tag:theconversation.com,2011:/nz/topics/driving-2294/articlesDriving – The Conversation2024-01-04T20:02:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163522024-01-04T20:02:50Z2024-01-04T20:02:50ZGoing on a road trip this summer? 4 reasons why you might end up speeding, according to psychology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563797/original/file-20231205-15-uikblc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C1%2C995%2C664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-cheerful-friends-taking-selfie-while-684497692">Dean Drobot/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your bags are packed. You’ve sorted entertainment and snacks for your passengers and have squeezed all your holiday luggage in the car. You’re now ready to head off for your road trip – one hour after you meant to leave. There will be more traffic now, but maybe, if you put your foot down you can make up some time.</p>
<p>It might be tempting to speed. People do so for a number of reasons, not just because they’re running late.</p>
<p>Here’s why, what this does to your risk of being injured, and how to plan your road trip to minimise that risk.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-people-tailgate-a-psychology-expert-explains-whats-behind-this-common-and-annoying-driving-habit-193462">Why do people tailgate? A psychology expert explains what's behind this common (and annoying) driving habit</a>
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<h2>1. You think you’ll get there faster</h2>
<p>Perhaps one of the biggest myths about speeding is it saves you a lot of time. In fact drivers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457508001292">overestimate</a> how much time they save by driving faster. </p>
<p>In a study where global positioning systems were fitted to willing participants’ cars, on average drivers saved only <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001457515300750">two minutes</a> travel time each week by driving faster than the speed limit. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-does-your-driving-speed-make-any-difference-to-your-cars-emissions-140246">Climate explained: does your driving speed make any difference to your car's emissions?</a>
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<h2>2. You take risks, not just while driving</h2>
<p>Some drivers are more likely to speed than others. Repeat offenders are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001457514003108">more likely</a> to be men, younger or previously involved in a crash. </p>
<p>Drivers who tend to act on impulse and seek out varied “thrilling” experiences, or those who are quicker to get angry or aggressive, may also be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437521000153">more likely</a> to speed. This is because these personality traits are linked to risky behaviours generally, and not just behind the wheel.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/speeding-drivers-keep-breaking-the-law-even-after-fines-and-crashes-new-research-161672">Speeding drivers keep breaking the law even after fines and crashes: new research</a>
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<h2>3. You and your friends think speeding’s OK</h2>
<p>Drivers who usually speed see this as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457517301197?casa_token=3sz__7RJBIYAAAAA:nFPpScZ1dXssqWszKgmngWcGxpILPcv6iKjeg10m8KBp7hZSURs5kOkdgbnA8pILpDxZqytwa4dU">socially acceptable</a> and have friends or family who also speed. These drivers, when compared to those who do not speed, are less likely to consider speeding risky, or to feel they will get caught.</p>
<p>Likewise, drivers who intend to speed hold <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437523001032">similar beliefs</a>. They think speeding is socially acceptable, and the chances of being caught or having a crash are low.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-mad-max-than-max-safety-teenagers-dont-dream-of-safe-cars-47425">More Mad Max than max safety: teenagers don't dream of safe cars</a>
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<h2>4. You’re reacting to what’s happening today</h2>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Couple arguing while driving" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563798/original/file-20231205-25-q8m40s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Argued with your partner today? That can affect your driving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/emotional-middle-eastern-couple-having-conflict-2332630125">Prostock-studio/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Another important contributor to speeding is what’s <a href="https://acrs.org.au/files/papers/arsc/2017/Stephens_00104_EA.pdf">happening at the time</a>, and how drivers feel about it. </p>
<p>Time pressure due to running late or unexpected delays may lead to faster speeds. Speeding may also be part of an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457523000192">aggressive driving style</a>, an aggressive reaction to frustrating driving situations, or something that happened before the driver got in the car.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/road-rage-why-normal-people-become-harmful-on-the-roads-60845">Road rage: why normal people become harmful on the roads</a>
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<h2>Speeding’s risky (even just a little over the limit)</h2>
<p>The relationships between fast speeds and the risk of crashing may seem obvious.</p>
<p>However, even putting your foot down just a little bit jeopardises you and your passengers’ safety, as well as the safety of others on the road. </p>
<p>For instance, for every 5km/h over the speed limit in a 60km/h zone, your risk of being in a crash resulting in injury or death <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/sites/default/files/migrated/roads/safety/publications/2002/pdf/Speed_Risk_3.pdf">doubles</a>.</p>
<p>Then there are the risks associated with higher-speed crashes, which make fatal and serious injuries more likely. Almost <a href="https://journalofroadsafety.org/article/67768-using-gps-probe-speed-data-to-estimate-the-attribution-of-speeding-on-casualty-crashes-a-case-study-in-queensland">one-third</a> of crashes where someone was killed or injured can be attributed to high speeds. That is when, just before the crash, one vehicle was driving 20km/h or more above the speed limit.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-never-get-a-speeding-fine-again-and-maybe-save-a-childs-life-216347">How to never get a speeding fine again — and maybe save a child's life</a>
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<h2>How to avoid speeding this summer</h2>
<p>If you’re planning a road trip this summer, you can:</p>
<ul>
<li>plan your route and allow extra time for unexpected delays</li>
<li>plan breaks if it’s a long drive. This helps reduce tiredness and the potential for frustration</li>
<li>phone ahead, if possible, to tell someone you will be late</li>
<li>consider the crash risks, and the high probability of serious injury in crashes associated with speeding</li>
<li>be aware that speed enforcement usually increases over the holiday period and can be “anywhere, anytime”</li>
<li>use your car’s driver speed-support systems, such as intelligent speed assist, or other systems that advise or regulate your speed. These help <a href="https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/repeat-speeders-trial-final-evaluation-report">reduce the risk</a> of speeding.</li>
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<p>You can also find ways to manage <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437522000998#">frustration or anger</a> that can lead to speeding:</p>
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<li>rethink the situation by asking yourself how much it really matters if you’re late</li>
<li>refocus your attention to prioritise your safety or that of your passengers and other road users or economy (sticking to the speed limit uses less fuel) </li>
<li>change route, or use navigation that tracks your estimated time of arrival</li>
<li>consider how your behaviours influence other drivers or your passengers</li>
<li>be aware that how you feel before getting in the car is likely to influence how you drive.</li>
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<p>Possibly my favourite strategy is to remember that someone is waiting for you and they want you to arrive safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216352/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Stephens does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It can be easy to speed, even without meaning to. Here’s why and what you can do about it.Amanda Stephens, Senior Research Fellow, Monash University Accident Research Centre, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2199952023-12-19T19:40:04Z2023-12-19T19:40:04ZTesla recalls over two million vehicles, but it needs to address confusing marketing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566150/original/file-20231217-29-ey0s6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4992%2C2986&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Drivers often believe that semi-autonomous systems are more autonomous than they are designed to be.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/tesla-recalls-over-two-million-vehicles-but-it-needs-to-address-confusing-marketing" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>On Dec. 12, the U.S. Department of Transportation issued a recall regarding Autosteer, a feature included in Tesla’s semi-autonomous suite Autopilot, because “<a href="https://static.nhtsa.gov/odi/rcl/2023/RCLRPT-23V838-8276.PDF">there may be an increased risk of a collision</a>.”</p>
<p>The recall, which affects over two million vehicles in the United States, is a watershed moment in modern automotive history, as it affects <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/12/16/tesla-autopilot-recall-timeline/">nearly every Tesla on the road in the U.S.</a> </p>
<p><a href="https://recalls-rappels.canada.ca/en/alert-recall/transport-canada-recall-2023657-tesla">Transport Canada</a> extended the recall to <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/tesla-major-recall-us-1.7057694">193,000 Tesla vehicles in Canada</a>.</p>
<p>Tesla says <a href="https://www.tesla.com/en_ca/support/vehicle-firmware-prevent-autosteer-misuse">only vehicles in the U.S. and Canada</a> are affected by the recall.</p>
<p>Unlike technologies that can be defined as fully autonomous — like elevators where a user steps in and pushes a button — Autosteer is not an autonomous system, despite what drivers may think.</p>
<p>A 2018 study found that <a href="https://news.thatcham.org/automated-driving-hype-is-dangerously-confusing-drivers-study-reveals/">40 per cent of drivers believed Tesla vehicles are capable of being fully self-driving</a>. A similar study concluded that participants “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931218621430">rated [Autopilot] as entailing less responsibility for the human for steering than ‘high automation,’ and it was not different from ‘autonomous’ or ‘self-driving’</a>.”</p>
<p>Instead, Tesla Autopilot falls into the category of <a href="https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_202104/">level 2, or semi-autonomous, systems</a>. These system can handle vehicle steering and accelerating but the human driver must stay vigilant at all times.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">PBS covers the safety issues that led to the December recall of Tesla vehicles in the United States and Canada.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Confusing communication</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.uwindsor.ca/kinesiology/human-factors-and-ergonomics">human factors research</a>, believing that a system can do something it can’t is referred to as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343417695197"><em>mode confusion</em></a>. Mode confusion not only misleads the user, but also has direct safety implications, as in the <a href="https://www.faa.gov/lessons_learned/transport_airplane/accidents/F-GGED">1992 Air Inter Flight 148 plane crash in France</a>. That situation was the direct result of the pilot operating the aircraft system in a mode different from its original design.</p>
<p>Safety researchers have sounded the alarm about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1561792">risks inherent to semi-autonomous systems</a>. In fully manual and fully autonomous modes, it is clear who’s responsible for driving: the human and the robot driver, respectively. </p>
<p>Semi-autonomous systems represent a grey area. The human driver believes the system is responsible for driving but, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/10/31/tesla-not-guilty-autopilot-crash-trial/">as lawyers representing Tesla have already successfully argued</a>, it is not.</p>
<p>A second important factor is also the role of misleading information. The automotive industry as a whole has, for years, tiptoed around the actual capabilities of autonomous vehicle technology. In 2016, <a href="https://time.com/4431956/mercedes-benz-ad-confusion-self-driving/">Mercedes Benz pulled a TV commercial off the air after criticism that it portrayed unrealistic self-driving capabilities</a>. </p>
<p>More recently, Ashok Elluswamy, director of Autopilot software at Tesla, said <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2023/01/17/tesla-engineer-testifies-that-2016-video-promoting-self-driving-was-faked/">the 2016 video promoting its self-driving technology was faked</a>. </p>
<h2>False sense of security</h2>
<p>Thinking that a system is fully autonomous creates a false sense of security that drivers may act on by losing vigilance or disengaging from the task of supervising the system’s functioning. Investigations on prior accidents involving Tesla Autopilot showed that <a href="https://www.ntsb.gov/news/press-releases/Pages/NR20200225.aspx">drivers’ overrelience on the semi-autonomous system indeed contributed to some reported crashes</a>.</p>
<p>The recall is a logical, albeit long-awaited, effort by transportation agencies to regulate a problem that researchers have attempted to draw attention to for years.</p>
<p>In her 2016 study, Mica Endsley, a pioneer in the research field on user automation, highlighted some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720816681350">potential safety risks of these systems</a>. A more recent study published by my research group also shows <a href="https://redcap.uwindsor.ca/surveys/?__file=Qqg7hnv2gVUqdycyHgfRoTPkG2pDFkAVb527vx5C3bgcv3AzkrRRIktdafb9F5MxDremWhRMZThpXGa8QVfeqxTfEpL4CVg9yNcH&_gl=1*1x3mupb*_ga*MjE2ODQ3OTQ3LjE2OTAzODUzMDY.*_ga_TMHVD0679R*MTcwMjY2NDAyMC4zMy4wLjE3MDI2NjQwMjAuNjAuMC4w">the dangers that operating semi-autonomous systems pose to drivers’ attention</a>.</p>
<p>With the recall, Tesla will be releasing <a href="https://www.tesla.com/en_ca/support/vehicle-firmware-prevent-autosteer-misuse">over-the-air software updates</a> that are meant to “further encourage the driver to adhere to their continuous supervisory responsibility whenever Autosteer is engaged.” These may include additional “visual alerts” and other additions to the system to help drivers stay vigilant while Autosteer is engaged. </p>
<p>In all, although this may be the first time regulators strike a direct, concrete blow at Tesla and its marketing, it won’t be the last.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219995/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francesco Biondi receives funding from the Ontario Ministry of Transportation. He consults on Human Factors issues of vehicle automation.</span></em></p>Tesla’s recall of over two million vehicles in the U.S. and Canada is meant to address driver overreliance on the semi-autonomous Autopilot feature.Francesco Biondi, Associate Professor, Human Systems Labs, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2151312023-11-19T13:00:27Z2023-11-19T13:00:27Z‘Forever contaminant’ road salts pose an icy dilemma: Do we protect drivers or our fresh water?<p>As winter approaches, many communities in Canada and around the world arm themselves against icy roads and sidewalks with a time-honoured ally: road salt. For decades, applying road salt has been regarded as a simple but vital tool in countering the dangers of slippery road conditions, but the downsides of its use are apparent with implications that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-018-4060-2">extend beyond the cold months</a>. </p>
<p>Scientists have long known that the substance which has safeguarded us through the colder months poses a threat to aquatic life and drinking water quality. But now we are finding that this chemical also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157336">disrupts the delicate balance of oxygen and nutrients</a> in our freshwater lakes and ponds. </p>
<p>Road salt, commonly referred to as rock salt, is a mixture primarily composed of sodium chloride (NaCl). It is used to de-ice roads and highways during winter to enhance safety by preventing the formation of ice and reducing slippery conditions. Road salt persists as an environmental contaminant due to its chemical stability and the cyclic nature of its dispersal. </p>
<p>Introduced through activities like road de-icing, salts move from roads to surface water such as streams and lakes, groundwater, remaining indefinitely in the environment without significant degradation. The continual cycling and lack of substantial transformation underscore the long-term impact of sodium chloride as a “forever contaminant.”</p>
<p>With a growing awareness of its ecological repercussions, a critical dilemma emerges. Do we prioritize driver safety or acquatic ecosystem health?</p>
<h2>Negative impacts revisited</h2>
<p>The detrimental effects of road salt on aquatic ecosystems and drinking water supplies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150289">have long been recognized</a>. Its heavy application during winter months leads to a buildup of road salt ions in both soil and water bodies, altering their natural chemical composition. </p>
<p>These elevated salt concentrations can harm freshwater organisms and vegetation, change soil structure, and, when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166466">seeping into groundwater</a>, compromise the potable water supply of nearby communities.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/winter-road-salting-has-year-round-consequences-173621">Winter road salting has year-round consequences</a>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157336">Recent research</a> has shed light on a less conspicuous yet equally significant consequence of road salt usage: its contribution to oxygen depletion in lakes. The occurrence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JG007558">very low oxygen concentrations, or hypoxia, in a lake is generally attributed to an excessive input of nutrients, especially that of phosphorus</a>. </p>
<p>Nutrient enrichment can trigger algal blooms that, in turn, lower the oxygen level in the lake’s deeper waters. The continued expansion of hypoxic conditions deteriorates the lake’s water quality and may ultimately cause the die-off of most aquatic life. This nutrient-driven process, <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-3585-2017">known as eutrophication</a>, is affecting the ecological health of a growing number of lakes around the world.</p>
<h2>Salt and oxygen in water</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu2020-16637">Phosphorus</a>, the nutrient frequently implicated in lake eutrophication, plays a multifaceted role in this scenario. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157336">Salinization</a> increases the density of the water reducing the mixing of the lake waters and. Consequently, this reduces the amount of oxygen that reaches the lake’s depths. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/road-salt-makes-winter-driving-safer-but-what-does-it-do-to-the-environment-87860">Road salt makes winter driving safer, but what does it do to the environment?</a>
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<p>Oxygen depletion, paradoxically, favours the remobilization of phosphorus from the sediments accumulating at the bottom of the lake. That is, the sediments become an increasingly important <em>internal</em> source of phosphorus, escalating the nutrient enrichment of the lake. </p>
<p>In that way, salinization — driven by extensive road salt application — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157336">intensifies eutrophication symptoms</a> that are usually associated with phosphorus supplied to lakes from external sources in the surrounding landscape.</p>
<h2>Navigating the saline challenge</h2>
<p>Canada has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151717">proactive in responding</a> to eutrophication. For instance, reduced phosphorus pollution in Lake Erie in the 1980s and 1990s led to significant <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR025019">water quality improvements</a>. However, addressing accelerating salinization of lakes requires new thinking and innovative solutions that recognize the complexity of the issue. It’s not just de-icers, such as road salts, that need to be considered. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0019">Other sources of salt</a>, such as agricultural runoff, discharges from water softeners and other domestic activities and drainage from mine waste and geological salt deposits, are all part of the problem. Salinization is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1620211114">threat to water resources globally</a>, not just those of cold regions.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A brief overview of the process of eutrophication, produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Chloride, a key component of road salt, has earned the moniker of a “forever contaminant” <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.242">due to its persistence in soil and water systems</a>. When introduced into the environment, chloride ions readily dissolve into water <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.242">where they tend to remain</a>. </p>
<p>Over time, chloride not only accumulates in surface water bodies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166466">but also in groundwater</a>. In fact, ground (or subsurface) water has been identified as a persistent source of chloride to surface freshwater bodies, especially during the summer months. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://doi.org/10.2166/wqrjc.2011.105">proactive management practices have been introduced</a>, the accumulation of chloride and other problematic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2012.00371.x">salt ions</a>, including sodium, in soil and water will require expensive and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0108">time-consuming restoration efforts</a>. </p>
<h2>Paving the path to solutions</h2>
<p>To mitigate the impacts of salinization, evidence-based approaches are urgently required. Solutions and policy recommendations must promote the reduction of salt runoff from road salt applications and other sources, and establish effective and comprehensive monitoring programs. </p>
<p>We have much to learn from how we’ve successfully managed excessive nutrient pollution — these lessons can help inform salt management strategies that work hand in hand with water quality and climate change solutions.</p>
<p>One potential alternative to the application of road salts is to use other de-icers. This requires a cautious stance because, as history teaches us, replacing one troublesome chemical with another often comes with unexpected ecological consequences. </p>
<p>Thorough examination and research are vital to ensure that alternatives don’t inadvertently introduce new threats.</p>
<h2>Protecting people and ecosystems</h2>
<p>The stakes are high when it comes to road salts: compromised drinking water, shrinking aquatic habitats and long-term pollution from legacy salt stores in soil and groundwater requiring costly remediation. It’s imperative that research, investment and public awareness converge to address this challenge holistically. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-make-less-harmful-road-salts-were-studying-natural-antifreezes-produced-by-fish-153087">To make less-harmful road salts, we're studying natural antifreezes produced by fish</a>
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<p>The impacts of road salt’s application extend far beyond the icy surfaces it’s intended to protect us from. As winter approaches, policy should work towards protecting our ecosystems and the many services they provide.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215131/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jovana received support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Strategic Partnerships Grant (STPGP 521515-18), and the Lake Futures project and Managing Urban Eutrophication Risks under Climate Change project within the Global Water Futures (GWF) program funded by the Canada First Research Excellence Fund (CFREF).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David L Rudolph receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks and the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fereidoun received support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Strategic Partnerships Grant (STPGP 521515-18), and the Lake Futures project and Managing Urban Eutrophication Risks under Climate Change project within the Global Water Futures (GWF) program funded by the Canada First Research Excellence Fund (CFREF).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nancy received support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Strategic Partnerships Grant (STPGP 521515-18), and the Lake Futures project and Managing Urban Eutrophication Risks under Climate Change project within the Global Water Futures (GWF) program funded by the Canada First Research Excellence Fund (CFREF).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philippe received support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Strategic Partnerships Grant (STPGP 521515-18), and the Lake Futures project and Managing Urban Eutrophication Risks under Climate Change project within the Global Water Futures (GWF) program funded by the Canada First Research Excellence Fund (CFREF).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jiangyue Ju does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Increasing awareness of the dangers ‘forever chemical’ road salts pose to our fresh water systems highlights the urgent importance of finding new approaches to de-icing our roads.Jovana Radosavljevic, Postdoctoral Fellow, Ecohydrology Research Group, University of WaterlooDavid L Rudolph, Professor of Hydrogeology, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of WaterlooFereidoun Rezanezhad, Research Associate Professor, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of WaterlooJiangyue Ju, PhD Student in Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of WaterlooNancy Goucher, Knowledge Mobilization Specialist, University of WaterlooPhilippe Van Cappellen, Professor of Biogeochemistry and Canada Excellence Research Chair Laureate in Ecohydrology, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2164022023-11-09T21:40:27Z2023-11-09T21:40:27ZThe experiences of older drivers can help design cleaner and safer cars<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557839/original/file-20231106-267473-frkprb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Automobile technologies can be applied to allow older drivers continued mobility and independence.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-experiences-of-older-drivers-can-help-design-cleaner-and-safer-cars" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The current pace of technological change in automobile technology rivals the period about a century ago when cars were moving from the exotic fringes of transportation into the lives of <a href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/america-on-the-move/americans-adopt-auto">ordinary people</a>. </p>
