tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/biodiversity-486/articlesBiodiversity – The Conversation2024-03-26T16:03:37Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2248822024-03-26T16:03:37Z2024-03-26T16:03:37ZWe built an AI tool to help set priorities for conservation in Madagascar: what we found<p><em>Artificial Intelligence (AI) – models that process large and diverse datasets and make predictions from them – can have many uses in nature conservation, such as remote monitoring (like the use of camera traps to study animals or plants) or data analysis. Some of these are controversial because AI can be trained to be biased, but others are valuable research tools.</em></p>
<p><em>Biologist Daniele Silvestro has developed an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00851-6">AI tool</a> that can help identify conservation and restoration priorities. We asked him to tell us more about how it works and what it offers.</em></p>
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<h2>How does your artificial intelligence tool for conservation work?</h2>
<p>Artificial intelligence (AI) is a term indicating a broad family of models used to process large and diverse datasets and make predictions from them. </p>
<p>We built a model using biodiversity datasets as well as socioeconomic data. The aim was to identify optimal strategies to conserve nature. Our AI tool, Conservation Area Prioritisation through Artificial Intelligence (Captain), uses a type of AI called <a href="https://online.york.ac.uk/what-is-reinforcement-learning/">reinforcement learning</a>. This is a family of algorithms that optimises decisions within a dynamic environment. </p>
<p>The tool we built was the result of years of work involving an international team with experience in biology, sustainable economics, maths and computer science.</p>
<p>The software we developed can take multiple types of data as input, including biodiversity maps, species ranges, climate and predicted climate change, as well as socioeconomic data such as cost of land and a budget available for conservation action. It then processes this information and, based on a set conservation target (for example, to include all endangered species in a protected area, or to protect as many species as possible) it suggests a conservation policy.</p>
<p>The tool’s environment is a simulation of biodiversity, an artificial world with species and individuals that reproduce, migrate and die through time. We use the tool to look for the most appropriate conservation policy. </p>
<p>It works similarly to a video game where the player (called the agent) is the “brains” of our software. The goal of the game is to protect biodiversity and prevent as many species as possible from going extinct within a simulated environment that includes human pressure and climate change. </p>
<p>The agent observes the environment and tries to place protected areas in this environment in the best way. At the end of the game the agent gets a reward for each species it manages to save from extinction. It will have to play the game many times to learn how to best interpret the environment and place the protected areas. After that, the model is trained and can be used with real biodiversity data to identify conservation priorities that should maximise biodiversity protection. </p>
<h2>Why did you test the tool in Madagascar? What did you find?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.kew.org/sites/default/files/2023-10/State%20of%20the%20World%27s%20Plants%20and%20Fungi%202023.pdf">State of the World’s Plants and Fungi report</a> showed that biodiversity is facing unprecedented threats, with as many as 45% of all plant species at risk of extinction. Together with climate change, this is one of the major challenges humanity faces, given our dependence on the natural world for our survival. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.adf1466">paper</a> we summarised the extent of Madagascar’s extraordinary concentration of biodiversity with thousands of species of plants, animals and fungi. The project was led by Hélène Ralimanana of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre. </p>
<p>By applying the Captain tool to a dataset of endemic trees of Madagascar we were able to identify the most important areas for biodiversity protection in the country, for instance the area in the Sava region, where the Marojejy National Park has long been established. </p>
<p>Madagascar already has number of conservation areas and programmes. What our experiment shows is that the technology we developed can be used with real-world data. We hope it can guide conservation planning.</p>
<h2>Who do you think can use the Captain AI?</h2>
<p>We think it can help policy makers, practitioners and companies in guiding conservation and restoration planning. In particular, the software can use diverse types of data in addition to biodiversity data. For instance it can use costs and opportunity costs related to setting up protected or restoration areas. It can also use future climate scenarios. </p>
<h2>Is technology alone enough to conserve biodiversity?</h2>
<p>Certainly not. Technology can help us by crunching the numbers and disentangling complex data. But there are many aspects of conservation that are not easily quantifiable as numbers. There are aspects of cultural value of land and nature, and social and political issues related to the fair distribution of resources. These are issues for real humans to take into account, rather than artificial intelligence programs. </p>
<p>Technology and science can (and should) assist us in making decisions, but ultimately the protection and conservation of the natural world is and must be in the hands of humans, not software.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224882/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniele Silvestro is a computational biologist at the University of Fribourg (Switzerland) and University of Gothenburg (Sweden). He is also a co-founder of CAPTAIN Technologies LTD.
D.S. acknowledges funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation (PCEFP3_187012), the Swedish Research Council (2019-04739), and the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research MISTRA within the framework of the research programme BIOPATH (F 2022/1448).</span></em></p>Conservation of biodiversity is in the hands of humans but artificial intelligence can help guide decisions.Daniele Silvestro, Assistant Professor, Department of Biology, University of FribourgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259032024-03-22T10:49:08Z2024-03-22T10:49:08ZAustralia must lead the world on nature restoration through ambitious interpretation of international law<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583313/original/file-20240321-16-pgufis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C0%2C5396%2C3616&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/restoration-sign-wetlands-alviso-marsh-don-622076825">Sundry Photography, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia has a once-in-a-generation opportunity to halt and reverse biodiversity loss through ambitious law and policy reform.</p>
<p>The federal government is currently rewriting our <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/epbc-act-reform">national environmental laws</a> and updating the overarching <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/strategy">Strategy for Nature</a>. The updated strategy will include, among other things, goals for the restoration of degraded areas. </p>
<p>Part of the impetus for this reform is the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf">Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework</a>. This 2022 United Nations treaty was signed by almost 200 countries committing to address the biodiversity crisis. It includes a pledge to achieve 30% of degraded land, water, coastal and marine ecosystems “under effective restoration” by 2030. </p>
<p>But as we argue in our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02389-6">new correspondence</a> in Nature Ecology and Evolution, this restoration target is wide open to interpretation at the domestic level. Some responses could be very ambitious, while others would barely shift us from the status quo. Australia has an opportunity to lead here. We can show the world how to restore land and water for the benefit of all. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The United Nations Biodiversity Conference (COP15) ended in Montreal, Canada, on December 19, 2022 with a landmark agreement to guide global action on nature through to 2030.</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-things-we-need-to-see-in-australias-new-nature-laws-217271">5 things we need to see in Australia's new nature laws</a>
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<h2>Interpreting the 30% restoration target</h2>
<p>The global framework contains 23 targets, to be “initiated immediately and completed by 2030”. </p>
<p>The restoration target obliges countries to: </p>
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<p>Ensure that by 2030 at least 30% of areas of degraded terrestrial, inland water, and marine and coastal ecosystems are under effective restoration, in order to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, ecological integrity and connectivity. </p>
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<p>At first glance, this 30% restoration target sounds like a huge and important step towards reversing biodiversity loss. But the devil is in the detail, and almost every word of this target is open to interpretation. </p>
<p>For example, the term “degraded” can be interpreted in various ways. A country may interpret it to include only areas that have seen a drastic decline in biodiversity, such as those that have been totally cleared. </p>
<p>But if a country interprets it more broadly as areas that have experienced any decline in biodiversity, this translates to a much larger area for restoration.</p>
<p>The wording also refers to 30% of areas of “degraded terrestrial, inland water, and marine and coastal ecosystems”. Crucially, it does not say effort must be spread evenly across these different ecosystems. This may lead countries to focus on areas where restoration is easier or cheaper. Given the <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.13050">complexities involved in marine and coastal restoration</a>, there is a risk countries may focus their efforts on land while continuing to neglect freshwater, marine or coastal ecosystems.</p>
<p>The phrase “under effective restoration” also has a range of possible meanings. Does “effective” simply mean in a better state than it was before restoration began? Or does it mean bringing the ecosystem back to an approximation of its natural state – prior to interference from development or other harm? </p>
<p>How the term “effective” restoration is defined at a national scale will drastically influence reports of “success” and make it difficult to compare results between countries. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The United Nations is honouring the planet’s most ambitious, successful, and inspiring examples of large-scale ecosystem restoration.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Scaling up</h2>
<p>Australia has signed the framework and is currently considering how to implement it domestically. If Australia does decide to interpret the restoration target broadly and commit to restoring larger areas of land and water through more ambitious standards, there will be other issues to contend with. </p>
<p>For example, one study identified a lack of funding and complex legal requirements as <a href="https://www.nespmarinecoastal.edu.au/project/1-6/">barriers to upscaling restoration</a> in marine and coastal areas. In particular, having to apply for numerous government permits for restoration can <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.13050">slow progress</a> and lead people to scale back their plans.</p>
<p>To meet the 30% target, the government will need to reconsider how to fund restoration and streamline legal processes. Remember, much of the heavy lifting is currently done by <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-major-players-in-conservation-ngos-thrive-while-national-parks-struggle-199880">non-government organisations</a> such as The Nature Conservancy, Australian Wildlife Conservancy, Bush Heritage Australia and Trust for Nature.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-major-players-in-conservation-ngos-thrive-while-national-parks-struggle-199880">The new major players in conservation? NGOs thrive while national parks struggle</a>
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<h2>Leading by example</h2>
<p>Ultimately, we argue countries should have discretion over how and where to implement restoration based on their individual circumstances. But we also think the global framework could be supplemented by standardised terminology and metrics to allow genuine comparison of countries’ progress towards the global targets. </p>
<p>Closer to home, our analysis has some important lessons for Australia as the federal government contemplates the fate of our national environmental laws and biodiversity strategy. Australia’s <a href="https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/">most recent State of the Environment Report</a> painted a bleak picture of biodiversity decline, highlighting an urgent need to upscale restoration of our land and water.</p>
<p>Australia has an opportunity to take a leading role in this area and reverse our legacy of biodiversity loss. Interpreting the 30% restoration target broadly and ambitiously would set us on a path towards achieving meaningful outcomes for biodiversity and make Australia a world leader in restoration. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weve-committed-to-protect-30-of-australias-land-by-2030-heres-how-we-could-actually-do-it-217795">We've committed to protect 30% of Australia's land by 2030. Here's how we could actually do it</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Justine Bell-James receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Environmental Science Program. She is a Director of the National Environmental Law Association.</span></em></p>Australia committed to restore 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030 when we signed the global biodiversity framework. But what does that really mean? It’s open to interpretation. So let’s be ambitious.Justine Bell-James, Associate Professor, TC Beirne School of Law, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246822024-03-20T22:41:06Z2024-03-20T22:41:06ZHow do halibut migrate? Clues are in their ear bones<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578657/original/file-20240220-18-5yndy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C18%2C3953%2C2999&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The habitats used throughout the halibut's life and the movements between them are difficult to characterize.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Charlotte Gauthier)</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rising temperatures, changes in major currents, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-st-lawrence-estuary-is-running-out-of-breath-184626">oxygen depletion at great depths</a>: the Gulf of St. Lawrence has undergone major changes in its environmental conditions in recent decades. That has put many species in danger and, as a consequence, made them more sensitive to the effects of fishing.</p>
<p>However, these changes are benefiting other species such as Atlantic halibut, which is beating records for its abundance and is presently seeing the highest stock in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in <a href="https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/library-bibliotheque/41206708.pdf">the last 60 years</a>.</p>
<p>As a biology researcher, I’d like to shed some light on some of the mysteries that still surround this unusual species.</p>
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<p><em>This article is part of our series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca-fr/topics/fleuve-saint-laurent-116908">The St. Lawrence River: In depth</a>.
Don’t miss new articles on this mythical river of remarkable beauty. Our experts look at its fauna, flora and history, and the issues it faces. This series is brought to you by <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca-fr">La Conversation</a>.</em></p>
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<h2>Atlantic halibut: champion of the Gulf of St. Lawrence</h2>
<p>Atlantic halibut is a flatfish that lives at the bottom of the estuary and gulf of the St. Lawrence. It is prized for its fine, firm white flesh, which is highly appreciated by consumers.</p>
<p>Halibut can grow to impressive sizes of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23308249.2021.1948502">more than two metres</a>. Because of the quality of its flesh and its popularity on dinner plates, it is currently the most commercially valuable fish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.</p>
<p>But this has not always been the case. In the 1950s, the adult, harvestable portion of halibut populations, known as the stock, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/73/4/1104/2458915?login=false">suffered a major decline due to overfishing</a>.</p>
<p>If we want to continue to exploit this resource over the long term, we must not repeat the same mistakes we made in the past. To avoid these mistakes, it is vital to have a good understanding of the life cycle of halibut and the effects that fishing can have on the stock. So far, this has not been done to the fullest.</p>
<h2>The challenges for sustainable fishing</h2>
<p>The basic biology of Atlantic halibut is fairly well known. However, both the habitats they use throughout their lives and their movement between these places are more difficult to characterize.</p>
<p><a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/77/7-8/2890/5923787?login=false">Recent studies</a> have placed satellite tags on halibut to record data on the depth and temperature of the water in which they are found, making it possible to accurately calculate their movement. By using this method, the researchers were able to identify the trajectories of adult halibut over a one-year period and discover that they reproduce in winter in the deep channels of the Gulf.</p>
<p>In the halibut’s different annual trajectories, the researchers observed that, in summer, some remain in the deep channels while others migrate to shallower areas.</p>
<p>Even with this new information, a number of questions remain, specifically about the youngest life stages, which are caught only anecdotally in the Gulf. Satellite tags also provide accurate information, but only over a one-year period, which doesn’t tell the whole story for a fish that can live up to 50 years.</p>
<p>With this in mind, the use of a new tool to study the entire life of fish becomes highly relevant.</p>
<h2>Ear bones to the rescue</h2>
<p>All bony fish have small calcareous structures in their inner ear called otoliths, or ear bones, which perform balance and hearing functions.</p>
<p>Otoliths develop at the very beginning of a fish’s life and grow at the same rate as the fish. Otoliths form annual growth rings that are comparable to those visible in tree trunks.</p>
<p>To grow, otoliths accumulate chemical elements that are found in the environment in which the fish swim. So, when the fish moves, the chemical elements accumulated in the otoliths will be different from one place to another. Each location is characterized by a unique combination of different concentrations of chemical elements. This is known as an elemental fingerprint. Identifying these fingerprints can provide us with crucial information about the movement of fish in different places throughout their lives.</p>
<p>I used this method of characterizing the chemical elements in otoliths to study the migratory patterns of Atlantic halibut in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.</p>
<h2>A wide range of migratory strategies</h2>
<p>To find out what concentrations of a chemical element correspond to the place where the fish was caught, we use the fingerprint of the otolith margin, i.e. the material at the end of the outermost ring of the otolith, which was accumulated last.</p>
<p>The concentrations of the elements found there are considered to be characteristic of the place where the fish was caught. By analyzing the margins of nearly 200 halibut otoliths from all over the Gulf, I was able to distinguish two basic fingerprints: one representative of surface waters (less than 100 metres deep) and one characteristic of deeper waters (more than 100 metres deep).</p>
<p>Once these fingerprints had been identified, I observed the concentration of chemical elements throughout the life of the fish so that I could associate each moment of life with either the surface water fingerprint or the deep-water fingerprint.</p>
<p>By separating the life of each individual into time spent in surface and deep waters, I was able to identify recurring patterns and group them into three different migratory strategies: residents, annual migrants and irregular migrants.</p>
<p>In this way, I was able to observe that halibut caught in the southern part of the Gulf were mainly annual migrants, and therefore undertake migrations between deep and shallow waters every year. However, in the northern part of the Gulf the majority are residents. Residents are fish that may have migrated early in their lives, but have settled permanently in deep waters before reaching maturity. Irregular migrants, on the other hand, show migrations on a more sporadic frequency, and are found in similar proportions throughout the study area.</p>
<h2>On the right track to optimal management</h2>
<p>My study is the first to offer a global view of the movements made by halibut over their entire lifetime.</p>
<p>This new information provides a better understanding of the structure of the stock and the diversity of migratory strategies that can be found within it.</p>
<p>Given that these strategies are distributed differently in different areas of the Gulf, we can ensure that we do not disproportionately target halibut using the same migratory strategy and avoid overfishing a single component of the stock.</p>
<p>In this way, it is possible to conserve this diversity, which helps the stock’s resilience in the face of the various changes that can occur.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224682/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Gauthier has received funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Fondation de l'Université du Québec à Chicoutimi.
