-news-photo/1236076112">Vyacheslav Oseledko/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We see great potential for our robot in major cotton-producing countries such as China, India, Pakistan and Uzbekistan, where cotton is currently picked by hand, often <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34844992">by women and children</a> and sometimes <a href="https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/society-equity/regulatory-crackdown-slavery-cotton-supply-chains-wake-up-call-fashion-brands-2023-08-20/">under abusive conditions</a>. One way to make this technology available for small farmers in low-income countries would be to make smaller, semi-autonomous robots that would require fewer sensors. Producing higher-value cotton with less damage to plants and soil could improve life for millions of people who earn their livings raising this global crop.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218331/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hussein Gharakhani receives funding from Cotton Incorporated, a nonprofit research and marketing company that works to improve demand for and profitability of cotton.</span></em></p>Cotton is one of the world’s largest crops and is harvested with large, heavy machines. Robotic harvesting could yield higher-quality cotton with less damage to plants and soil.Hussein Gharakhani, Assistant Professor of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225142024-02-11T19:04:45Z2024-02-11T19:04:45ZPermaculture showed us how to farm the land more gently. Can we do the same as we farm the sea?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574289/original/file-20240208-28-ugs4w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1166%2C32%2C3789%2C2076&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As wild fish and other marine species get scarcer from overfishing and demand for ‘<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912422000281">blue foods</a>’ grows around the world, farming of the ocean is growing rapidly. Fish, kelp, prawns, oysters and more are now widely farmed. The world now <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/rise-of-aquaculture">eats more farmed seafood</a> than wild-caught. </p>
<p>These farms are springing up along coasts and in offshore waters worldwide. Australians will be familiar with Tasmania’s salmon industry, New South Wales’ oyster farms, and <a href="https://www.frdc.com.au/seaweed-aquaculture-australia#:%7E:text=Asparagopsis%20aquaculture&text=The%20commercial%20seaweed%20farming%20industry,South%20Australia%2C%20and%20Western%20Australia.">seaweed farms</a> along the southern coastline. Aquaculture is already <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/mar/18/if-we-want-to-eat-it-we-have-to-farm-it-the-push-to-grow-australias-2bn-aquaculture-industry">larger than fishing</a> in Australia. Farming the sea is hailed as a vital source of food and biomass essential to reduce the damage we do to our oceans and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/59/11/967/251334">help feed a growing population</a>.</p>
<p>But the booming “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09733159.2016.1175131">blue economy</a>” is no panacea. Fish farms can pollute the water. Mangroves are often felled to make way for prawn farms. The solutions of today could turn out to be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11160-020-09628-6">problems of the future</a>. We cannot simply shift from one form of environmental exploitation to another. </p>
<p>There is an alternative: permaculture. This approach has proven itself on land as a way to blend farming with healthy ecosystems. What if it could do the same on water? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/farming-fish-in-fresh-water-is-more-affordable-and-sustainable-than-in-the-ocean-151904">Farming fish in fresh water is more affordable and sustainable than in the ocean</a>
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<hr>
<h2>Making aquaculture better</h2>
<p>Many of today’s most pressing problems – from climate change to biodiversity loss to pollution – are <a href="https://foodsystemeconomics.org/wp-content/uploads/FSEC-Executive_Summary-Global_Policy_Report.pdf">linked to the way</a> we produce food on land. To make new farmland often involves removing habitat, destroying trees and adding synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.</p>
<p>Since humans began farming about 12,000 years ago, we have expanded to the point where we now <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/">actively control about 70%</a> of Earth’s ice-free land to make food, build cities, and many other uses. </p>
<p>On land, we are farmers, tending domesticated species. But at sea, we’ve been hunters, seeking wild populations. Now, the seas are to be farmed. We should farm in ways which do not damage these ecosystems.</p>
<p>We cannot afford to use the same intensive methods of farming in the oceans as we have been on land. Given how sick many of the world’s ocean systems are already from overfishing, algal blooms from nutrient overload, and habitat loss, there’s not much room for error. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="prawn farms in Thailand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574278/original/file-20240208-20-e8eu7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s entirely possible for aquaculture to be done too intensively.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is marine permaculture?</h2>