<p>The automobile has <a href="https://www.ushistory.org/us/46a.asp#:%7E:text=The%20social%20effects%20of%20the,shop%20in%20towns%20and%20cities">reshaped the world</a>, giving rise to new freedoms and greater access to distant places, creating jobs and wealth and changing the physical landscape with roads, service stations, dealerships and suburbs. </p>
<p>Cars have brought incredible convenience, but their proliferation has also resulted in traffic jams, oppressive freeways, pollution and high-speed <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/highway-disasters">crashes</a>. And, cars have played a <a href="https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/climate.shtml#:%7E:text=Highway%20vehicles%20release%20about%201.5,year%20for%20a%20typical%20vehicle">big part</a> in accelerating <a href="https://www.pwc.com/th/en/automotive/assets/co2.pdf">climate change</a>.</p>
<h2>Car transformations</h2>
<p>Automobile design is undergoing massive shifts. Cars are moving away from gasoline-powered internal combustion engines and toward electric vehicles that generate far less pollution and noise. Cars are getting safer, too, with sensors and cameras that can help drivers avoid collisions. </p>
<p>Self-driving cars don’t seem too far off either, but until then, automobile design should consider the changing needs of drivers.</p>
<p>For all drivers, but especially those who are older and more experienced, cars that can do more without involving the driver present both an opportunity and a threat. This presents an opportunity to support safe, independent driving for longer, in keeping with <a href="https://yourhealthsystem.cihi.ca/hsp/inbrief#!/indicators/011/life-expectancy-at-birth/;mapC1;mapLevel2;/">extended lifespans</a>, and address the social and practical needs of seniors to move around.</p>
<p>The threat is that a more autonomous car may lull drivers into feeling safer and make it harder to understand when drivers with health-related changes should no longer remain on the road. In fact, with added technology, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720819900402">driving can require more advanced skills</a>.</p>
<h2>Safer for older drivers</h2>
<p>In my research, I work closely with older drivers, branches of government and automakers to ensure cars are as safe as can be.</p>
<p>I discussed these issues when I was invited to address <a href="https://sencanada.ca/en/Content/Sen/Committee/421/TRCM/53492-e">Canada’s Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications</a> in 2017. My colleagues and I continue to do research in partnership with older drivers and others, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2020.105741">Transport Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.flipsnack.com/caasco/caa-magazine-sco-winter-2020/full-view.html?p=20">Canadian Automobile Association</a>. </p>
<p>An important goal of my research and teaching is to help everyone — including seniors — understand that aging drivers are a growing yet varied group with a wide range of physical and cognitive abilities — and that, statistically speaking, <a href="https://www.iihs.org/topics/older-drivers">seniors are involved in fewer crashes than their middle-aged counterparts</a>. In other words, age alone does not determine who is safe or unsafe to be behind the wheel.</p>
<h2>Declining health</h2>
<p>We need to plan as humanely and responsibly as we can for the fact that, especially in the upper range of this demographic group, health-related declines and medical changes can happen <a href="https://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp351-e.htm">quickly</a> and are not always readily <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health">apparent</a>. </p>
<p>For example, working with an advisory group of people with lived experience with dementia, my colleagues and I developed the <a href="https://drivinganddementia.ca/Acknowledgements">driving and dementia roadmap</a>. This is a free online resource to help health professionals, caregivers and individuals living with this disease be safer on the road.</p>
<p>As cars change, it is critical that manufacturers, engineers and regulators consider how drivers, particularly those in their later years, will respond to and engage with emerging technologies. It is also important to ensure new technology is created with older drivers in mind as much as anyone else, in keeping with the principles of <a href="https://universaldesign.ie/what-is-universal-design/">universal design</a>. </p>
<p>That includes making sure that getting in and out of a car, orienting oneself on the road and controlling all the systems of a vehicle are friendly to all drivers.</p>
<h2>Informed and transformed design</h2>
<p>My research team is embarking on a project in conjunction with our engineering colleagues and students at the <a href="https://electrification.mcmaster.ca">McMaster Automotive Resource Centre</a>, where we are inviting older drivers to volunteer and share their driving-related experiences. The aim is to inform the design of a 2023 Cadillac LYRIQ, an electric SUV, as part of the North American <a href="https://avtcseries.org/about-the-ecocar-ev-challenge/">EcoCar EV Challenge</a>. </p>
<p>The mandate of this contest is not just to make vehicles that are as efficient and as easy on the environment as possible, but also to optimize their safety and accessibility for drivers of different ages and abilities. </p>
<p>A modern car with fully loaded safety features and powered without gas will only be a great success if it’s designed for those who will use it. By involving older drivers — the most experienced on today’s roadways — in their research and development, the cars of tomorrow can be made clean, safe and accessible for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216402/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brenda Vrkljan has received research funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Government of Canada, and the Ontario Ministry of Transportation (MTO). </span></em></p>Automobile technology provides opportunities for older drivers to maintain their independence and autonomy, but cars need to be designed with their needs in mind.Brenda Vrkljan, Professor of Occupational Therapy, School of Rehabilitation Science, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140512023-10-01T15:12:15Z2023-10-01T15:12:15ZSafety on the line: Drivers who juggle multiple jobs are more likely to take risks on the road<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550774/original/file-20230927-15-dqt564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C250%2C4581%2C2840&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Drivers that juggle driving with another job were more likely to run red lights and carry weapons, such as knives, for safety reasons. These behaviours pose risks not only to drivers, but also to the public.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Paul Hanaoka/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/safety-on-the-line-drivers-who-juggle-multiple-jobs-are-more-likely-to-take-risks-on-the-road" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/06/business/uber-lyft-driver-deaths.html">driving profession is unsafe</a>. Taxi drivers and ride-hail drivers, who drive for apps like Uber and Lyft, face many safety risks on the road, from <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2021/WCMS_771749/lang--en/index.htm">accidents and injuries</a> to <a href="https://www.benefitnews.com/news/why-two-thirds-of-uber-lyft-drivers-didnt-feel-safe-at-work-last-year">harassment</a> and <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9048681/fatal-shooting-surrey-tuesday/">violence</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2021/WCMS_771749/lang--en/index.htm">83 per cent of ride-hail drivers from around the world</a> feel their work is unsafe. As a result, <a href="https://therideshareguy.com/uber-driver-survey/#uber-surveys-drivers">22 per cent of American drivers carry weapons</a> in their vehicles to protect themselves.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/09500170231185212">Our recent research study aimed to examine</a> whether low income, lack of rest and few breaks lead to unsafe behaviour in drivers. We compared the driving behaviours of multi-job professional drivers — those who drive for taxi companies or ride-hail apps and also have another job — with those whose only job is driving. </p>
<p>We found that multi-job professional drivers took the most risks. These drivers were more likely to run red lights and carry weapons, such as knives, for safety reasons. These behaviours pose risks not only to drivers, but also to the public.</p>
<h2>Multiple job holders</h2>
<p>More than <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/14-28-0001/2020001/article/00011-eng.htm">five per cent of Canadians had several jobs at the same time in 2021</a> — nearly two and a half times higher than in 1976. Most Canadians hold multiple jobs because they <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-222-x/71-222-x2019003-eng.htm">don’t make enough money to cover their expenses</a> with one job alone.</p>
<p>To <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/12/nyregion/cab-uber-lyft-drivers.html">increase their income</a>, many drivers <a href="https://www.ridester.com/drive-for-uber-and-lyft-at-the-same-time/">work on several driving platforms at once</a> or drive for both taxi and ride-hail companies. Some drivers even work for taxi and ride-hail companies while holding another job. Our research suggests these multi-job professional drivers may face the greatest safety risks. </p>
<p>Multi-job holders deal with <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/markcperna/2023/01/17/working-multiple-jobs-here-are-some-reminders-to-save-your-sanity/?sh=17a6249e7cbc">sleep deprivation, stress and reduced performance</a>. Multi-job professional drivers may also be at greater risk of <a href="https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7072">drowsy driving accidents</a> and may be more likely to deal with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3359319">intoxicated passengers while driving late at night</a>. </p>
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<img alt="A man rubs his eyes while sitting behind the steering wheel of a vehicle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550771/original/file-20230927-29-fkubx7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Multi-job professional drivers are at greater risk of drowsy driving accidents because they often end up driving at night or after working long hours at another job.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<h2>Why do these drivers take more risks?</h2>
<p>Multi-job professional drivers face a number of challenges that can lead them to take more risks while on the road. First, <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4071315">they often have unsteady income due to working multiple low-paying jobs</a> without the safety nets provided by traditional employment. As a result, these drivers are more likely to take risks to complete fares quickly and earn more money.</p>
<p>Drivers <a href="https://www.jobbank.gc.ca/marketreport/wages-occupation/10557/ca">often make at</a> or <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-uber-drivers-pay-toronto/">below minimum wage</a> and are paid per fare completed, rather than per hour. This means drivers feel pressured to get to destinations quickly, so they are more likely to make <a href="https://www.cantaxi.ca/wp-content/uploads/Toronto-Taxi-Review-Final-Report.pdf">illegal U-turns</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2019.02.007">speed</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1557">run yellow lights</a>.</p>
<p>Second, multi-job professional drivers are more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2013.301431">work evening shifts and at odd hours</a> due to their complicated schedules. Drivers believe this increases their chances of <a href="https://www.uberpeople.net/threads/driving-night.152420/#post-2274634">picking up unpredictable, intoxicated or dangerous passengers</a>. As a result, multi-job professional drivers are more likely to carry weapons to protect themselves.</p>
<p>Lastly, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F07420528.2016.1167717">multi-job holders sleep less than single job holders</a> because they work longer hours and at times when they would otherwise be resting. Their lack of sleep often results in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-0029-1237117">decreased attention and awareness</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7072">makes them more prone to accidents</a>, and as our findings suggest, leads to road safety violations.</p>
<h2>Reducing risk to drivers and the public</h2>
<p>Addressing the challenges faced by drivers and mitigating safety risks for both drivers and the public involves several key considerations. </p>
<p><strong>1. Better wages.</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/uber-drivers-report-80-plus-hour-workweeks-and-a-lot-of-waiting-115782">Drivers have reported</a> that they waste half of their shifts waiting for fares; this is time spent not making any money. Government enforcement of <a href="https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-42/session-2/bill-88#Sched13">hourly minimum wages</a> may be an effective solution to increase driver pay, as long as wages <a href="https://www.epi.org/press/uber-drivers-should-be-paid-for-time-spent-waiting-for-fares-facts-of-being-an-uber-driver-reveal-no-need-to-create-a-third-category-of-worker/">take waiting times into account</a>. </p>
<p>Better wages may discourage drivers from running red lights or taking other risks to get to destinations quickly. It may also give drivers the ability to refuse ride requests that they feel are unsafe.</p>
<p><strong>2. Mandatory paid breaks.</strong> Some drivers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dax082">don’t take breaks during or between shifts</a> because they fear missing out on any potential fares or being <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/permits-licences-bylaws/vehicle-for-hire-set-fines/">fined by bylaw officers for leaving their vehicles unattended</a>. In addition to better wages, policymakers should consider the negative impact of these bylaws on the well-being of drivers. Mandatory paid breaks, which signal the importance of rest, may be a start.</p>
<p><strong>3. Greater safety protections.</strong> Many multiple job holders choose to work as ride-hail drivers because these jobs are the ones that are available to them, and they are drawn to the supposed <a href="https://fortune.com/2022/08/17/full-time-lyft-driver-flexibility-choice-act-underpaid-gig-work-pay-workers-rideshare-mike-robinson/">flexibility and choice</a> this work offers. The reality is that drivers are managed by algorithms <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/pringle-uber-doordash-gig-economy-1.5238726">instead of human managers</a> who would normally control things like driver pay and performance, and address safety concerns.</p>
<p>Drivers have reported that they get <a href="https://doi.org/10.18297/etd/2635">automated email responses</a> when reporting safety incidents. In cases when passengers have assaulted drivers, drivers are often only told <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520324800/uberland">they will not be matched up with that passenger again</a>. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.uber.com/ca/en/drive/driver-app/phone-support/">Uber</a> and <a href="https://www.lyft.com/safety/driver#help-from-real-humans">Lyft</a> now offer drivers access to phone support, drivers have reported that <a href="https://www.uberpeople.net/threads/customer-support-vs-bots.470266/#post-7526680">support representatives rely on the same automated responses</a>. Drivers should have access to more individualized support <a href="https://hbr.org/2019/08/what-people-hate-about-being-managed-by-algorithms-according-to-a-study-of-uber-drivers">so they feel less like they are talking to machines</a>.</p>
<h2>More support needed</h2>
<p>While ride-hail apps have put some safety measures into effect to support drivers, more help is needed. <a href="https://help.lyft.com/hc/en-ca/all/articles/115012926787-Taking-breaks-and-time-limits-in-driver-mode">Lyft has implemented a mandatory break rule</a>, whereby after using the app for 12 hours, drivers are not able to go online for six hours. This is a start to ensure drivers take breaks. However, drivers may just log into another ride-hail app and keep driving.</p>
<p>The Uber app also <a href="https://www.uber.com/ca/en/drive/safety/?uclick_id=2885d49f-8ef1-4ab6-a5b0-901b52af1d71">reminds drivers to stay within the posted speed limit and to take breaks</a>. However, a recent survey from the non-profit Insurance Institute for Highway Safety found that ride-hail drivers are <a href="https://www.iihs.org/news/detail/smartphone-apps-drive-gig-workers-parents-to-distraction">four times more likely to drive distractedly</a> compared to other drivers, increasing the risk of an accident. Receiving alerts from Uber while driving likely distracts drivers even more.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/uber-drivers-working-conditions-1.6824946">Driver safety must become a greater priority</a> for ride-hail companies. Companies like Uber and Lyft have a long way to go in improving worker safety to ensure both drivers and passengers feel safe on the road.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214051/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine E. Connelly receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Canada Research Chair program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra D. Lefcoe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Companies like Uber and Lyft have a long way to go in improving worker safety to ensure both drivers and passengers feel safe on the road.Alexandra D. Lefcoe, PhD Candidate, Management of Organizational Behaviour and Human Resources, McMaster UniversityCatherine E. Connelly, Canada Research Chair and Professor of Organizational Behaviour, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2132402023-09-21T01:27:10Z2023-09-21T01:27:10ZAre Australia’s roads becoming more dangerous? Here’s what the data says<p>In 2022, there were nearly <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/road_trauma_2022.pdf">1,200 road crash deaths</a> in Australia – a figure that has remained largely the same over the past decade. However, some states and territories have seen dramatic increases in just the last five years, such as the ACT (100%), Tasmania (59.4%) and Queensland (21.2%). </p>
<p>Serious injuries from road crashes have also been <a href="https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiMGVlZDM0YzQtNWI3Mi00YzAyLWI5YjUtZGQyYzc3YjJmMmY3IiwidCI6ImFhMjFiNjQwLWJhYzItNDU2ZC04NTA1LWYyY2MwN2Y1MTc4NCJ9">on the rise</a>, from 35,000 in 2013 to 39,866 in 2019. </p>
<p>These statistics highlight the need for an urgent rethink of road safety policies if we are to achieve Australia’s <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/australias-road-deaths-rise-despite-push-to-halve-fatalities-by-2030/vcl7yj50g">target</a> of a 50% decrease in fatalities and a 30% decrease in serious injuries by 2030. We are clearly not on track to meet these targets.</p>
<p>People are worth more than statistics, though. And it is not surprising we haven’t seen decreases in road deaths when we rely on strategies first implemented three to four decades ago. Change is needed to prevent the ongoing trauma caused by road crashes to Australian families.</p>
<h2>Why have road trauma rates not declined?</h2>
<p>Australia has long had an international reputation for pioneering road safety measures, such as seat belt restraints, speed management strategies (including speed cameras) and drink-driving laws, among others. In fact, Australia was the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00137361">first country</a> in the world to introduce laws for compulsory seat belt use. </p>
<p>These initiatives have been highly successful in reducing road deaths from their peak in 1970, when <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article412001?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue=2001&num=&view=">3,798</a> were recorded. But in the past two decades, further progress has stalled. We must ask ourselves why.</p>
<p>One theory to explain why road deaths may have increased in many states in the past couple of years is the pandemic. The previously empty roads are now congested again, which may have led to impatience and speeding. Or perhaps, some people have seemingly forgotten how to drive safely. However, there is another, perhaps simpler explanation.</p>
<p>This chart shows how closely road deaths have tracked with domestic fuel sales in Australia – measured in millions of litres of fuel – since 2019. In simple terms, when driving rates decreased at the beginning of the pandemic, deaths and injuries went down. When driving rates increased again in early 2021, deaths and injuries went up.</p>
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<p>In fact, there is scant evidence to suggest people’s driving behaviours changed during this time. Our recent unpublished research followed approximately 800 drivers from January 2020 to March 2023 using monitoring systems inside their cars to measure their behaviour. We found no differences in driver behaviours during this time. </p>
<p>Rather, there’s a more likely reason why road deaths and injuries continue to be so high: the amount of time we spend driving continues to increase, while our strategies to target the risks associated with driving haven’t changed. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, government agencies continue to rely on strategies implemented over the past 20-30 years, which were effective when they were first introduced, but are now subject to the law of diminishing marginal returns. This means continually throwing more resources at existing speed management strategies, for example, will likely only see marginal benefits. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/despite-lockdowns-1-142-australians-including-66-kids-died-on-our-roads-in-the-past-year-heres-what-we-need-to-do-170021">Despite lockdowns, 1,142 Australians, including 66 kids, died on our roads in the past year. Here's what we need to do</a>
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</em>
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<h2>A new approach not focused on cars</h2>
<p>There is increasing urgency to investigate and implement new road safety strategies based on emerging technologies and a redesign of our cities instead. </p>
<p>For example, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001457521003092">recent Australian trial</a> using new driving monitoring technology showed promise in reducing risky driving behaviours that could cause crashes. The monitoring systems provided feedback to the driver (via a smartphone app) and encouraged safer driving using financial incentives akin to insurance premiums. This new strategy is being explored further in three states: New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia. </p>
<p>Encouraging people to transition from private car trips to public transport is another road safety strategy that has seldom been considered by governments. Rather, the driver, car and road remain the focus. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/driving-on-less-than-5-hours-of-sleep-is-just-as-dangerous-as-drunk-driving-study-finds-202514">Driving on less than 5 hours of sleep is just as dangerous as drunk-driving, study finds</a>
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<p>This <a href="https://www.roadsafety.gov.au/nrss/fact-sheets/vision-zero-safe-system">“safe system” approach</a> puts an emphasis on building safe road infrastructure for cars, while ignoring urban design changes that de-emphasise the need for cars. We should be encouraging more people to commute by rail, tram and bus (all lower-risk modes per kilometre travelled), while at the same time delivering safe infrastructure for sustainable transport such as bicycles/e-bicycles or walking.</p>
<p>If we continue to tinker with strategies implemented many decades ago, we will never get close to achieving the lofty government targets on road deaths and injuries by 2030.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Stevenson receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council. He is a director in the start-up company Urban Analytica Pty Ltd.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Thompson is a current ARC Future Fellow, chief investigator on the NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence for Better Outcomes in Compensable Injury, chief investigator on the NHMRC-funded Feedback Trial, and member of the Australasian College of Road Safety.