</span></em></p>Atlantic halibut are making a strong comeback in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But how do we know where the fish move throughout their lives?Charlotte Gauthier, Étudiante au doctorat, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2252762024-03-14T05:29:04Z2024-03-14T05:29:04ZLarge old trees are vital for Australian birds. Their long branches and hollows can’t be replaced by saplings<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581848/original/file-20240314-16-eeqr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C21%2C3596%2C2374&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When we make roads, houses or farmland, we often find large old trees in the way. Our response is often to lop off offending branches or even <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/western-australia/perth-council-axes-policy-to-protect-its-urban-forest-over-safety-concerns-20240226-p5f7zc.html">cut the tree down</a>. </p>
<p>This is a bad idea. The more we learn about large old trees, the more we realise their fundamental importance to birds, mammals, insects, plants and other inhabitants. <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Tree_Hollows_and_Wildlife_Conservation_i/hF2sMDVZztIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PR7&printsec=frontcover">More than 300 species</a> of Australian birds and mammals need large old trees to live.</p>
<p>Why focus on mature trees? It’s because they have <a href="https://theconversation.com/large-trees-are-essential-for-healthy-cities-183017">many features</a> that younger trees simply don’t have: cracks, hollows, dead branches, peeling bark and large quantities of nectar and seeds. The limbs and leaves that fall on the ground make excellent homes for many small creatures.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320724000685">new research</a> sheds light on the importance of such grand old trees for birds. We used lidar (scanning using lasers) to map small, medium and large tree crowns in unprecedented detail. On average, we found large old trees had 383 metres of the horizontal or dead branches preferred by birds, while medium trees had very little and young trees none. Some old trees had almost 2 kilometres of branches. </p>
<h2>Why are branches so important?</h2>
<p>If we think of long, overhanging branches, chances are we may think “threat”. Some large trees can drop limbs without warning, although some arborists have pointed out the <a href="https://www.rememberthewild.org.au/eucalypt-mythbusting-a-comprehensive-guide/#sub-head-2">threat is overstated</a>. To reduce the risk, councils and land managers may remove the limbs of large old trees.</p>
<p>But if you cut down a 300-year-old river red gum, you can’t simply replace it with a sapling of the same species. It <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/3010/">will take centuries</a> for the sapling to take up the same ecological role as its predecessor.</p>
<p>In our research, we mapped more than 100,000 branches from many millions of laser samples and recorded how birds use branches through years of field observations.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-illegal-killing-of-265-trees-on-sydneys-north-shore-is-not-just-vandalism-its-theft-on-a-grand-scale-212844">The illegal killing of 265 trees on Sydney's North Shore is not just vandalism. It's theft on a grand scale</a>
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<p>When we spot a bird using a branch, we can safely infer the bird has chosen it for a reason, whether resting, socialising, feeding, hunting or nesting.</p>
<p>What our data shows is that not all branches are equal. Birds find it easier to perch on horizontal or slightly inclined branches. Branches with few or no leaves offer clear vantage points for birds to land, hunt or see predators. You may have noticed crows and currawongs choosing dead branches for these reasons. </p>
<p>As trees mature, their branches begin to grow horizontally. Some branches may die due to lightning strikes, fire, wind damage, or attacks by insects or fungi, while the rest of the tree continues living. These long-term patterns of growth, decay and random events are necessary to produce the horizontal and dead branches prized by birds. For a large eucalypt, that process can take up to 200 years.</p>
<h2>Mapping the canopy with lasers</h2>
<p>Until recently, it’s been hard to map the tree canopy. Traditional methods rely on researchers visually assessing this vital habitat. But we know eye observations don’t do well at capturing parts of trees <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsfs.2017.0048">such as branches</a>. </p>
<p>That’s where lidar comes in. Lidar sends out laser pulses, which bounce back when they hit objects. By recording the time taken for the light to return, we can build very detailed three-dimensional models. It’s a little like echolocation, but using light rather than sound. </p>
<p>This laser-scanning technology has been used in the jungles of Central America to <a href="https://www.livescience.com/lidar-maya-civilization-guatemala">find the ruins</a> of lost Mayan cities. But it can do much more.</p>
<p>In forests, lidar is now increasingly used to estimate how dense the tree cover is, and how variable. This useful data feeds into how we assess a forest’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-forests-can-store-almost-as-much-carbon-as-tropical-rainforests-98885">ability to store carbon</a>, how much timber is present, and the current fire risk. We can even use it to spot animal pathways. </p>
<p>To get the canopy detail we wanted, we used lidar on the ground rather than from the air, and processed the data with algorithms that can recognise and describe about 90% of branches in even the largest trees. </p>
<p>We mapped trees in an area near Canberra. We chose this area because it represents the plight of <a href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/65871/2/01_Rawlings_A_Guide_to_Managing_Box_Gum_2010.pdf">temperate eucalypt woodlands</a>, which have <a href="https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/projects/conservation-of-box-gum-grassy-woodlands-and-the-threatened-species-within-them">shrunk by up to 99%</a> since European colonisation. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-act-of-god-or-just-bad-management-why-trees-fall-and-how-to-prevent-it-162754">An act of God, or just bad management? Why trees fall and how to prevent it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>What should we do?</h2>
<p>The very things that make branches good real estate for birds can make them seem dangerous or aesthetically displeasing to us. We tend to cut dead or long, horizontal branches and leave the living or more upright ones. But for birds, this is a disaster as many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715300616">cannot live</a> without such branches. </p>
<p>Young trees are no substitutes for their older counterparts. Planting saplings or installing nest boxes cannot replicate the ecological value of large, mature trees.</p>
<p>We can live alongside large old trees. To reduce the chance of injury or worse from falling limbs, we could use <a href="https://www.foreground.com.au/agriculture-environment/what-good-is-a-dead-tree/">exclusion zones</a>, add artificial supports for branches, and install devices to catch or redirect falling limbs. We can also look at emergency solutions such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-owls-are-losing-their-homes-so-were-3d-printing-them-new-ones-133626">prosthetic hollows</a> on younger trees or even <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097588">artificial replicas</a> of old trees. </p>
<p>We should <a href="https://theconversation.com/smart-city-planning-can-preserve-old-trees-and-the-wildlife-that-needs-them-98632">preserve these trees</a> wherever we can and aim to keep them intact with their complex crowns and dead branches. We should also make sure there is a pipeline of young and medium trees to make sure there will be old trees in the future. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-act-of-god-or-just-bad-management-why-trees-fall-and-how-to-prevent-it-162754">An act of God, or just bad management? Why trees fall and how to prevent it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225276/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Holland has received relevant funding from the Australian Research Council and the ACT Parks and Conservation Service.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Thompson receives funding from The Australian Research Council and National Health and Medical Research Association. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Gibbons receives funding from the Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate of the ACT Government, the Natural Resources Commission, NSW Government and Riverview Projects Pty Ltd.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stanislav Roudavski has received relevant funding from the Australian Research Council and the ACT Parks and Conservation. </span></em></p>We scanned the tree canopy with lasers and found birds much prefer the branches of big old trees.Alex Holland, Researcher at Deep Design Lab and PhD Candidate at Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbourneJason Thompson, Associate Professor, Faculty of Medicine and Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbournePhilip Gibbons, Professor, Australian National UniversityStanislav Roudavski, Founder of Deep Design Lab and Senior Lecturer in Digital Architectural Design, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223062024-03-11T17:18:48Z2024-03-11T17:18:48ZThe next pandemic? It’s already here for Earth’s wildlife<p>I am a conservation biologist who studies emerging infectious diseases. When people ask me what I think the next pandemic will be I often say that we are in the midst of one – it’s just afflicting a great many species more than ours.</p>
<p>I am referring to the highly pathogenic strain of avian influenza H5N1 (HPAI H5N1), otherwise known as bird flu, which has killed millions of birds and unknown numbers of mammals, particularly during the past three years. </p>
<p>This is the strain that emerged in domestic geese in China in 1997 and quickly jumped to humans in south-east Asia with a mortality rate of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1634780/">around 40-50%</a>. My research group <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1634780/">encountered the virus</a> when it killed a mammal, an endangered <a href="https://svw.vn/owstons-civet/">Owston’s palm civet</a>, in a captive breeding programme in Cuc Phuong National Park Vietnam in 2005.</p>
<p>How these animals caught bird flu was never confirmed. Their diet is mainly earthworms, so they had not been infected by eating diseased poultry like many captive tigers in the region.</p>
<p>This discovery prompted us to collate all confirmed reports of fatal infection with bird flu to assess just how broad a threat to wildlife this virus might pose.</p>
<p>This is how a newly discovered virus in Chinese poultry came to threaten so much of the world’s biodiversity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person in white overalls operates a forklift carrying dead turkeys." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580987/original/file-20240311-22-gzginr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">H5N1 originated on a Chinese poultry farm in 1997.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/western-negev-israel-march-18-2006-111241157">ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The first signs</h2>
<p>Until December 2005, most confirmed infections had been found in a few zoos and rescue centres in Thailand and Cambodia. Our analysis in 2006 showed that nearly half (48%) of all the different groups of birds (known to taxonomists as “orders”) contained a species in which a fatal infection of bird flu had been reported. These 13 orders comprised 84% of all bird species. </p>
<p>We reasoned 20 years ago that the strains of H5N1 circulating were probably highly pathogenic to all bird orders. We also showed that the list of confirmed infected species included those that were globally threatened and that important habitats, such as Vietnam’s Mekong delta, lay close to reported poultry outbreaks.</p>
<p>Mammals known to be susceptible to bird flu during the early 2000s included primates, rodents, pigs and rabbits. Large carnivores such as Bengal tigers and clouded leopards were reported to have been killed, as well as domestic cats.</p>
<p>Our 2006 paper showed the ease with which this virus crossed species barriers and suggested it might one day produce a pandemic-scale threat to global biodiversity.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, our warnings were correct.</p>
<h2>A roving sickness</h2>
<p>Two decades on, bird flu is killing species from <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/02/polar-bear-dies-from-bird-flu-age-of-extinction">the high Arctic</a> to <a href="https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/avian-influenza-bird-flu/avian-flu-reaches-antarcticas-mainland">mainland Antarctica</a>.</p>
<p>In the past couple of years, bird flu has spread rapidly across Europe and infiltrated North and South America, killing millions of poultry and a variety of bird and mammal species. <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/3/23-1098_article">A recent paper</a> found that 26 countries have reported at least 48 mammal species that have died from the virus since 2020, when the latest increase in reported infections started.</p>
<p>Not even the ocean is safe. Since 2020, 13 species of aquatic mammal have succumbed, including American sea lions, porpoises and dolphins, often dying in their thousands in South America. A wide range of scavenging and predatory mammals that live on land are now also confirmed to be susceptible, including mountain lions, lynx, brown, black and polar bears.</p>
<p>The UK alone has <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/seabird-surveys-project-report">lost over 75%</a> of its great skuas and seen a 25% decline in northern gannets. Recent declines in sandwich terns (35%) and common terns (42%) were also <a href="https://maryannsteggles.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Bird-flu-causing-%E2%80%98catastrophic-fall-in-UK-seabird-numbers-conservationists-warn-Bird-flu-The-G.pdf">largely driven by the virus</a>. </p>
<p>Scientists haven’t managed to <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/3/23-1098_article">completely sequence</a> the virus in all affected species. Research and continuous surveillance could tell us how adaptable it ultimately becomes, and whether it can jump to even more species. We know it can already infect humans – one or more genetic mutations may make it more infectious.</p>
<h2>At the crossroads</h2>
<p>Between January 1 2003 and December 21 2023, 882 cases of human infection with the H5N1 virus were reported from 23 countries, of which <a href="https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/influenza/human-animal-interface-risk-assessments/influenza-at-the-human-animal-interface-summary-and-assessment--from-4-october-to-1-november-2023.pdf?sfvrsn=6c67e7df_2&download=true">461 (52%) were fatal</a>.</p>
<p>Of these fatal cases, more than half were in Vietnam, China, Cambodia and Laos. Poultry-to-human infections were first recorded in Cambodia in December 2003. Intermittent cases were reported until 2014, followed by a gap until 2023, yielding 41 deaths from 64 cases. The subtype of H5N1 virus responsible has been detected in poultry in Cambodia since 2014. In the early 2000s, the H5N1 virus circulating had a high human mortality rate, so it is worrying that we are now starting to see people dying after contact with poultry again.</p>
<p>It’s not just H5 subtypes of bird flu that concern humans. The H10N1 virus was originally isolated from wild birds in South Korea, but has also been reported in samples from China and Mongolia. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1256090/full">Recent research</a> found that these particular virus subtypes may be able to jump to humans after they were found to be pathogenic in laboratory mice and ferrets. The first person who was confirmed to be infected with H10N5 <a href="https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2024-DON504">died</a> in China on January 27 2024, but this patient was also suffering from seasonal flu (H3N2). They had been exposed to live poultry which also tested positive for H10N5.</p>
<p>Species already threatened with extinction are among those which have died due to bird flu in the past three years. The first deaths from the virus in mainland Antarctica have just been <a href="https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/avian-influenza-bird-flu/avian-flu-reaches-antarcticas-mainland">confirmed in skuas</a>, highlighting a looming threat to penguin colonies whose eggs and chicks skuas prey on. Humboldt penguins have already been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/30/science/birds-flu-antarctica.html">killed by the virus</a> in Chile.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A colony of king penguins." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580982/original/file-20240311-26-mmf7j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Remote penguin colonies are already threatened by climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/king-penguin-colony-103683413">AndreAnita/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How can we stem this tsunami of H5N1 and other avian influenzas? Completely overhaul poultry production on a global scale. Make farms self-sufficient in rearing eggs and chicks instead of exporting them internationally. The trend towards megafarms containing over a million birds must be stopped in its tracks. </p>
<p>To prevent the worst outcomes for this virus, we must revisit its primary source: the incubator of intensive poultry farms.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Bell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Bird flu is decimating species already threatened by climate change and habitat loss.Diana Bell, Professor of Conservation Biology, University of East AngliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140102024-03-08T14:01:57Z2024-03-08T14:01:57ZHow we’re breathing new life into French forests through green corridors<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573401/original/file-20240205-15-peliih.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C40%2C5439%2C3587&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A pine plantation and hedgerow as seen from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexandre Changenet, 2023</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the summer of 2008, during a family holiday road trip, we passed by the Aquitaine region in southwestern France. As we drove through a sprawling woodland, a mesmerizing sight unfolded before my eyes: a meticulously ordered army of trees, standing tall and proud. It could have been an army regiment classified by age.</p>
<p>This uniformity – in stark contrast to the wild and varied Mediterranean forests I was accustomed to – left me utterly captivated. Beneath the leafy canopy, the undergrowth seemed sparse, with only the occasional glimpse of heather and its discreet flowers, repeating like an infinite copy-paste.</p>
<p>I immediately thought that if I were a wild animal, this forest might not be the most stimulating place to call home. There was little biomass to sustain life, and while the simplified food chain offered few competitors, there were no companions, either. The woods felt monotonous.</p>
<h2>A European plan to revive thousands of acres</h2>
<p>Fast forward to last April, I returned to the same location, this time accompanied by more than 100 experts from <a href="https://forest-restoration.eu/">SUPERB</a>, an ambitious 20 million euro project funded by the Horizon programme to restore thousands of hectares of forest landscape across Europe.</p>
<p>The initiative, which relies on 12 forests including the Aquitaine site, will go some way in making good on the EU’s Nature Restoration bill, which commits the bloc to restoring at least 30% of degraded habitats by 2030, 60% by 2040 and 90% by 2050. It will also provide policy-makers with critical insights into the continent’s wildlife, life support systems and carbon sequestration capacity.</p>