<p>Permaculture as we know it was developed in the 1960s by Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren. The latter is a co-author of the research forming the basis of this article. </p>
<p>The goal was simple: create ways of farming which give back to the soil and ecosystems, using tools like no-till farming, companion planting and food forests. Over the last 50 years, it has been adopted by farmers around the world.</p>
<p>Permaculture is framed around three ethics – care of Earth, care of people, and a fair share – aimed at producing benefits and distributing costs equitably between different people and nature. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/let-them-eat-carp-fish-farms-are-helping-to-fight-hunger-90421">Let them eat carp: Fish farms are helping to fight hunger</a>
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<hr>
<p>So what would permaculture of the seas look like? While it hasn’t been fully articulated, many recent developments in ocean production and governance have strong parallels with the work permaculture practitioners have been doing for decades. </p>
<p>Aquaculture systems can, many now believe, not only be low-impact but work to <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.12982">restore lost or damaged ecosystems</a>. Picture oyster farms slowly bringing back the natural oyster reefs which once carpeted shallow coastal waters, or prawn farms surrounded by regrowing mangroves to protect the coast from erosion. </p>
<p>There are strong parallels between the closed-loop approach taken by permaculture on land and an emerging sea farming approach called integrated multi-trophic aquaculture. Here, species with different ecological roles are grown together, producing more food from your farm – and strengthening <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2018.00165/full">natural ecosystem services</a>. </p>
<p>In these systems, food waste from consumers is recycled by seaweeds and shellfish, which in turn provide food and habitat to farmed fish species. If well-designed, these benefits flow out from the farm. </p>
<p>Permaculture’s influence is also evident in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/1/4/pgac196/6702749">nature-inspired design and biomimicry</a>, using natural shapes to give nature a boost. Australian work here includes efforts to restore rocky reefs by <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/like-sculptures-in-the-sea-artificial-reef-brings-hope-to-threatened-shoreline-20231018-p5edci.html">creating structures</a> with the nooks and crannies small sea creatures need. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="fish farms seen from above" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574279/original/file-20240208-26-t5obr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish farming is becoming big business. But that comes with risks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/salmon-fish-farm-hordaland-norway-703043050">Marius Dobilas/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From the grassroots</h2>
<p>At present, a handful of corporations have disproportionately high <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0127533">levels of control over fisheries and aquaculture</a>. In part, that’s because <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-au/what-we-are-doing/our-approach/fishing-methods-and-gear-types/can-a-super-trawler-fish-sustainably">supertrawlers</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2023-08-08/sea-swift-prawn-trawler-motherships-gulf-of-carpentaria/102696476">motherships</a>, and large blue-water fish farms are expensive.</p>
<p>If we instead took a marine permaculture approach to the blue economy, we would seek to return power back to the people who live and work at the water’s edge – a permaculture equivalent to <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2023/01/mongabay-explains-whats-the-difference-between-artisanal-and-industrial-fishing/">artisanal fishing</a>. </p>
<p>A localised approach to aquaculture has real benefit. Individuals and communities could develop their own versions of marine permaculture which work in their area, by adopting design solutions used elsewhere or just by tinkering and trialing. </p>
<p>If something isn’t working or it’s creating flow-on consequences, people can see what’s happening and respond quickly. </p>
<p>Small-scale sea farms are less likely to do damage, and should also boost resilience by investing in local social and environmental benefits.</p>
<h2>How do we make this a reality?</h2>
<p>For their part, governments can help by creating policy frameworks encouraging small-scale producers – especially those able to demonstrate positive social and ecological outcomes. </p>
<p>Governments have an essential role in creating comprehensive <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X10000436">spatial plans</a> to guide aquaculture in an area or region. This is important, as it removes uncertainty and avoids conflict between different uses. </p>
<p>Researchers can help by developing measures of success and testing new techniques to help guide the new communities which will form to farm the sea.</p>