</span></em></p>Road deaths have remained stubbornly high in Australia over the past decade. Do we have the right strategies in place to address the problem?Mark Stevenson, Professor of Urban Transport and Public Health, The University of MelbourneJason Thompson, Associate Professor, Faculty of Medicine and Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2109892023-09-15T06:58:10Z2023-09-15T06:58:10ZWales’ residential speed limit is dropping to 20mph – here’s how it should affect accidents and journey times<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547541/original/file-20230911-21774-vlazi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4608%2C3456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The drop to 20mph in Wales will come into force at midnight on September 17. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/20-mph-speed-limit-sign-on-1166519551">steved_np3/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The default speed limit in residential areas in Wales will be <a href="https://www.gov.wales/introducing-default-20mph-speed-limits">reduced</a> from 30mph to 20mph from midnight on September 17. It will make Wales the first UK nation to adopt a 20mph default urban speed limit. </p>
<p>The new limit will apply to all “restricted” roads, which are roads in built-up areas with high levels of pedestrians. There are some exemptions and local authorities have been able to apply for certain roads to be kept at 30mph.</p>
<p>This change in the law has huge potential public health benefits, including decreasing the number of injuries and deaths from collisions, and may encourage more people to walk and cycle.</p>
<p>However, there is some opposition to the change, with concerns over journey times, additional costs to businesses in deliveries, uncertainties around its effect on vehicle emissions and the potential for increased frustration and road rage.</p>
<p>In bringing forward this change, the Welsh government has used the <a href="https://www.gov.wales/20mph-campaign-promotional-leaflet">strapline</a> “20mph. A bit slower but a whole lot better”, and has led the campaign with the promise of reducing collisions and saving lives. It says that in the time a car travelling at 20mph can stop, a car at 30mph would still be doing 24mph. It goes on to suggest that streets and communities will be safer, meaning people will walk more, improving health and wellbeing.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.gov.wales/state-evidence-20mph-speed-limits-regards-road-safety-active-travel-and-air-pollution-impacts">Evidence</a> suggests the Welsh government is broadly correct. Reducing the default speed limit to 20mph will reduce casualties, providing drivers with more time to react if things go wrong. </p>
<p>Following the implementation of 20mph limits in <a href="https://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/phr/XAZI9445/#/abstract">Edinburgh</a>, for example, the number of collisions in one year fell by 40%. There were 23% fewer deaths and serious injuries were reduced by 33%. </p>
<p>Walking and cycling may increase too. We know that higher vehicle speeds are a <a href="https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/15/6/369.short">barrier</a> to walking and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15568318.2021.1999539">cycling</a>, especially among <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/978-1-83982-744-020211002/full/html">older adults</a>.</p>
<h2>Opposition</h2>
<p>Not everyone in Wales is happy about the drop to 20mph. Several <a href="https://petitions.senedd.wales/petitions/245406">petitions</a> have attempted to stop the change, while the Welsh Conservatives <a href="https://nation.cymru/news/welsh-conservatives-planning-to-force-a-final-vote-on-20mph-speed-limit/">oppose</a> blanket reductions. Reports have also emerged of 20mph signs being <a href="https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/people-been-defacing-20mph-signs-27660830">defaced</a>. </p>
<p>A common complaint is that journey times will be slower. But a UK government <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/757307/20mph-headline-report.pdf">report</a> in 2018 looked at 12 case studies in England where 20mph limits were implemented, concluding that journey times increased by only 3% in residential areas and 5% in city centres, adding less than a minute to a five-mile trip.</p>
<p>Also, as traffic flows are often more interrupted in urban areas - with frequent junctions and traffic lights, for example - a slight reduction in maximum permitted speeds may smooth out the traffic flow, reducing perceived delays.</p>
<p>Driver behaviour is, of course, a complex subject. Some drivers simply do not want to slow down and feel they have a right to drive fast. Meanwhile, other drivers feel the pressure to conform with other people’s behaviour, fitting in with the prevailing norms on the road. </p>
<h2>Drivers’ opinions</h2>
<p>Charles was involved in a qualitative <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214140514000383?via%3Dihub">study</a>, published in 2014, that attempted to categorise drivers’ opinions to work out how we might change attitudes and behaviour using the “diffusion of innovation” model, which is a theory that seeks to explain how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology spread. </p>
<p>In the study, drivers were sorted into categories of support for 20mph speed limits based on their answers to a series of questions. One group of “champions” was wholly supportive of 20mph regardless of others around them, even if tailgated or flashed by other vehicles. </p>
<p>In contrast, another group defined as “pragmatists” were more aware of others’ behaviour and were influenced by it, feeling the pressure to speed up. Many in this group had little awareness of speed limits in general, driving much more to the conditions or as others were around them. </p>
<p>And the final group of “opponents” tended to be strongly against speed limits. This tended to be reflected by how they set their own speed limits according to conditions. </p>
<p>The study suggested that champions respond well to information about the benefits of 20mph limits. But pragmatists need to accept that 20mph limits are normal and supported by most other drivers.</p>
<p>We know from the study that there is support for 20mph but also some ambivalence, which can be overcome after a bedding in period. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a residential street with 20 painted on the road in bold numbers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The speed limit in this residential area in Pontypridd is already set at 20mph.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pontypridd-wales-july-2022-aerial-view-2179041355">Ceri Breeze/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The truth is that most people are not opposed to 20mph speed limits, but a sizeable minority are. Welsh government commissioned <a href="https://www.gov.wales/20mph-public-attitudes-research">research</a> suggests 80% were either slightly or strongly in favour of 20mph limits in 2021, but that this fell to <a href="https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2022-11/20mph-public-attitudes-survey-further-research.pdf">63% in 2022</a>. </p>
<p>This is not uncommon, however, as people’s support for change tends to <a href="https://www.gartner.co.uk/en/methodologies/gartner-hype-cycle">grow initially</a> but then falls off the closer it gets to implementation. Eventually, people may come around to the idea. </p>
<p>But it needs a government willing to stand its ground when negative public opinion emerges just before implementation, as we are seeing now.</p>
<p>It is time we stopped accepting death and injury in the name of freedom of mobility. Default 20mph speed limits are a good start but they must be accompanied by driver education programmes and police enforcement to be effective. And, of course, non-motoring road users still need more pavements, cycle lanes, safe crossing points and efficient and affordable public transport options.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Musselwhite receives funding from Health and Care Research Wales.
Charles Musselwhite is Board Member of the Transport and Health Science Group (THSG)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Merriman has received funding for past research from the ESRC, AHRC, British Academy, and European Regional Development Fund. </span></em></p>The Welsh government wants to make residential roads safer and quieter but not everybody agrees with dropping the speed limit from 30mph to 20mph.Charles Musselwhite, Professor of Psychology, Aberystwyth UniversityPeter Merriman, Professor of Human Geography, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071892023-06-29T12:17:28Z2023-06-29T12:17:28ZThink being a NASCAR driver isn’t as physically demanding as other sports? Think again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534663/original/file-20230628-29-pxt28c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C17%2C2982%2C2056&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Race car drivers compete in full-body safety gear while sitting in a piping hot car, which puts tremendous strain on the heart.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/driver-michael-gallegos-climbs-behind-the-wheel-during-the-news-photo/77354033?adppopup=true">Grant Halverson/Getty Images for NASCAR</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine an NBA game played outdoors. In August. In Phoenix. Tip-off is at noon. There are no timeouts. There is no halftime. There are no substitutions. And players must wear snowsuits, gloves, and ski masks. </p>
<p>Sounds ridiculous, right? </p>
<p>Yet race car drivers routinely compete under similar conditions.</p>
<p>On July 1, 2023, for the first time in over 60 years, NASCAR, the nation’s premier stock car series, will hold a race on the streets of a U.S. city at the <a href="https://www.nascarchicago.com/racing/">Grant Park 220 in Chicago</a>.</p>
<p>The fans who attend are sure to appreciate the sound, speed and spectacle. But how many truly grasp the physical and mental strain placed on the drivers?</p>
<p>Our research team from the University of Florida and Michigan State University is collaborating with NASCAR to better understand the stressors drivers experience on the track.</p>
<p>We’ve learned that professional drivers need extraordinary physical and mental stamina to compete in major racing series such as NASCAR, IndyCar and Formula One. Our data shows the metabolic demands of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002070">auto racing and basketball are similar</a>. But unlike other athletes, race car drivers compete in full-body safety gear while sitting in a piping hot car for hours at a time.</p>
<h2>Not your mom’s minivan</h2>
<p>Race car drivers face unique challenges that require strength, endurance and hand-eye coordination.</p>
<p>First, the physical effort of driving a race car is much greater than that of driving your family car. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.roadandtrack.com/motorsports/news/a18270/you-think-driving-an-indy-car-is-easy/">Turning and braking require more force</a> due to the high speeds and the unique engineering of race cars. Drivers control the vehicle <a href="https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/video.2022-italian-grand-prix-williams-mechanics-help-exhausted-nyck-de-vries-out-of-the-car-after-his-points-scoring-f1-debut.1743691636627328562.html">by constantly engaging</a> the muscles of the arms, upper body and legs.</p>
<p>“There’s tremendous kick-back through the steering wheel,” IndyCar driver Dario Franchitti <a href="https://www.roadandtrack.com/motorsports/news/a18270/you-think-driving-an-indy-car-is-easy/">said in a 2012 interview</a>, “and there’s no power steering, so every movement of the wheel requires a lot of energy.”</p>
<p>After being hooked up to sensors to track the stresses and strains he endured a race, Franchitti learned he needed to generate 35 pounds of force just to steer, and 135 pounds of force to brake.</p>
<p>“Imagine a string tied to your hand where you have to pull that 35 pounds up or down constantly,” he added.</p>
<p>Also, fast turns and abrupt braking create accelerative forces, <a href="https://www.geotab.com/blog/what-is-g-force/">known as G-forces</a>. Like a jet fighter pilot in a dogfight, intense G-forces make it hard for racers to maintain their posture and promote muscle fatigue. It can even become <a href="https://us.motorsport.com/f1/news/magnussen-says-his-neck-just-broke-in-q3-in-jeddah/9364564/">impossible to hold their heads up</a>. </p>
<p>For these reasons, drivers undergo rigorous training to <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001961">strengthen key muscle groups</a> in the neck, upper body and legs while working to improve their cardiovascular fitness. </p>
<p>Heat is also a major challenge for driver athletes. Like any exercise, the work of driving a race car causes the body to generate metabolic heat. In most sports, athletes wear lightweight clothes that promote cooling by convection and sweat evaporation. </p>
<p>Not so in auto racing. Driver body <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.06.001">heat is trapped by the safety gear</a> worn during competition to protect against fire in case of a crash. The gear includes long fireproof undershirt and underpants, full-body fire suit, socks and driving shoes, gloves, a fireproof balaclava, and a full-face helmet with closed eye shield.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6W6OswDJZJ8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Formula One driver Nigel Mansell faints at the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix, which was held on a day where temperatures exceeded 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 Celsius).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bodies pushed to the limit</h2>
<p>To make matters worse, drivers compete in what’s essentially a moving oven. </p>
<p>A massive amount of heat is generated by the race car engine, exhaust, brakes and tires. These sources heat the cockpit and the driver, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001997">especially in cars with roofs</a> like stock cars. In summer, cockpit temperatures can exceed 135 degrees Fahrenheit (57 Celsius), leading to profuse sweating, dehydration and <a href="https://f1i.com/images/350956-mansells-dallas-gp-push-and-coast.html">even heatstroke</a>. </p>
<p>Most race cars lack air conditioning. Instead, <a href="https://www.hendrickmotorsports.com/news/articles/100361/how-drivers-stay-cool-in-the-car-during-summer-months">technologies used to combat the heat</a> include hoses that bring fresh air into driver helmets and cool-shirts worn by drivers. <a href="https://www.formulasantander.com/how-formula-1-drivers-stay-hydrated-during-the-race/">In-car drink systems</a> can also provide fluids for re-hydration.</p>
<p>Drivers and other endurance athletes metabolize oxygen to power their muscles and regulate body temperature. Comparing data across sports, my colleague and I found that metabolic demands of auto racing are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002070">similar to basketball, soccer or boxing</a>.</p>
<p>Delivering more oxygen to the driver’s body puts stress on the heart. Drivers often <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/asem.1483.2008">maintain near-maximal heart rates</a> while racing for hours at a time. </p>
<p>Beyond the heat, other aspects of racing also put demands on the heart. </p>
<p>First, there is speed. The <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2002/12000/Physiological_responses_to_high_speed,_open_wheel.33.aspx">faster a race car is driven</a> on a given track, the higher the driver’s heart rate due to greater physical and mental effort. Configuration of the race track is also important. Compared to oval tracks, heart rates are <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2002/12000/Physiological_responses_to_high_speed,_open_wheel.33.aspx">higher on road courses and street races</a>. This reflects the extra work required for hard braking and sharp turns.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fans watch from balconies as cars zip along a city street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Street courses like the Monaco Grand Prix add extra strain on drivers due to the prevalence of sharp turns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/daniel-ricciardo-of-australia-driving-the-aston-martin-red-news-photo/962946726?adppopup=true">Dan Istitene/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.977940">mental stress of competition</a>, compounded by the imminent risk of serious injury, can make the heart beat like a jackhammer. Weather can also play a role. This is especially true during the hot days of summer when the heart works harder to regulate driver body temperature. Even the race car contributes: Beyond the hot cabin environment, the car creates vibrations that also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1966.21.6.1725">stimulate the heart to beat faster</a>.</p>
<p>The race in Chicago will feature all of these challenges, putting extreme stress on drivers. Drivers will be racing closed-cockpit cars wheel-to-wheel through the twists and turns of an unfamiliar street course in the heat of midsummer. These athletes must endure all of these challenges for two hours or longer, while racing 220 miles (354 kilometers) at speeds exceeding 100 mph (161 kph). </p>
<p>While the outcome is unpredictable, the drivers will be pushing their bodies – in addition to their cars – to their limits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207189/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Reid receives funding from NASCAR to measure the physiological stresses experienced by race car drivers. NASCAR will have access to these findings, which are expected to be published in a peer-reviewed journal.</span></em></p>Imagine an NBA game played outdoors in August, with no substitutions and players wearing snowsuits, gloves and ski masks. Race car drivers routinely compete under similar conditions.Michael Reid, Professor of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2065642023-06-28T19:19:51Z2023-06-28T19:19:51ZBatteries in electric vehicles have more mileage in city driving rather than highway driving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528879/original/file-20230529-27-jf3qje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Battery electric vehicles have more efficient driving and higher range at low speeds.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A Toyota Corolla with a 1.8L engine requires 6.2 litres of gas to drive for 100 kilometres on a highway. But on city roads, <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/oee/pdf/transportation/fuel-efficient-technologies/2022%20Fuel%20Consumption%20Guide.pdf">it would require 7.9 litres of gas</a>. A 2022 Ford F-150 requires 9.4 and 12.1 litres per 100 km for highway and city driving, respectively.</p>
<p>Traditional fuel-powered automobiles, powered by the internal combustion engines, give higher mileage on a highway compared to city roads. Various <a href="https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtml">factors can affect the driving efficiency of a vehicle</a>. </p>
<p>First, the internal combustion engines are designed in a way that their efficiency peaks closer to highway speeds. Second, unlike highway driving, city driving involves more frequent acceleration and braking; every time a fuel-powered automobile accelerates, it consumes more energy than it would consume to maintain speed. And every time it brakes, energy is lost in the form of heat at its brake pads. </p>
<p>All these factors result in higher gas mileage on highway driving compared to city driving.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Auto Drive explains how electric car batteries work.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Power usage</h2>
<p>Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) don’t need gasoline. So how much electric power is needed to drive a BEV on highways? And will that power requirement be higher (or lower) to drive in the city?</p>
<p>It could be expected that a BEV would require less power to drive on a highway compared to city. And a fully charged BEV should be able to drive longer on a highway compared to the city. However, the reality is just the opposite.</p>
<p>Energy stored in the battery is measured in kilowatt-hours (KWh). If a particular BEV has a capacity of 200 KWh, this would ideally provide 200 KW (equivalent to 268 horsepower) for one hour, or 100 KW for two hours, and so on. Hypothetically, this BEV can provide an impressive 2,680 hp for six minutes, and an astounding 26,800 hp for 36 seconds.</p>
<p>In practice, however, the internal resistance of the battery prevents it from providing infinite power even for a short time. When trying to draw high power from the battery, its internal resistance causes a voltage drop that is high enough to completely shut it off. </p>
<p>When the BEV operates at high power, only a certain portion of the full energy capacity is available for driving. At a lower power, however, the battery can provide more energy.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a close-up of an electric vehicle being plugged in to charge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533802/original/file-20230623-19-fqvcib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Battery electric vehicles don’t need gasoline.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Andrew Roberts/Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Battery testing</h2>
<p>We conducted experiments at our <a href="http://www.bmslab.org">battery management systems research lab</a> at the University of Windsor. We took a cylindrical battery cell like the ones used to make battery packs for BEVs and computed its energy at different discharge currents. </p>
<p>First, we fully charged the battery and then discharged it at a certain power until it was fully depleted. Then, we fully charged it again and discharged it at half the power until it was fully depleted. The experiment was repeated five more times by halving the discharge power each time. </p>
<p>When we computed the total energy discharged by the battery at each experiment, we found that <a href="https://itec-conf.com/app/uploads/2023/06/ITEC2023_Program_V6_web.pdf">the lower the current, the higher the discharge energy capacity</a>.</p>
<p>The BEVs need more electrical current (a measure of power) on highways compared to city streets because the average speed on the highway is higher. Also, their batteries become less efficient at high currents due to energy loss.</p>
<p>Further, the BEVs don’t lose that much power when braking because they convert their kinetic energy back to electricity with the help of <a href="https://driving.ca/column/how-it-works/how-it-works-regenerative-braking">regenerative braking systems</a>. All these facts contribute to more efficient driving and higher range at low speeds.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a red electric Tesla sedan stops at a traffic light" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533804/original/file-20230623-16-54axia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Electric vehicles don’t lose that much power when braking because they convert their kinetic energy back to electricity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The batteries perform well at room temperature, and colder and hotter temperatures will reduce their performance. Similarly, using vehicle heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems will reduce the batteries’ performance. </p>
<p>The performance of a battery is also affected by how it is being used over time. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.03.016">battery management system is very important</a>, and in some BEVs, it may be programmed to prevent the driver from fully depleting the battery pack so that long-term health can be maintained.</p>
<h2>Informed consumers</h2>
<p>Canada’s 2022 <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/oee/pdf/transportation/fuel-efficient-technologies/2022%20Fuel%20Consumption%20Guide.pdf">fuel consumption guide</a> provides details about some BEVs. On average, the tested BEVs required lower power to drive 100 kilometres in city roads compared to highways, confirming our explanation.</p>
<p>A study by the American Automobile Association found that <a href="https://www.aaa.com/AAA/common/AAR/files/AAA-Electric-Vehicle-Range-Testing-Report.pdf">most vehicles drove the longest in city conditions where speed was lower compared to highway driving</a>. That is, a fully charged BEV drives longer distances at lower speeds. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest that those considering an electric vehicle would find it useful if power consumption guides included this information. BEV drivers can expect shorter driving range at high speeds, and can also expect the driving cost per kilometre to increase with vehicle speed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206564/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Balakumar Balasingam receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Canada.</span></em></p>Electric vehicles, in contrast to fuel-powered vehicles, have more mileage in city driving than highway driving. This is because they convert kinetic energy back to electric.Balakumar Balasingam, Associate Professor, Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2032252023-04-06T07:02:46Z2023-04-06T07:02:46Z120 hours of supervised learner driving: our research suggests it may be too many<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519483/original/file-20230405-24-f2172w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>During the Easter school holidays, scores of learner drivers will hit the roads, with parents carefully logging all their driving hours. Many of us have experienced this process, whether as a learner, a supervisor, or both. </p>
<p>The requirement is particularly high in New South Wales and Victoria, where learners must complete a minimum of 120 hours of supervised driving before they can drive without supervision. This one of the highest requirements for learner drivers in the world.</p>
<p>We set out to answer whether this supervised driving practice actually makes for safer drivers. </p>
<p><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.04043">Our study</a> evaluated the effect of two significant increases in the minimum supervised driving hours mandate in New South Wales: the 2000 reform from zero to 50 hours, and the 2007 reform from 50 to 120 hours.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-little-to-gain-and-much-to-lose-from-lowering-the-minimum-driving-age-69201">There's little to gain and much to lose from lowering the minimum driving age</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>By comparing people who turned 16 – the minimum age to obtain a learner permit – just before the policy changed to people who turned 16 just after, we were able to isolate the effect of these policy changes on motor vehicle accidents, while abstracting from other factors that might affect accidents. </p>
<p>Our dataset contained all licensing and crash records in New South Wales over the reform periods. The crash data include all serious crashes – those that led to a hospitalisation and/or a vehicle being towed.</p>
<p>Consider people born in July 1991, or later. They were subject to the 120-hour mandate. But those born slightly earlier were subject to the 50-hour mandate if they obtained their learners’ permit relatively quickly.</p>
<p>If the policy was effective, we would expect to see a sharp drop in crash rates for people who turned 16 after the 120-hour rule came in. But we discovered there was no such drop.</p>
<p>We analysed the data in several ways, all of which suggested no effect of the 2007 reform on crash rates. Because of our large sample size, we were confidently able to rule out any meaningful effects. We did observe a small delay in the average age of obtaining a provisional (P1) license of around one month.</p>
<p>In contrast, the first policy change was effective. We found that increasing supervision from zero to 50 hours reduced the probability of a motor vehicle accident in the first year of unsupervised driving from 6.9 to 5.4 percentage points, a reduction of 21%. However, there was no reduction in the probability of an accident beyond this 12-month window, suggesting the extra experience is helpful initially, but does not change long-term driving habits.</p>
<p>Since young males are at higher risk of crashing than females, we thought there might be differences by sex. In fact, the results were very similar for males and females.</p>