<p>Spanning <a href="https://nouvelle-aquitaine.cnpf.fr/sites/socle/files/cnpf-old/30_foret_landes_gascogne_1.pdf">1 million hectares of planted forests</a>, the Aquitaine site plays an important part in the local economy, with 90% of its plantations private. Historically, the landowners here had thrived on long-term thinking and patience. Trees took their time to grow, but the rewards were bountiful. In the harvest, the first trees to be cleared are typically used for the manufacture of pulp and paper. Small trees are for pallets and packaging, while bigger trees are exploited for structural wood, beams or panelling parquet.</p>
<p>For generations, locals had employed top-notch forest management techniques, yielding high returns. But the forest and its wood-based economy are now under threat. During my week there, I realised that what had once appeared orderly and disciplined had by then struck me as odd and unbalanced. With time, relentless production had depleted the soil and flora. The climate was also growing more arid by the day. Landowners complained of increasingly frequent natural calamities – wildfires, pest outbreaks, and destructive windstorms.</p>
<p>I was there with colleagues to check on the restoration progress and learn from local scientists’ restoration experience. In our conversations, one word echoed repeatedly: <em>resilience</em> – the ability to rebound after disturbances, regardless of their origin. Another word for it when it comes to forest management is <em>biodiversity</em>, the dry term we scientists use for thriving wildlife. Since December 2021, SUPERB has been on a mission to bring it back to the woods of Aquitaine.</p>
<h2>Life through green corridors</h2>
<p>To revive dull, homogeneous nature, one typically has to mess it up, or at least according to our human eyes. At several levels: that of the landscape, by ensuring that forests, pastures and agricultural land rotate and balance one another out; at the species level, so that a multitude of trees, shrubs, and herbs can provide shelter for wildlife; and at the population level, where even large numbers of trees of the same species can react differently to environmental challenges, thereby maximising their survival chances.</p>
<p>However, this poses economic and logistical challenges. Unevenly aged trees and different tree species can hardly be harvested simultaneously, and large machinery face access difficulties. This is where SUPERB’s hedgerows come in. Working across 20 000 hectares, our team has spent the past months planting 10 km-long hedgerows to connect pockets of existing broad-leaf species, such as oaks. The idea is to form a physical barrier to increase resilience to pests and diseases and potentially other threats that may increase with a warming planet such as winds, storms, wildfires and drought.</p>
<h2>Swaying resistant landlords</h2>
<p>While many landowners are already committed to planting mixed hedgerows around their pine plantations, others are more prudent, and will need strong evidence to adopt this practice that costs money and breaks with tradition.</p>
<p>Scientists from French partners, including INRAE and the European Institute of Planted Forests, did their best to reassure them. Throughout the week, they had three drones scan the landscape from above, revealing the contrast between homogeneous pine forests and diverse hedgerows. On the ground, our team encountered traps for insects, pitfall traps for snakes, microhabitats for lizards, tree caves for bats, and audio recording and camera traps for other organisms. Even the soil’s diversity was examined through DNA analysis of its hidden microorganisms.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580226/original/file-20240306-28-u8jo2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Upper panel: A natural forest. Middle panel: a forest intensively managed for wood production (far from its natural state). Bottom panel: A forest managed with ‘closer to nature’ methods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.36333/fs12">Larsen et al., 2022/European Forest Institute</a>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the pursuit of understanding ecosystem and bolstering resilience, much remains to be uncovered. While we await a complete understanding, the <a href="https://efi.int/publications-bank/closer-nature-forest-management">“closer to nature” management approach</a>, which seeks to “prioritize ecological integrity, biodiversity and sustainable practices over intensive human interventions” is gaining traction, emulating what nature does best. Yet translating this knowledge into actionable management plans for the forest managers is the other area that SUPERB is working on.</p>
<p>As the coordinator of the SUPERB project, I had the privilege of visiting all its demonstration sites, from woods in Castille in Leon to the alpine landscapes of the Vindelälven-Juhttatahkka biosphere in Sweden, down to the mountainous region of Vysočina and North Moravia in Czech Republic. Each forest brought its own set of challenges such as bark-beetle attacks, fragmented trees, wildfires, and abandoned lands. It became evident that customized approaches were necessary to address restoration, even when facing similar problems.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is the result of The Conversation’s collaboration with <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine">Horizon</a>, the EU research and innovation magazine. In June, the author published <a href="https://projects.research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/en/horizon-magazine/europe-seeks-flourishing-forests-through-restoration">an article</a> with the magazine.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214010/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madga Bou Dagher a reçu des financements de Horizon Europe 2020 for SUPERB project. </span></em></p>The SUPERB project, part of the EU’s Horizon programme, aims to restore thousands of hectares of forest landscape across Europe.Madga Bou Dagher, Professor in Forest genetics, European Forest InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2244952024-03-05T21:19:45Z2024-03-05T21:19:45ZThe Anthropocene is not an epoch − but the age of humans is most definitely underway<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580004/original/file-20240305-26-j0m1i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C180%2C5727%2C3599&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Human influence on the climate started even before the Industrial Revolution.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/factoryscape-in-the-potteries-smoke-from-chimneys-in-the-news-photo/1036135896?adppopup=true">Print Collector/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When people talk about the “Anthropocene,” they typically picture the <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-anthropocene-a-very-short-introduction-9780198792987?cc=us&lang=en&">vast impact human societies are having</a> on the planet, from <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment">rapid declines in biodiversity</a> to <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/">increases in Earth’s temperature</a> by burning fossil fuels.</p>
<p>Such massive planetary changes did not begin all at once at any single place or time.</p>
<p>That’s why <a href="https://theconversation.com/did-the-anthropocene-start-in-1950-or-much-earlier-heres-why-debate-over-our-world-changing-impact-matters-209869">it was controversial</a> when, after over a decade of study and debate, an international committee of scientists – <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/working-groups/anthropocene/">the Anthropocene Working Group</a> – proposed to mark the Anthropocene as an epoch in the <a href="https://stratigraphy.org/chart#latest-version">geologic time scale</a> starting precisely in 1952. The marker was radioactive fallout from hydrogen bomb tests.</p>
<p>On March 4, 2024, the commission responsible for recognizing time units within our most recent period of geologic time – the <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/">Subcommission on Quarternary Stratigraphy</a> – rejected that proposal, with 12 of 18 members voting no. These are the scientists most expert at reconstructing Earth’s history from the evidence in rocks. They determined that adding an Anthropocene Epoch – and terminating the Holocene Epoch – was not supported by the standards used to define epochs.</p>
<p>To be clear, this vote has no bearing on the overwhelming evidence that human societies are indeed transforming this planet.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://ges.umbc.edu/ellis/">an ecologist who studies global change</a>, I served on the <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/working-groups/anthropocene/">Anthropocene Working Group</a> from its start in 2009 until 2023. <a href="https://anthroecology.org/why-i-resigned-from-the-anthropocene-working-group/">I resigned</a> because I was convinced that this proposal defined the Anthropocene so narrowly that it would damage broader scientific and public understanding. </p>
<p>By tying the start of the human age to such a recent and devastating event – nuclear fallout – this proposal risked sowing confusion about the deep history of how humans are transforming the Earth, from climate change and biodiversity losses to pollution by plastics and tropical deforestation.</p>
<h2>The original idea of the Anthropocene</h2>
<p>In the years since the term Anthropocene was coined by Nobel Prize-winning <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/23/15445/2023/">atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen</a> in 2000, it has increasingly defined our times as an age of human-caused planetary transformation, from climate change to biodiversity loss, plastic pollution, megafires and much more.</p>
<p>Crutzen originally proposed that the Anthropocene began in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/415023a">latter part of the 18th century</a>, as a product of the Industrial age. He also noted that setting a more precise start date would be “<a href="https://www.mpic.de/3865097/the-anthropocene">arbitrary</a>.” </p>
<p>According to geologists, we humans have been living in the Holocene Epoch for about 11,700 years, since the end of the last ice age. </p>
<p>Human societies began influencing Earth’s biodiversity and climate through agriculture <a href="https://cligs.vt.edu/blog/climate-change--a-new-twist-on-a-very-old-story.html">thousands of years ago</a>. These changes began to accelerate about five centuries ago with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthropocene-began-with-species-exchange-between-old-and-new-worlds-38674">colonial collision of the old and new worlds</a>. And, as Crutzen noted, Earth’s climate really began to change with the increasing use of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Industrial-Revolution">fossil fuels in the Industrial Revolution</a> that began in the late 1700s.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579988/original/file-20240305-20-6j3yag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A chart reflecting timing of the ‘Anthropocene Event’ shows how various human activities have affected the planet over mlllennia in the recent geologic time scale. Click the image to enlarge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3416">Philip Gibbard, et al., 2022</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Anthropocene as an epoch</h2>
<p>The rationale for proposing to define an Anthropocene Epoch starting around 1950 came from overwhelming evidence that many of the most consequential changes of the human age shifted upward dramatically about that time in a so-called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2053019614564785">Great Acceleration” identified by climate scientist Will Steffen</a> and others. </p>
<p>Radioisotopes like plutonium from hydrogen bomb tests conducted around this time left clear traces in soils, sediments, trees, corals and other potential geological records across the planet. The plutonium peak in the sediments of Crawford Lake in Ontario, Canada – <a href="https://theconversation.com/did-the-anthropocene-start-in-1950-or-much-earlier-heres-why-debate-over-our-world-changing-impact-matters-209869">chosen as the “golden spike</a>” for determining the start of the Anthropocene Epoch – is well marked in the lake bed’s exceptionally clear sediment record. </p>
<h2>The Anthropocene Epoch is dead; long live the Anthropocene</h2>
<p>So why was the Anthropocene Epoch rejected? And what happens now?</p>
<p>The proposal to add an Anthropocene Epoch to the geological time scale was rejected for a variety of reasons, none of them related to the fact that human societies are changing this planet. In fact, the opposite is true. </p>
<p>If there is one main reason why geologists rejected this proposal, it is because its recent date and shallow depth are too narrow to encompass the deeper evidence of human-caused planetary change. As geologist <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa7297">Bill Ruddiman and others wrote in Science Magazine in 2015</a>, “Does it really make sense to define the start of a human-dominated era millennia after most forests in arable regions had been cut for agriculture?”</p>
<p>Discussions of an Anthropocene Epoch aren’t over yet. But it is very unlikely that there will be an official Anthropocene Epoch declaration anytime soon.</p>
<p>The lack of a formal definition of an Anthropocene Epoch will not be a problem for science. </p>
<p>A scientific definition of the Anthropocene is already widely available in the form of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3416">the Anthropocene Event</a>, which basically defines Anthropocene <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104340">in simple geological terms</a> as “a complex, transformative, and ongoing event analogous to the Great Oxidation Event and others in the geological record.”</p>
<p>So, despite the “no” vote on the Anthropocene Epoch, the Anthropocene will continue to be as useful as it has been for more than 20 years in stimulating discussions and research into the nature of human transformation of this planet. </p>
<p><em>This article was updated to clarify that a new attempt at an official Anthropocene Epoch declaration is unlikely soon.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erle C. Ellis is a former member of the Anthropocene Working Group of the International Commission on Stratigraphy. He is a member of the American Association of Geographers.</span></em></p>Scientists have been debating the start of the Anthropocene Epoch for 15 years. I was part of those discussions, and I agree with the vote rejecting it.Erle C. Ellis, Professor of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2234462024-03-03T23:36:20Z2024-03-03T23:36:20ZWhy move species to islands? Saving wildlife as the world changes means taking calculated risks<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577775/original/file-20240225-16-eqqb33.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C10%2C1400%2C799&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_barred_bandicoot#/media/File:Perameles_gunnii_-_Gould.jpg">John Gould/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The eastern barred bandicoot was once found in abundance across the basalt plains of western Victoria. But habitat destruction and predation by introduced red foxes drove the species to the brink of extinction on the mainland.</p>
<p>Establishing populations in fenced reserves was critical in providing insurance against extinction. To further increase bandicoot numbers to provide long-term security against extinction, we needed more fox-free land.</p>
<p>A bold plan was hatched: move the species to where the predators weren’t. Introduce them to Victoria’s <a href="https://www.penguins.org.au/about/media/latest-news/taking-action-to-find-and-remove-phillip-island-fox-threat/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CA%20combined%20effort%20between%20the,25%20years%20of%20dedicated%20effort.">fox-free</a> Phillip and French islands.</p>
<p>Six years later, the bandicoot made conservation history, as the first species in Australia <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2022/02/eastern-barred-bandicoot-how-the-little-diggers-rebounded/">to be reclassified</a> from <em>extinct in the wild</em> to <em>endangered</em>. </p>
<p>Why don’t we translocate all endangered species to islands? The technique can be effective, but can come with unwanted consequences. </p>
<h2>The surprising benefits of translocation</h2>
<p>Eastern barred bandicoots are ecosystem engineers. As they dig for their dinner of worms, beetles, bulbs, fungi and other foods, their industrious work <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-little-bandicoot-can-dig-up-an-elephants-worth-of-soil-a-year-and-our-ecosystem-loves-it-132266">improves soil quality</a>, and in turn, the health of vegetation. </p>
<p>So when we translocate threatened species, we can get a double win – a rapid increase in their populations and restoration of lost ecosystem functions.</p>
<p>Australia’s landscapes look very different than they did before European colonisation around <a href="https://theconversation.com/existential-threat-to-our-survival-see-the-19-australian-ecosystems-already-collapsing-154077">230 years ago</a>. </p>
<p>Industrialised farming, introduced predators and habitat destruction and fragmentation are driving <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-re-counted-australias-extinct-species-and-the-result-is-devastating-127611">biodiversity decline and extinctions</a>. As species die out, ecosystems lose the vital functions wildlife perform. Without them, ecosystems might not operate as well or even collapse – a little like a poorly serviced car engine. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/losing-australias-diggers-is-hurting-our-ecosystems-18590">Losing Australia's diggers is hurting our ecosystems</a>
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<p>We feel the loss most acutely when we lose <a href="https://theconversation.com/beavers-and-oysters-are-helping-restore-lost-ecosystems-with-their-engineering-skills-podcast-198573">keystone species</a> on which many other species depend, such as oysters and bees. Restoring these functions can improve biodiversity and the sustainability of food production. For instance, encouraging owls to return to farmland <a href="https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2023.1182137">can cut</a> the use of <a href="https://theconversation.com/mouse-plague-bromadiolone-will-obliterate-mice-but-itll-poison-eagles-snakes-and-owls-too-160995">damaging rodent poisons</a>, as owls eat thousands of mice and rats yearly. </p>
<p>Before colonisation, industrious digging mammals and their soil excavations were <a href="https://theconversation.com/mourn-our-lost-mammals-while-helping-the-survivors-battle-back-36126">extremely widespread</a>. Regrettably, introduced foxes and cats have made short work of many of Australia’s diggers. Six of 29 digging species are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mam.12014">now extinct</a>, including the lesser bilby, pig-footed bandicoot and desert rat-kangaroo. Many others are endangered. </p>
<h2>Could translocation save more species?</h2>
<p>Conservationists have successfully translocated species such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-western-swamp-tortoise-11630">western swamp tortoise</a>, the <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/wildlife/shark-bay-mouse/">Shark Bay mouse</a>, and <a href="https://denr.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/255082/quolltranslocation_final.pdf">northern quolls</a>.</p>
<p>New environments don’t necessarily need to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/cats-wreak-havoc-on-native-wildlife-but-weve-found-one-adorable-species-outsmarting-them-132265">predator-free</a>. The eastern barred bandicoot is thriving on Phillip and French Island, in the presence of feral and domestic cats. The key is there are no foxes. </p>
<p>Many islands are now being thought of as conservation arks, able to provide <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr17172">safe havens</a> for several threatened species at once. Dirk Hartog Island, Western Australia’s largest, is <a href="https://www.sharkbay.org/restoration/dirk-hartog-island-return-1616/#:%7E:text=These%20include%20the%20Shark%20Bay,boodie%20and%20the%20western%20grasswren.">now home</a> to reintroduced western quolls, dibblers, mulgaras and other small mammals, as well as two translocated hare-wallaby species. </p>
<h2>Why is translocation not more common?</h2>
<p>The technique can work very well – but it can also backfire. </p>
