tag:theconversation.com,2011:/nz/topics/emergency-communications-70955/articlesEmergency communications – The Conversation2023-02-09T13:34:49Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1995802023-02-09T13:34:49Z2023-02-09T13:34:49ZTwitter cutoff in Turkey amid earthquake rescue operations: A social media expert explains the danger of losing the microblogging service in times of disaster<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509022/original/file-20230208-29-jlpvtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8640%2C5755&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rescuers work at a collapsed building in southeastern Turkey.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/TurkeySyriaEarthquakePhotoGallery/1bf8c21596934bfb97a74eca9bfc30ae/photo">AP Photo/Kamran Jebreili</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Twitter was blocked in Turkey on Feb. 8, 2023, <a href="https://netblocks.org/reports/twitter-restricted-in-turkey-in-aftermath-of-earthquake-oy9LJ9B3">according to internet monitoring service NetBlocks</a>. The outage came amid the massive rescue operation and humanitarian crisis in the aftermath of the earthquakes in southern Turkey and northern Syria two days earlier. Access to Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/netblocks/status/1623482866305753090">appeared to be restored</a> about 12 hours after it was first blocked.</p>
<p>Twitter is a microblogging platform that offers users a way to share short chunks of text, audio and video as well as the ability to post threaded conversations. Almost as soon as the main quake hit, thousands of <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-64541194">eyewitnesses posted videos and photos on social media</a>, particularly on Twitter. Such first eyewitness accounts are invaluable in helping emergency relief personnel and researchers assess the extent of damage and match aid to what’s needed on the ground. </p>
<p>The Twitter blackout, which was likely the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/02/08/world/turkey-syria-earthquake/7968c9bc-0e56-5f2c-8625-2ef28172194b">result of governmental action</a>, appeared to have <a href="https://twitter.com/zeynep/status/1623430736232456196">impeded rescue and relief efforts</a>. NetBlocks noted that internet service providers had been blocking traffic to Twitter, and that people could circumvent the blocking by using a <a href="https://www.healthit.gov/faq/what-virtual-private-network">virtual private network</a>, or VPN.</p>
<p>Officials in numerous countries periodically <a href="https://theconversation.com/kazakhstans-internet-shutdown-is-the-latest-episode-in-an-ominous-trend-digital-authoritarianism-174651">block social media and internet access</a> in attempts to limit the flow of information. Turkey is among the countries with a long <a href="https://globalvoices.org/2022/06/03/trace-turkeys-path-to-normalizing-the-practice-of-blocking-news-websites/">history of internet censorship</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1623430736232456196"}"></div></p>
<h2>Twitter’s role in disaster relief</h2>
<p>Twitter has been used widely in previous natural disasters. A U.S. <a href="https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Social-Media-EM_0913-508_0.pdf">Department of Homeland Security briefing from 2013</a> reported that social media has played an important role during disasters. Twitter in particular has been an important source of crowdsourced and real-time eyewitness data that enables relief personnel to interact with affected communities. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.11429">recent study</a> looked at all 375 million tweets on Twitter in a single day (Sept. 21, 2022) and found that the service allowed governments to communicate crisis information to citizens and citizens to seek help and information. This type of communication and coordination of response efforts has been useful in many situations, from a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.044">water contamination crisis</a> in West Virginia to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2021.102976">hurricane evacuation</a> in Florida.</p>
<p>Humanitarian aid and disaster relief require real-time monitoring, almost immediately after a disaster occurs. Combining Twitter feeds <a href="https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v5i1.14079">with geolocation data and mapping the extracted information</a> makes it possible to visualize an unfolding crisis. Responders <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103107">can track the locations of damage, casualties and resources</a> to determine how best to target relief efforts. </p>
<p>This kind of data also helps researchers in fields such as transportation get <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2021.102976">insights about the dynamics of evacuations</a>. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101176">time-based analysis of tweets during Hurricane Sandy</a> in October 2012 shows that researchers can use crowdsourced data from Twitter to quantify the intensity of a hurricane in real time. Such analyses of images of damage and flooding shared through social media help emergency managers identify storm damage and plan relief efforts. </p>