<p>It is important to note that we evaluated the policy mandate, but we cannot guarantee compliance with it. In practice, people may do more hours than required, or may over-report their hours, risking penalties if caught. Widespread non-compliance could undermine the effect of the mandate. However, available <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022437510000277">evidence</a> suggests that drivers in Australia are largely truthful in their reporting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519490/original/file-20230405-22-avq814.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The study showed that while the change from 0-50 required hours of driving made a difference to safety, the further shift to 120 hours did not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mick Tsikas/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why does this matter?</h2>
<p>Motor vehicle accidents are the <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/life-expectancy-death/deaths-in-australia/contents/leading-causes-of-death">second leading cause of death</a> for people aged 15-24 years in Australia. Many policies have aimed to lower the risk for young drivers, including the introduction of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduated_driver_licensing">graduated driver licensing</a> and associated features such as provisional speed limits, passenger restrictions and engine restrictions.</p>
<p>Minimum supervised driving hours is a potentially important tool for improving road safety, but until now has not been subjected to rigorous evaluation. Evaluating this policy is important, as there are costs involved with the mandate.</p>
<p>The obvious cost is the time of learners and supervisors. However, there may be other social costs as well. For example, by placing barriers to obtaining a licence, such policies can limit young people’s access to work and education, and entrench disadvantage, particularly for those from single parent and low income families, or those who have moved out of home and lack access to a licensed driver.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-parents-need-to-know-about-learner-drivers-four-key-lessons-30034">What parents need to know about learner drivers: four key lessons</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How many hours should the mandate be?</h2>
<p>Our findings suggest there are benefits to supervised driving experience. Moving from a regime of zero hours to 50 hours meaningfully reduced the risk of motor vehicle accidents. But moving from a regime of 50 to 120 hours provided no further benefits, suggesting the benefits are diminishing, and the mandate might be too high in New South Wales.</p>
<p>Like us, you might wonder where the 120 hours figure came from. We’re not certain, but a <a href="https://media.opengov.nsw.gov.au/pairtree_root/e6/74/85/cd/b3/c4/44/71/a5/bd/85/57/5e/68/0c/ca/obj/Report_No_217_Improving_road_s_Drivers_tabled_19_October_2011.PDF">2011 review</a> by the NSW auditor-general points to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001457599000457">Swedish study</a>. A group of young drivers who reported completing 118 hours of learner practice had a 35% lower accident risk than those reporting between 41-47 hours. </p>
<p>The problem is that it’s hard to attribute this difference in accident risk to the difference in reported hours, because the two groups of drivers were fundamentally different, having self-selected into different policy regimes and having experienced other policy differences as well. In particular, the former group were allowed to start driving a full 1.5 years before the latter group.</p>
<p>Where possible, policy changes should be informed by high-quality empirical evidence, and subjected to rigorous evaluation after they are implemented. For almost 25 years, teenagers in New South Wales have been logging their driving hours, but with little evidence on the benefits, until now. </p>
<p>Our results call for a re-think on how many hours learners should be required to complete, and suggest exploring other avenues for further improvements in the safety of young drivers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Learner drivers in New South Wales are subject to some of the most stringent requirements before getting their licences – but our study shows it doesn’t necessarily make them safer drivers.Nathan Kettlewell, Chancellor's Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Economics Discipline Group, University of Technology SydneyPeter Siminski, Professor of Economics, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2025142023-04-04T20:20:59Z2023-04-04T20:20:59ZDriving on less than 5 hours of sleep is just as dangerous as drunk-driving, study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519188/original/file-20230404-22-fyk2dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=52%2C64%2C3748%2C2520&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yellowj/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What if you could be fined or lose your license for driving tired? Our new study <a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S392441">just published in Nature and Science of Sleep</a> has found if you had less than five hours of sleep last night, you are just as likely to have a vehicle crash as if you were over the legal limit for alcohol. </p>
<p>We know about 20% of all vehicle crashes <a href="https://www.aaa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Fatigue-Driving-Literature-Review-FINAL.pdf">are caused by fatigue</a>. Over the past 20 years, the number of crashes caused by alcohol <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074684/">has decreased significantly</a>.</p>
<p>However, there has been little progress over this same period in decreasing the number of crashes caused by fatigue. We wanted to know – can this be changed?</p>
<h2>A ‘line in the sand’ on impaired driving</h2>
<p>Recent decreases in alcohol-related car crashes have happened for a few reasons:</p>
<ul>
<li> a significant investment in public education</li>
<li> drivers have easy-to-follow guidance on how to decide if they are too intoxicated to drive (for example, <a href="https://www.forgov.qld.gov.au/mail-facilities-and-vehicles/vehicles/driver-safety-in-the-workplace/fitness-to-drive/alcohol-and-drugs">the advice to have</a> “two drinks in the first hour, and one drink every hour after that”)</li>
<li> strong enforcement strategies, including roadside testing</li>
<li> highly publicised drunk-driving legal cases.</li>
</ul>
<p>Additionally, drivers are legally deemed to be impaired if their blood alcohol concentration is over 0.05%, regardless of their driving performance. This blood alcohol limit is an effective “line in the sand”, determining whether someone is <em>legally</em> permitted to drive.</p>
<p>We did a study to find out if we could reduce the number of fatigue-related crashes on Australian roads by following a similar strategy. Is there a point at which we could deem a driver to be impaired due to fatigue?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A road sign that reads 'fatigue zone question - highest mountain in Queensland?'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519183/original/file-20230404-24-w0roze.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On some highways in Queensland, ‘fatigue zone trivia’ signs were installed to help combat driver fatigue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ribeiroantonio/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A minimum amount of shuteye?</h2>
<p>To do this, we evaluated the scientific evidence from laboratory and field studies that looked at how much prior sleep you need to drive safely.</p>
<p>After synthesising the findings of 61 unique studies, we found having less than four to five hours of sleep in the previous 24 hours is associated with an approximate doubling of the risk of a vehicle crash. This is the same risk of a crash seen when drivers have a <a href="https://www.safetylit.org/citations/index.php?fuseaction=citations.viewdetails&citationIds%5B%5D=citjournalarticle_246699_38">blood alcohol concentration of 0.05%</a>. </p>
<p>Not only this, but a driver’s risk of a crash significantly increases with each hour of sleep lost the night before. Some studies even suggested that when a driver had between zero and four hours of sleep the previous night, they may be up to 15 times <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/41/10/zsy144/5067408?fbclid=IwAR0AjP-AnjhQ8CL7GELL4WIBwyPp9a_2AcIslfd5lqJsoyjofnmwA7wKh7I&login=false#122160242%20%20%20%20https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12643949/">more likely to have a crash</a>. </p>
<p>Our review suggests that based on the scientific evidence, it may be reasonable to require drivers to have a certain amount of sleep before getting behind the wheel. If we were to align with the degree of risk considered acceptable for intoxication, we may consider requiring a minimum of four to five hours of sleep prior to driving. </p>
<p>However, we must consider more than just the scientific evidence. For the most part, drinking alcohol is something individuals choose to do. Many people cannot decide to get more sleep – for example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369847822001310">new parents</a>, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/53/2/89/1519783">shift workers</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Harleen-Kaur-31/publication/328228834_Insomnia_Chronic/links/5cebd70e92851c4eabc183c8/Insomnia-Chronic.pdf">people with sleep disorders</a>. Not only that, but for fatigued driving to be regulated, there would need to be significant public support. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-is-it-time-to-stop-driving-will-mandatory-assessments-of-older-drivers-make-our-roads-safer-200352">When is it time to stop driving? Will mandatory assessments of older drivers make our roads safer?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is the law even an option?</h2>
<p>We must also consider how such a law would be implemented. There is no current way to evaluate fatigue at the roadside – no breath test or blood test that can evaluate how much sleep you have had, or how impaired you are. As a result, regulating fatigue would likely need to happen in the event of a crash. Was the driver impaired due to fatigue at the time, and are they therefore legally responsible? </p>
<p>Regulating fatigued driving is not a new idea. In New Jersey, “Maggie’s Law” legislation finds drivers to be legally impaired if they have had zero hours of sleep in the previous 24 hours. This law, implemented in 2003 after a fatigued driver killed a college student, <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/sleepless-in-america/200811/maggies-law">would be considered by many to be quite permissive</a>. That is, a lot of people would expect you would need more than zero hours of sleep in the previous 24 hours to be able to drive safely. However, in Australia in 2023, there is no similar requirement to ensure you are sufficiently rested to get behind the wheel.</p>
<p>We are currently consulting with a range of community members and road safety stakeholders on what the next step might be for regulating fatigued driving in Australia. Preliminary findings indicate that at the very least, more specific public education and guidance for drivers on how to avoid driving while fatigued would be welcomed. For example, easy-to-follow advice on how to decide whether or not you are too fatigued to drive would likely be well received. </p>
<p>While Australia might be a little while off legislating how much sleep to get before getting behind the wheel, we suggest keeping the amount of sleep you’ve had in the previous 24 hours in mind. If you’ve slept less than five hours, you probably shouldn’t drive. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-people-tailgate-a-psychology-expert-explains-whats-behind-this-common-and-annoying-driving-habit-193462">Why do people tailgate? A psychology expert explains what's behind this common (and annoying) driving habit</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202514/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madeline Sprajcer receives funding from the Office of Road Safety. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Drew Dawson receives research funding from a range of government and private organisations. These typically involve funding to research the adverse effects of insufficient sleep on workplace health and safety and ways to minimise negative outcomes. He also receives royalty income from licensing arrangements for software products that help organisations measure and mitigate fatigue-related risk (the FAID and FatigueFit product suites). Finally, he is a subject matter expert for a variety of Australian and international safety regulators on matters relating to the identification, measurement and mitigation of fatigue-related risk. </span></em></p>There’s a blood alcohol limit for legally being permitted to drive. Should we have a ‘fatigue limit’?Madeline Sprajcer, Lecturer in Psychology, CQUniversity AustraliaDrew Dawson, Director, Appleton Institute, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1946282023-01-08T19:00:08Z2023-01-08T19:00:08ZRoad to nowhere: why the suburban cul-de-sac is an urban planning dead end<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501459/original/file-20221216-16-2kw7io.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5375%2C3653&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The cul-de-sac is a suburban trap. It’s virtually useless as a road, doesn’t support public transport, cycling or walking, and doesn’t work well as a play or gathering place. Its literal translation from the French is “bottom of a sack” – which sounds a lot less glamorous, you’ll agree.</p>
<p>And yet we persist with them. The calls for more housing that resonate across many urban societies almost always include plans to repurpose broad swathes of agricultural land into single-family housing serviced by twisting strands of cul-de-sac-capped roads. </p>
<p>But there is a danger in embracing this type of development. Despite the French name, the cul-de-sac as it exists today is not even from Europe. Like many modern transport nightmares, it originated in the car-oriented suburban planning of 1950s America, a defence against the <a href="https://www.archio.co.uk/blog/2015/12/01/cul-de-sac-desirable-enclave-or-dead-end/">perceived threat of the inner city</a>.</p>
<p>Cul-de-sacs were envisioned initially as <a href="https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=cplan_papers">small offshoots from more traditional grid roads</a>. They eventually morphed into isolated loops at the end of curvilinear patterns where only residents of the suburb would travel. They are the antithesis of connectivity.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501465/original/file-20221216-11243-vt001y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Developers favour cul-de-sacs partly because they allow for building more single-family houses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
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<h2>A developer’s dream</h2>
<p>In pushing the cul-de-sac, land and housing developers were merely continuing with a misguided notion that began with suburbs in general: those endless landscapes of single-family homes on large sections were promoted as a way to re-engage with the community and escape the rat race of city living. </p>
<p>But studies have shown residents of suburbs have much <a href="https://www.tesd.net/cms/lib/PA01001259/Centricity/Domain/1114/BowlingAlone.pdf">lower rates of civic engagement</a> than those living in a more urban environment.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-cars-alone-wont-save-the-planet-well-need-to-design-cities-so-people-can-walk-and-cycle-safely-171818">Electric cars alone won’t save the planet. We'll need to design cities so people can walk and cycle safely</a>
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<p>Developers told us cul-de-sacs were more efficient because they allowed higher densities. While not entirely a lie, it isn’t the whole truth either. Developers favour cul-de-sacs partly because they allow for building <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5455743">more single-family houses</a> on oddly shaped land or closer to natural features than would otherwise be possible with a grid. Cul-de-sac suburbs often completely ignore topography or nature in their development.</p>
<p>Developers also favour cul-de-sacs because they require up to <a href="https://www.accessmagazine.org/spring-2004/reconsidering-cul-de-sac/">50% less road</a>, fewer pipes, streetlights and footpaths compared to traditional grid street patterns. </p>
<p>Snaking, disconnected cul-de-sac streetscapes mean less road to construct compared to a well-connected grid with more complex street hierarchies. But that also means fewer kilometres of footpaths, bike lanes and through-streets for public transport.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501466/original/file-20221216-17105-4lk7i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The very nature of cul-de-sacs means residents often require a car.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
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<h2>Costly and impractical</h2>
<p>Suburban single-family housing on “greenfield” development is cheap to build and has a high profit margin. Unfortunately, disconnected, car-centric, large-home suburbs result in higher per capita infrastructure costs, vehicle ownership and travel time costs, and higher overall purchase prices. And the real cost of suburban living is met by <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2019/10/18/why-your-sprawling-low-density-suburb-may-be-costing-your-local-government-money/">governments, councils and residents</a>. </p>
<p>True, people are often attracted to cul-de-sacs because they’re seen as having minimal traffic. Ironically, the very nature of cul-de-sacs means residents <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-09-19/the-problem-with-cul-de-sac-design">often require a car</a> as their primary mode of transport. People searching for a refuge from the noise, pollution and danger of cars have backed themselves – literally – into a corner.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/triumph-of-the-mall-how-victor-gruens-grand-urban-vision-became-our-suburban-shopping-reality-172393">Triumph of the mall: how Victor Gruen’s grand urban vision became our suburban shopping reality</a>
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<p>The isolated and circuitous nature of cul-de-sac suburbs means there is often no access to public transportation. And active modes like walking, cycling and scooting are impractical. A lack of alternatives to the car means suburban residents have higher rates of car ownership – an added expense inner-city residents often don’t face.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, children might be only a few streets away from their friends, but in a jumble of winding roads and dead ends it’s <a href="https://hbr.org/2010/05/back-to-the-city">virtually impossible</a> to walk or cycle quickly to each other’s houses. Even that time-honoured rite of passage – walking alone to school – is impractical in this type of development.</p>
<p>Because these winding roads without any obvious focal point also often have low traffic volumes, they can’t support land uses other than low-density residences. As a result, even grabbing milk and bread from the dairy can involve a trip of several kilometres.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-planning-is-now-on-the-front-line-of-the-climate-crisis-this-is-what-it-means-for-our-cities-and-towns-193452">Urban planning is now on the front line of the climate crisis. This is what it means for our cities and towns</a>
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<h2>No exit</h2>
<p>Compared to the straight lines of traditional developments, the curvilinear roads that sweep through modern subdivisions might seem relaxing, even pastoral. But lurking around every curve is a hidden danger. </p>
<p>Lines of sight are significantly reduced, making every car backing out of its driveway a <a href="https://usa.streetsblog.org/2011/06/07/cul-de-sacs-are-killing-us-public-safety-lessons-from-suburbia/">risk for other motorists</a>. For pedestrians and people on bikes, this lack of visibility presents a significant danger.</p>
<p>New developments also tend to have wider streets and fewer intersections, encouraging faster driving. Higher speeds and lower visibility can be a deadly combination. Studies have shown fatal car crashes are <a href="https://link-springer-com.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/article/10.1057/udi.2009.31">270% more likely</a> in newer, cul-de-sac-laden developments compared to older traditional neighbourhoods.</p>
<p>All in all, giving something a French name might make it sound classy, but a cul-de-sac is really just a dead end. And that’s exactly what cul-de-sac subdivisions are, too – an urban planning dead end.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194628/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy Welch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Developers love the cul-de-sac, but for the rest of us it’s one of the least practical and efficient ways to design streets.Timothy Welch, Senior Lecturer in Urban Planning, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1934622023-01-02T19:44:23Z2023-01-02T19:44:23ZWhy do people tailgate? A psychology expert explains what’s behind this common (and annoying) driving habit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494375/original/file-20221109-11-48ns1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C998%2C664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/angry-man-driving-vehicle-without-seat-164132411">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hot, you’ve had a battle to get the kids in the car, and now you’re going to be late for the family lunch. </p>
<p>You turn onto the freeway only to get stuck behind a slow driver in the fast lane. You want them to move over or speed up, so you drive a little closer. Then closer. Then so close it would be difficult to avoid hitting them if they stopped suddenly. </p>
<p>When that doesn’t work you honk the horn. Nothing. Finally, frustrated, you dart into the left lane and speed past them.</p>
<p>Today was one of those days where many small annoyances have led to you being aggressive on the road. This isn’t how you usually drive. So why was today different?</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tailgating-is-stressful-and-dangerous-our-research-examines-ways-it-might-be-stopped-173915">Tailgating is stressful and dangerous. Our research examines ways it might be stopped</a>
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</p>
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<h2>Aren’t holidays supposed to be relaxing?</h2>
<p>Holiday driving may look a lot different to your usual commute. It may involve driving longer distances, or involve more frequent driving with more passengers than usual in the car. </p>
<p>Holiday driving comes with <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing/road_deaths_australia_monthly_bulletins">increased risk</a> (road deaths tend to spike during the holidays). That’s why news bulletins often carry the latest “road toll” figures around public holidays. </p>
<p>But whether you drive differently to normal comes down to the value you place on your <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-4575(03)00037-X">time</a>, rather than when you drive. </p>
<p>If you are in a rush, your time becomes more precious because you have less of it. If something, or someone, infringes on that time, you may become frustrated and aggressive.</p>
<p>This is basic human psychology. You can get angry when someone gets in the way of what you are trying to achieve. You get angrier when you think they are acting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59">unfairly or inappropriately</a>.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/road-rage-why-normal-people-become-harmful-on-the-roads-60845">Road rage: why normal people become harmful on the roads</a>
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<p>Usually before you respond, you evaluate what has happened, asking who is at fault and if they could have done things differently. </p>
<p>But when you are driving, you have less time and resources to make detailed evaluations. Instead, you make quick judgements of the situation and how best to deal with it. </p>
<p>These judgements can be based on how you are <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.81.1.146">feeling</a> at the time. If you are frustrated before getting in the car, you are likely to be easily frustrated while driving, blame other drivers more for your circumstances, and express this through aggressive driving.</p>
<p>Tailgating and speeding <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00063-8">are examples</a> of this aggression.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1573200836691660802"}"></div></p>
<p>A driver frustrated by the perception that someone is driving too slowly, or in the wrong lane, might speed past the offending driver, and maintain this speed for some time <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.551184">after the event</a>. </p>
<p>Aggressive tailgating may be seen as reprimanding the driver for their perceived slow speeds, or to encourage them to move out of the way. </p>
<p>The problem is, when you are angry, you underestimate the risk of these behaviours, while <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.81.1.146">over-estimating</a> how much control you have of the situation. It’s not worth the risk. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1513271113">study of real-world driving</a> shows both tailgating and speeding increase the odds of being in a crash more than if driving while holding or dialling a mobile phone. Drivers who are tailgating or speeding have a 13 to 14-fold increase in odds of being in a crash, compared to when they are driving more safely.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-people-drive-differently-in-the-rain-heres-what-the-research-says-181777">Do people drive differently in the rain? Here's what the research says</a>
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<h2>Here’s what you can do</h2>
<p>One way to stay safe on the roads these holidays is to recognise the situations that may lead to your own dangerous behaviours. </p>
<p>The Monash University Accident Research Centre has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2022.07.011">developed a program</a> to help drivers reduce their aggressive driving. This helps drivers develop their own strategies to stay calm while driving, recognising that one strategy is unlikely to suit every driver. </p>
<p>Almost 100 self-identified aggressive drivers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437522000998?via%3Dihub">developed</a> four types of tips to remain calm while driving:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>before driving:</strong> tips include better journey planning, allowing enough time for the trip and recognising how you are feeling before you get in the car </p></li>
<li><p><strong>while driving:</strong> this includes travelling in the left lane to avoid slow drivers in the right lane, or pulling over when feeling angry</p></li>
<li><p><strong>in your vehicle:</strong> such as deep breathing or listening to music</p></li>
<li><p><strong>‘rethinking’ the situation:</strong> acknowledge that in some situations, the only thing you can change is how you think about it. For example, ask yourself is it worth the risk? Or personalise the other driver. What if that was your loved one in the car in front?</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Four months after completing the program, drivers reported less anger and aggression while driving than before the program. The strategies that worked best for these drivers were listening to music, focusing on staying calm and rethinking the problem.</p>
<p>A favourite rethink was a 5x5x5 strategy. This involved asking yourself whether the cause of your anger will matter in five minutes, five hours or five days. If it is unlikely to matter after this time, it is best to let go. </p>
<p>The holidays are meant to be relaxing and joyous. Let’s not jeopardise that through reactions to other drivers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193462/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Stephens works for Monash University Accident Research Centre.