<p>In the 1920s, conservationists undertook the first translocation in Australia by moving koalas to Phillip and French Island – the same Victorian islands now a refuge for bandicoots. While this protected koalas <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-once-killed-600-000-koalas-in-a-year-now-theyre-australias-teddy-bears-what-changed-219609">from hunting pressure</a>, koala populations exploded, and the tree-dwelling marsupials ate themselves <a href="https://theconversation.com/victorian-koalas-are-eating-themselves-out-of-house-and-home-38585">out of house and home</a> in some areas. </p>
<p>In 2012, conservationists began introducing Tasmanian devils to Maria Island, just off Tasmania’s east coast. They wanted to conserve a healthy population free from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/tasmanian-devils-look-set-to-conquer-their-own-pandemic-151842">contagious facial tumour</a> which has devastated their populations. On Maria Island, the devils became <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-22/tasmanian-devils-decimate-wildlife-on-maria-island/100234550">too successful</a>, wiping out the island’s penguin and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320720306935">shearwater</a> populations. </p>
<p>You can see translocations aren’t a silver bullet. We have to carefully consider the pros and cons of any such conservation intervention. Ecosystems <a href="https://theconversation.com/species-dont-live-in-isolation-what-changing-threats-to-4-marsupials-tell-us-about-the-future-200990">are complex</a>. It’s <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-01298-8">not easy to predict</a> what will happen to an ecosystem if we introduce a species new to the area. </p>
<p>The decision to translocate a species is a value judgement – it prioritises one species over the broader ecosystem. Opponents of translocation <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320711001728?via%3Dihub">question whether</a> we are doing the right thing in valuing efforts to conserve a single species over the innate value of the existing ecosystem. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-you-want-to-cat-proof-a-bettong-how-living-with-predators-could-help-native-species-survive-170450">So you want to cat-proof a bettong: how living with predators could help native species survive</a>
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<h2>What’s the best approach in future?</h2>
<p>Translocation is not the end goal. Islands cannot support the vast array of threatened species in Australia. </p>
<p>The end goal is to establish and expand threatened species populations on the mainland in fenced reserves before eventually reintroducing them to the wild where they will encounter introduced predators. </p>
<p>Research is being done to explore how we can make this work, such as: </p>
<p>1) <strong>Predator-savvy wildlife:</strong> some native species may be <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13406">able to adapt</a> to living alongside introduced predators – with some help. For example, conservationists have exposed semi-captive bilbies to small numbers of feral cats with the aim of increasing their wariness and ultimately boosting their chances of survival. Results have been encouraging. </p>
<p>2) <strong>Building ecosystem resilience:</strong> we know more intact native ecosystems can reduce the chance of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01941.x">damage from invasive species </a>. That means re-establishing native ecosystems could boost their resilience.</p>
<p>Moving a species from its home is a bold and risky decision. It’s critical local communities and <a href="https://theconversation.com/ancient-knowledge-is-lost-when-a-species-disappears-its-time-to-let-indigenous-people-care-for-their-country-their-way-172760">First Nations groups</a> are consulted and able to guide discussions and any eventual actions. </p>
<p>For their part, governments, land managers and conservationists must think more broadly about how we might best conserve species and ecosystems in a rapidly changing world. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/threatened-species-recover-in-fenced-safe-havens-but-their-safety-is-only-temporary-200548">Threatened species recover in fenced safe havens. But their safety is only temporary</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223446/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Rendall receives funding from the Department of Energy, Environment, and Climate Action. Anthony is a member of the Australian Mammal Society. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Coetsee works for Zoos Victoria, a not-for-profit zoo-based conservation organisation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aviya Naccarella is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia, Australian Mammal Society and Royal Zoological Society of NSW.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan Ritchie receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Department of Energy, Environment, and Climate Action. Euan is a Councillor within the Biodiversity Council, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>Translocation may have been the key to survival for the eastern barred bandicoot but it might not be the golden ticket for every species.Anthony Rendall, Lecturer in Conservation Biology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityAmy Coetsee, Threatened Species Biologist, The University of MelbourneAviya Naccarella, PhD Candidate, Deakin UniversityEuan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223112024-03-01T17:24:50Z2024-03-01T17:24:50ZWild solitary bees offer a vital pollination service – but their nutritional needs aren’t understood<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576508/original/file-20240219-20-4ra04s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Solitary bees, including this Nomada goodeniana, often feed on nectar from specific flowers - in this case, white hawthorn. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/soft-closeup-on-male-goodens-nomad-2151214787">HWall/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As I walk around the supermarket, I pick up vegetables for tomorrow’s dinner, eggs and bread for tonight and some sweet treats for the week. By choosing a range of different food types, I’ll eat a wide variety of nutrients. But what if bread was the only option available? And another shop just sold a different type of loaf? Or only oranges?</p>
<p>This may sound far-fetched, but for bees – insects that depend on pollen and nectar for their nutrition – that’s the equivalent of feeding from a large field of just one type of plant. Some bees feed on a wide range of plants. Others, including some of the UK’s <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/other-bees/">200 wild solitary bee species</a> are specialists, like the <a href="https://bwars.com/bee/melittidae/melitta-dimidiata">sainfoin bee</a> that only visits one type of flower for pollen. </p>
<p>While some UK bee species are thriving, many have declined as a result of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12667472/">changes in the abundance and variety</a> of flowers across our landscapes.</p>
<p>Much less is known about the biology of solitary bees compared to that of domesticated honeybees or bumblebees, which have been extensively studied in large numbers under lab conditions. By comparison, solitary bees don’t form colonies or have a queen-worker system. The nutritional needs of each solitary bee species varies so it’s difficult to know what diet they would need in order to thrive during experimental conditions. </p>
<p>Yet, they provide a vital pollination service for some of our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880921001511?casa_token=tdHy6f7VJfQAAAAA:iPS3yu_jmGdEgHMQV_tUgvZr9F3cyK52y9T1fuBxMjl2ZaOLh715KiVECzE8EL_RjvgvUl5A">flowering crops</a> and help maintain our wildflower populations. So understanding their nutrition in greater detail could help us make sure the right flower foods are available to them.</p>
<h2>The bees’ needs</h2>
<p>For my PhD, I’m studying the different fats that are available in pollen from UK wildflowers and the fats found in the bodies of different bee species. Fats are essential to healthy growth and development in bees, however there’s huge variation in the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/11/2/132">quantity and quality</a> of food that different flowers provide. Cataloguing that information is complicated.</p>
<p>I’m specifically researching why solitary bees, many of which have specialised relationships with their food plants, visit certain flowers.</p>
<p>Nutrition is complex. Huge monocultures, (growing one crop species in a field at a time), provide a homogenous nutritional offering. Areas with a wider diversity of flowers can provide more nutritional diversity, but extracting enough pollen or nectar to analyse is challenging. </p>
<p>Just because one food source has high protein levels, it might not contain the essential ones or may have a poor fat content. If I recommend that you eat nothing but oranges because they’re rich in vitamin C, you’d miss out on other key nutrients such as protein. Similarly, with pollen and nectar, we need to understand the content of what bees are eating. </p>
<p>Nectar is a sugary liquid which provides lots of carbohydrates. Bees drink it using their tongues. Pollen provides the protein and fat content bees need and is collected on their bodies for transport back to their nests. The nutritional content of both pollen and nectar varies widely between flowers. To understand what food is available to them over <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature16532">large areas</a>, we need to have nutritional information for a lot of different plants. </p>
<h2>How to feed wild bees</h2>
<p>Despite our lack of knowledge about the precise nutritional needs of bees, there are ways we can help feed them. Solitary bees can be found in your <a href="https://www.mygardenofathousandbees.com/the-film">garden</a> or local park. To learn more about them, start by trying to recognise them. Some don’t look like bees because they can be very small or hairless and some can easily be mistaken for wasps in the case of <a href="https://bwars.com/category/taxonomic-hierarchy/bee-4"><em>Nomada</em></a> species, with their black and yellow banding and hairless bodies. </p>
<p>Entomologist and ecologist Steven Falk maintains <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/63075200@N07/collections/72157631518508520/">an excellent stock of photos online</a> and has published a comprehensive <a href="https://www.nhbs.com/field-guide-to-the-bees-of-great-britain-and-ireland-book">ID guide</a>. </p>
<p>Letting a green space go wild or choosing <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10841-019-00180-8">seed mixes with diverse flowers</a> can encourage a variety of wild bees. Even small patches of wildflowers can make a difference, especially at times of year when few other flowers are out, as has been shown in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0769-y">urban areas</a>. </p>
<p>Avoid plants bred to have little or no pollen or nectar. Ensuring food is available throughout their active period is key. The first bees emerge in March and the last ones feed until October. So while it’s good to have plenty of flowers available in peak summer when lots of bees are active, bees emerging from over-wintering need food in spring and those stocking up before winter need flowers to forage from. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close up of colourful wildflowers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576829/original/file-20240220-26-bsp0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A colourful mix of wildflowers provides more diverse nutrition for wild pollinators such as solitary bees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/search/wildflower-meadow?image_type=photo">Tohuwabohu 1976/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Useful resources for selecting plants to bring bees into your garden include the RHS <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/science/conservation-biodiversity/wildlife/plants-for-pollinators">plants for pollinators</a> list, the Bumblebee Conservation Trust’s <a href="https://beekind.bumblebeeconservation.org/">Bee Kind garden-scoring tool</a>, plus planting recommendations from <a href="https://friendsoftheearth.uk/nature/beefriendly-plants-every-season">Friends of the Earth</a> and <a href="https://www.buglife.org.uk/get-involved/gardening-for-bugs/planting-for-bugs-2/#:%7E:text=Open%2C%20daisy%2Dtype%20flowers%20and,such%20as%20Jasmine%20and%20Honeysuckle.">Buglife</a>. </p>
<p>Our wild solitary bees are an ecologically important and fascinating group of insects. Steps we take to support them in our gardens and at the landscape scale are key to maintaining the diversity of insects that pollinate so many of our flowers and crops. Even the smallest patches of wildflowers can provide much needed food for hungry bees and, above all, a varied menu.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ellen Baker receives funding from NERC and is a member of the British Ecological Society. </span></em></p>The nutritional needs of bees are complex and monoculture crops aren’t providing a diverse diet. Introducing more diverse wildflower meadows and green spaces could benefit wild pollinators.Ellen Baker, PhD Candidate, Nutritional Ecology, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2233052024-03-01T02:15:13Z2024-03-01T02:15:13ZOn fisheries, Australia must be prepared for New Zealand as opponent rather than ally<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578815/original/file-20240229-26-3xjoe8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C4403%2C2942&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fishing-net-trawler-hauled-on-deck-2146555375">Tara Lambourne/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On February 1, senior Australian and New Zealand ministers signed a <a href="https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/penny-wong/media-release/joint-statement-australia-new-zealand-ministerial-consultations-anzmin-2024">Joint Statement of Cooperation</a>, acknowledging the long history of collaboration between the two nations. </p>
<p>The same week, New Zealand <a href="https://www.sprfmo.int/assets/Meetings/01-COMM/12th-Commission-2024/COMM12-Report-2024-Final-26Feb24-No-Annexes.pdf">rejected</a> an Australian proposal on sustainable fishing at the annual fisheries meeting of nations that fish in the high seas of the South Pacific. The move has driven a wedge between these traditional allies. </p>
<p>At stake was an agreement by those nations to protect 70% of special and vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as ancient corals, from destructive fishing practices like bottom-trawling. </p>
<p>Until December 2023, NZ was jointly leading the work to implement this agreement with Australia. But New Zealand’s new government, a coalition of conservative parties, rejected the proposed restrictions, citing concerns about jobs and development. </p>
<p>This sudden about-face raises many questions for Australia, and for progress on sustainable fishing more generally. On fishing, Australia must now be prepared to consider New Zealand an opponent rather than ally. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1761828748163420434"}"></div></p>
<h2>Sustainable fishing alliance no more?</h2>
<p>In 2009, Australia, New Zealand and Chile led successful negotiations for a convention governing sustainable fishing in the South Pacific high seas beyond a nation’s marine exclusive economic zones, meaning more than 370km off the coast. The goal was to make sure fish stocks were not fished out and to protect marine ecosystems. (Tuna are not included, as they are dealt with under a separate convention.) </p>
<p>Since then, New Zealand and Australia have led much of the development of regulations governing the sustainable use of deepwater fish species and the conservation of vulnerable marine ecosystems in the South Pacific region. Their work led to the first measures governing deepwater fisheries, science-based catch limits for deepwater species, and a joint assessment of seafloor fishing methods such as trawling.</p>
<p>But the idea of banning or restricting trawling was controversial. Bottom-trawling, in which boats deploy giant nets that scrape along the ocean floor, is very effective – so much so that it can devastate everything in its path. </p>
<p>In 2015, the United Nations’ first <a href="https://www.un.org/regularprocess/content/first-world-ocean-assessment#:%7E:text=The%20First%20Global%20Integrated%20Marine,Marine%20Environment%2C%20including%20Socioeconomic%20Aspects">worldwide ocean assessment</a> found bottom-trawling causes widespread, long-term destruction to deep-sea environments wherever it is done. Scientists have compared it to clear-felling a forest. The practice is banned in the Mediterranean and in shallow waters of the Southern Ocean, and is increasingly restricted by many nations, including Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="bottom trawling coral" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580023/original/file-20240305-16-hv069o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This 2005 photo shows crew on the New Zealand bottom trawler, Waipori, dumping a large piece of Paragorgia coral dredged from the deep sea in their net.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.greenpeace.org/aotearoa/story/writing-on-the-wall-for-nz-bottom-trawling-industry/">Malcolm Pullman/Greenpeace</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>The UN has repeatedly called for better protection, as well as specific actions to make it a reality. And many nations and organisations are heeding that call. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-now-have-a-treaty-governing-the-high-seas-can-it-protect-the-wild-west-of-the-oceans-201184">We now have a treaty governing the high seas. Can it protect the Wild West of the oceans?</a>
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<p>The science is clear. But the politics is not. International waters in the South Pacific are one of the few areas where deepwater bottom-trawling is still permitted on seamounts – underwater mountains rich in life – and similar features.</p>
<p>Last year, South Pacific nations agreed to protect a minimum of 70% of marine ecosystems vulnerable to damage from fishing. This agreement came from research done largely by New Zealand. </p>
<p>Other countries pushed for a higher level of protection, but New Zealand insisted on 70% to ensure its fishing could continue. These kinds of compromises are common at meetings like this.</p>
<p>The meeting in February was meant to agree on how to make the consensus decision a reality. But it was not to be. Now that NZ has withdrawn support, the original decision remains but without the mechanisms to make it happen. Bottom-trawling will likely continue in the South Pacific. </p>
<p>Why? The new NZ fisheries minister, Shane Jones, has <a href="https://newsroom.co.nz/2024/02/01/jones-to-make-nz-jobs-no-1-to-dismay-of-ocean-conservation-allies/">publicly stated</a> he was “keen to ensure that, number one, we’re looking after our own people, looking after jobs and opportunities for economic development to benefit New Zealand.”</p>
<p>While high seas fishing is an important industry for New Zealand, their bottom trawling activity in the South Pacific <a href="https://www.sprfmo.int/assets/Meetings/02-SC/11th-SC-2023/Plenary-documents/SC11-Doc16-Annual-Report-of-New-Zealand-to-SC11-2023.pdf">is small</a>. One vessel fished the bottom in 2021-2022, catching only 20 tonnes of orange roughy. No bottom trawling has happened since then. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="fishing boats in Auckland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578819/original/file-20240229-28-1xzxwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">New Zealand’s seafood exports are economically important.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/auckland-new-zealand-february-01-2016-381601837">krug_100/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Since coming to power, New Zealand’s new government has questioned 2030 renewable energy targets, promised to “address climate change hysteria”, declared mining more important than nature protection – and supported bottom-trawling. </p>
<p>Many of these changes will be of considerable concern to Australia. For the past 15 years, Australia has taken a prominent leadership role – alongside New Zealand – in sustainable ocean management. </p>