<p>Losing access to Twitter, whether from government blocking, <a href="https://theconversation.com/twitters-new-data-fees-leave-scientists-scrambling-for-funding-or-cutting-research-199238">financial barriers to Twitter’s application programming interface</a> or Twitter outages like yesterday’s <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/twitter-glitches-features.html">global glitch</a>, will severely restricts up-to-date information about disaster response as events unfold. It also hinders the ability to learn from the past and prepare for future emergencies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199580/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anjana Susarla receives funding from the National Library of Medicine and the Omura-Saxena Professorship in Responsible AI</span></em></p>Twitter was blocked in Turkey for about 12 hours at the height of rescue and relief efforts in the aftermath of a massive earthquake, severely hampering a vital tool for disaster response.Anjana Susarla, Professor of Information Systems, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860212022-08-09T18:44:24Z2022-08-09T18:44:24ZLessons from a cancelled marathon: Athletic events, heat and the effects of climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478321/original/file-20220809-18-89tjcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C0%2C4211%2C2822&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Runners should have advance knowledge of what to expect in case of race disruption or rerouting prior to setting off on the course.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/lessons-from-a-cancelled-marathon--athletic-events--heat-and-the-effects-of-climate-change" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-marathon-2022-heat-warning-1.6493963">cancellation of the Manitoba Marathon due to extreme heat</a> may provide a case study for athletic event management in extreme weather. </p>
<p>As researchers in kinesiology and recreation management, we took an interest in how the disruption was handled not only professionally, but also from a personal perspective: one of us (Shaelyn) was participating in the half marathon. </p>
<p>The race was cancelled after it had started, with runners already an hour into the race. The result was ambiguity and confusion. Runners were left scratching their heads both during and after the race: wondering what they were supposed to do during the disruption, and pondering how the course shutdown was handled after the event. </p>
<h2>Racing in the heat</h2>
<p>Hot road races may become more common. The climate crisis is <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/">expected to increase severe weather</a>, which can have devastating consequences such as loss of life, injury and illness when people are unprepared. Even when lives are not lost, the negative experience of an emergency can have <a href="https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/48053">psychological consequences</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2014.5500">Runners can train for heat, wear appropriate clothing and hydrate, but even these steps are often not sufficient to overcome the effects of heat</a>. Exercising in heat and humidity poses a serious challenge to the body’s ability to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737080-00002">regulate body temperature</a> and running in such conditions can significantly decrease performance and lead to health issues such as exhaustion and heat stroke. </p>
<p>Managing the hazards posed by a changing climate will be necessary for all community event organizers going forward. </p>
<h2>A runner’s perspective</h2>
<p>Shaelyn’s first-person account is helpful in understanding what happened on the course during the cancelled Manitoba Marathon. Here is her experience:</p>
<p>Like other runners, I had trained in an extremely cold winter and spring and was not prepared for a hot run in the <a href="https://globalnews.ca/video/8930298/manitoba-marathon-expected-to-be-a-scorcher">record high temperatures that were forecast</a> for this late June race.</p>
<p>Event representatives <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-marathon-heat-advice-1.6493051">urged runners to stay hydrated and to adjust their goal given the anticipated heat</a>. I kept an eye on my email for an adjusted start time or cancellation. With no news, I headed to the start line. Once started, it didn’t take me long to feel the heat of the day but volunteers did a great job of keeping us hydrated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An arm offering three bottles of water to a group of runners who are out of focus in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Runners can train for heat, wear appropriate clothing and hydrate, but these steps may not be sufficient to overcome the effects of heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, I could not escape the heat; several miles in, my heart rate was above the ideal range. With eight kilometres left, a volunteer told us the course was closed and that we could keep running if we wanted to, which left me confused. Was the course really closed? Should I trust one volunteer? If the course was closed, what were my options? </p>
<p>The course was not physically closed and the runners around me were still running. Aware of no alternative way of getting back other than on my own two feet, I kept running. </p>
<p>This response is not surprising. When faced with a crisis, the <a href="https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/manual/index.asp">Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication manual</a> put forward by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control presents four ways people process information: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>simplifying the message, </p></li>