The program to reduce aggressive driving referred to in this article was made possible with the support of the ACT Road Safety Fund</span></em></p>It’s the holidays and for many of us, that means driving. Here’s how to keep your cool on the road this summer.Amanda Stephens, Senior Research Fellow Monash University Accident Research Centre, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1964912022-12-21T19:11:33Z2022-12-21T19:11:33ZUber plans a kids service to replace mum and dad’s taxi. What’s wrong with that? Plenty<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501463/original/file-20221216-24-ityp8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C296%2C2995%2C1967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ride-share company Uber has just <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/uber-installs-child-car-seats-in-melbourne-edges-closer-to-kids-service-20221212-p5c5ib.html">rolled out an option</a> to book vehicles equipped with a children’s car seat across Melbourne. Uber is also considering allowing unaccompanied children to use its service.</p>
<p>In Australia, a recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369847822000341">study</a> found most parents remain unwilling to let their children use a ride-share service unaccompanied. (Uber policy, like <a href="https://www.finder.com.au/apps-like-uber">most ride-sharing companies</a>, currently <a href="https://help.uber.com/driving-and-delivering/article/requests-from-underage-riders---?nodeId=43b84de6-758b-489e-b088-7ee69c749ccd">requires</a> a solo passenger to be over 18.) There appears to be more acceptance in countries such as the United States where child-specific ride-shares are more <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/dfw/news/rideshare-services-cater-to-children/">widespread</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1463923762689191944"}"></div></p>
<p>Many time-poor families are desperate for better alternatives to having to drive their children everywhere they need to go. There are indeed high <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1353829222000806">social</a>, <a href="https://ubibliorum.ubi.pt/handle/10400.6/10376?locale=en">economic</a> and <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/236476">environmental</a> costs associated with parental taxis. </p>
<p>But outsourcing this role to ride-share services is not the best solution. It will reinforce an over-reliance on cars, which is demonstrably harmful for children’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214367X16300734">health and wellbeing</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cars-have-taken-over-our-neighbourhoods-kid-friendly-superblocks-are-a-way-for-residents-to-reclaim-their-streets-187276">Cars have taken over our neighbourhoods. Kid-friendly superblocks are a way for residents to reclaim their streets</a>
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<h2>What are parents’ main concerns?</h2>
<p>The Australian <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369847822000341">study</a> identified several factors that mattered to parents. These included:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>being able to decide the route of the vehicle</p></li>
<li><p>who is able to drive and ride in the vehicle</p></li>
<li><p>the presence of a designated adult waiting at the child’s destination</p></li>
<li><p>technological features such as GPS tracking and two-way cameras to communicate with the child during the trip.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Clearly, a few roadblocks need to be overcome before these services gain broader appeal for families with children in Australia. But what would be the impact if they did go ahead? We should consider both the problems these services could solve and the problems they might create. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/inner-west/rydhero-is-a-new-sydney-ridesharing-service-for-busy-parents-designed-to-ferry-children-to-afterschool-activities/news-story/c23d52188866ee321013bd0ec323d81e">Busy parents</a>” is a phrase that comes up often when talking about children’s transport challenges and solutions. Child-specific ride-sharing seems to be a logical response to that problem. And Uber is <a href="https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/parenting/kids/stretch-ride-the-new-car-service-for-kids-travelling-without-their-parents/news-story/3f5d00df3e282d8b437727ff2638b241">not the the first</a> car <a href="https://www.shebah.com.au/ride">service for kids</a> in Australia. </p>
<p>However, the benefits gained from these “care-drivers” (driver/babysitter) are likely to be offset by new anxieties for parents. </p>
<p>In particular, parents worry about their children’s safety in the company of an unknown adult. When it comes to trusting a service to transport unaccompanied children, <a href="https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/parents-willingness-to-allow-their-unaccompanied-children-to-use-">Australian research</a> found parents were more likely to voice concerns about ride-share services than autonomous vehicles. </p>
<p>This is likely to remain the case despite technologies enabling real-time monitoring of the child and other desired features of the ride-share vehicle. And these surveillance technologies raise additional <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/chso.12016">ethical questions</a>.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-covid-anxiety-to-harassment-more-needs-to-be-done-on-safety-in-taxis-and-rideshare-services-149911">From COVID anxiety to harassment, more needs to be done on safety in taxis and rideshare services</a>
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<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1237723966669754370"}"></div></p>
<h2>There’s also health and wellbeing to consider</h2>
<p>Children’s dependence on cars to get around also affects their health. The risks range from <a href="https://www.unicef.org/documents/unicef-technical-guidance-child-and-adolescent-road-safety">road safety issues</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/02/traffic-noise-slows-childrens-memory-development-study-finds">noise</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jun/12/children-risk-air-pollution-cars-former-uk-chief-scientist-warns">air pollution</a> to being <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23219100/">less active physically</a>. A ride-share service for children would reinforce their families’ car dependence and the associated health issues.</p>
<p>Any child-specific ride-share service is also likely to magnify existing social and economic issues. To name a few:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>the services would tend to be exclusive in nature, being more accessible for those who are <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/82w2z91j">well-off</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214367X22000722">able-bodied</a></p></li>
<li><p>passive commuting in cars would become even more passive in the absence of adults known to the children, further reducing their opportunities to construct their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14733281003691418?journalCode=cchg20">social identities</a> and develop <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14733285.2020.1787950">independence</a> and <a href="https://www.achievementprogram.health.vic.gov.au/news/latest-updates/benefits-of-active-travel-to-school.html">self-reliance</a> – parents, too, could have fewer opportunities to interact with each other and the broader community at school or sport events</p></li>
<li><p>both parents and children place a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23800127.2022.2071060">high value on the togetherness</a> aspect of family trips to schools and extra-curricular activities, even when travelling by car. Child-only ride-share services would reduce the time spent together.</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501725/original/file-20221218-61132-9xiiz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Child-only ride services might relieve parents of driving duties but would reduce the time families spend together.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/designing-suburbs-to-cut-car-use-closes-gaps-in-health-and-wealth-83961">Designing suburbs to cut car use closes gaps in health and wealth</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>It all comes down to car dependence</h2>
<p>The heavy reliance on private cars by families with children is one of the key challenges facing most <a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/09/joseph-henrich-explores-weird-societies/">WEIRD</a> (Western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic) countries. The emergence of ride-share services for children highlights the difficulties with children’s lifestyles <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/236476">dominated by the need to get to extra-curricular activities</a>, often at non-local places. </p>
<p>Like any profit-driven approach, this kind of service raises concerns about exploitation of system-wide weaknesses. In this case, it’s the transport challenges faced by families with children.</p>
<p>These “solutions” also undermine various policies and programs that aim to create more socially and environmentally just communities. These include, for example, local living policies – such as so-called <a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-the-idea-of-20-minute-neighbourhoods-so-why-isnt-it-top-of-the-agenda-131193">20-minute neighbourhoods</a> – which are central to most planning strategies across Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-the-idea-of-20-minute-neighbourhoods-so-why-isnt-it-top-of-the-agenda-131193">People love the idea of 20-minute neighbourhoods. So why isn't it top of the agenda?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Allowing unaccompanied kids to travel in high-tech, ride-share vehicles might help some parents in the short term. In the long term, though, it will create more complex problems. These parallel many of the well-reported issues associated with lives and societies shaped by the car – known as <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199874002/obo-9780199874002-0206.xml#:%7E:text=obo%2F9780199874002%2D0206-,Introduction,and%20shaped%20by%2C%20the%20automobile.">automobility</a>. </p>
<p>Happier and healthier children should be the lens to look through at any new approaches to how children get around. Plenty of equitable and cost-effective solutions exist. The most obvious involve creating the social and environmental conditions for safe and convenient walking, cycling and public transport. </p>
<p>Having these solutions available instead of having to drive children would help time-poor families. And children can use all these transport options in groups, which eases safety concerns. There are, for example, <a href="http://www.walkingschoolbus.org/">walking school buses</a> and <a href="https://www.walkbiketoschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/SRTS_BikeTrain_final.pdf">bike trains</a>. </p>
<p>People and cities have much to gain from a move away from a narrow view of technology – such as retrofitting cars for monitoring and controlling children. Instead, we can use <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279450305_Parental_fear_as_a_barrier_to_children%27s_independent_mobility_and_resultant_physical_activity_Final_Report">technology</a> to promote healthier, greener and more equitable ways of getting around.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196491/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hulya Gilbert does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Uber is eyeing a service to take children wherever their parents would otherwise have to drive them themselves. Some might see it as a lifesaver, but it’s problematic for many reasons.Hulya Gilbert, Lecturer in Planning and Human Geography, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1861762022-07-07T12:02:20Z2022-07-07T12:02:20ZThe road ahead for electric cars relies on affordability, not scrapping grants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472536/original/file-20220705-12-irv8rt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C22%2C3788%2C2132&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-electric-car-driving-on-1849253413">Shutterstock/mpohodzhay</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since 2011, the UK government has been providing a tax-payer funded discount on the sale of battery electric vehicles. Known as the “plug-in car grant”, it was designed to help persuade motorists make the switch from diesel or petrol and commit to electric driving. </p>
<p>But last month the grant <a href="https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/consumer/uk-government-axes-plug-car-grant-immediate-effect">was scrapped</a> with immediate effect. It wasn’t exactly a surprise, given that the amount buyers were able to claim back had gradually been whittled down from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_incentives_for_plug-in_electric_vehicles#United_Kingdom">£5,000</a> to £1,500; or that it was recently available only for new vehicles costing less than £32,000 (the average cost of electric cars is around <a href="https://www.nimblefins.co.uk/average-cost-electric-car-uk#buy">£43,000</a>).</p>
<p>In fact, the government had been trying to scrap the grant completely for a while. Only a <a href="https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/car-news/104868/government-electric-car-grant-will-come-to-an-end-transport-secretary-says">major backlash</a> a couple of years ago forced the government to do a speedy handbrake turn and keep it going for a while longer.</p>
<p>Now though, the high level of demand for electric vehicles appears to have given the Treasury the green light to pull the plug once and for all. Instead it is apparently opting for a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/plug-in-grant-for-cars-to-end-as-focus-moves-to-improving-electric-vehicle-charging">“shift in focus”</a> towards charging infrastructure, although no new money has been announced for this.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/government-scraps-electric-car-grants-24222005">government’s argument</a> for scrapping the subsidy is that it has already done its job of getting the wheels of the electric car market moving. There are also significant financial benefits to owning an electric car such as reduced running costs, and no road tax bill.</p>
<p>And it is true that the market for electric vehicles is strengthening. Prices have come down, the range of models has improved, and it is estimated that <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-59887024">one in four cars</a> sold in the UK and EU this year could be battery powered. </p>
<p>But that could quickly change. Other countries which have withdrawn financial support for car buyers have seen a <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/mckinsey-electric-vehicle-index-europe-cushions-a-global-plunge-in-ev-sales">dip in demand</a> for electric cars. </p>
<p>For now, the government is essentially saying it will switch towards supporting the charging infrastructure and <a href="https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/latest-fleet-news/electric-fleet-news/2022/06/14/chancellor-urged-to-keep-company-car-tax-low-to-support-ev-uptake">company car buyers</a>. </p>
<p>At first glance, targeting the purchase of company cars makes sense. Lots of firms buy new cars, and their drivers tend to clock up more miles than private owners. So if they can be encouraged to buy electric cars, this will help reduce CO₂ emissions on the roads. </p>
<p>After two or three years, those company cars are fed into the used car market, potentially increasing the number of electric vehicles available. </p>
<p>But it raises a big question over fairness. Subsidising company cars provides savings to business owners, and employees who may benefit from company car <a href="https://businessadvice.co.uk/tax-and-admin/benefit-in-kind-electric-cars/">tax breaks</a>. Opting for an electric vehicle is becoming an increasingly obvious choice for managers and business owners, with a tax system designed to assist them. </p>
<p>So far, so good – for the relatively well off. In affluent areas of the UK, shiny new Teslas, Polestars, e-Trons plugged into the domestic electricity supply have become a common sight on driveways. </p>
<h2>Driving away business</h2>
<p>In poorer areas, they are much less common, and so are the driveways. But those with their own private home charging point enjoy much cheaper rates, because plugging into an on-street charging point means paying 20% VAT on the electricity rather than the 5% of a domestic tariff. </p>
<p>So while targeting company cars and fleet drivers makes some sense in promoting wider electric vehicle uptake, the policy seems pretty regressive. The government seems to have forgotten about helping the less well off into electric vehicles. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two electric cars charging on street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=47%2C0%2C5280%2C3501&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472524/original/file-20220705-19-rsan8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Undercharged policy?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/londonuk300718-two-white-volkswagen-golf-gte-1636208521">Shutterstock/phaustov</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, New Zealand recently announced a <a href="https://www.1news.co.nz/2022/05/16/29b-climate-change-boost-for-evs-waste-emissions-reduction/">“clean car upgrade programme”</a> which aims to help low and middle income families into low-emission cars through what is effectively a scrap-and-replace scheme. In Scotland, a new <a href="https://www.insider.co.uk/news/scottish-government-pledges-30-million-27168802">plan</a> offers interest-free loans to anyone looking to buy a new or used electric cars. It will be interesting to see whether these ideas have the desired effect. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the global car industry is being severely constrained by the <a href="https://www.bdo.co.uk/en-gb/insights/industries/manufacturing/how-the-chip-shortage-is-hitting-the-uk-automotive-sector">chip shortage</a>. In the UK, it also finds itself under pressure from the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-61795693">shift in approach</a> which now favours the “stick” of economic mandates over the “carrot” of widely available grants. </p>
<p>Under the <a href="https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/latest-fleet-news/electric-fleet-news/2022/04/07/government-launches-consultation-on-zero-emission-vehicle-mandate">zero emission vehicle mandate</a>, manufacturers will be required to sell a certain proportion of electric vehicles before 2030. If they don’t hit the targets they will be fined.</p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, the government’s latest moves have not <a href="https://www.smmt.co.uk/2022/06/smmt-response-to-end-of-plug-in-car-grant/">gone down well</a> with a car industry struggling in a difficult economic climate. And nor should the government forget the economic challenges for drivers of soaring petrol prices and the rising cost of living. If it wants more of them to make the switch to electric vehicles, it should be much more focused on making them an <a href="https://knowablemagazine.org/article/society/2022/make-electric-vehicles-affordable">affordable option</a> for as many motorists as possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186176/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bailey receives funding from the ERSC’s UK in a Changing Europe programme where he is a Senior Fellow.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Phil Tomlinson currently receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for the Made Smarter Innovation: Centre for People-Led Digitalisation.</span></em></p>Scrapping a grant for electric cars in the UK may be a backward move.David Bailey, Professor of Business Economics, University of BirminghamPhil Tomlinson, Professor of Industrial Strategy, Deputy Director Centre for Governance, Regulation and Industrial Strategy (CGR&IS), University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1856762022-06-23T11:49:22Z2022-06-23T11:49:22ZFederal gas tax holiday: Biden says it will provide ‘a little bit of relief’ – but experts say even that may be a stretch<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470390/original/file-20220622-11-8yvi2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=104%2C67%2C3992%2C2659&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gas prices are at record highs. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/GasolinePrices/5a001648107d4a9a8e0c898ab6404213/photo?Query=gasoline&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=8076&currentItemNo=49">AP Photo/Gene J. Puskar</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>President Joe Biden <a href="https://finance.yahoo.com/news/president-biden-gas-tax-suspension-102442992.html">called on Congress</a> to suspend the federal gas tax to “bring families just a little bit of relief” as average gasoline prices <a href="https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_gnd_a_epmr_pte_dpgal_w.htm">exceed US$5 a gallon</a>. The tax is <a href="https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=10&t=5">18.4 cents on regular gasoline</a> and 24.4 cents on diesel. Biden’s proposal would rescind both taxes for 90 days.</em></p>
<p><em>Several states, such as <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/maryland-georgia-announce-gas-tax-holidays-federal-efforts-stall-congr-rcna20687">Maryland</a> and <a href="https://www.wabe.org/kemp-signs-law-suspending-georgia-gas-taxes-through-may/">Georgia</a>, have temporarily waived their state gasoline taxes to reduce the burden on consumers.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation asked four experts whether gas tax waivers are an effective way to provide economic relief to U.S. households, what revenue from the federal gas tax is used for and what other impacts these measures could have.</em></p>
<h2>Not much relief</h2>
<p><strong>Jay Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer in Markets, Public Policy and Law, Boston University</strong> </p>
<p>As an <a href="http://businessmacroeconomics.com/">economist</a> who has <a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-evidence-why-pump-prices-havent-fallen-as-fast-as-oil-has-39162">studied gasoline prices</a>, I doubt that waiving gas taxes will meaningfully lower prices at the pump. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine boosted <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/gasoline-prices-shoot-up-at-fastest-rate-on-record-11647957303">gasoline prices dramatically</a>, and with the <a href="https://newsroom.aaa.com/2022/06/from-sea-to-shining-sea-aaa-predicts-47-9-million-people-will-travel-this-july-4th/">summer driving season</a> in full swing, politicians feel a need to show voters they are doing something. Cutting gas taxes makes great political theater, but as a few numbers show, it is an ineffective policy.</p>
<p>Government data shows that in an average day, the <a href="https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_cons_prim_a_EPM0_P00_Mgalpd_a.htm">U.S. uses about 350 million gallons of gasoline</a>. That is pretty close to the <a href="https://www.census.gov/popclock/">population of 333 million people</a>, so on average the typical person uses about one gallon of gas per day.</p>
<p>Let’s assume the entire reduction of the gas tax is passed on to the consumer. That means average savings of just 18 cents a day, or $16.56 over 90 days. Sixteen dollars will <a href="https://thegate.boardingarea.com/the-average-cost-of-pizza-in-each-state-in-the-united-states/">buy you about two cheese pizzas</a>. Given that before the pandemic the typical U.S. family <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/consumer-expenditures/2020/pdf/home.pdf">spent about $2,100 on gas each year</a>, $16 barely registers.</p>
<p>Moreover, we have some data on what happens during a gas tax holiday from when Maryland tried it a few months ago. According to the American Automobile Association, the average price of gasoline in Maryland <a href="https://gasprices.aaa.com/state-gas-price-averages/">just before the state’s gas tax holiday</a> was $4.25 per gallon. Two days after the state stopped charging the gas tax, prices were $3.81. A 44-cent drop may look significant, but it’s not that simple.</p>
<p>First, not all of that decrease happened because of eliminating the gas tax. Neither Delaware nor the District of Columbia, both of which border Maryland, had waived their gas taxes. However, over the same time period, Delaware gas prices declined by 19 cents per gallon and Washington’s prices fell by almost 16 cents. These drops are partly due to <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/gas-prices-fall-oil-ukraine-russia/">falling oil prices</a>. Florida, which is far from Maryland, saw a 16-cent drop per gallon over this same time period.</p>
<p>I believe the president’s proposal, unfortunately, will not provide much relief at the pump.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ixL3mDejAYU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Americans drive far more today than they did 30 years ago, but highway construction funding hasn’t kept up.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Less money to fix roads</h2>
<p><strong>Theodore J. Kury, Director of Energy Studies, Public Utility Research Center, University of Florida</strong></p>
<p>Federal highway maintenance is primarily paid for with gas tax revenues that flow into the Highway Trust Fund. The federal levy of 18.4 cents per gallon, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-gas-taxs-tortured-history-shows-how-hard-it-is-to-fund-new-infrastructure-163152">unchanged for almost 30 years</a>, is a major component of these revenues, along with taxes on <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/gastax.cfm">diesel fuel, gasohol, methanol, liquefied gases and compressed natural gas</a>.</p>
<p>The federal government collects roughly <a href="https://www.cbo.gov/publication/57138#:%7E:text=Status%20of%20the%20Highway%20Trust%20Fund,-The%20federal%20government's&text=In%202019%2C%20%2445%20billion%20in,gasoline%20and%20other%20motor%20fuels">$37 billion to $38 billion per year in revenues</a> from the gas tax. These revenues have remained fairly consistent over the past five years, even through the heart of the pandemic. Other highway-related fines and fees also go into the Highway Trust Fund, but their magnitude is comparatively small.</p>
<p>In 2020, the latest year for which numbers are available, the federal government spent roughly <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2020/fa5.cfm">$46 billion on highway projects</a>. This figure does not include the subsidies that the federal government extends to state and local governments to reduce the cost of borrowing for highway projects.</p>