<p>With Pacific island nations, Australia and NZ worked long and hard to progress the High Seas Treaty – a breakthrough <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-now-have-a-treaty-governing-the-high-seas-can-it-protect-the-wild-west-of-the-oceans-201184">opening new legal avenues</a> to protect up to 30% of the unregulated high seas where illegal and exploitative fishing practices are common. </p>
<p>The NZ government’s willingness to jettison long collaborative work, abandon agreed commitments and risk existing agreements bodes poorly for cooperation across the Tasman. Australia must sadly now treat New Zealand as an opponent when it comes to protecting the seas and managing fisheries for the long term. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-now-have-a-treaty-governing-the-high-seas-can-it-protect-the-wild-west-of-the-oceans-201184">We now have a treaty governing the high seas. Can it protect the Wild West of the oceans?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223305/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynda Goldsworthy has attended South Pacific regional fisheries meetings as an academic advisor on the Australian delegation for the past 5 years, and provides occasional consultancy advice to the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition on high seas conservation issues. </span></em></p>For years, Australia and New Zealand have been united in working for sustainable fishing in the South Pacific. That just changed.Lynda Goldsworthy, Research Associate, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2210852024-02-22T20:50:27Z2024-02-22T20:50:27ZHow advanced genetic testing can be used to combat the illegal timber trade<p>According to <a href="https://www.interpol.int/Crimes/Environmental-crime/Forestry-crime">Interpol</a>, the organization dedicated to facilitating international police co-operation, between 15 per cent and 30 per cent of the world’s traded timber comes from illegal sources. This is an estimated annual value of US$51-152 billion dollars. </p>
<p>Illegal logging has serious consequences for the environment, the climate and the local livelihoods of the people who depend upon the affected forests. In turn, local governments are faced with losses in revenue, rising corruption and decreasing timber prices. These make it even more difficult for the legal forestry sector to remain competitive. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/illegal-logging-in-africa-is-a-threat-to-security-202291">Illegal logging in Africa is a threat to security</a>
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<p>Even in Canada, customers are unwittingly supporting this theft by buying timber with false declarations. In the face of such issues, Canadian researchers are currently developing a <a href="https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.891853/publication.html">traceability system</a> employing genomic identification technologies to help tackle the trade in illegal timber. </p>
<h2>Stemming the flow</h2>
<p>To help address poaching, the United States expanded the pre-existing <a href="https://www.fws.gov/law/lacey-act">Lacey Act in 2008</a>. Originally designed to control the illegal trade of <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/lacey-acts-effectiveness">wildlife</a>, it was adapted to help tackle the trade in illegally harvested wood. The 2008 amendments to the Lacey Act decreased the importation of illegally harvested wood into the U.S. by approximately 32 to 44 per cent. </p>
<p>In Canada, similar regulations have been put in place to avoid the exploitation of species at risk including the <a href="https://www.laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/W-8.5/index.html">Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act</a>. But how do we know if the declarations of a wood product are accurate or correctly reported? </p>
<p>In general, identification methods can be categorized into three groups: anatomical, analytical or molecular biological techniques — each with its <a href="https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21518.79689">own set of advantages and limitations</a>. </p>
<p>Identification methods which use the aid of <a href="https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.21.00067">microscope technology</a> look for distinct characteristics of the wood anatomy including tissues and cells. It is also the group of methods most commonly used.</p>
<p>However, this method requires trained specialists, the appropriate equipment and can typically only provide meaningful conclusions at the <a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/genus">genus level</a>. In addition, wood anatomy cannot tell us where a piece of wood comes from. </p>
<h2>Looking to genetics</h2>
<p>This is where genomics come into play. To determine the species identity and the geographic origin of a logged tree, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35016000">researchers take advantage of evolution</a>. </p>
<p>A few key factors make genetic identification possible. </p>
<p>Firstly, there are clear genetic differences between distinct <em><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2771874/#:%7E:text=We%20define%20a%20genetic%20species,from%20the%20Biological%20Species%20Concept.">species</a></em>. Secondly, the closer the relationship between individuals — in this case trees — the more genetically similar they are, while the more removed the individuals are the less genetic information is shared.</p>
<p>Therefore, it is possible to assign an individual to a “local population” based on its genetic fingerprint, sharing parts of its genetic makeup with that population and, consequently, <a href="https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/abs/10.5558/tfc2018-010">also the specific region where it originates from</a>. This method is called population genetics. </p>
<p>The power of population genetics lies in its ability to identify groups of individuals that share a certain amount of genetic information that can be used to assign individuals to a species or a geographic region. The same methods can be used for humans to find unknown relatives or trace back the ethnic origin of your ancestors. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weakening-australias-illegal-logging-laws-would-undermine-the-global-push-to-halt-forest-loss-172770">Weakening Australia's illegal logging laws would undermine the global push to halt forest loss</a>
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<p>To reliably assign individuals, a variety of genetic markers is needed, varying between species and local populations. </p>
<p>In Canada, the first successful use of genetic material to conduct forensic testing on trees was pioneered by geneticist Eleanor White who succeeded in <a href="https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/5177.pdf">tracing a wood log directly to the specific stump of an 800-year-old cedar tree in Western Canada</a> left behind after its illegal felling.</p>
<p>White’s success demonstrates the power of genomic identification in regulating the timber trade.</p>
<h2>Developing new systems</h2>
<p>Genomic sequencing in combination with genetic data analyses gained public traction during the COVID-19 pandemic, as these were used to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18314-x">identify an outbreak of a new virus variant and trace its origin</a>.</p>
<p>Current research in wood forensics is using similar tools to assign an individual to a source population with high accuracy. Since genetic analyses can be costly, genetic databases of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10297">previously studied species</a> are compiled and used as test data to determine the best and most reliable analytical method.</p>
<p>The aim is to create a simple traceability system for timber products that border officials can implement quickly and easily. This should help stop the sale of illegally harvested timber and hold those responsible to account. </p>
<p>The long-term goal is to make it more difficult to sell illegally harvested timber in Canada and thus contribute to the protection of valuable forests. In addition, traceability can certify areas in Canada which are sustainably managed, making it easier for consumers to support sustainable forest management practices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221085/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melanie Zacharias receives funding from Génome Québec. </span></em></p>Effective use of genomic identification could revolutionize the control of the illegal timber trade.Melanie Zacharias, Postdoctoral researcher in forest genetics, Université LavalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2227432024-02-21T19:12:19Z2024-02-21T19:12:19ZHard to kill: here’s why eucalypts are survival experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576420/original/file-20240219-24-nbwq6k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2094%2C1551&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flickr.com/photos/88123769@N02/8065560838">Bernard Spragg/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>They can recover from fire. Grow back from a bare stump. Shrug aside bark loss that would kill a lesser tree. Endure drought and floods. </p>
<p>Eucalypts are not interested in dying. They’re survivors. The world’s 800-plus species are almost all found in Australia, a continent with old, degraded soils and frequent fires and droughts. </p>
<p>In the fossil record, they first appear about 34 million years ago. As the Australian continent dried out, eucalypts <a href="https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/story-our-eucalypts">gradually emerged</a> as the dominant trees in all but the most arid and tropical areas. </p>
<p>But what is it about eucalypts that makes them survivors? It’s a combination. Leathery leaves. Fire-resistant bark. Dormant buds under bark, waiting for fire. Mallee roots (lignotubers) at ground level to let them regrow. Roots which put out special chemicals to unlock scarce nutrients. And gumnuts which use fire to germinate and get a head-start on any rivals. </p>
<p>In a difficult place to survive, they thrive. Here’s how they do it. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-reveals-how-forests-reduce-their-own-bushfire-risk-if-theyre-left-alone-201868">New research reveals how forests reduce their own bushfire risk, if they're left alone</a>
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<h2>Leaves</h2>
<p>Many gum species have leaves which hang vertically. These adaptations are about water. Water in Australia is often scarce, and it makes sense for trees to hold onto it when they have it. Vertical leaves means less direct sun, which means less evaporation. Their dry, leathery leaves also keep the water inside. It also improves their tolerance to bushfire. </p>
<h2>Bark</h2>
<p>Stringybark, ironbark, candlebark – the bark of eucalypts is used to identify them. But it’s also one of their great adaptations. The bark is often an excellent insulator against hot, dry summers as well as a <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2021/11/eucalyptus-and-the-ancient-kingdom-of-fire/">protective barrier</a> against fire. </p>
<p>Stringy bark is so fibrous that despite singeing and looking black on the surface, it <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/interactive/2023/tree-flammability/index.html">often doesn’t burn</a>, meaning buds beneath it are protected from damage.</p>
<h2>Buds</h2>
<p>Underneath the bark of a normal-looking eucalypt lie <a href="https://www.treenet.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/2010-fire-trees-and-climate-change-g.-m.-moore.pdf">thousands of dormant buds</a>. These invisible “epicormic” buds are a remarkable adaptation, letting the tree rapidly regrow after bushfires, severe insect and animal grazing, storms, droughts or floods. </p>
<p>You can spot epicormic shoots sprouting up and down the trunks of gum trees after a fire, making them look like “toothbrush trees”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Eucalyptus Epicormic Buds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Epicormic Shoots emerge from Eucalyptus buds hidden under the bark after a bush fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usforestservice/49836705293">Forest Service/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Epicormic shoots <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03071375.2015.1066559">can grow</a> 27cm in a single day, or up to 6 metres in a year. When epicormic buds touch soil, they can sometimes develop as roots. This allows fallen trees or even large branches to re-establish and anchor after storms and floods. </p>
<p>You can sometimes see hundreds of woody spines on the trunks of old dead trees. These are a pointy reminder of how many undeveloped epicormic buds lurk under the bark.</p>
<h2>Mallee roots (lignotubers)</h2>
<p>As remarkable as epicormic buds are, they’re not the recovery mechanism of last resort. That job falls to the bulge at the bottom of many eucalypt trunks, which we often call “mallee roots”. </p>
<p>These are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03071375.2015.1066559">lignotubers</a>, remarkable adaptations possessed by most eucalypts. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="Base of Eucalyptus Tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lignotubers growing at the base of eucalyptus tree.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/eucalyptus-gum-tree-colorful-small-trunk-765407536">Anitham Raju Yaragorla/ShutterStock</a></span>
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<p>To appreciate the complexity and biological beauty of a lignotuber, imagine the trunk of a eucalypt with all its epicormic buds scrunched into a ball at the base of the trunk. The buds have direct access to a large root system able to supply water, nutrients and carbohydrates. </p>
<p>This is a gum tree’s emergency reboot option. Even when the tree above is falling apart, the lignotuber can rapidly regrow the tree at a rate of 6 metres or more in a year. </p>
<h2>Roots</h2>
<p>The roots of species such as river red gums drive deep into the soil along water courses, searching for subterranean water supplies as a backup in case the river dries up. </p>
<p>For other species, the solution to limited water is to send roots far and wide, often many times further than the tree’s height. In many species, the lignotuber and roots are buried under an insulating layer of soil. This acts as protection against fire. </p>
<p>That’s not all. Many eucalypt species produce “exudates” from their roots – chemicals which leach into the soil and free any locked-up nutrients in poor soils. </p>
<p>Still other exudates seep out to help feed mycorrhizal fungi in the soil. The gum trees do this as part of a wonderful symbiosis, allowing both tree and fungus to thrive. The gum gives sugar, the fungi give water and nutrients. </p>
<p>This underground exchange <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/root-exudate">greatly improves soil quality</a> and lets other species grow in difficult conditions. </p>
<h2>Gumnuts</h2>
<p>Gumnuts – woody fruits of eucalypts – are familiar to many of us from May Gibbs’ famous Snugglepot and Cuddlepie stories. </p>
<p>These capsules protect the tiny seeds inside from desiccation and fire. After a fire, eucalyptus fruit may be damaged or dry out. This frees the fine seeds, which sprinkle over the soil like pepper over dinner. </p>
<p>Some eucalypts rely not on lignotubers or epicormic buds but on the seeds <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/australians-love-a-home-among-gum-trees-but-can-eucalyptus-forests-recover-from-the-fires/2020/01/17/413d25fa-36b7-11ea-a1ff-c48c1d59a4a1_story.html">contained and protected</a> in those woody gumnuts. The seeds fall to the ground and germinate when conditions are right renewing the forest. </p>
<h2>Survivors – but not immortal</h2>
<p>In the years ahead, we’ll see natural disasters occurring more often and with greater ferocity as the climate changes. And in the aftermath, we will also see the spectacular and rapid responses of eucalypts – one of the world’s great families of survivors. </p>
<p>But we will also see dead forests. Gum trees do perish, despite their abilities to regenerate. Some species such as mountain ash are <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-just-victorias-iconic-mountain-ash-trees-at-risk-its-every-species-in-their-community-214582">not coping</a> with pressures such as logging and climate change, while thin-barked snow gums are <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/recurring-fires-are-threatening-the-iconic-snow-gum">struggling to cope</a> with new fire regimes. Every living thing has limits. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-the-australian-bush-is-recovering-from-bushfires-but-it-may-never-be-the-same-131390">Yes, the Australian bush is recovering from bushfires – but it may never be the same</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From sacrificial bark to fire-germinating gumnuts to stealthy buds the eucalyptus has evolved an arsenal of protective measures.Gregory Moore, Senior Research Associate, School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223752024-02-19T19:04:22Z2024-02-19T19:04:22ZNew ecosystems, unprecedented climates: more Australian species than ever are struggling to survive<p>Australia is home to about one in 12 of the world’s species of animals, birds, plants and insects – between <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened">600,000 and 700,000 species</a>. More than 80% of Australian plants and mammals and just under 50% of our birds are found nowhere else. </p>
<p>But habitat destruction, climate change, and invasive species are <a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-earths-future-well-the-outlook-is-worse-than-even-scientists-can-grasp-153091">wreaking havoc</a> on Earth’s rich biodiversity, and Australia is no exception. </p>
<p>In 2023, the federal government added another 144 plants, animals and ecological communities to the <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl">threatened species list</a> – including iconic species such as the <a href="https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profiles/pink-cockatoo/">pink cockatoo</a>, <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/fish-species/species-list/spiny-crayfish">spiny crayfish</a> and <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=66634">earless dragons</a>. </p>
<p>More and more species stand on the edge of oblivion. That’s just the ones we know enough about to list formally as threatened. Many more are in trouble, especially in the oceans. Change is the new constant. As the world heats up and ecosystems warp, new combinations of species can emerge without an evolutionary connection, creating novel communities. </p>
<p>It is still possible to stop species from dying out. But it will take an unprecedented effort.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-biodiversity-and-why-does-it-matter-9798">Explainer: what is biodiversity and why does it matter?</a>
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<h2>How species end</h2>
<p>The modern extinction crisis is quite recent. Between 1970 and 2018, wildlife populations around the world <a href="https://livingplanet.panda.org">fell by almost 70%</a>. But the collapse of these populations isn’t equal – Latin America and the Caribbean have lost around 94% of the individuals in wild populations. Africa has lost 65%, Asia-Pacific about 45%, while North America and Europe have lost 45% and Central Asia 33%.</p>
<p>In the 250 years since Europeans arrived, at least 100 unique Australian species have gone extinct. That’s about 6% to 10% of all recorded extinctions worldwide since the year 1500. If we look at mammals alone, we have the <a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-wrenching-and-infuriating-why-australia-is-the-world-leader-in-mammal-extinctions-and-what-to-do-about-it-192173">worst track record</a> of any country.</p>
<p>Extinction doesn’t happen overnight. An abundant species might be exposed to a new predator such as feral cats. Its population could fall to the point where it is <a href="http://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/tssc-guidelines-assessing-species-2024.pdf">listed as threatened</a>, meaning it has a high chance of becoming extinct in the near future. </p>
<p>If the species can’t adapt and if we do nothing, the species can become critically endangered and decline to a few hundred individuals. If pressure continues, it can go extinct in the wild. And if zoos can’t establish breeding populations or we simply don’t know about it, the entire species can wink out of existence. </p>