<li><p>holding on to current beliefs, </p></li>
<li><p>looking for additional information and opinions and </p></li>
<li><p>believing the first message. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>When I crossed the finish line, there was no indication the course had closed. It wasn’t until I listened to the news that I was able to confirm the closure. After recovering, I read Twitter threads from participants. My sense of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-marathon-race-cancellation-heat-response-communication-1.6495410">confusion and uncertainty was not unique</a>. Conflicting information circulated about water station closures and traffic no longer being controlled. </p>
<p>Shutting down the course was understandable to protect the safety of runners. However, participants may have been hesitant to stop considering they had likely trained for months, and may have been using the race to try to meet a goal or qualify for another race.</p>
<h2>Lessons for future races</h2>
<p>Effective communication reduces injury and loss-of-life during an emergency by providing the public with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-06-2021-0054">information to make good choices</a>. A crisis can be the catalyst for organizations to <a href="https://www.workingwithcrowds.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/How_publics_use_social_media_to_respond-1.pdf">build trust</a> with their community or it can harm the relationship, depending on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3727/152599521X16106577965224">strategy used</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of cyclists participating in a road race" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hundreds of races — running, cycling, triathlon — and other endurance events take place in Canada during warmer months when extreme heat is a risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Quino al D)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Race organizers should provide runners with essential information regardless of the specific hazard. Runners should have advance knowledge of what to expect in case of race disruption or rerouting prior to setting off on the course. This way, whether there is a weather disruption, act of violence or other potentially catastrophic event, racers will be prepared to react. </p>
<p>Complicating the situation is the organizational structure of many events. Volunteers are essential for delivering many community events. While they bring skills and knowledge, they may not have specific training in emergency management nor be sufficiently prepared to help event participants navigate the challenges posed during a major disruption. Organization preparedness should include ensuring volunteer readiness to respond during an emergency. </p>
<p>Events like the Manitoba Marathon provide runners with the opportunity to reach a goal that took months of training. This year though, many runners hobbled away from the event with mixed feelings about whether the event should have gone ahead, and if so, how the situation should have been managed. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9018999/bc-heat-wave-temperature-records/">record high temperatures</a> continue <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/heat-wave-britain-1.6524808">across the world this summer</a>, investment in emergency preparedness is necessary to ensure communities can stay safe while sharing meaningful experiences together.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186021/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shaelyn Strachan receives funding from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Van Winkle receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</span></em></p>All event organizers should be prepared for emergencies and have a communication plan.Shaelyn Strachan, Professor, Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of ManitobaChristine Van Winkle, Professor, Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of ManitobaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1330462020-03-06T19:29:38Z2020-03-06T19:29:38ZCrisis communication researcher shares 5 key principles that officials should use in coronavirus<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318930/original/file-20200305-106589-5f2cgm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C46%2C4395%2C2771&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dr. Aimee Sisson, a public health officer in Placer County, Calif., answers a question about the death of an elderly patient in Auburn, Calif., March 4, 2020. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Virus-Outbreak-California/3524fc22279641cbbc3647e9aaf63ec5/10/0">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Infectious disease outbreaks have killed more people than hurricanes, wildfires or earthquakes. The 1918 influenza pandemic was the most severe pandemic in recent history, with death estimates ranging as high as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-pandemic-h1n1.html">50 million</a> worldwide. Almost 700,000 deaths occurred in the U.S.; in some cases, entire families died. </p>
<p>Because these events are so outside our understanding of what is normal, they create high levels of uncertainty. We don’t know what is happening. And we don’t know what to do to avoid and mitigate the harm. </p>