<p>Over the past half-century, permaculture on land has grown into a diverse movement challenging conventional wisdom about how to produce food. </p>
<p>We’ll need that same intense creative energy to make marine permaculture a reality. It’s entirely possible to design food-producing seascapes which give back to the sea as well as take from it – while making it possible for smaller sea farmers to flourish. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-revolution-disguised-as-organic-gardening-in-memory-of-bill-mollison-66137">A revolution disguised as organic gardening: in memory of Bill Mollison</a>
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</em>
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<p><em>Climate Foundation CEO Brian von Herzen and permaculture pioneer David Holmgren contributed to the research this article is based on.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222514/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Spillias does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As we go from fishing to fish farming, we should borrow restorative approaches from permaculture.Scott Spillias, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2230532024-02-08T13:38:04Z2024-02-08T13:38:04ZAmericans spend millions of dollars on Valentine’s Day roses. I calculated exactly how much<p>Feb. 14 is Valentine’s Day – an occasion that traditionally combines romance with big business. One of the biggest businesses is selling roses, which Americans increasingly love. Back in 1989, about 1 billion cut roses were sold annually in the U.S. By 2023, that had risen to roughly 2.8 billion – enough to give <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/united-states-adult-population-grew-faster-than-nations-total-population-from-2010-to-2020.html">every adult in the country</a> a bouquet of 10. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.bu.edu/questrom/">business school</a> professor who studies the <a href="http://businessmacroeconomics.com/">economic impact</a> of holidays, <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/jay-zagorsky-58a90825a/">I wondered</a> how much money Americans spend on roses each year while I was standing in line with two dozen red and pink ones for my sweetheart. </p>
<p>It’s not easy to find out. The National Retail Federation estimates <a href="https://nrf.com/media-center/press-releases/valentines-day-spending-significant-others-reach-new-record-nrf-survey">people will spend US$2.6 billion on Valentine’s Day flowers</a>, but that includes everything from azaleas to zinnias. The Society of American Florists says that <a href="https://safnow.org/aboutflowers/holidays-occasions/valentines-day/valentines-day-floral-statistics/">250 million roses</a> are produced for the holiday, but it doesn’t estimate spending.</p>
<p>So I decided to investigate. And what I found was surprising: The roses in my hand were tied to the war on illegal drugs.</p>
<h2>Where are those roses coming from?</h2>
<p>Roses sold in the U.S. were once largely homegrown but are now <a href="https://dataweb.usitc.gov/">mainly imported</a> from South America. To learn more, I turned to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which for decades has tracked the number of domestic farms and nurseries selling cut roses. These farms are different from nurseries growing rose bushes sold in pots to landscapers and gardeners.</p>
<p>Back in 1970, there were <a href="https://agcensus.library.cornell.edu/wp-content/uploads/1969-Horticultural_Specialties-U.S._TABLES-660-Table-05.pdf">almost 800 U.S. commercial farms</a> and nurseries growing cut roses. U.S. cut-rose growers were powerhouses, selling almost half a billion roses annually.</p>
<p>But since the 1970s, American cut-rose growers have withered away. The USDA’s latest <a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2017/Online_Resources/Census_of_Horticulture_Specialties/hortic_1_0013_0013.pdf">Census of Horticultural Specialties</a> found about 110 farms and nurseries growing cut roses. These farms harvested only about 18 million roses, which is quite a comedown over 50 years.</p>
<p>So <a href="https://aei.ag/2022/02/14/valentines-flower-imports-trends/">where are roses coming from now</a>? In 2023, the <a href="https://dataweb.usitc.gov/">U.S. imported</a> about 2.8 billion cut roses. The Netherlands, site of the <a href="https://www.visitaalsmeer.nl/en/facts-flower-auction-aalsmeer/">world’s largest flower auction</a>, isn’t the answer. Instead, cut roses sold in the U.S. primarily come from two places: Colombia and Ecuador. <a href="https://emergingmarkets.today/colombia-blooms-the-growing-business-of-flower-exports-2023/">Colombia provides</a> almost 60% of our roses, and <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220715-no-bed-of-roses-for-ecuador-s-flower-industry">Ecuador almost</a> 40%.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two security agents dressed in black inspect cardboard boxes filled with white and yellow flowers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574189/original/file-20240207-20-x7p3w1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">U.S. Customs and Border Protection agriculture specialists inspect imported roses ahead of Mother’s Day in May 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/redondo-beach-ca-united-states-customs-and-border-news-photo/1253740698?adppopup=true">Jay L. Clendenin/Los Angeles Times/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why Colombia and Ecuador?</h2>