<h2>Tip of the iceberg</h2>
<p>Australia’s threatened species list is useful, because it helps us prioritise which species to help. But it does not show the true number of species in danger. There are well known gaps, such as many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320711002874">invertebrates</a> that have gone extinct unnoticed because of their secretive nature and small size.</p>
<p>The list likely misses other lesser-known or hard to research groups such as microorganisms, hard to find <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cobi.13854">marine species</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/aec.13485">snakes and lizards</a>, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1617138117301620">rare plants</a>. </p>
<p>Neither does the list take into account species that depend on each other, such as wasps relying on one species to parasitise and pollinators specialising on a few types of flowers. Yet these <a href="https://theconversation.com/children-born-today-will-see-literally-thousands-of-animals-disappear-in-their-lifetime-as-global-food-webs-collapse-196286">complex interactions</a> are essential to healthy functioning of ecosystems.</p>
<p>To list a species as threatened takes work. By the time we have catalogued all species on Earth – estimated to take 100–200 years at current discovery rates – experts estimate <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-86764-5">most species</a> will have already gone extinct.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-earths-future-well-the-outlook-is-worse-than-even-scientists-can-grasp-153091">Worried about Earth's future? Well, the outlook is worse than even scientists can grasp</a>
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<h2>Can species come back?</h2>
<p>For decades, conservationists have used species recovery programs to try and bring threatened species back from the brink. You need a combination of approaches – there’s no point breeding thousands of endangered <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/wildlife/woylie-brush-tailed-bettong/">woylies</a> if their habitat has been replaced with farmland or plantation. </p>
<p>One measure with good results is to use policy measures to cut <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/RTR038">forest loss</a> and other habitat destruction. Lost habitat is the main reason more than 85% of our threatened species are on the list in the first place. Invasive species and diseases <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.03.011">can worsen</a> damage from habitat loss – or act alone.</p>
<p>Extinction is not inevitable. Between 2000 to 2022, we saw <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-29-threatened-species-are-back-from-the-brink-in-australia-heres-how-200057">29 species recover</a> to the point they could be taken off the threatened list. </p>
<p>But the road to recovery is long, complicated, and far from assured for most of our worst-affected species. </p>
<h2>Novel ecosystems and climate change</h2>
<p>Each species has a climate it prefers and can survive in. But the magnitude of expected future climate change is likely to produce climates without precedent in many regions. We could see the creation of entirely new biological communities and environments, as has happened before. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-mass-extinction-and-are-we-in-one-now-122535">What is a 'mass extinction' and are we in one now?</a>
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<p>The best-known <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016953479090083P">novel communities</a> emerged at high latitudes mostly between <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/070037#i1540-9295-5-9-475-b48">17,000 and 12,000 years ago</a>. Here, for instance, spruce and ash trees in North America grew side by side – even though they now live far apart – and pines were less common than today. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the emergence of novel communities often led to an <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.06089">increase in species extinctions</a>. </p>
<p>But the emergence of new types of ecosystems doesn’t mean all species will suffer. For instance, novel habitats in Melbourne’s suburbs have led to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320717321262">surge in southern brown bandicoots</a>, who find strips of native and introduced plants along roads, canals and railways to their liking. </p>
<p>New ecosystems can <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01533.x">sometimes harbour more species</a> and actually be more resilient due to the variety of species traits, behaviours, and genetic diversity. But this is not guaranteed. </p>
<p>Managing these new ecosystems will be challenging. We will have to come up with creative ways to handle these changes by <a href="https://theconversation.com/ancient-knowledge-is-lost-when-a-species-disappears-its-time-to-let-indigenous-people-care-for-their-country-their-way-172760">adopting Indigenous practices</a> or applying novel solutions such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.06.006">genetic rescue</a>, mass <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jpe/article/5/1/109/1294916">reforestation</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000632071630862X">assisted migration</a> to reduce extinction rates.</p>
<p>With unprecedented climates, novel ecosystems, <a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-species-are-australias-number-one-extinction-threat-116809">invasive species</a>, and disruptions to the food chain, we can expect more and more species to be added to the threatened list. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-driven-species-on-the-move-are-changing-almost-everything-74752">Climate-driven species on the move are changing (almost) everything</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222375/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frédérik Saltré receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Corey J. A. Bradshaw receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>We’ve brought some species back from the brink – but more and more are being threatened. Here’s whyFrédérik Saltré, Research Fellow in Ecology for the ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, Flinders UniversityCorey J. A. Bradshaw, Matthew Flinders Professor of Global Ecology and Models Theme Leader for the ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2143462024-02-15T22:55:49Z2024-02-15T22:55:49Z20°C seems the optimal temperature for life on Earth to thrive – what does this mean in a warming world?<p>Have you ever wondered about the optimal temperature for life on Earth? For humans, 20°C is comfortable. Any warmer and we <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature15725">work less efficiently</a> because releasing heat requires energy.</p>
<p>We know many species can live at much colder or warmer temperatures than humans. But our <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3mr1d0z4">systematic review</a> of published research found the thermal ranges of animals, plants and microbes living in air and water overlap at 20°C. Could this be a coincidence?</p>
<p>For all species, the relationship with temperature is an asymmetric bell-shaped curve. This means biological processes <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713512003210">increase in line with temperature</a>, reach a maximum, and then rapidly decline when it gets too hot. </p>
<p>Recently, a New Zealand research group noticed the number of marine species <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2015094118">did not peak at the equator</a>, as has been commonly assumed. Rather, the number dipped, with peaks in the subtropics. </p>
<p>Follow-up <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1916923117">studies</a> showed this dip has been getting deeper since the last ice age about 20,000 years ago. And it has been deepening faster due to global ocean warming. </p>
<p>When the number of species was plotted against the average annual temperature, there was a decline above 20°C. A second coincidence?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/remote-pacific-coral-reef-shows-at-least-some-ability-to-cope-with-ocean-warming-new-study-211852">Remote Pacific coral reef shows at least some ability to cope with ocean warming – new study</a>
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<h2>Biological processes and biodiversity</h2>
<p>Research in Tasmania <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0153343">modelled the growth rates</a> of microbes and multi-cellular organisms and found the most stable temperature for their biological processes was also 20°C. </p>
<p>This “Corkrey model” built on <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ecog.01948">other studies</a> showing 20°C was the most stable temperature for biological molecules. A third coincidence?</p>
<p>We teamed up with colleagues from Canada, Scotland, Germany, Hong Kong and Taiwan to search for general patterns in how temperature affects life. To our surprise, everywhere we looked we kept finding that, indeed, 20°C is a pivotal temperature for many measures of biodiversity, and not only for marine species. </p>
<p>Examples show temperatures warmer than around 20°C result in decreases in various crucial measures: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>marine and freshwater species’ tolerance of low oxygen</p></li>
<li><p>marine pelagic (open water living) and benthic (seabed living) algal productivity and fish predation rates on bait</p></li>
<li><p>global species richness in pelagic fishes, plankton, benthic invertebrates and fossil molluscs</p></li>
<li><p>and genetic diversity. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There were also increased extinctions in the fossil record when temperatures exceeded 20°C.</p>
<h2>Increased species richness</h2>
<p>Globally, the range of temperatures that reef fishes and invertebrates live at is narrowest among species whose geographic distributions centred on 20°C. The same effect is seen in microbes.</p>
<p>While many species have evolved to live at warmer and colder temperatures, most species live at 20°C. Also, extinctions in the fossil record – including sponges, lamp shells, molluscs, sea mats (<a href="https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/147-bryozoans">bryozoans</a>), starfish and sea urchins, worms and crustaceans – were lower at 20°C.</p>
<p>As species evolve to live at temperatures above and below 20°C, their thermal niche gets wider. This means most can still live at 20°C even if they inhabit hotter or colder places.</p>
<p>The mathematical Corkrey model predicts that thermal breadth should be minimised, and biological processes most stable and efficient, at 20°C. In turn, this should maximise species richness across all domains of life, from bacteria to the multi-cellular plants and animals. The model therefore provides a theoretical explanation for this “20°C effect”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-life-is-fleeing-the-equator-to-cooler-waters-history-tells-us-this-could-trigger-a-mass-extinction-event-158424">Marine life is fleeing the equator to cooler waters. History tells us this could trigger a mass extinction event</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Predicting the effects of climate change</h2>
<p>That life seems centred around 20°C implies fundamental constraints that compromise the ability of tropical species to adapt to higher temperatures. </p>
<p>As long as species can shift their ranges to adapt to global warming, the 20°C effect means there will be local increases in species richness up to an annual average of 20°C. Above that, richness will decline. </p>
<p>This means the many marine species that can adapt to global warming by shifting their geographic distribution are unlikely to go extinct due to climate change. </p>
<p>However, land species may not be able to shift their geographic distributions so easily due to landscapes modified by cities, farming and other human infrastructures.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/warming-oceans-may-force-new-zealands-sperm-and-blue-whales-to-shift-to-cooler-southern-waters-188522">Warming oceans may force New Zealand's sperm and blue whales to shift to cooler southern waters</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>The 20°C effect is the simplest explanation for the above phenomena, including: trends in species richness and genetic diversity with temperature; extinction rates in the fossil record; biological productivity; optimal growth rate; and marine predation rates. </p>
<p>Despite the complexity of multi-cellular species, it is remarkable that the cellular-level temperature efficiencies are reflected in those other aspects of biodiversity.</p>
<p>Exactly why 20°C is pivotal and energy-efficient for cellular processes may be due to the molecular properties of water associated with cells. These properties may also be why ~42°C seems an absolute limit for most species. </p>
<p>A greater awareness of this 20°C effect may lead to new insights into how temperature controls ecosystem processes, species abundance and distribution, and the evolution of life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214346/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark John Costello received funding from the Royal Society of New Zealand-Te Apārangi that contributed to this research.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ross Corkrey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The ‘20°C effect’ could give us new insights into how temperature controls ecosystems and influences evolution – as well as how species might adapt to climate change.Mark John Costello, Professor, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord UniversityRoss Corkrey, Adjunct Senior Researcher in Biostatistics, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2189772024-02-15T22:07:25Z2024-02-15T22:07:25Z8 ways that stopping overfishing will promote biodiversity and help address climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576010/original/file-20240215-18-gqysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3804%2C2545&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Schools of jackfish pictured in the ocean off Losin, Thailand. Overfishing is a contributing factor in global climate change.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Amid the escalating threats of a warming world, and with the latest annual United Nations global climate conference (COP28) behind us, there is one critical message that’s often left out of the climate change discourse. Halting overfishing is itself effective climate action.</p>
<p>This argument is the logical conclusion of a plethora of studies that unequivocally assert that stopping overfishing isn’t just a necessity, it’s a win-win for ocean vitality, climate robustness and the livelihoods reliant on sustainable fisheries.</p>
<p>The intricate relationship between climate change and ocean ecosystems was the subject of recent collaborative research — led by researchers at the University of British Columbia — that highlighted the crucial links between overfishing and climate change. </p>
<h2>Finding the connections</h2>
<p>Our collaborative team of international researchers applied a host of methodologies ranging from literature reviews to quantitative and quality analysis. The findings of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1250449">this research</a> illuminate eight key multifaceted impacts.</p>
<p>1 — Ending overfishing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00523">isn’t merely an ecological imperative but a vital climate action</a>. Doing so would bolster marine life resilience in the face of climate shifts and reduce associate carbon emissions.</p>
<p>2 — Large subsidized fishing boat fleets can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm1680">actually be a burden on small-scale fisheries, leaving them disproportionately vulnerable to shocks</a>. In turn, overfishing not only depletes resources but also escalates carbon emissions, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.768784">intensifying climate impacts on these fisheries and their communities, particularly women</a>.</p>
<p>Additionally, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.802762">vulnerability of shellfish fisheries to climate stressors further underscores the importance of adaptive strategies</a> tailored to local conditions. </p>
<p>3 — Success stories, like the recovery of European hake stocks, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.788339">reveal a direct tie between stock recuperation and reduced emissions intensity from fisheries</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stay-hopeful-in-a-world-seemingly-beyond-saving-210415">We must champion and also learn from these successes</a>.</p>
<p>4 — Ecosystem-based fisheries management reverses the “order of priorities so that management starts with ecosystem considerations rather than the maximum exploitation of several target species.” </p>
<p>Ecosystem-based fisheries management has considerable potential to enhance sustainable catches while fostering carbon sequestration. This is perhaps <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.879998">best exemplified by the successful implimentation of ecosystem-based fisheries management in the western Baltic Sea</a>.</p>
<p>5 — <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.770805">Heavy metal pollution in the ocean — such as mercury or lead waste — intensifies the negative impacts of warming and overfishing</a>. This pollution reinforces the need for developing multifaceted regulations based around ecosystem and ocean sustainability solutions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flipping-indigenous-regional-development-in-newfoundland-upside-down-lessons-from-australia-218298">Flipping Indigenous regional development in Newfoundland upside-down: lessons from Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>6 — Overfishing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.597385">exacerbates climate and biodiversity threats</a>. Climate change contributes to less defined and predictable seasons <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-induced-stress-is-altering-fish-hormones-with-huge-repercussions-for-reproduction-213140">and is causing reproductive challenges</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-further-reducing-fish-stocks-with-worrisome-implications-for-global-food-supplies-217428">propagation of diseases in fish populations</a> — among other issues.</p>
<p>Adding to these problems, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2007.07.001">overfishing itself is altering ecological dynamics, modifying habitats and opening new pathways for invasive species</a>. These compounding crises further exacerbate the impacts of overfishing on marine ecosystems while at the same time making fish populations more vulnerable to climate change.</p>
<p>The above factors all combine to reduce the catch potential in any given ecosystem. In turn, fishers are forced to venture farther and deeper in the ocean to fish — increasing carbon emissions, personal risk factors to fishers and <a href="https://www.greenmatters.com/p/what-is-bycatch">bycatch</a> concerns. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A dead shark is seen tangled in a fishing net." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576013/original/file-20240215-24-d1h82g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reduced fish catches can lead to fishers going farther, and deeper, out to sea to find fish — with a host of associated consequences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>7 — International fisheries management must play a central role in promoting biodiversity and retaining the ocean’s carbon sequestration potential. While 87 nations have signed the UN’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.764609">Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction Treaty</a> (also known as the High Seas Treaty), only one has ratified it. This treaty must be fully ratified and its effective implementation should be contingent upon the creation of marine protected areas that cover at least 30 per cent of the high seas.</p>
<p>8 — The ocean has huge carbon sequestration potential. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.800972">Shifting from the generally accepted maximum of sustainable yield management to maximizing carbon sequestration in fisheries management could further advance climate goals</a>.</p>