<p>Crises are also time-sensitive events that require quick decisions and actions to reduce and contain the harm. Delayed evacuations for hurricanes, for example, can lead to more deaths. Failure to issue advisories to boil water can result in disease outbreaks. Telling people what to do during a crisis – boil water, evacuate, shelter in place – is critical to limiting and containing the harm.</p>
<p>I have been studying crises and disasters for over 35 years. Following the 2001 <a href="https://www.npr.org/2011/02/15/93170200/timeline-how-the-anthrax-terror-unfolded">anthrax attacks</a>, I was part of a group of academics that helped the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention develop their crisis and emergency risk communication materials for public health. The anthrax attacks, in which spores of the deadly bacterium were sent through the mail and spread to unwitting recipients, resulted in five deaths. Coming on the heels of the Sept. 11 attack, the anthrax letters caused great fear, and am immediate need for clear communication. I also worked with the World Health Organization to develop <a href="https://www.who.int/risk-communication/guidance/download/en/">guidelines for communicating during emergencies</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318942/original/file-20200305-106573-1frjkfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">John Agwunobi, left, testifying on Capitol Hill in Washington, Wednesday, Sept. 13, 2006 before the House Energy and Commerce Oversight and Investigations subcommittee. (AP Photo/Dennis Cook)</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/AP-A-DC-USA-NIH-MANAGEMENT/3ebc348a80e7426dae0eac3ef08dfc40/6/0">AP Photo/Dennis Cook</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Significant <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00909880600769944">research</a>
over several decades has developed a body of principles and best practices. The CDC has invested in developing communication resources and competencies for its <a href="https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/">Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication</a> programs. This evidence-based framework was born out of the 2001 anthrax letters incident and the demonstrated need for effective crisis communication. The framework has informed public health crises for more than a decade. That CDC program and other principles of effective crisis communication share some common features. </p>
<h2>1. Credible sources are a must</h2>
<p>First and foremost, effective crisis communication is grounded in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1952-5_10">credible sources</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/resources/pdf/leaders.pdf">Dr. John Agwunobi</a>, who was Florida’s secretary of health and guided the department’s 2001 response to letters contaminated with anthrax letters, is an example. His expertise as a public health professional who demonstrated transparency <a href="https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-2001-10-20-0110200138-story.html">helped manage the public uncertainty</a>. Agwunobi had no political agenda and made the health and safety of the public his primary concern. </p>
<p>Credibility is a function of trustworthiness and expertise. Trustworthiness concerns the intentions, truthfulness and perceived morality of a source. Expertise reflects the source’s credentials, quality of information and lack of bias. Credibility is necessary for an audience to believe a message and during a crisis, credibility is a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/eis/field-epi-manual/chapters/Communicating-Investigation.html">critical factor in persuading people</a> to take protective actions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318946/original/file-20200305-106616-1oblifd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Riot police check in Hong Kong, Sunday, Jan. 26, 2020. Hong Kong residents have protested the Chinese government’s handling of the outbreak.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Hong-Kong-China-Outbreak-Protests/ba9efb93884448f2b51364faa241df29/2/0">AP Photo/Vincent Yu</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the absence of credible sources people turn to alternative sources. Dangerous rumors propagate and go viral. For example, In 2017, <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-02-lessons-myths-zika-yellow-fever.html">rumors circulated widely that Zika virus</a> could be transmitted through casual contact. </p>
<p>Uncertainty, anxiety and stress increase because the public does not believe they are getting the full story. Residents of Hong Kong have lost even more confidence in their government for lack of a transparent and rapid response to COVID-10. Lack of credible sources may enhance the social amplification of risk and can lead to a <a href="https://cllr.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Social-Amplification-of-Risk-Perth.pdf">fundamental misunderstanding of the actual risk</a> the public faces.</p>
<h2>2. To reduce rumors, be honest</h2>
<p>Effective crisis communication is frequent, honest, and it <a href="https://www.psandman.com/handouts/AIHA/page13.pdf">does not over-reassure</a>. Frequent, honest communication can reduce rumors, needless anxiety and fear, and help quell dangerous rumors. This includes communicating both what is known and unknown about the risk. Irrational anxiety during a crisis is sometimes framed as panic – and used as an excuse for withholding information, offering overly optimistic scenarios, or critiquing or silencing those voices expressing concern. </p>