<p>But if the government collected $38 billion in gas taxes, where did the other $8 billion come from? Since most politicians <a href="https://apnews.com/article/joe-biden-business-government-and-politics-628666300e1ed0c9ad11c6eb8c608c4f">strongly resist raising gas taxes</a>, even to pay for much-needed repairs, the government has turned to less transparent alternatives. </p>
<p>Several times in the past decade, officials have shored up the balance in the Highway Trust Fund with intragovernmental transfers from other accounts. Most recently, the fund received <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/highwaytrustfund/docs/fe-1_jan2022.pdf">$10 billion this way in October 2020 and $90 billion in December 2021</a>. That represents $100 billion that was not spent providing other services.</p>
<p>If the Highway Trust Fund faces more shortfalls, program managers will either greenlight fewer infrastructure maintenance projects or transfer money from other programs. This would be the most likely outcome if Congress opts to suspend the federal gas tax.</p>
<p>Ultimately, taxpayers pay for everything that the government does. Policymakers simply decide how and when that will happen.</p>
<h2>Waivers only help drivers</h2>
<p><strong>Erich J. Muehlegger, Associate Professor of Economics, University of California, Davis</strong></p>
<p>Research shows that for decades, lower-income households have <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/NTJ41789255">spent a larger fraction of their budgets</a> on gasoline than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.03.025">higher-income households</a>. The growing transition to electric vehicles has contributed to this pattern because high-income households in the U.S. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/706793">have been more likely to go electric</a> and, as a result, pay less in gasoline taxes. </p>
<p>This means that a gas tax holiday tends to benefit lower-income households relatively more than higher-income households, but there are two important caveats. </p>
<p>First, not everyone benefits from a gas tax holiday. The very poor who lack cars, urban households who rely on public transit, and the elderly, who tend to drive less, benefit less from a tax holiday because they consume less gasoline. A gas tax holiday can soften the blow of high gasoline prices for commuters, but it provides little direct benefit to households that do not drive. </p>
<p>Second, even optimistic estimates suggest that gas tax holidays produce relatively modest savings for households. That’s because gasoline taxes are <a href="https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/gasoline/factors-affecting-gasoline-prices.php">a small component of the price of gasoline</a> in the U.S., especially relative to crude oil prices. </p>
<p>Even if savings from a waiver of the 18.4 cents-per-gallon federal gas tax were entirely passed on to consumers, a typical motorist who drives 10,000 miles per year in a 20 miles-per-gallon Ford F-150 would see about $7.70 in savings per month from a federal gas tax holiday. Drivers of more fuel-efficient vehicles would save even less. </p>
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<h2>Consider aid for heating and cooling</h2>
<p><strong>Sanya Carley, Professor of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University</strong></p>
<p>Millions of Americans face material hardship on a daily basis, and energy costs are a primary contributor. A gas tax waiver could temporarily help relieve people who have to rely on gasoline for transportation and who live in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-020-00763-9">energy poverty</a>.</p>
<p>Current gasoline price spikes are happening at an especially hard time for many households. </p>
<p>In a recent study, colleagues and I found that 28% of all low-income households <a href="https://energyjustice.indiana.edu/doc/ejl-energy-insecurity-report-winter-2022.pdf">struggled to pay their energy bills</a> from November 2021 through January 2022, and 38% carried debt on their utility accounts. Now, with higher gasoline prices, filling a 12-gallon tank can cost about $60, up from about $26 in 2020. That increase may prevent households with limited budgets from covering all of their expenses, including basic needs such as food and health care.</p>
<p>Households with vulnerable members, such as small children or people with chronic health issues, are especially burdened by energy expenses than other groups. Temporary relief can be especially helpful for these consumers.</p>
<p>But a gas tax holiday may not be the most effective way to deliver that relief, especially since these waivers are temporary. Direct assistance to households for food and energy spending, or investments in <a href="https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/weatherize">weatherizing homes</a> to reduce their heating and cooling bills, could provide larger and more lasting benefits.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/would-gas-tax-breaks-make-a-big-difference-when-prices-are-skyrocketing-we-asked-4-experts-179892">article originally published</a> on March 24, 2022.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185676/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erich Muehlegger receives funding from the National Science Foundation and has received funding from the State of California Public Transportation Account and the Road Repair and Accountability Act of 2017 (Senate Bill 1) via the University of California Institute of Transportation Studies.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sanya Carley receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and the Indiana University Office of the Vice president for Research.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Theodore J. Kury is the Director of Energy Studies at the University of Florida’s Public Utility Research Center, which is sponsored in part by the Florida electric and gas utilities and the Florida Public Service Commission, none of which has editorial control of any of the content the Center produces.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We asked four experts to explain what gas taxes are used for and whether waiving them will make much of a difference to American households.Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer in Markets, Public Policy and Law, Questrom School of Business, Boston UniversityErich Muehlegger, Associate Professor of Economics, University of California, DavisSanya Carley, Professor of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana UniversityTheodore J. Kury, Director of Energy Studies, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1820012022-05-25T14:38:09Z2022-05-25T14:38:09ZPunishment vs. deportation: What we can learn from the case of the truck driver in the Humboldt Broncos bus crash<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463061/original/file-20220513-23-aldhpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C2986%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jaskirat Singh Sidhu arrives for his sentencing hearing in Melfort, Sask., in March 2019.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Kayle Neis</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Jaskirat Singh Sidhu <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/w5/wife-of-the-humboldt-driver-pleads-for-mercy-1.5816139">landed in Canada as a permanent resident in 2014, joining his now wife, Tanvir</a>. After marrying in 2018, Tanvir made the decision to return to school and become a dental hygienist. Sidhu, who has a degree in commerce, earned his license to operate a tractor trailer so he could support his family while his wife finished school.</p>
<p>The licensing process required only a week of instruction and two weeks of solo driving. Sidhu was then legally allowed to operate a tractor trailer. </p>
<p>Sidhu was still a trucking novice when on April 6, 2018, he crashed into the Humboldt Broncos bus. He was <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/opinion-deporting-humboldt-truck-driver-would-be-vengeance-not-justice">convicted of dangerous driving causing death and bodily harm, and sentenced to eight years imprisonment</a>. </p>
<p>Not yet a citizen, he now faces removal from the country, being potentially <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-2.5/page-6.html#docCont">inadmissible for serious criminality under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA)</a>.</p>
<p>What will Canada achieve by deporting Sidhu? </p>
<p>By <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/driver-who-caused-deadly-humboldt-broncos-bus-crash-denied-first-bid-to-stay-in-canada-1.6378794">the time he’s deported</a>, Sidhu will have served the longest term of imprisonment ever imposed in Canada for the <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/opinion-deporting-humboldt-truck-driver-would-be-vengeance-not-justice?">offence committed where the convicted person had not consumed drugs or alcohol and was not otherwise distracted</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/w5/wife-of-the-humboldt-driver-pleads-for-mercy-1.5816139">To remove him will force his wife, who is now a citizen, to also relocate</a>. Any steps they have taken to improve their lives and contribute to Canada will be lost. So, what does Canada actually gain through deportation? And how do Canadians benefit by deporting Sidhu? </p>
<h2>Deciding to remove</h2>
<p>The response to Sidhu’s <a href="https://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/security-securite/rem-ren-eng.html">potential removal</a> has been mixed — including among the victims’ family members. Supporters of Sidhu <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/opinion-deporting-humboldt-truck-driver-would-be-vengeance-not-justice?">have described his removal as an act of vengeance with no clear purpose</a>. And <a href="https://www.macleans.ca/longforms/forgiving-jaskirat-sidhu/">family members who object to his deportation have</a> highlighted his significant repentance. They similarly question the utility of deportation, <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/opinion-deporting-humboldt-truck-driver-would-be-vengeance-not-justice">acknowledging that Sidhu will have already been punished by the criminal justice system before removal</a>.</p>
<p>Families of victims that support deportation <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8670884/humboldt-broncos-jaskirat-sidhu-deportation-cbsa/">have comparatively characterized Sidhu’s removal as a necessary step towards the achievement of “justice.”</a> They have argued that laws like the inadmissibility provisions in the IRPA are in place because they protect Canadians. </p>
<p>According to these families, it is because of laws like these that Canada is such a great place to live, and why many migrants want to call Canada home. They argue that to not remove Sidhu would then offend legislative requirements.</p>
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<img alt="A man wearing a suit walks with his head down in a snow-covered parking lot with two people flanking him" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463741/original/file-20220517-20-dyzxh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Sidhu leaves with his lawyers after the third day of sentencing hearings in Melfort, Sask., in January 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz</span></span>
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<h2>Deportation vs. punishment</h2>
<p>Sidhu’s deportation is often <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatoon/broncos-crash-semi-driver-deportation-lawyer-1.5781607">positioned as a “punishment</a>.” Regularly described <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/opinion-deporting-humboldt-truck-driver-would-be-vengeance-not-justice">as an act of “vengeance,”</a> a step <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/driver-who-caused-deadly-humboldt-broncos-bus-crash-denied-first-bid-to-stay-in-canada-1.6378794">in the pursuit of “justice”</a> and that it is being imposed based on the commission of the offence.</p>
<p>Yet by deporting Sidhu, Canada is not punishing him for the offence committed. </p>
<p>Deportation is instead imposed based on conviction and sentence. As set out in <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-2.5/page-6.html#docCont">section 36(1)(a) of the IRPA</a>, a migrant may be inadmissible for serious criminality where they are convicted of an offence carrying a maximum term of imprisonment of 10 years or more, or where they have been sentenced to incarceration for more than six months. </p>
<p>An order for deportation is only rendered following the conclusion of criminal proceedings. </p>
<p>This distinction between punishment and removal was confirmed by the Supreme Court of Canada in <a href="https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/12904/index.do"><em>R. v. Pham</em></a> where it was determined that deportation is not a true penal consequence. </p>
<p>Deportation is instead a “collateral consequence” of conviction; it is a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4508379">civil sanction</a> imposed because of conviction, not as punishment for the actual offence committed.</p>
<h2>Rationalizing deportation</h2>
<p>If not to punish, then why deport Sidhu?</p>
<p>Arguments for legislation targeting removal have primarily (although not exclusively) <a href="https://www.parl.ca/LegisInfo/en/bill/41-1/C-43">characterized migrants as “foreigners” who threaten the safety and security of citizens</a>. </p>
<p>The primary reference to “foreignness” supports expulsion by positioning migrants convicted of offences as outside of <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780312422660/societymustbedefended">the population</a> — migrants are contrasted to citizens as victims. So it is in the interest of Canadians to support deportation of these “threatening outsiders.” </p>
<p>What is crucial here, and in distinction to punishment in the criminal courts, is that the positioning of foreigners as outside of the population further justifies their lack of access to legal rights. </p>
<p>A common saying in support of exclusion is that being in Canada is a privilege, not a right. And when migrants fail to abide by Canadian legislation, <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=2003">they lose this privilege</a>. </p>
<p>By equating removal with punishment, these distinctions between the criminal court and immigration are lost. But recognizing the limits on access to rights in the immigration system is critical. </p>
<p>Following the 2013 passage of <a href="https://www.parl.ca/LegisInfo/en/bill/41-1/C-43">Bill C-43, the Faster Removal of Foreign Criminals Act</a>, migrant access to appeal a removal order issued for serious criminality has been significantly restricted. Permanent residents now only retain the right to appeal if sentenced to less than six months imprisonment. </p>
<p>For migrants who have lived in Canada their entire lives and who now face deportation, these limits on access to the right of appeal mean that they can be sent to a country they don’t know, where they have no network of support, all because they have been positioned as “foreign.” </p>
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<img alt="A courtroom sketch of a man standing with a judge behind a desk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463743/original/file-20220517-16-7mjuub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Crown prosecutor Thomas Healey during Sidhu’s sentencing hearing in a courtroom sketch, in January 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Cloudesley Rook-Hobbs</span></span>
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<p>Sidhu is not being deported as punishment. He is being removed because he has been positioned as a foreigner in Canada who has lost the privilege to remain. Removal is used here not as a punishment for what was done, but because of who Sidhu is. </p>
<p>Recognition of the distinction in rationales for punishment and deportation is acute to broader discussions of citizenship. We must be attentive to whose rights are delimited <a href="https://utorontopress.com/9781442691520/exalted-subjects/">based on the binary between citizens and foreigners that supports deportation</a>. Who is actually captured by these categories? Who is a citizen, who is protected and who is excluded?
While rhetorical, these questions are meant to signal that limits on access to appeal deportation are a cause for concern for everyone in Canada.</p>
<p><em>This is a corrected version of a story originally published on May 25, 2022. The earlier story said “limits on deportation are a cause for concern” when it should have said “limits on access to appeal deportation are a cause for concern.”</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182001/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Templeman is affiliated with the Bellissimo Law Group, a citizenship and immigration law firm. </span></em></p>Sidhu is not being deported as punishment. He is being removed because he has been positioned as a foreigner in Canada who has lost the privilege to remain.Jessica Templeman, Doctoral Student, Socio-Legal Studies, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1801342022-03-31T18:59:23Z2022-03-31T18:59:23Z5 tips to make your fuel tank last longer while prices are high<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455421/original/file-20220331-22-pw0015.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C110%2C7360%2C4792&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The federal government’s announcement of a halved fuel excise is no doubt music to many people’s ears. Following Tuesday night’s budget release, the excise (a government tax included in the purchase price of fuel) was <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/fuel-excise-slashed-to-ease-petrol-prices-for-six-months-20220324-p5a7mp.html">halved</a> from 44.2 cents per litre to 22.1 cents. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-petrol-excise-and-why-does-australia-have-it-anyway-179373">What is petrol excise, and why does Australia have it anyway?</a>
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<p>It should provide some respite from high petrol and diesel prices <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-disrupted-russian-gas-supplies-will-hit-global-and-australian-prices-178023">driven by</a> Russia’s war on Ukraine.</p>
<p>However, the cut is only expected to last six months. And Treasurer Josh Frydenberg <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-29/lowdown-on-when-fuel-excise-cut-will-be-seen-at-bowsers/100949562">has said</a> it will take up to two weeks before fuel prices get cheaper (and potentially longer in regional areas). </p>
<h2>The costs</h2>
<p>Assuming it costs A$2 per litre for petrol and diesel fuel, and an average fuel consumption of about <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/tourism-and-transport/survey-motor-vehicle-use-australia/latest-release">11 litres per 100 kilometres</a> driven – driving a typical fossil-fueled passenger vehicle right now would cost about 20 to 25 cents per kilometre.</p>
<p>You’re probably quite happy if you own an electric vehicle. With a <a href="https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/sustainability/sustainability-14-03444/article_deploy/sustainability-14-03444-v2.pdf">real-world electricity consumption</a> of 0.15 to 0.21 kWh per kilometre and <a href="https://www.canstarblue.com.au/electricity/electricity-costs-kwh/">electricity costs</a> of about 20 to 30 cents per kWh, your cost of driving per kilometre is about 3 to 6 cents. And if you can charge your vehicle’s battery for free with home solar panels, your cost per kilometre is $0.</p>
<p>But for those of us who don’t own an electric vehicle, making the best use of our fuel tanks will be a priority. Here are some ways you can make your vehicle go the extra mile.</p>
<h2>1. Use a smaller, lighter car</h2>
<p>There are a number of things you can do to reduce your fuel use. The obvious one is to not use your car, but walk or grab your bicycle, if possible. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thinking-of-swerving-high-fuel-prices-with-an-e-scooter-or-e-bike-5-crucial-questions-answered-179563">Thinking of swerving high fuel prices with an e-scooter or e-bike? 5 crucial questions answered</a>
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<p>If you do have to drive, try to minimise your total travel distance. One way would be to combine a number of errands into your journey and optimise your route.</p>
<p>The specific vehicle you use also matters. As a general rule of thumb, <a href="https://www.transport-e-research.com/_files/ugd/d0bd25_9527cdcb01a84440a53308b3b5624320.pdf?index=true">the larger and heavier your car</a>, the more energy and fuel it will require per kilometre. Choosing a smaller car, rather than a large SUV, will definitely reduce your fuel bill. A large SUV will use almost twice as much fuel per kilometre as a small car.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360128516300442">Research</a> also suggests that for every 100kg increase in vehicle weight, fuel consumption increases by about 5% to 7% for a medium-sized car. So in addition to driving a smaller car, it’s best to reduce your load and avoid driving around with extra weight. </p>
<h2>2. Use eco-driving techniques</h2>
<p>The way you drive is important too. Eco-driving involves being conscious of your fuel consumption and taking actions to reduce it. There are various ways to do this.</p>
<p>Every time you brake and stop, you have to accelerate again to reach your desired speed. Acceleration uses a lot of energy and fuel, so driving smoothly, anticipating traffic and preventing stops will lead to savings on your fuel bill. </p>
<p>What you want to do is flow with the traffic and keep your distance from other vehicles. It also helps to keep an eye further up the road, so you can avoid obstacles and therefore unnecessary braking and acceleration. </p>
<p>If you’re in the minority of people who own a manual vehicle, drive in the highest gear possible to reduce engine load and fuel use. And if you’re in an automatic vehicle, use the “eco” setting if you have one.</p>
<h2>3. Give your engine and climate a break</h2>
<p>Another simple tip is stop unnecessary idling with the engine still engaged.
A small car typically uses one litre of fuel per hour while idling, whereas this is close to <a href="https://www.transport-e-research.com/_files/ugd/d0bd25_2485b61095ed48f29bea980a73e74240.pdf?index=true">two litres per hour</a> for a large SUV. </p>
<p>Of course, we idle regularly while waiting in traffic and generally can’t do much about that, other than trying to drive outside peak hours when roads are less congested. In other cases, we can change things. For instance, idling when a vehicle is parked will use up fuel unnecessarily.</p>
<h2>4. Turn off the AC</h2>
<p>Most people may not realise this, but using your air conditioner can use up quite a bit of extra fuel: somewhere between 4% and 8% of total fuel use. Using the fan instead will require less energy than air conditioning. Or even better, wind down the windows for a bit for fresh air when you are driving in the city. </p>
<h2>5. Tend to your tires and consider aerodynamics</h2>
<p>It also pays to keep your <a href="https://www.racq.com.au/car/greener-motoring/racq-ecodrive-research-study">tires inflated</a>, which can save you between 2% and 4% in fuel use. </p>
<p>Also, your car is designed to be aerodynamically efficient. Anything that changes that, including roof racks, bull bars and bike racks, will come with an additional fuel penalty – particularly at higher speeds, such as on the freeway.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180134/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Smit is the founder of Transport Energy/Emission Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nic Surawski has worked on projects funded by city councils, alternative engine design companies, the Australian Coal Association Research Program, the federal Department of Environment and the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency. Nic is a member of the Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand.</span></em></p>Eco-driving techniques, such as knowing how to control your acceleration, can go a long way towards conserving fuel.Robin Smit, Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Technology SydneyNic Surawski, Lecturer in Environmental Engineering, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1755562022-02-14T12:34:52Z2022-02-14T12:34:52ZTime for the UK to say goodbye to drive-throughs: for the sake of our environment, our health – and our culture<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/drive-throughs-are-busier-than-ever-during-the-pandemic-but-theyre-hotspots-for-air-pollution-148031">Drive-throughs</a> – services that let people order and collect food and drink without needing to leave their cars – are designed with convenience in mind. Whether it’s oppressively hot, uncomfortably cold, or we’re just in a hurry, drive-throughs have become very appealing in an era characterised by a desire for <a href="https://callahan.agency/lessons-from-chobani-greek-yogurt-about-the-era-of-immediacy/">immediacy</a>.</p>
<p>In the UK, where there are around <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jul/10/meals-by-wheels-uk-drive-through-booms-as-brands-invest-in-new-sites">2,000 drive-throughs</a>, it’s not unusual to see snaking queues of vehicles whose drivers are waiting for their turn to make, pay for, and collect their orders. </p>
<p>In fact, drive-throughs are on an upward trajectory in the UK. There was a <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/business/bunfight-to-buy-drivethrus-as-pandemic-sparks-customer-demand-b1882292.html">41% increase</a> in the number of drive-throughs between 2015 and 2020, and <a href="https://www.npd.com/news/press-releases/2021/delivery-click-collect-deals-drive-thru-treating-and-vegan-how-covid-19-has-changed-eating-out-over-the-last-12-months-in-the-uk/">12% of sales</a> at fast food restaurants and coffee chains were made through their drive-through sites in the year to March 2021: jumping 50% from pre-COVID figures.</p>
<p>This service has become indispensable for many. Drive-throughs provide benefits for people with mobility challenges as well as those with intensely busy schedules or people wrangling small children. In the US, even some banks and pharmacies offer drive-through options. And by helping customers avoid indoor dining, drive-throughs may have also helped limit the spread of COVID-19. But drive-throughs come at a cost.</p>
<p>First, drive-throughs require excessive idling, something that is <a href="https://www.dudley.gov.uk/business/environmental-health/pollution-control/air-quality/idling-vehicles-contribute-to-air-pollution/">banned</a> on public roads in the UK but regularly and casually done in drive-through queues. In addition to increasing emissions, <a href="http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/sites/default/files/Drive_smart_and_safe_this_winter_Jan2014%20(1).pdf">wasting fuel</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421509001633">damaging engines</a>, exhaust pipe emissions associated with idling create <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">local air pollution</a> with serious environmental and health consequences.</p>