<p>Future regulations should allocate a percentage of the annual fish quota to maintain the carbon sequestration function of marine animals. Simply put, beyond just being food, fish stocks serve vital carbon sequestration and biodiversity services that directly benefit humanity. Future regulations should reflect this reality.</p>
<h2>A simple goal</h2>
<p>This joint collaborative research underscores the urgency of this issue. Ending overfishing isn’t just an ecological imperative but a linchpin for climate action. Furthermore, fisheries aren’t mere victims in these dynamics, but have real agency to play a pivotal role in either exacerbating or mitigating climate change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-fishing-and-fish-and-the-health-of-the-ocean-hinges-on-economics-and-the-idea-of-infinity-fish-182749">The future of fishing and fish — and the health of the ocean — hinges on economics and the idea of 'infinity fish'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>An ideal governance framework would focus on managing ecosystems with considerations for their diverse benefits, based on the best evidence available. Regulation of fisheries, while controversial, is essential to not overly exploit such a valuable public resource.</p>
<p>As we gear up to the next COP, we would do well to remember these conclusions. Without nurturing ocean life, addressing climate change becomes an uphill battle. Sustainable fisheries management is not just an ecological necessity. It is also the cornerstone of a resilient, sustainable future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218977/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rashid Sumaila receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the non-governmental organization Our Fish.</span></em></p>Recent research shows how reducing overfishing is both an ecological imperative and a critical means to addressing climate change.Rashid Sumaila, Director & Professor, Fisheries Economics Research Unit, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232622024-02-15T14:28:05Z2024-02-15T14:28:05ZDevelopers in England will be forced to create habitats for wildlife – here’s how it works<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575657/original/file-20240214-18-dgx556.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4287%2C2697&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/greatspotted-woodpecker-dendrocopos-major-single-young-146577746">Erni / shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>England’s new environmental policy, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/understanding-biodiversity-net-gain">biodiversity net gain</a>, went live on February 12. Most new developments – everything from a few houses to large solar farms or new roads and railways – will now have to provide a 10% net gain in biodiversity, maintained for at least 30 years. </p>
<p>The idea is that, instead of driving a loss of habitats for wildlife, developments will now contribute to a recovery. The new policy will be rolled out to small sites in April 2024 and nationally significant infrastructure projects in 2025. <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/research-approaches-measuring-biodiversity-scotland/pages/10/">Scotland</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.wales/targeted-policy-changes-planning-policy-wales-net-benefit-biodiversity-and-ecosystems-resilience#118788">Wales</a> are considering adopting similar policies.</p>
<p>It’s an exciting moment – we are academics who assess policies like these, and we recognise that this is one of the world’s most ambitious ecological compensation policies.</p>
<p>But our research has nonetheless identified flaws and loopholes. It will be important to get the nuts and bolts right to ensure the policy delivers real benefits, and that gains are not just made on paper.</p>
<h2>What does a ‘biodiversity net gain’ actually mean?</h2>
<p>The policy is designed so that the improvement is measurable using the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/statutory-biodiversity-metric-tools-and-guides">statutory biodiversity metric</a>. This is a calculation tool which assigns numerical values (“units”) to habitats based on their size, type and ecological condition. A small lawn might be one unit, while a small patch of woodland could be 16 units.</p>
<p>Before the bulldozers arrive, developers will need to take stock of the units provided by their on-site habitats. When the work is completed, there will need to be at least 10% more units than there were to begin with.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Large building under construction in woods" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575674/original/file-20240214-28-i3yvxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Any trees chopped down will have to be replaced.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/construction-large-multistorey-building-on-hill-2149553629">Armands Photography</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This should be achieved, firstly, by avoiding damage to the existing habitats as much as possible. But some harms are inevitable, and these will need to be compensated for – both by improving the quality of the remaining habitats, and by creating new habitats.</p>
<p>Habitats created in the same local authority as the damaged sites are awarded more units, reflecting a preference for keeping biodiversity local to the habitats and people affected by the development. In practice, this means the net gain rules generally promote more grassland, ponds, hedgerows and other natural habitats within developments. When on-site habitats are not enough to meet the 10% requirement, then off-site gains (“offsets”) can be purchased.</p>
<p>It is hoped that the developers’ demand for offsets will drive investment into landowners and <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/pas/environment/biodiversity-net-gain-local-authorities/biodiversity-net-gain-faqs-frequently-asked#:%7E:text=Habitat%20banking%20is%20an%20approach,is%20an%20ecologically%20beneficial%20approach.">habitat banks</a> to do large nature recovery projects. This could allow, for example, the creation of wildflower meadows to offset the environmental harms caused by a new housing development.</p>
<p>Researchers have learned a lot about the outcomes of biodiversity net gain from studying councils such as West Oxfordshire and Cornwall, where equivalent commitments were adopted early. But based on this experience, academics and ecologists are still concerned about several key gaps in the policy.</p>
<h2>Is it delivering for wildlife?</h2>
<p>A key concern is that the metric used to score biodiversity may not work in the best interests of wildlife – <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/6667/">particularly insects</a>. The metric is intended to be a practical proxy for biodiversity, by assessing and scoring different habitat features. However, it assigns a low score to grasslands with nettles, ragwort, thistles and diverse mosaics of scrub and bare earth, which support a wealth of insect species. </p>
<p>Under the net gain policy, these habitats are penalised in favour of tidy grasslands that may have plenty of flowers but lack the other components necessary to sustain flourishing insect populations.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Red butterfly, yellow flowers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575676/original/file-20240214-24-n84lml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ragwort (the yellow flower) attracts lots of insects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/peacock-butterfly-sitting-on-yellow-ragwort-1455209468">Alex Manders / Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Not only will habitats potentially be worse for wildlife, but they will also be smaller, as our team’s recent research found that biodiversity net gain was associated with a <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.14198">reduction in the area of open greenspace</a>. This is because the metric allows large “poor” quality habitats to be traded for small “good” ones. </p>
<p>We also found the metric is so flexible that most large developments can meet their entire 10% commitment within the development footprint. This reduces the demand for offsets, and hence the private investment that could be going into large <a href="https://www.naturerecovery.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/BNG-report-final-29-June-2023.pdf">nature recovery projects</a>.</p>
<h2>How will it be enforced?</h2>
<p>Biodiversity net gain also allows developers to effectively trade existing habitats for promised future habitats. This is a big risk. For this trading system to work, it needs to be well monitored and governed, or else developers will have little incentive to actually create those new habitats.</p>
<p>Habitats promised on site – new ponds, lawns and so on – are at particular risk, as there are limited mechanisms to tackle non-compliance. Our team has previously estimated a quarter of habitat units promised under net gain regulations could be unmonitored and <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.14198">effectively unenforced</a>.</p>
<p>In response to these challenges, the government has <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/biodiversity-net-gain-moves-a-step-closer-with-more-funding">increased funding</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/draft-biodiversity-net-gain-planning-practice-guidance">powers</a> for local planning authorities. However, there are still concerns that this won’t be enough to monitor habitats over 30 years and act against noncompliance.</p>
<p>There are also challenges with ensuring that habitats in the built environment have benefits for wildlife. This includes residential gardens and public-use grasslands which count toward the net gain requirement. Both will be well used by people and pets, reducing their wildlife value. For gardens, it is not yet clear how their wildlife value will be maintained and not lost to artificial grass, decking or concrete slabs.</p>
<p>As developers and planners get used to biodiversity net gain, we hope to see these gaps addressed in further policy tweaks. Biodiversity net gain is an exciting, ambitious policy, and we want it to achieve its full potential.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie Duffus receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council NE/S007474/1 Oxford-NERC Doctoral Training Partnership in Environmental Research and an Oxford-Reuben Scholarship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophus zu Ermgassen receives funding from the European Commission via EU Horizon 2020 project SUPERB (Systemic Solutions for Upscaling of Urgent Ecosystem Restoration for Forest Related Biodiversity)</span></em></p>England’s new ‘biodiversity net gain’ policy is ambitious, but researchers have identified flaws and loopholes.Natalie Duffus, PhD Candidate, Conservation Policy, University of OxfordSophus zu Ermgassen, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231822024-02-13T19:08:16Z2024-02-13T19:08:16ZNew logging rules in NSW put the greater glider closer to extinction. When will we start protecting these amazing animals?<p>Forty years ago when my colleagues and I did spotlighting surveys, the southern greater glider was the most common animal we’d see. Now, this amazing species is endangered. In many areas it is hard to find; in others it has been lost altogether.</p>
<p>Australia has a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg7870">disproportionately large</a> number of in-danger species, and their decline follows a well-trodden path. Common species become uncommon, then uncommon species become rare. Rare species become threatened or endangered. Then tragically, endangered species go extinct. </p>
<p>Australia leads the world in native mammal extinctions – roughly 10% have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1417301112">become extinct</a> since British invasion. The southern greater glider is heading towards this fate.</p>
<p>That’s why ecologists were shocked by a recent announcement by New South Wales environment authorities that we believe loosens protections for southern greater gliders in logging areas. </p>
<h2>A marsupial to cherish</h2>
<p>The southern greater glider is an iconic marsupial. It’s one of three species of greater gliders found in eastern Australia. It was <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/pubs/254-conservation-advice-05072022.pdf">listed</a> as vulnerable to extinction under national environment law in 2016, then <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/05/greater-glider-now-endangered-as-logging-bushfires-and-global-heating-hit-numbers">uplisted</a> to endangered in 2022.</p>
<p>Greater gliders are amazing animals. Their diet is low on nutrients, comprised almost entirely of eucalypt leaves and buds. Yet they are the world’s largest gliding marsupial, weighing up to 1.3 kg and capable of gliding up to 100m through a forest. </p>
<p>Southern greater gliders have white bellies and thick back fur that ranges from pure white to jet black.</p>
<p>The species is highly dependent on forest habitat and, in particular, large trees with hollows where they shelter and breed. But sadly, <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/conserving-threatened-species/threatened-species-fact-sheets/greater-glider">extensive glider habitat</a> has been burnt, logged or both. Climate change poses a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.02.022">further</a> risk. </p>
<p>We have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.02.022">long been concerned</a> for the southern greater glider. In the wet forests of Victoria, for example, their numbers have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12634">declined</a> by 80% since 1997. In 2007, the species became <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.007">regionally extinct</a> at Booderee National Park, south of Sydney.</p>
<p>When the southern greater glider was upgraded to endangered, Federal Environment Minister Tanya Plibersek <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/05/greater-glider-now-endangered-as-logging-bushfires-and-global-heating-hit-numbers">said</a> the new listing would “ensure prioritisation of recovery actions to protect this iconic species”. She noted that habitat protection and land clearing were “primarily the responsibility of state governments”.</p>
<p>You might think, then, that state governments would now be working harder to protect greater glider habitat. But a recent decision in NSW suggests little has changed.</p>
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<h2>What the changes mean</h2>
<p>The NSW Environment Protection Authority this month <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240202-new-protections-for-endangered-southern-greater-gliders">announced</a> changes to rules in logging operations. It claims the amendments constitute “new protections” for greater gliders. But many ecologists, us included, believe the changes are designed to make logging easier and will leave the species at greater risk.</p>
<p>At present, Forestry Corporation staff undertake pre-logging habitat searches for trees that might contain hollows. They must retain eight of these trees per hectare but can log right up to the tree base. The staff must also look for den trees (where an animal is actually seen entering or leaving a tree hollow) – although this is problematic as gliders are active at night and the surveys take place during the day. If a den tree is found, it must be protected and a 50m area around it retained.</p>
<p>Under the proposed new rules, Forestry Corporation will have to keep more large hollow-bearing trees per hectare – 14 instead of the current eight in high-density glider areas, and 12 instead of the current eight in low-density areas. A 50m exclusion zone will remain around known recorded locations of greater glider dens, but there will no longer be a requirement to specifically find or protect den trees. </p>
<p>This means actual habitat where greater gliders currently occur, and occupy den trees, may not be protected. We believe this will increase the gliders’ rate of decline and fast-track it towards extinction. </p>
<p>The new rules were due to begin on February 9, but were <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240209-forestry-protocol">postponed</a> by a week. In a statement, the authority said it was “consulting with stakeholders and considering their feedback to ensure we find the most appropriate way to address concerns while achieving long-term protections for this endangered species”.</p>
<p>If the authority is serious about protecting greater gliders, it will move to strengthen not weaken protections for greater glider habitat.</p>
<h2>Logging glider habitat is nonsensical</h2>
<p>Since the southern greater glider was listed as vulnerable in 2016, its habitat continued to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-failed-greater-gliders-since-they-were-listed-as-vulnerable-weve-destroyed-more-of-their-habitat-164872">destroyed</a>. This is poor management for many reasons:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>gliders often <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3041">die on site</a> when their habitat is disturbed</p></li>
<li><p>young forests recovering after disturbances tend to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120101">hotter and drier</a>, which is bad for gliders because they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00683223">heat-sensitive</a> </p></li>
<li><p>removing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.02.014">hollow-bearing trees</a> not only destroys a key part of glider habitat immediately, but it can take decades (if not centuries) for forest to become suitable again </p></li>
<li><p>logging makes forests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.13041">more flammable</a> and gliders are particularly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12634">sensitive</a> to fire</p></li>
<li><p>logging can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117585">change</a> the composition of tree species in a forest, reducing the availability of quality food for gliders. </p></li>
</ul>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-failed-greater-gliders-since-they-were-listed-as-vulnerable-weve-destroyed-more-of-their-habitat-164872">Australia has failed greater gliders: since they were listed as 'vulnerable' we’ve destroyed more of their habitat</a>
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<h2>The choice is ours</h2>
<p>Human activity has left few remaining refuges for the southern greater glider. Any remaining habitat should be subject to the highest protections.</p>
<p>Logging those refuges is nonsensical given the large body of scientific work demonstrating its negative effects. And tinkering around the edge of logging rules will have limited benefits. </p>
<p>Australia has already lost so many wonderful mammal species. Do we want the southern greater glider to suffer the same fate? If not, let’s stop destroying the forests our species need to survive.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/greater-gliders-are-hurtling-towards-extinction-and-the-blame-lies-squarely-with-australian-governments-186469">Greater gliders are hurtling towards extinction, and the blame lies squarely with Australian governments</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223182/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Lindenmayer receives funding from the Australian and Victorian Governments and the Australian Research Council. He is a member of the Biodiversity Council and Birdlife Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kita Ashman works for WWF Australia and is an Ambassador for Paddy Pallin.</span></em></p>Australia has already lost so many wonderful mammal species. Do we want the southern greater glider to suffer the same fate?David Lindenmayer, Professor, The Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National UniversityKita Ashman, Adjunct research associate, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2193632024-02-13T18:30:40Z2024-02-13T18:30:40Z‘Fortress’ conservation policies threaten the food security of rural populations<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575435/original/file-20240213-28-bvlney.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5725%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pine trees reflected in smooth water of the lake. Waterlogged valley in the snowy Rocky Mountains.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Barriers created by “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08039410.2005.9666319">fortress conservation</a>” — as in the near-total sectioning off of land for conservation without human interference — are threatening important dietary diversity for the up to 1.5 billion people around the world <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00776-z">who rely on wild foods</a>, from bushmeat to wild vegetables and fruit. </p>