<p>The research is clear that <a href="http://dspace.udel.edu/bitstream/handle/19716/308/PP%20283.pdf?sequence=1">panic – extreme, groundless and irrational behavior rarely happens</a> rarely happens during a crisis. </p>
<p>Moreover, the chances of irrational responses to crisis actually are greater in the absence of timely and accurate information. Large, crisis-driven declines in the stock market, for example, are a rational response when there is inadequate credible information about the risks. The antidote to a risk of irrational responses is frequent, credible, transparent and honest communication. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1235647518198857728"}"></div></p>
<h2>3. Aim for meaningful actions</h2>
<p>Effective communication during a crisis involves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.755604">persuading people</a>
to take harm-reducing actions. For example, the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/home/index.html">CDC has posted guidelines</a> that recommend frequent hand washing and social distancing strategies to help reduce the risk of infectious diseases such as influenza and COVID-19. </p>
<p>Credible information is necessary to promote the kinds of behaviors that can protect people. Effective communication can serve as a kind of social vaccination, encouraging good infectious disease hygiene that reduces harm. </p>
<h2>4. Draw from experts, not amateurs</h2>
<p>Effective communication during a crisis <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13669870802648486">draws on the knowledge of subject-matter experts</a>. Individuals who have experience and expertise in managing an event are not only more credible, they also have a much better grasp on what actually needs to be done. They are less likely to make fundamental mistakes or misstatements about the nature of the threat and how it might develop. Knowing that the experts are in charge is reassuring to a nervous public. </p>
<h2>5. Be consistent</h2>
<p>A final factor in effective communication concerns <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2018.0020">consistency of messages</a>. Messages that offer very different assessments of risk and variable advice about what actions to take increase uncertainty and limit the likelihood the public will take appropriate actions. </p>
<p>Measures such as clearance procedures, whereby messages are reviewed to insure scientific accuracy, can facilitate consistency. Consistency can also be enhanced by having clear and frequent communication from credible sources. Although it is simply impossible to control communication and the flow of information during a crisis, it is possible to influence what is communicated by being credible, honest and frequent. </p>
<p>This responsibility is even more urgent in an era of 24/7 news coverage, multiple social media platforms, and bots and AIs influencing our news feeds. Crises cannot be managed successfully if government and health official do not communicate about them effectively.</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133046/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Seeger has received funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the World Health Organization, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health</span></em></p>Communication from public health and government officials during a health threat is a critical component of preventing and treating a disease. An expert who worked on the anthrax scare explains.Matthew Seeger, Professor of Communication and Dean, College of Fine, Performing and Communication Arts, Wayne State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1170692019-05-21T11:36:40Z2019-05-21T11:36:40ZSimply elegant, Morse code marks 175 years and counting<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274994/original/file-20190516-69174-1o1ftdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4361%2C2909&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's still plenty of reason to know how to use this Morse telegraph key.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/morse-code-key-on-white-background-97099433">Jason Salmon/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The first message sent by Morse code’s dots and dashes across a long distance traveled from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore on Friday, May 24, 1844 – 175 years ago. It signaled the first time in human history that complex thoughts could be communicated at long distances almost instantaneously. <a href="https://prezi.com/9puvdbvqudzy/early-methods-of-long-distance-communication/">Until then</a>, people had to have face-to-face conversations; send coded messages <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-talking-drums-29197334/">through drums</a>, <a href="https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/survival/wilderness/how-to-send-smoke-signal.htm">smoke signals</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22909590">semaphore systems</a>; or read printed words.</p>
<p>Thanks to Samuel F.B. Morse, communication changed rapidly, and has been changing ever faster since. He invented the electric telegraph in 1832. It took six more years for him to standardize a code for communicating over telegraph wires. In 1843, <a href="https://www.thedailystar.com/opinion/columns/samuel-morse-s-telegraph-plans-perfected-in-cherry-valley/article_1ceb7424-a97a-5d70-b6c8-82045d04043a.html">Congress gave him US$30,000</a> to string wires between the nation’s capital and nearby Baltimore. When the line was completed, he conducted a public demonstration of long-distance communication.</p>