<p>The shift from U.S.-grown roses to South American ones happened a few decades ago, when the U.S. and Colombian governments were looking for new ways to <a href="https://tradevistas.org/rose-how-trade-policy-was-used-to-fight-drugs-from-colombia/">stem the flow of cocaine</a> into the U.S.</p>
<p>One part of the strategy was to convince farmers in Colombia to stop growing coca leaves – a traditional Andean plant that provides the raw ingredient for making cocaine – by giving them preferential access to U.S. markets if they grew something else.</p>
<p>So, in the early 1990s, Colombia and Ecuador signed the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act. Signing gave these coca-producing countries duty-free access to U.S. markets in exchange for clamping down on growing illegal drugs.</p>
<p>Whether the act <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-flowers-you-buy-your-mom-for-mothers-day-may-be-tied-to-the-us-war-on-drugs-138162">stopped drug production is unclear</a>, but many businesses in Colombia and Ecuador started growing and shipping flowers north.</p>
<h2>Prices for roses</h2>
<p>The vast quantity of roses coming up from Colombia and Ecuador has kept rose prices in check. The <a href="https://www.marketnews.usda.gov/mnp/fv-help-02">USDA has tracked</a> the price of a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/tea-rose">dozen red hybrid tea roses</a> – the ones you commonly see being offered to romantic partners on Valentine’s Day – sold in major supermarkets weekly since 2011. Back in 2011, a dozen roses would set a buyer back a bit over $10. In 2023, the same arrangement cost around two dollars more, a price increase of 20%. Inflation went up 35% over the same time, making roses comparatively cheaper.</p>
<p>While rose prices are low during much of the year, they have large seasonal swings. In a typical year, <a href="https://www.marketnews.usda.gov/mnp/fv-report-retail?&commodity=ROSE,+HYBRID+TEA&repDate=01/01/2023&repType=wiz&endDate=09/01/2023&run=Run&type=retail&compareLy=No&locChoose=locState&portal=fv&commodityClass=allcommodity&region=NATIONAL&class=ORNAMENTALS&organic=ALL&startIndex=1">supermarket prices for a dozen roses</a> double around Valentine’s Day. Last year, <a href="https://www.marketnews.usda.gov/mnp/fv-report-retail?&commodity=ROSE,+HYBRID+TEA&repDate=01/01/2023&repType=wiz&endDate=09/01/2023&run=Run&type=retail&compareLy=No&locChoose=locState&portal=fv&commodityClass=allcommodity&region=NATIONAL&class=ORNAMENTALS&organic=ALL&startIndex=1">prices ranged</a> from a low in August of about $8 to almost $23 before Valentine’s Day. While the USDA doesn’t track flower shop prices, visiting my local florist shows the cost of <a href="https://www.winstonflowers.com/rose-collection/cat5100126">premium long-stem roses in vases</a> is higher.</p>
<h2>Why the price increase?</h2>
<p>Prices rise around Valentine’s Day as all parts of the supply chain, from growers to wholesalers to retailers, are stressed during the buying surge.</p>
<p>The U.S. government tracks monthly the <a href="https://www.usitc.gov/">import price</a> of single roses. In 2023, before Valentine’s Day, the average cut rose stem cost 40 cents <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/made-on-earth/the-new-roots-of-the-flower-trade/">coming off the cargo plane</a>. This is higher than the annual low in August of 25 cents a stem. This means in August, roses cost wholesalers $3 a dozen, while a dozen Valentine’s Day roses cost $5 after clearing customs.</p>
<p>The USDA not only tracks prices in supermarkets but also <a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/b2773v71t">wholesale flower prices</a> in my city, Boston. Retail customers can’t buy flowers at these prices, since the <a href="http://www.newenglandflowerexchange.com/home.html">flower market caters</a> only to people in the trade. Just before Valentine’s Day 2024, <a href="https://downloads.usda.library.cornell.edu/usda-esmis/files/b2773v71t/zp38z133b/9880xb84f/BH_FV201.PDF">Boston wholesalers were charging</a> between $1 and $1.65 per stem of hybrid tea roses. <a href="https://downloads.usda.library.cornell.edu/usda-esmis/files/b2773v71t/2j62tn33p/k643ch93t/BH_FV201.TXT">Back in August 2023</a>, they were selling roses for between 90 cents and $1.50 per stem. These wholesale prices suggest supermarkets don’t make much if any money selling roses most of the year, earning profits only during the peak holiday times.</p>
<p>While none of the sources directly answered my question on how much money Americans spent on roses each year, it’s easy to calculate a rough value. In 2023, there were around 2.8 billion cut roses sold. Given the average price in supermarkets over the whole year for a dozen roses was a bit over $12, this means people in the U.S. are spending more than $3 billion annually.</p>
<p>And if you’re buying roses for your sweetheart, like I did for mine, then you’re contributing to the roughly half a billion dollars worth of roses bought to say “I love you” at Valentine’s Day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223053/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coming to grips with the economics of roses can be a thorny issue.Jay L. Zagorsky, Associate Professor of Markets, Public Policy and Law, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.