<p>Poor air quality is already a widespread problem in the UK where more than two-thirds of local authorities <a href="https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/viewonline?year=2019_issue_1#report_pdf">breach</a> air quality targets. Even if we were to meet these targets, the <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">Royal College of Physicians</a> has warned that only a fraction of incidences of air quality-related illnesses – <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution">including</a> lung cancer, asthma attacks, and overall lower life expectancy – would be prevented. Currently, air pollution leads to <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">40,000 deaths</a> per year in the UK, with annual costs to the NHS of more than £20 billion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A queue of cars with a sign reading 'No drive thru access'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Idling in drive-through queues is bad for people and the planet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/prayitnophotography/50944999527">Prayitnophotography/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In light of the ongoing <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/The-UKs-transition-to-electric-vehicles.pdf">transition</a> towards electric vehicles, the environmental concerns of idling will diminish. The UK’s plan to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030">phase out</a> sales of internal combustion engines will also reduce <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/case-electric-vehicles">exhaust pipe emissions</a> as we head towards 2050. </p>
<p>Yet even so, emissions from brake wear and tyre wear are respectively responsible for <a href="https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC89231/jrc89231-online%20final%20version%202.pdf">16-55%</a> and <a href="https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC89231/jrc89231-online%20final%20version%202.pdf">5-30%</a> of non-exhaust emissions in UK towns and cities. That means air pollution and its associated health effects will not be completely resolved by the switch to electric cars.</p>
<h2>The bottom line</h2>
<p>Around the world, cities have begun to crack down on the drive-through, despite <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jul/10/meals-by-wheels-uk-drive-through-booms-as-brands-invest-in-new-sites">renewed investment</a> following the pandemic. Some regions in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12889-018-5061-1">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.planning.org/planning/2020/apr/is-fast-food-through-with-drive-thrus/">United States</a> have already banned or restricted new drive-throughs, while cities such as <a href="https://www.glasgowworld.com/lifestyle/food-and-drink/glasgow-could-ban-drive-thru-restaurants-3379113">Glasgow</a> are beginning to consider following suit. As the UK tries to <a href="https://www.am-online.com/news/market-insight/2021/12/10/uk-must-move-away-from-car-ownership-says-transport-minister">reduce car ownership</a> and use, drive-throughs will also inevitably be discouraged.</p>
<p>Curbing the expansion of drive-throughs now will not severely affect UK restaurants’ revenue: especially given their relatively low market share when you consider that <a href="https://www.planning.org/planning/2020/apr/is-fast-food-through-with-drive-thrus/">70%</a> of fast food sales in the United States are made via drive-throughs. However, the negative implications of “drive-through culture” have deeper roots.</p>
<p>Car-centric transport planning has dominated UK urban development since the <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/324161/14-808-urban-form-and-infrastructure-1.pdf">second world war</a>. It has increased congestion and contributed to public health problems such as the effects of poor air quality and the <a href="https://www.cmaj.ca/content/186/4/258">growing incidence of obesity</a>, while cutting the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/tsgb01-modal-comparisons">share of trips</a> taken via more environmentally friendly options such as <a href="https://todresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/tran_health.pdf">public transport</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40207254">cycling</a> and <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/757756/Cycling_and_walking_for_individual_and_population_health_benefits.pdf">walking</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An almost empty car park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In many countries, the huge amount of space reserved for cars could be used to improve health and wellbeing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/acarlos1000/4418575836">Antonio Silveira/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Urban development that prioritises cars is also inconsistent with UK government goals to improve <a href="https://ecosystemsknowledge.net/sites/default/files/wp-content/uploads/2014/2/RIBA%20City%20Health%20Check-1.pdf">wellbeing</a>, <a href="https://www.nationalfoodstrategy.org/">food systems</a> and <a href="https://news.motors.co.uk/over-half-of-britons-admit-to-eating-junk-food-behind-the-wheel/">public health</a>. Instead, building cities with wider pavements, segregated bicycle paths and widespread public transport – where we can reduce our <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/324161/14-808-urban-form-and-infrastructure-1.pdf">reliance</a> on cars and fast food – represents the healthy urban future that <a href="https://ecosystemsknowledge.net/sites/default/files/wp-content/uploads/2014/2/RIBA%20City%20Health%20Check-1.pdf">experts</a> suggest we should <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities/">try to create</a>. </p>
<p>And for those with mobility or childcare issues, the growth of smartphone apps enabling <a href="https://customerservices.mcdonalds.co.uk/hc/en-gb/categories/360003597977-Click-Serve-is-here-">restaurant-to-car delivery</a> outside of drive-throughs allows people to conveniently and safely collect food without needing to queue. Food <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/ordering-in-the-rapid-evolution-of-food-delivery">delivery apps</a> whose riders use bicycles can also help reduce car trips while maintaining convenience.</p>
<p>Collectively, we need to reflect on the profoundly negative effects of living in a society that has become so <a href="https://employeebenefits.co.uk/52-uk-staff-do-not-have-good-work-life-balance/">pressed for time</a> that we cannot afford to get out of our cars to collect food, let alone to <a href="https://leasecar.uk/blog/fast-food-on-the-move-uks-most-food-friendly-car-revealed/">eat it</a>. </p>
<p>Fundamentally, drive-throughs are symptomatic of a mode of living from which we need to move away – for the sake of our planet. Limiting them in the UK would be a sign of progress not just for the environment but for our society too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sybil Derrible receives funding from the US National Science Foundation and the Illinois Department of Transportation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eugene Mohareb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Drive-throughs not only increase air pollution and emissions, but also contribute to a car-centred culture that we need to avoid.Eugene Mohareb, Lecturer in Sustainable Urban Systems, University of ReadingSybil Derrible, Associate Professor of Urban Engineering, University of Illinois ChicagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1738192022-01-28T13:28:59Z2022-01-28T13:28:59ZDriverless cars won’t be good for the environment if they lead to more auto use<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442036/original/file-20220121-15-vbuwo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C16%2C5431%2C3615&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Self-driving cars could lead to increased traffic and pollution if they spur more travel by car.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/electric-car-concept-running-on-the-road-royalty-free-image/1331123162">Witthaya Prasongsin via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For years, self-driving car technology has remained tantalizingly just beyond the horizon. <a href="https://www.autoblog.com/2019/04/22/elon-musk-tesla-driverless-taxis-self-driving-chip/">Bold predictions notwithstanding</a>, fully automated vehicles still haven’t appeared in showrooms. But the technology appears poised for a leap forward in 2022. </p>
<p>Companies including <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/553659/mercedes-level3-autonomous-driving-2022/">Mercedes-Benz</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/wheels/features/bmw-7-series-level-3-autonomy/">BMW</a> and <a href="https://www.kbb.com/car-advice/self-driving-cars/">Honda</a> are bringing so-called Level 3 AVs to market that will let drivers take their hands off the wheel under specific conditions, and virtually every major auto manufacturer is testing self-driving systems. </p>
<p>Automated vehicles hold tremendous promise. Cars that <a href="https://www.jdpower.com/cars/shopping-guides/levels-of-autonomous-driving-explained">handle most or all of the driving tasks</a> could be safer than human drivers, operate more efficiently and open up new opportunities for seniors, people with disabilities and others who can’t drive themselves. But while attention has understandably <a href="https://theconversation.com/after-tempe-fatality-self-driving-car-developers-must-engage-with-public-now-or-risk-rejection-93681">focused on safety</a>, the potential environmental impacts of automated vehicles have largely taken a back seat.</p>
<p>We study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1LqIMYwAAAAJ&hl=en">automated vehicle technologies</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=8Xi0fvEAAAAJ&hl=en">how consumers are likely to use them</a>. In two recent studies, our research teams found two creative ways to assess the real-life impacts that automated vehicles could have on the environment. </p>
<p>By analyzing drivers’ use of partially automated vehicles and simulating the expected impact of future driverless vehicles, we found that both automated vehicle types will encourage a lot more driving. This will increase transportation-related pollution and traffic congestion, unless regulators take steps to make car travel less appealing.</p>
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<h2>More miles, more carbon emissions</h2>
<p>Research has previously suggested that automated vehicles could cause people to drive more than they currently do, leading to <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9g12v6r0">more congestion, energy consumption and pollution</a>. Riding in a car as a passenger is much less stressful than driving, so people might be willing to sit through longer trips and battle more traffic if they can relax and do other things during the journey. The promise of a relaxed, comfortable commute to work could even make some people move farther away from their workplaces and accelerate suburban sprawl trends.</p>
<p>People would also have the ability to send their cars on “zero-occupancy” trips, or errands without passengers. For example, if you don’t want to pay for parking downtown, at some point you may be able to send your car back home while you’re at work and summon it when you need it. Convenient, but also twice the driving.</p>
<p>This could be a big problem. The transportation sector is already <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions">the leading contributor to U.S. greenhouse gas emissions</a>. States like California with aggressive plans to combat climate change have recognized that <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/carb-2017-scoping-plan-identified-vmt-reductions-and-relationship-state-climate">reducing the number of vehicles miles that people travel</a> is a critical strategy. What if automated vehicle technology makes it harder to achieve these goals?</p>
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<h2>The real-world environmental impacts of automated cars</h2>
<p>While we and other researchers have <a href="https://ncst.ucdavis.edu/project/emission-impacts-connected-and-automated-vehicle-deployment-california">predicted these outcomes through modeling</a>, no one has been able to verify them because fully automated vehicles aren’t commercially available yet. We found two innovative ways to use currently available technologies to study the real-world impacts of automated vehicles.</p>
<p>In a study published in mid-2021, we surveyed 940 <a href="https://doi.org/10.7922/G2XK8CVB">people who drive partially automated vehicles</a>. Systems like <a href="https://www.tesla.com/en_AE/support/autopilot-and-full-self-driving-capability">Tesla’s Autopilot</a> can assist with driving tasks and reduce the burden of driving, although to a lesser degree than fully automated vehicles will. </p>
<p>We found that drivers who used Autopilot drove an average of <a href="https://itspubs.ucdavis.edu/publication_detail.php?id=3408">nearly 5,000 more miles per year than those who didn’t</a>. In interviews with 36 drivers of partially automated vehicles, they generally said they were more willing to sit in traffic and took more long-distance trips, all because of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102884">increased comfort and reduced stress</a> provided by semi-automated systems.</p>
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<p>In a separate study conducted in late 2019 and early 2020, we simulated the function of a fully automated vehicle by providing 43 households in Sacramento, California, with a chauffeur service to take over the family driving duties and tracking how they used it. These households <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211052543">increased their vehicle miles traveled by 60%</a> over their pre-chauffeur travel, and dramatically reduced their use of transit, bicycling and walking. More than half of the increase in vehicle travel involved sending chauffeurs on zero-occupancy trips without a household member in the car.</p>
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<h2>Limiting pollution from automated car use</h2>
<p>These findings show that automated vehicles will encourage a lot more driving in the future and that partially automated vehicles are doing so now. Is there any way to reap its benefits without making climate change, air quality, and congestion worse? </p>
<p>Requiring future automated vehicles to use zero-emission technology, <a href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220SB500">as California is doing</a>, can be a big help. But until the U.S. develops a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/08/fact-sheet-president-biden-signs-executive-order-catalyzing-americas-clean-energy-economy-through-federal-sustainability/">100% carbon-free electricity system</a>, even electric cars will produce some upstream emissions from power generation. And all car travel causes <a href="https://ncst.ucdavis.edu/project/what-california-gains-reducing-car-dependence">other harmful impacts</a>, such as water and air pollution from brake and tire wear, collisions with wildlife and traffic congestion.</p>
<p>To prevent an explosion in driving and associated harms, regulators and communities need to send signals that driving isn’t free. They could do this by putting a price on car travel – particularly on zero-occupancy trips. </p>
<p>The main policies that have this effect today are <a href="https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=10&t=5">federal and state fuel taxes</a>, which currently average around 49 cents per gallon for gasoline and 55 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. But the impact of fuel taxes on drivers’ behavior will decline with the adoption and spread of electric vehicles. This means that the transportation sector will need to develop new funding mechanisms for ongoing costs like maintaining roads. </p>
<p>In place of fuel taxes, state and federal governments could adopt user fees or charges for the number of vehicle miles that drivers travel. Correctly pricing the cost of private vehicle travel could encourage travelers to consider cheaper and more efficient modes, such as public transit, walking and bicycling.</p>
<p>These fees could be adjusted based on location – for example, charging more to drive into dense city centers – or other factors such as time of day, traffic congestion levels, vehicle occupancy and vehicle type. Modern communication technologies can enable such policies by tracking where and when cars are on the roads.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A car approaches an overhead billboard displaying time of day and prices for cars and trucks to enter the regulated zone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Singapore uses electronic road pricing to reduce congestion and regulate traffic flow in the city. The cost to enter the restricted zone varies with location and timing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/photo/singapore-electronic-road-pricing-royalty-free-image/1005214292">Calvin Chan Wai Meng via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another option would be to promote shared fleets of automated vehicles rather than privately owned ones. We envision these as commercial companies, similar to Uber, Lyft and other ride-sharing providers. Having a car available when needed could make it possible to forgo car ownership and could serve travel demand much more efficiently by essentially acting as on-demand transit. These networks could also help riders reach fixed-route public transportation services that operate on main transportation corridors.</p>
<p>All of these policies will be most effective if they are adopted now, before automated vehicles are widespread. A transportation future that is automated, electric and shared could be environmentally sustainable – but in our view, it’s unlikely to evolve that way on its own.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Giovanni Circella receives funding from the California Air Resources Board, the Southern California Association of Governments, the Bay Area Rapid Transit, the BMW Group, Ford, and the US Department of Transportation and the California Department of Transportation through the National Center for Sustainable Transportation. He directs the 3 Revolutions Future Mobility Program at the University of California, Davis, which is funded through a consortium of research sponsors (<a href="https://3rev.ucdavis.edu/researchsponsors">https://3rev.ucdavis.edu/researchsponsors</a>), including some of the automakers mentioned in this article. He is the Chair of the AEP35 Standing Committee of the Transportation Research Board and an elected member of the International Association for Travel Behaviour Research (IATBR). He is also affiliated with the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he is a senior research engineer in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Hardman receives funding from the California Air Resources Board, the California Department of Transportation and the U.S. Department of Transportation.</span></em></p>Studies show that when people can ride in a car without having to operate it, they increase their car use. That could increase traffic and pollution, unless government puts a price on car travel.Giovanni Circella, Director, 3 Revolutions Future Mobility Program, University of California, DavisScott Hardman, Professional Researcher, Plug-in Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Research Center, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1748692022-01-26T19:03:08Z2022-01-26T19:03:08ZPolice location sites on Facebook are helping drivers avoid detection for drug driving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441433/original/file-20220119-21-91pke9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C59%2C5000%2C3270&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The internet allows us to check the surf, the news, traffic on the road, what our friends have been up to – all before getting out of bed. While this has made several aspects of life easier, it can also come at a cost. </p>
<p>The last decade has seen a growing number of Facebook groups and pages dedicated to revealing the locations of police traffic operations. </p>
<p>These Facebook communities rely on users to alert the group or page when they drive past a random breath testing or roadside drug testing operation, as well as speed and mobile phone cameras. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0925753521004410?dgcid=author">study</a>, published recently in the journal Safety Science, aimed to find out more about how these sites were being used by a sample of 890 people who take drugs.</p>
<p>We found 25% of them reported using police location groups or pages on Facebook; of these people, 43% reported using the sites to avoid roadside drug testing operations (while others used the pages for other purposes, like traffic updates and avoiding speed cameras).</p>
<p>Our results suggest police location groups and pages on Facebook are helping drivers avoid detection for drug driving – a traffic offence recognised as contributing to <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/road_trauma_australia_2020_statistical_summary.pdf">106 fatal injuries</a> in 2019 in Australia.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/speeding-drivers-keep-breaking-the-law-even-after-fines-and-crashes-new-research-161672">Speeding drivers keep breaking the law even after fines and crashes: new research</a>
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</p>
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<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>With <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/road_trauma_australia_2020_statistical_summary.pdf">increases in drug-related traffic fatalities</a> across Australia in the last decade, we chose to focus our study on drug driving behaviours, and investigate how people use Facebook police location groups and pages to avoid roadside drug testing operations. </p>
<p>Our study involved 890 Queensland motorists who reported consuming either marijuana, MDMA and/or methamphetamines in the past 12 months. These are the three drugs tested for on roadside drug tests across all Australian states. </p>
<p>Participants were recruited through Facebook and completed an online survey.</p>
<p>We found:</p>
<ul>
<li>59% of the sample (521 participants) reported at least one instance of drug driving in the previous 12 months</li>
<li>25% of the sample (219 participants) reported using Facebook police location communities</li>
<li>of these 219 participants, almost two-thirds (142 participants) were drug drivers, however only 43% (94 participants) reported using the police location information to avoid roadside drug testing</li>
<li>other reasons for using these sites included for traffic updates, viewing locations of speed and mobile phone cameras and to avoid random breath testing sites.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3308%2C2194&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a car looks at his phone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3308%2C2194&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440577/original/file-20220113-21-ga9qbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While not all offenders use these sites, there is a small proportion of drug drivers who do use the sites to actively avoid being detected.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How drivers use police location sites is important</h2>
<p>How drivers use police location sites is more important than whether they use them or not. Some drivers use them to actively avoid roadside drug testing, while others use them for different reasons (such as for traffic updates or information on speed cameras).</p>
<p>We found those who use these police location Facebook sites aren’t engaging in drug driving any more than people who don’t use these sites at all. And both groups considered it unlikely they would be caught if they were to drug drive. </p>
<p>A difference was found, however, when we compared those who reported using police location communities to avoid roadside drug testing and those who used the sites for a different reason (such as traffic updates or speed camera location information).</p>
<p>Those who used the police location Facebook sites to avoid roadside drug testing: </p>
<ul>
<li>offended more in the past (75 drug driving events on average, compared to 31 drug driving events)</li>
<li>reported being more likely to offend again in the future </li>
<li>viewed the Facebook police location posts more frequently (“few times a week” vs “few times per month”) and</li>
<li>were more likely to believe the posts were accurate and reliable (a score of 6.57 out of 10 vs 5.20 out of 10). </li>
</ul>
<h2>What does this mean for road safety?</h2>
<p>This study provides the first steps in exploring the use of police location sites on Facebook in relation to drug driving. </p>
<p>While not all offenders use these sites, there is a small proportion of drug drivers who do use the sites to actively avoid being detected. </p>
<p>This suggests the use of police location sites is a problematic area that needs more research to see how to further prevent drug driving. </p>
<p>Overall, participants considered it “unlikely” they would be caught for drug driving, regardless of whether they used Facebook police location groups and pages or not. </p>
<p>This is a significant problem as a core component of deterrence theory requires that for the legal punishment to effectively deter people, they need to believe the chance of being caught to be high.</p>
<p>Regardless of police location pages, there remains a fundamental need to increase motorists’ perceptions of being caught for drug driving. </p>
<p>This may be achieved through increasing awareness of drug testing operations when they are occurring on the roadside.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437521001687">A recent study</a> by the same research team found even just driving past a roadside drug testing operation two or more times within a year increased perceptions of being caught for drug driving. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1410748396298596354"}"></div></p>
<p>Many motorists, however, are not aware that roadside drug testing often occurs alongside random breath testing.</p>
<p>Increasing roadside drug testing related signage during active operations may prove to be an important ingredient for enhancing the impact of roadside operations. </p>
<p>Taken together, while police location pages may prove to be a cause for concern, motorists’ already low estimations of being caught should not be overlooked. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-approach-to-cut-death-toll-of-young-people-in-road-accidents-25372">A new approach to cut death toll of young people in road accidents </a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/174869/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Mills receives funding from the Motor Accident Insurance Commission (MAIC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Freeman receives funding from the Motor Accident Insurance Commission (MAIC).