<p>Morse wasn’t the only one working to develop a means of <a href="https://taskandpurpose.com/the-jolt-of-electricity-that-forever-altered-war">communicating over the telegraph</a>, but his is the one that has survived. The wires, magnets and keys used in the initial demonstration have given way to smartphones’ on-screen keyboards, but Morse code has remained fundamentally the same, and is still – perhaps surprisingly – relevant in the 21st century. Although I have learned, and relearned, it many times as a Boy Scout, an amateur radio operator and a pilot, I continue to admire it and strive to master it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=29&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=29&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=29&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=37&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=37&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274164/original/file-20190513-183109-5w8cpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=37&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Samuel F.B. Morse’s own handwritten record of the first Morse code message ever sent, on May 24, 1844.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/mmorse.071009/">Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Easy sending</h2>
<p>Morse’s key insight in constructing the code was considering how frequently each letter is used in English. The most commonly used letters have shorter symbols: “E,” which appears most often, is signified by a single “dot.” By contrast, “Z,” the <a href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/explore/which-letters-are-used-most">least used letter</a> in English, was signified by the much longer and more complex “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Morse_code">dot-dot-dot (pause) dot</a>.” </p>
<p>In 1865, the International Telecommunications Union <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/history/Pages/ITUBorn1865.aspx">changed the code</a> to account for different character frequencies in other languages. There have been other tweaks since, but “E” is still “dot,” though “Z” is now “<a href="https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/m/R-REC-M.1677-1-200910-I!!PDF-E.pdf#page=4">dash-dash-dot-dot</a>.”</p>
<p>The reference to letter frequency makes for extremely efficient communications: Simple words with common letters can be transmitted very quickly. Longer words can still be sent, but they take more time.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=949&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=949&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274166/original/file-20190513-183083-1rn88ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=949&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Samuel F.B. Morse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/2016816533/">Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Going wireless</h2>
<p>The communications system that Morse code was designed for – analogue connections over metal wires that carried a lot of interference and needed a clear on-off type signal to be heard – has evolved significantly.</p>
<p>The first big change came just a few decades after Morse’s demonstration. In the late 19th century, Guglielmo Marconi invented <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/guglielmo-marconi">radio-telegraph equipment</a>, which could send Morse code over radio waves, rather than wires.</p>
<p>The shipping industry loved this new way to communicate with ships at sea, either from ship to ship or to shore-based stations. By 1910, U.S. law <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910">required many passenger ships in U.S. waters</a> to carry wireless sets for sending and receiving messages. </p>
<p>After the Titanic sank in 1912, an international agreement required some ships to assign a person to <a href="https://www.itu.int/itunews/manager/display.asp?lang=en&year=2006&issue=06&ipage=pioneers&ext=html">listen for radio distress signals</a> at all times. That same agreement designated “SOS” – “<a href="https://www.itu.int/itunews/manager/display.asp?lang=en&year=2006&issue=06&ipage=pioneers&ext=html">dot-dot-dot dash-dash-dash dot-dot-dot</a>” – as the international distress signal, not as an abbreviation for anything but because it was a <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17631595">simple pattern</a> that was easy to remember and transmit. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/02/us/coast-guard-signs-off-on-morse-code-and-an-era-at-sea-ends.html">Coast Guard discontinued monitoring</a> in 1995. The requirement that ships monitor for distress signals was <a href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-aug-16-mn-13607-story.html">removed in 1999</a>, though the U.S. Navy still teaches at least some <a href="https://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=92864">sailors to read, send and receive Morse code</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274734/original/file-20190515-60545-17v0f17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The arrow points at the chart label indicating the Morse code equivalent to the ‘BAL’ signal for a radio beacon near Baltimore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/vfr/">Edited screenshot of an FAA map</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Aviators also use Morse code to identify automated navigational aids. These are radio beacons that help pilots follow routes, traveling from one transmitter to the next on aeronautical charts. They <a href="https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2012/august/31/ifr-fix-how-is-your-morse-code">transmit their identifiers</a> – such as “BAL” for Baltimore – in Morse code. Pilots often learn to recognize familiar-sounding patterns of beacons in areas they fly frequently.</p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://www.fistsna.org/">thriving community</a> of amateur radio operators who treasure Morse code, too. Among amateur radio operators, Morse code is a cherished tradition tracing back to the earliest days of radio. Some of them may have begun in the Boy Scouts, which has made learning Morse variably <a href="https://observer.wunderwood.org/2016/02/22/history-of-morse-code-in-the-bsa/">optional or required</a> over the years. The Federal Communications Commission used to require all licensed amateur radio operators to demonstrate proficiency in Morse code, but that <a href="https://www.fcc.gov/document/fcc-modifies-amateur-radio-service-rules-eliminating-morse-code-exam">ended in 2007</a>. The FCC does still issue <a href="https://www.fcc.gov/wireless/bureau-divisions/mobility-division/commercial-radio-operator-license-program/commercial-0">commercial licenses that require Morse</a> proficiency, but no jobs require it anymore.</p>
<h2>Blinking Morse</h2>
<p>Because its signals are so simple – on or off, long or short – Morse code can also be used by flashing lights. Many navies around the world use blinker lights to communicate from ship to ship when they don’t want to use radios or when radio equipment breaks down. The U.S. Navy is actually testing a system that would let a user <a href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/navy-ships/a27391/us-navy-morse-code-software/">type words and convert it to blinker light</a>. A receiver would read the flashes and convert it back to text.</p>
<p>Skills learned in the military <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4120186/Army-veteran-54-crawled-rocky-beach-two-hours-breaking-leg-saved-exchanging-Morse-code-signals-wife-using-TORCH.html">helped an injured man communicate</a> with his wife across a rocky beach using only his flashlight in 2017.</p>
<h2>Other Morse messages</h2>
<p>Perhaps the most notable modern use of Morse code was by <a href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2014-mar-29-la-me-jeremiah-denton-20140329-story.html">Navy pilot Jeremiah Denton</a>, while he was a prisoner of war in Vietnam. In 1966, about one year into a nearly eight-year imprisonment, Denton was forced by his North Vietnamese captors to participate in a video interview about his treatment. While the camera focused on his face, he blinked the Morse code symbols for “torture,” <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/us/politics/jeremiah-a-denton-jr-war-hero-and-senator-dies-at-89.html">confirming for the first time</a> U.S. fears about the treatment of service members held captive in North Vietnam.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ioC_F8FvviM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Navy pilot Jeremiah Denton, a prisoner of war, blinks Morse code spelling out ‘torture’ during a forced interview with his captors.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-10-25-me-16256-story.html">Blinking Morse code</a> <a href="https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/managing-locked-in-syndrome-lessons-from-a-profile-of-a-rare-case/">is slow</a>, but has also <a href="https://owlcation.com/humanities/morse_code">helped people with medical conditions</a> that prevent them from <a href="https://www.blog.google/outreach-initiatives/accessibility/imagining-new-ways-learn-morse-codes-dots-and-dashes/">speaking or communicating</a> in other ways. A number of devices – including <a href="https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/gboard-ios-morse-code-mode/">iPhones and Android</a> smartphones – can be set up to accept Morse code input from people with limited motor skills.</p>
<p>There are still many ways people can <a href="https://morsedx.com/">learn Morse code</a>, and <a href="https://cwops.org/cw-academy-2/">practice</a> using it, even online. In emergency situations, it can be the only mode of communications that will get through. Beyond that, there is an art to Morse code, a rhythmic, musical fluidity to the sound. Sending and receiving it can have a soothing or meditative feeling, too, as the person focuses on the flow of individual characters, words and sentences. Overall, sometimes the simplest tool is all that’s needed to accomplish the task.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eddie King is affiliated with the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) as a Senior Member. He is also a member of the Amateur Radio Relay League (ARRL), American Association of Engineering Educators (ASEE), Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA), Civil Air Patrol (CAP), and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA).</span></em></p>Morse code works whether flashing a spotlight or blinking your eyes – or even tapping on a smartphone touchscreen.Eddie King, Ph.D. Student in Electrical Engineering, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.