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Verity Truelove receives funding from the Motor Accident Insurance Commission (MAIC). </span></em></p>Our results suggest police location groups and pages on Facebook are helping drivers avoid detection for drug driving - with potentially fatal consequences.Laura Mills, PhD Candidate, University of the Sunshine CoastJames Freeman, Research Professor, University of the Sunshine CoastVerity Truelove, Senior Research Fellow in Road Safety Research, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1723272021-11-24T13:07:39Z2021-11-24T13:07:39ZDrivers and hand-held mobile phones: extending the ban won’t solve the problem – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433456/original/file-20211123-15-14hsu90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5742%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-woman-using-mobile-phone-while-689940928">wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The laws around mobile phone use while driving are to be tightened under new <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/any-use-of-hand-held-mobile-phone-while-driving-to-become-illegal">UK government plans</a> to make any use of a hand-held phone illegal. From 2022, mobile phone law will be extended to cover taking photos or videos, scrolling through playlists or playing games while driving or stationary, say, at a traffic light. Use of a mobile phone ‘hands-free’, however, will still be allowed – even though research shows it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/car-firms-are-still-pushing-hands-free-phone-tech-despite-how-dangerous-it-is-75419">equally distracting</a>.</p>
<p>Currently, UK drivers using a hand-held mobile phone can only be prosecuted if it can be proven that they were using it for an “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/expanding-the-offence-of-using-a-hand-held-mobile-phone-while-driving-to-include-non-connected-mobile-application-actions/outcome/using-a-mobile-phone-while-driving-consultation-outcome">interactive communicative function</a>” such as calling or texting. The change in the law closes this loophole, and makes it easier for distracted drivers to be prosecuted, fined £200, and given six points on their licence.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1461840602845356039"}"></div></p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/expanding-the-offence-of-using-a-hand-held-mobile-phone-while-driving-to-include-non-connected-mobile-application-actions/outcome/using-a-mobile-phone-while-driving-consultation-outcome">the UK government</a>, 81% of people who responded to its consultation supported the move. This aligns with findings from roadside breakdown group RAC, whose <a href="https://www.rac.co.uk/drive/features/rac-report-on-motoring-2021/">annual report</a> on motoring regularly shows that mobile phone use by other drivers is a top concern for motorists.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.brake.org.uk/files/downloads/Reports/Direct-Line-Safe-Driving/In-vehicle-distraction-Direct-Line-Safe-Driving-Report-2019.pdf">data also shows</a> that many drivers who claim to support the law nevertheless continue to use their phones while behind the wheel. <a href="https://www.rac.co.uk/drive/features/rac-report-on-motoring-2021/">One survey</a> found that more than a quarter of drivers admitted to hand-held mobile phone use, at least occasionally. </p>
<p>So why do drivers who support the law, and acknowledge the dangers of distracted driving, still use their phones? The answer partly lies in driver attitudes and biases. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/car-firms-are-still-pushing-hands-free-phone-tech-despite-how-dangerous-it-is-75419">Car firms are still pushing hands-free phone tech – despite how dangerous it is</a>
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</p>
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<h2>What the evidence tells us</h2>
<p>Research <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-15150-012">consistently shows</a> that most drivers consider themselves to be above average at driving. Statistically speaking, of course, this is highly unlikely. But this “self-enhancement bias” gives drivers a rationale for believing <em>their</em> mobile phone use is safe, while condemning others for doing the same thing.</p>
<p>Phone-using drivers <a href="https://sites.tufts.edu/appliedcognition/files/2015/10/Why-drivers-use-cell-phones-and-support-legislation-to-restrict-this-practice.pdf">justify their behaviour</a> by claiming they are able <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28189943/">to modify</a> their mobile phone use dependent on the driving situation, such as limiting use on busy roads. They believe they are able to multitask and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25133486/">mitigate the risk</a> in a way that other drivers cannot. </p>
<p>Drivers with self-enhancement bias also often demonstrate “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-15150-012">crash risk optimism</a>” – judging themselves to be at lower risk of a crash compared to other drivers.</p>
<p>In a sense, every journey a self-perceived above-average driver successfully completes while using a mobile phone appears to confirm to them that their behaviour is appropriate, and the law is aimed at other drivers. This helps to explain why strong support for a tightened law in this area can coexist with high rates of offending.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man speaking on the phone while driving." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433459/original/file-20211123-13-1bdt0z0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research tells us many drivers consider themselves to be above average at driving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/men-cell-phone-use-while-driving-432261919">APM STOCK/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Education campaigns that, for example, feature fatal or serious collisions caused by a distracted driver can actually play into these biases. Such campaigns appear to confirm drivers’ belief that they can handle it, while these other “inferior” drivers could not.</p>
<p>For these over-confident drivers, perhaps the only deterrent would be the threat of enforcement. But in recent years, numbers of dedicated roads-policing officers in the UK <a href="https://www.pacts.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Roads-Policing-Report-FinalV1-merged-1.pdf">have declined</a>, and the public has, apparently, noticed. In <a href="https://www.theaa.com/about-us/newsroom/driving-offence-enforcement">one survey</a>, 54% of respondents felt they were unlikely to be caught or punished for using a hand-held mobile phone while driving. </p>
<p>This combination of circumstances makes it very difficult to persuade drivers that they shouldn’t use their mobile phones behind the wheel. If a driver thinks they can safely multitask while also avoiding prosecution, what’s stopping them? </p>
<h2>We need to change attitudes</h2>
<p>The tightening of the law may help to encourage some drivers to think about their phone use, but it seems unlikely it will solve the problem of mobile phone use among drivers, and eliminate the harm it causes.</p>
<p>In a broader sense, changes to the law will never be able to keep pace with new technologies. <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-car-technology-are-we-being-sold-a-false-sense-of-security-117473">In-vehicle distractions</a>, such as interactive screens on the dashboard and digital assistants like Alexa, are developing more quickly than the law can keep up with. </p>
<p>If we want to reduce the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/reported-road-accidents-vehicles-and-casualties-tables-for-great-britain">number of people killed</a> and seriously injured each year by drivers using their mobile phones, we have to <a href="https://viewer.joomag.com/mobileengaged-compendium-2021/0552788001608635854?short&">persuade drivers</a> not to do it regardless of whether or not they’ll get caught.</p>
<p>We need to challenge the narratives that drivers regularly deploy to justify their behaviour, and address driver biases head-on by providing education, based on psychological evidence, that’s harder for drivers to resist or deny. <a href="https://www.open.edu/openlearn/health-sports-psychology/psychology/are-you-focused-driver">Interactive education</a>, which allows drivers to experience their own distraction, rather than hearing about the failures of others, would be a good place to start. </p>
<p>If we don’t address driver attitudes, we won’t meaningfully address driver distraction, regardless of what the law says.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-vital-things-you-cant-do-properly-when-youre-on-your-phone-85308">Five vital things you can't do properly when you're on your phone</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172327/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gemma Briggs has received funding from UKROEd. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen Wells has received funding from UKROEd and The Road Safety Trust.</span></em></p>Many drivers still use mobile phones despite the fact that it’s illegal.Gemma Briggs, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, The Open UniversityHelen Wells, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1670952021-09-01T16:05:31Z2021-09-01T16:05:31ZThe new E10 petrol: will it bring benefits?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418897/original/file-20210901-21-1tmhdc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New petrol E10 is expected to cut carbon dioxide emissions</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gary L Hider/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The introduction of a new type of petrol, E10, in the UK may create some extra costs for owners of older cars, but the aim is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.</p>
<p>E10 is an automotive fuel made up of 90% regular unleaded petrol and 10% ethanol, hence the E10 name. Ethanol is an alcohol (also called ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol) that is produced both as a petrochemical or via biological processes, from plants, including sugar beet and wheat. It is possible to run cars on pure ethanol, as has been done <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1517838216310346?via%3Dihub">in Brazil</a> for decades, but in the UK it is blended with fuel derived from oil. Current petrol grades in the UK (E5) contain up to 5% ethanol, with the other 95% being regular unleaded petrol.</p>
<p>The UK government argues that the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/e10-petrol-explained#about-e10-petrol">use of E10 petrol</a> is an environmental move to reduce CO₂ emissions. The government states that by doubling the proportion of the renewable component (the ethanol) in the fuel a 750,000 tonne reduction in CO₂ could achieved, which may be the equivalent of taking <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/e10-petrol-explained#about-e10-petrol">350,000 cars</a> off the road.</p>
<h2>Fuel made from plants</h2>
<p>The goal is to use exclusively plant-based ethanol to make E10. One benefit is as the plants that will become the fuel grow, they absorb more carbon dioxide than what will be released into the air during fuel production and combustion, lowering emissions. But by how much that happens is still an active topic of debate. The concept is good, but the source of ethanol makes a critical difference.</p>
<p>Previously, studies suggested that ethanol made from corn reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 20% <a href="https://www.science.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1151861">compared to gasoline</a>. The calculations of CO₂ suggest that corn ethanol is carbon negative - but if you look at the whole picture it is actually carbon positive when you consider the changes in land from its production and the loss of other carbon capture by whatever you replace the corn with. There is also a fear that crops would be used to make fuel for the rich, while the poor starved, a <a href="http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01290/WEB/0__C-311.HTM">July 2008</a> report found that between 2002 and 2008 biofuels accounted for 70% price increases in foods such corn and sugar beet globally.</p>
<p>If global CO₂ emissions are to be reduced by use of E10, then ethanol must not compete with <a href="http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/5372">food production</a>. For instance, making ethanol from waste products, including those produced from a combination of wine unsuitable for human consumption, and whey, a by-product of cheese manufacturing, will not cause food prices to rise.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A car driven in Italy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418904/original/file-20210901-19-14ymb63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Classic cars owners may have to make some adaptations to their vehicles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luca Lorenzelli/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ethanol is easy to blend with other fuels to prevent engine knocking and enhance a car’s performance. It’s not all good news though. As a fuel, E10 is slightly less energy dense, meaning it could reduce the miles per gallon your car achieves by up to 1%. What’s not widely known is that since 2016 new cars have been certified for emissions and performance using E10 fuel, so when you bought a car and were told how many miles to the gallon it would do, that number was already based on using this new fuel. </p>
<p>All cars registered since 2011 are required to be E10 compatible, so where the potential issues arise is for owners of older and classic cars. Although, the government has provided an <a href="https://www.gov.uk/check-vehicle-e10-petrol">online E10 checker</a> as an easy means of finding out if your car copes well with E10. The RAC estimates that as many as 600,000 vehicles currently on UK roads aren’t compatible with E10. Drivers of cars registered prior to 2002 are advised not to use E10 in their vehicles, as problems have been reported.</p>
<p>If you put E10 fuel in an incompatible car it will still run, but seals, plastics and metals may be damaged over longer periods as a result of ethanol’s corrosive properties. Ethanol is also a hygroscopic – which means it absorbs water from the atmosphere, leading to condensation in fuel tanks if the car remains unused for long periods of time.</p>
<p>In addition to running issues caused by the mixture of E10, <a href="https://www.fbhvc.co.uk/fuels#E10">information issued</a> by the Federation of British Historic Vehicle Clubs confirms that the increased acidity, conductivity and chloride content of ethanol in E10 can cause corrosion and tarnishing of metal components (such as carburetors, fuel pumps, and older fuel tanks). While corrosion inhibitor additives can control this, the same cannot yet be said for its compatibility with seals, flexible pipes and other unsuitable gasket materials.</p>
<p>So what options do owners of traditional classic cars have? Well the good news is that the technology exists to upgrade the fuel systems to cope with the new fuel. At one extreme, Prince Charles had his beloved Aston Martin DB6 updated to run on bio-E85, a blend of 85% ethanol fuel and 15% gasoline, but at a minimum it is good practice for classic owners to renew ancient fuel lines as a precaution in any case. A modern fuel hose sold by a reputable supplier is advised for use with E10.</p>
<h2>Price gaps in rural areas</h2>
<p>Current regulations require larger forecourts selling two grades of petrol to continue selling E5 fuel. This will be offered only in the more expensive super unleaded grade however, which brings its own problems: in rural areas it may be hard to find a retailer large enough to stock it. Super unleaded is also a more expensive fuel, with the price gap potentially set to widen further in time.</p>
<p>If consumers are to be comfortable with E10 then they will need to be reassured that it will work in their cars, but some people may also be concerned about source of the ethanol. The former is information widely available, but the latter is something the suppliers are going to have to come to terms with in the same way that the grocery store chains now tell us the region of food production.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167095/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Barron receives funding from Welsh Government, WEFO/ERDF, EPSRC, Innovate UK</span></em></p>A new type of petrol is expected to cut carbon dioxideAndrew Barron, Sêr Cymru Chair of Low Carbon Energy and Environment, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1661672021-08-16T19:51:46Z2021-08-16T19:51:46ZTo get New Zealanders out of their cars we’ll need to start charging the true cost of driving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416248/original/file-20210816-28-bvlvb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C2980%2C1936&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In light of last week’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report confirming human activity is “unequivocally” driving global warming, here’s a striking statistic: in Auckland, road transport modes are <a href="https://at.govt.nz/media/1980587/aucklands-road-transport-emissions-a-new-dialogue-final-may-2019.pdf">responsible for 35%</a> of the city’s climate-altering emissions.</p>
<p>Overall, road transport accounts for nearly <a href="https://www.stats.govt.nz/indicators/new-zealands-greenhouse-gas-emissions">43% of New Zealand’s greenhouse gas emissions</a>, an increase of over 100% since 1990. Given the nation’s streets are still clogged with conventionally powered vehicles, what can we collectively do about it — as citizens and in our cities?</p>
<p>According to the hyperbolic mantra of the <a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=%23bancars&src=typed_query">#bancars</a> movement, it’s time to get drastic. Of course, the slogan makes a catchier hashtag than the more <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/nzs-car-ownership-culture-cant-be-our-future">rational policy objective</a>: reduce the number of vehicles people own and the kilometres they are driven each year.</p>
<p>It’s also catchier than the policy prescription: invest in alternative modes and infrastructure that would charge drivers the full social cost of driving; and restrict the number of vehicles that can enter dense urban centres through congestion pricing schemes.</p>
<p>But part of the problem with convincing people to get out of their cars is that we rarely examine the true costs of our dependence on them: the personal costs, the financial costs, the cost to health and the cost of investment in road infrastructure — and that’s before we get to the cost to the planet.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1424835341333135360"}"></div></p>
<h2>Driving is still too cheap</h2>
<p>You could walk into a friendly room and quickly have the mood turn hostile by arguing the so-called “ute tax” <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/300331893/kiwis-will-pay-3000-penalty-for-polluting-utes-under-new-policy-aa-says">doesn’t go far enough</a>. The fact is, however, we already pay in numerous ways for our addiction to cars.</p>
<p>A portion of that cost is paid directly by the driver — buying, insuring and fuelling the car. To some degree (though probably less than many believe) drivers also pay for building and maintaining roads through the fuel tax or road user charges.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aggressive-marketing-has-driven-the-rise-of-the-double-cab-ute-on-new-zealand-streets-time-to-hit-the-brakes-165075">Aggressive marketing has driven the rise of the double-cab ute on New Zealand streets — time to hit the brakes?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These are all labelled private costs because they are paid for directly from the driver’s wallet. To which we can add the less tangible costs to personal and collective productivity of those wasted hours stuck in traffic.</p>
<p>What few of us factor into our own car ownership calculations, though, is the cost we must bear as a society. It’s the pollution from a car’s tailpipe that causes an
<a href="https://www.popsci.com/car-exhaust-asthma-children/">increased risk of asthma</a>. It’s the carbon dioxide that flows from that same tailpipe and contributes to a warming climate. It’s the <a href="https://www.transport.govt.nz/statistics-and-insights/safety-annual-statistics/sheet/social-cost-of-road-crashes">NZ$5 billion cost of road crashes</a> across the country each year.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1426682682340102149"}"></div></p>
<h2>Paying the real price</h2>
<p>These are a massive uncharged bundle of expenses everyone in New Zealand must pay in some way, caused by each driver but not directly paid by the driver.</p>
<p>These “externalities” — the costs beyond the immediate expense of choosing to drive — are social costs. Some argue these are in fact higher than the private costs of driving, and <a href="https://www.stats.govt.nz/indicators/new-zealands-greenhouse-gas-emissions">orders of magnitude greater</a> than the social cost of cycling or walking.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-the-city-cycling-boom-survive-the-end-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-155913">Can the city cycling boom survive the end of the Covid-19 pandemic?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Basic economics tells us that when only the private cost of an activity is charged it appears cheaper than it really is, thereby encouraging that activity. But when the social costs are charged, the activity is more expensive — and less attractive.</p>
<p>Logically, then, to reduce pressure on our roads and environment, drivers should face a charge that more closely reflects the actual cost of driving. That is, the cost of clogged roads, air pollution, climate change, injury and death.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Congestion charging sign in London street" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416250/original/file-20210816-6755-f0much.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Congestion charging in London has been more successful than early critics predicted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Congestion charges work</h2>
<p>One solution has already been pursued by other cities. Although some predicted the end of life as we know it when London introduced charges for inner city driving, in practice the congestion charge <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ulez_six_month_evaluation_report_final_oct.pdf">significantly improved</a> the quality of life and business.</p>
<p>It also created a significant new stream of revenue for the public transportation system, and for cycling and walking infrastructure. Other cities take a similar approach with <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-01/congestion-pricing-the-route-more-cities-are-taking-quicktake">good results</a>, including Singapore, Oslo and Milan. Even in the car-loving US, New York is moving closer to a congestion charge.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-ways-our-cities-can-cut-transport-emissions-in-a-hurry-avoid-shift-share-and-improve-106076">Four ways our cities can cut transport emissions in a hurry: avoid, shift, share and improve</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This could be done in a city like Auckland, where the main CBD streets are often choked with traffic. This congestion increases the cost of delivering goods to businesses, adds to commute times, reduces the reliability of public transportation, and makes using active modes like walking and cycling much more dangerous.</p>
<p>Congestion pricing could, as in London, provide important additional revenue to Auckland’s transit network. Aucklanders currently face the <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/auckland-public-transport-third-most-expensive-in-the-world/VXIJ6QD56RBJZ4RVYCD7W53BWY/">third-highest</a> public transport fare in the world. This cost reduces the viability of public transport. With lower fares, or even <a href="https://at.govt.nz/about-us/news-events/large-numbers-enjoy-fare-free-saturday/">free fares</a>, Aucklanders would rush to public transportation.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-calling-ordinary-kiwi-cyclists-elitist-just-doesnt-add-up-164856">Why calling ordinary Kiwi cyclists ‘elitist’ just doesn’t add up</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Money to pay for better things</h2>
<p>With the additional revenue, the city could also expand the fledgling network of cycleways, getting more people out of cars and e-scooters off footpaths. All of this would result in fewer cars on the road, faster travel times for everyone and less need for more expensive road building and maintenance.</p>
<p>No, we don’t have to #bancars altogether. But there is substantial room to inject a bit more rationality into our transport policy.</p>
<p>We could better share existing roads with other modes, reduce pressure on the climate and help those who rely on public transport to get more places more affordably.</p>
<p>Market forces got us to where we are today. If we want to address the climate emergency, we will need to harness the power of pricing and pay the real cost of our car addiction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166167/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy Welch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To reduce pressure on cities and the environment, drivers should face a charge that reflects the actual costs of clogged roads, air pollution, climate change, injury and death.Timothy Welch, Senior Lecturer in Urban Planning, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1621832021-06-08T20:06:30Z2021-06-08T20:06:30ZTowards the 30-minute city — how Australians’ commutes compare with cities overseas<p>The ease of reaching urban amenities underpins city life. We led a global research team that compared access to jobs in 117 cities across the globe, including eight capital cities in Australia, and examined strategies that might improve transport in our cities. The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-021-00020-2">newly published research</a> finds access to jobs increases with population and that our two largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne, compare favourably with similarly sized cities overseas.</p>
<p>Transport infrastructure and land use patterns form the backbone of a city. It’s the reason so many people choose to live and work with other people in cities – despite the noise, congestion and negatives of city life – because they can easily reach a variety of destinations. Towards this objective, many planning agencies set themselves a “30-minute city” goal, which is behind many planning decisions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="heat map showing number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes across Greater Sydney" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404975/original/file-20210608-136167-cap00p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heat map showing access to jobs across Greater Sydney. Red denotes more jobs and green fewer jobs within 30 minutes’ travel time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/access-across-australia-mapping-30-minute-cities-how-do-our-capitals-compare-117498">Access across Australia: mapping 30-minute cities, how do our capitals compare?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What did the study find?</h2>
<p>The ease of reaching destinations can be measured by the number of jobs reachable within 30 minutes. Job locations offer both employment opportunities and amenities; restaurants, schools, hospitals, shopping centres and so on are also job clusters. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-021-00020-2">research</a> measured how many jobs were accessible within 30 minutes (travelling one way) for four different modes of transport – cars, public transport, cycling and walking. The 117 cities studied are in 16 countries on six continents. The research finds cities really differ in the convenience of transport, but also finds significant similarities between cities from the same country. </p>
<p>Australian and Canadian cities have poorer car access than US, European and Chinese cities. They have better public transport, walking and cycling access than US cities, but access via these modes is generally not as good as in Europe and China.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-city-workers-average-commute-has-blown-out-to-66-minutes-a-day-how-does-yours-compare-120598">Australian city workers' average commute has blown out to 66 minutes a day. How does yours compare?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Cities in the United States have reasonable car access, but lag behind globally in public transport, walking and cycling access. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing numbers of jobs accessible within 30 minutes' cycling plotted against population for global cities." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=696&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=696&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405235/original/file-20210609-23-sztbig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=696&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes’ cycling plotted against population for global cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-021-00020-2">Urban Access Across the Globe 2021</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Chinese and European cities, compact development combined with an intensive network produces the highest access globally across all modes of transport. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes’ walking plotted against population for global cities." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=693&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=693&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405238/original/file-20210609-17-17b0500.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=693&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes’ walking plotted against population for global cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-021-00020-2">Urban Access Across the Globe 2021</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One surprising finding is the middling car access in US cities. Despite the reputation of US cities being built around the car, urban sprawl has made it difficult to reach destinations even by car. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing numbers of jobs accessible within 30 minutes' drive by car plotted against population for global cities." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405231/original/file-20210609-23-1gnc78a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes by car plotted against population for global cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-021-00020-2">Urban Access Across the Globe 2021</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This sprawl also exposes the Achilles heel in mass transit and non-motorised modes. Immense spatial separation makes for worse access by public transport and active modes of transport such as cycling and walking. US cities have the largest disparity between public transport and car travel.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes by public transport plotted against population for global cities." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405230/original/file-20210609-23-10ue63m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Number of jobs accessible within 30 minutes by public transport plotted against population for global cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42949-021-00020-2">Urban Access Across the Globe 2021</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>This research also finds access to jobs increases with city population, so reaching a greater number of desired destinations would be easier for people in larger cities than in smaller cities. So, despite traffic congestion, larger cities are still more efficient in connecting people with places they want to go. </p>
<p>However, this benefit has diminishing returns. Doubling the metropolitan population results in less than a doubling of access to jobs. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-close-is-sydney-to-the-vision-of-creating-three-30-minute-cities-115847">How close is Sydney to the vision of creating three 30-minute cities?</a>
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<h2>What are the lessons for Australian cities?</h2>
<p>The moral of the story is that we don’t need to choose between the US-style sprawling development and European-style compact cities. We can and should have the benefits of both development patterns. We need both density and a well-developed transport network for better access. </p>
<p>Massive road building alone can improve access by car to only a limited extent. The problem is that investments in road infrastructure are often accompanied by lower-density development. That makes it harder for people who walk, bike or use public transport to reach increasingly separated places.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-changes-in-how-we-live-could-derail-the-dream-of-the-30-minute-city-110287">Three changes in how we live could derail the dream of the 30-minute city</a>
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<p>In cities that do have compact land-use patterns, access to jobs remain high across all modes of transport, including cars. So, despite congestion, it is still easier to reach desired destinations in these compact cities. Roads are not race tracks, and high-speed roadways connecting nobody with nowhere are not better than lower-speed paths connecting people and places. </p>
<p>The Australian government is investing <a href="https://investment.infrastructure.gov.au/">A$110 billion</a> over the next ten years in transport infrastructure. This will have significant implications for the future of our cities. If we want our cities to continue to be vibrant, liveable and accessible by all modes of transport, we will need to keep our cities compact and invest more in public transport, walking and biking.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-the-idea-of-20-minute-neighbourhoods-so-why-isnt-it-top-of-the-agenda-131193">People love the idea of 20-minute neighbourhoods. So why isn't it top of the agenda?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162183/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Levinson has received grants as a Professor at the University of Sydney, including funding from the iMOVE CRC. He has also received funding from the World Bank. He is on the Board of WalkSydney. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hao Wu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A global study of 117 cities finds Australian capitals have fairly poor access by car. Public transport, cycling and walking access is better than in the US, but not as good as in Europe and China.Hao Wu, PhD Candidate, School of Civil Engineering, University of SydneyDavid Levinson, Professor of Transport, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.