<p>Conservation, especially when modelled on notions of “pristine nature” — environments untouched by human influence — can create obstacles by limiting access to important food sources. We must shift from strict fortress conservation to more integrated, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104822">sustainable use of rural landscapes</a> if we are to achieve both biodiversity conservation and dietary outcomes. </p>
<p>Policymakers must take this into account and design policies that better inform global, regional and national commitments to food security and nutrition — especially in the context an ever-changing and unpredictable climate. </p>
<p>These policies must recognize people’s rights of access to these landscapes to ensure dietary diversity in rural settings. Policies for <a href="https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/hlpe/hlpe_documents/HLPE_Reports/HLPE-Report-11_EN.pdf">sustainable forestry</a> are also a key component of sustainable food systems.</p>
<h2>Settling down</h2>
<p>Human societies were nomadic for the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2019.102488">majority of our history</a>. In turn, traditional diets were mostly comprised of wild foods, both plants and animals, that were harvested from the surrounding environment. </p>
<p>However, over time, communities became increasingly sedentary and relied more and more on foods that were cultivated, rather than those collected from the wild. </p>
<p>This process dramatically accelerated in the last century with the <a href="https://www.treehugger.com/green-revolution-history-technologies-and-impact-5189596">Green Revolution</a> beginning in the 1940s, characterized by the increased dominance of monoculture agriculture. This shift is the greatest driver of forest and other habitat loss globally, resulting in the <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC64895">substantial simplification of our diets</a>. </p>
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<img alt="A tractor sprays pesticides on a soybean field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575072/original/file-20240212-26-7iq9ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A tractor sprays pesticides on a soybean field. Monoculture farming can produce high yields, but at the cost of extreme fragility to external climatic and environmental shocks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>However, we have since learned that biodiverse wild and naturalized species are integral in rural food consumption, contributing to diverse diets, better nutrition and overall health and well-being, often for the poorest members of society. In other words, diversity in diets is linked with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00091-2">better nutrition and improved overall health</a>.</p>
<p>Up to 1.5 billion people globally <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2020.00029">depend on wild foods for nutrition and dietary diversity, particularly in the tropics</a>. Building policies that protect people’s rights to access these landscapes is of paramount importance to ensure such dietary diversity in many rural settings.</p>
<p>We must devote attention to people living in rural areas around the planet, where their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605322000916">access to wild foods</a> — including those found in forests — has become limited. That’s cutting off important sources of healthy food and nutrition.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-culturally-appropriate-diets-can-be-a-pathway-to-food-security-in-the-canadian-arctic-209575">How culturally appropriate diets can be a pathway to food security in the Canadian Arctic</a>
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<p>Global initiatives to set aside land for biodiversity conservation can compromise such access and thus significantly reduce dietary diversity. </p>
<p>Current commitments, such as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02048-2">30 x 30 initiative</a>, in the name of conservation can result in the annexation of land and curtail the rights and access to diverse food sources by local people, despite <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0100-6">evidence that locally-led conservation can play an integral role in improving both ecological and human welfare</a>.</p>
<h2>Local stewards</h2>
<p>It is increasingly recognized that those who benefit from access — mostly Indigenous Peoples and local communities — are the best stewards of that land. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-food/about-right-food-and-human-rights">Food</a> is a fundamental human right, recognized by many international treaties and nation states. However, land annexation in the name of conservation, and loss of access to the natural resources they contain, continues unabated. </p>
<p>The major issue is that the notion of “pristine nature” does not exist in most landscapes, both tropical and temperate. Indeed, most environments are more a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-12322-260206">manifestation of human use and management than the product of natural forces alone</a>. The recognition of how humans have shaped and promoted biodiversity-rich landscapes is often missed in the implmentation of conservation. </p>
<p>It’s time for action on the evidence that forests and tree-based landscapes <a href="https://www.iufro.org/fileadmin/material/publications/iufro-series/ws33/ws33.pdf">can (and must be) a small but integral part of the solution to the global problem of food security and nutrition</a>. In essence, forests and trees should play a role in global food security strategies.</p>
<p>The role of wild foods in contributing to the United Nations’ <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/55601EBA11ED5027EF2901A3AE017744/9781108486996c2_48-71.pdf/sdg_2_zero_hunger_challenging_the_hegemony_of_monoculture_agriculture_for_forests_and_people.pdf">Sustainable Development Goal 2, Zero Hunger, has also been underscored</a> and there is considerable <a href="https://www.fao.org/interactive/sdg2-roadmap/en/">emerging evidence</a> on just how sustainable tree-based wild food systems could contribute to the overall 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development. </p>
<p>Yet little real progress has been made in recognizing this at a functional or policy level, acknowledging the fundamental contribution of wild foods to dietary diversity. </p>
<p>The discourse of achieving global food security, with a focus on monoculture crops and industrial agriculture with all its environmental and nutritional deficiencies, remains dominant. This is resulting in continuing habitat loss, primarily within forests and other tree-based systems. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.cop28.com/en/food-and-agriculture">Declaration on Sustainable Agriculture, Resilient Food Systems and Climate Action</a> at the COP28 climate summit goes some way to recognize the importance of “smallholders, family farmers, fisherfolk and other producers and food workers.” However, there is no mention of the role of wild foods in rural nutrition, nor the role that forests and trees play in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2017.01.012">supporting agriculture</a> through ecosystem service provision. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flipping-indigenous-regional-development-in-newfoundland-upside-down-lessons-from-australia-218298">Flipping Indigenous regional development in Newfoundland upside-down: lessons from Australia</a>
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<p>This must change to allow sustainable use initiatives to play a critical role in complementing and supporting diverse and nutritious diets for the rural poor — without compromising biodiversity goals or climate change mitigation strategies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219363/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terry Sunderland does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Integrating local and Indigenous knowledge into conservation can help to support diverse diets without compromising biodiversity goals.Terry Sunderland, Professor in the Faculty of Forestry, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221612024-02-13T02:34:02Z2024-02-13T02:34:02Z‘Fascinating and troubling’: Australians would rather save a single human life than prevent an entire species from becoming extinct<p>Australia is in the grip of an escalating extinction crisis. Since colonisation, 100 native plant and animal species have become <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000632071930895X">formally listed</a> as extinct due to human activities. The actual number is undoubtedly far <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-re-counted-australias-extinct-species-and-the-result-is-devastating-127611">higher</a>.</p>
<p>Surveys <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000632072100375X">suggest</a> Australians want to prevent extinctions, regardless of the financial cost. But when it comes to the crunch, how much do we really care? </p>
<p>In emergency situations, there is a long-held <a href="https://www.royalcommission.gov.au/natural-disasters">convention</a> that official responders such as firefighters first attempt to save human life, then property and infrastructure, then natural assets.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.14230">research</a> published <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/15231739/0/0">today</a> investigated whether this convention reflects community values. We found the people we surveyed valued one human life more than the extinction of an entire non-human species – a result both fascinating and troubling.</p>
<h2>What are we willing to lose?</h2>
<p>Catastrophic events force us to make hard choices about what to save and what to abandon. In such emergencies, our choices reveal in stark detail the values we ascribe to different types of “assets”, including plant and animal species.</p>
<p>Our priorities will become even more crucial under climate change, which is <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020RG000726">bringing</a> worse bushfires and other environmental catastrophes. If nature is always saved last, we can expect recurring biodiversity losses, including extinctions.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geb.13473">unprecedented</a> loss of biodiversity in the Black Summer fires was a taste of what’s to come. The <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/the-burning-of-australia-s-nature">fires burnt</a> the entire known range of more than 500 plant and animal species and at least half the range of more than 100 threatened species. The catastrophe led to at least <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/aen.12506">one extinction</a> – of a mealybug species in Western Australia.</p>
<p>The losses prompted reflection on our priorities. The <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/departments-and-agencies/premiers-department/access-to-information/nsw-bushfire-inquiry/nsw-bushfire-inquiry-report">final report</a> of a New South Wales parliamentary inquiry into the bushfires, for example, questioned if this hierarchy of protection should always apply. </p>
<p>Our new research investigated community values on this issue. The findings were illuminating.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-re-counted-australias-extinct-species-and-the-result-is-devastating-127611">Scientists re-counted Australia's extinct species, and the result is devastating</a>
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<h2>Making the hard choices</h2>
<p>The survey involved 2,139 Australians. Respondents ranked the assets they would save in a hypothetical bushfire, choosing from the following options:</p>
<ul>
<li>a person not warned to evacuate</li>
<li>a person who had ignored advice to evacuate (and so implicitly taken responsibility for their own safety)</li>
<li>a population of 50 koalas (of which many other populations exist elsewhere)</li>
<li>one of only two populations of a wallaby species</li>
<li>the only population of a native snail species (which would become extinct if burnt)</li>
<li>the only population of a native shrub species (which would become extinct if burnt)</li>
<li>a flock of 50 sheep</li>
<li>a house, shed and tractor</li>
<li>two items of Indigenous cultural significance (a rock art gallery and a tree carving).</li>
</ul>
<p>Survey respondents overwhelmingly gave the highest ranking to the two options involving saving a human life – even if that person had been repeatedly told to evacuate and even if, as a consequence, a snail or shrub species became extinct. </p>
<p>Saving a person who had not received evacuation warnings was rated highest, ahead of saving a person who ignored evacuation advice. Saving the koala population was next preferred, followed by saving the wallaby population.</p>
<p>The remaining options had negative scores, meaning that respondents were more likely to choose them as least important than most important.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graph showing what survey respondents chose to save in a bushfire." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572347/original/file-20240131-29-cz6313.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scores for each asset, calculated as the number of times (out of five possible choices offered for that asset) a respondent chose the asset as their highest priority minus the number of times the asset was chosen as the lowest priority.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Amongst the biodiversity assets, decisions based on conservation consequences would have meant the top priority was preventing the extinction of the snail and shrub populations. Next in line would have been the wallaby population, then a relatively less consequential loss of koalas. </p>
<p>But the results were the opposite: people prioritised the koalas over the wallabies, with less concern for the shrub and the snail. Ranked even lower were the items of Indigenous cultural significance. Saving the house and shed had lowest rankings.</p>
<h2>The results are revealing</h2>
<p>We take several key messages from the survey results.</p>
<p>First, the conventional hierarchy of protection during fire – prioritising human life, then infrastructure, then biodiversity – does not always reflect societal values. Sometimes, protecting natural assets is more important than protecting at least some infrastructure. In the Black Summer fires, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/200-experts-dissected-the-black-summer-bushfires-in-unprecedented-detail-here-are-6-lessons-to-heed-198989">attempts to save</a> crucial populations of the imperilled Wollemi Pine showed such protection of biodiversity assets is possible.</p>
<p>Second, our society values one human life more than the millions of years of evolution that can be eclipsed almost instantaneously in the extinction of another species. </p>
<p>Third, our regard for nature is far from egalitarian. In this case, the preference for saving koalas is consistent with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1617138105000671">previous studies</a> that show we care far more for iconic cute mammals than other species.</p>
<p>Fourth, animal welfare issues may trump consideration for conservation consequences. We suspect that the haunting <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1329878X211008181">imagery of koalas</a> suffering in the Black Summer wildfires may have contributed to them being prioritised ahead of more imperilled species. </p>
<p>And finally, our results were troubling for the conservation of poorly known species, the extinctions of which are <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1502350112">increasing</a> around the world. These losses have been largely disregarded or unmourned by society. </p>
<p>It suggests the case for saving such species needs to be better made. <a href="https://invertebratesaustralia.org/">Australia’s invertebrate fauna</a> is highly distinctive, fascinating and vital for the health of our ecosystems. To prevent mass losses of invertebrate species, we must take action now.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-remarkable-stories-of-flora-and-fauna-in-the-aftermath-of-australias-horror-bushfire-season-155749">5 remarkable stories of flora and fauna in the aftermath of Australia’s horror bushfire season</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="red and green snail" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575157/original/file-20240212-18-dfzfvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s invertebrate fauna is highly distinctive. Pictured: a Tasmanian snail, Attenborougharion rubicundus, named after Sir David Attenborough.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">S. Grove/Tasmanian Museum & Art Gallery</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rethinking our priorities?</h2>
<p>The world is becoming more perilous. There’s a high risk of losing much of the nature that surrounds us, supports us and helps define us as Australians. </p>
<p>We must think carefully about what future we bequeath to our children and to future generations. This may require reconsidering our priorities – and in some cases, making different choices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222161/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Woinarski is affiliated with the Biodiversity Council, Australian Wildlife Conservancy and Invertebrates Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerstin Zander receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Garnett receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is affiliated with BirdLife Australia.</span></em></p>Survey respondents overwhelmingly prioritised saving a human life – even if that person had been repeatedly told to evacuate and even if, as a consequence, a snail or shrub species became extinct.John Woinarski, Professor of Conservation Biology, Charles Darwin UniversityKerstin Zander, Professor of Environmental Economics, Charles Darwin UniversityStephen Garnett, Professor of Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229862024-02-12T19:10:59Z2024-02-12T19:10:59ZThe world’s spectacular animal migrations are dwindling. Fishing, fences and development are fast-tracking extinctions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574878/original/file-20240212-16-a4jpiw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C401%2C4459%2C2567&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bartailed-godwits-flight-1288802884">Alec Taylor/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1875, trillions of Rocky Mountain locusts gathered and began migrating across the western United States in search of food. The enormous swarm covered an area larger than California. Three decades later, these grasshoppers were extinct.</p>
<p>This fate is all too common for migratory species. Their journeys can make them especially vulnerable to hunting or fishing. They may move between countries, meaning protecting the species in one jurisdiction isn’t enough. And it’s hard for us to even know if they’re in trouble. </p>
<p>Today, we get a global glimpse of how migratory species are faring, in the <a href="https://www.cms.int/en/publication/state-worlds-migratory-species">first-ever stocktake</a> produced by the United Nations Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species. The report shows falling populations in close to half (44%) the 1,189 species tracked by the convention. The problem is much worse underwater – 90% of migratory fish species are threatened with extinction.</p>
<p>Their decline is not inevitable. After all, the migratory humpback whale was headed for rapid extinction – until we stopped whaling. </p>
<h2>Why are migratory species at higher risk?</h2>
<p>Every year, birds weighing about 300 grams leave Siberia and fly non-stop to Australia. Some bar-tailed godwits <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/oct/27/bar-tailed-godwit-sets-world-record-with-13560km-continuous-flight-from-alaska-to-southern-australia">fly 13,000 km</a> without stopping – one of the longest known continuous migrations. </p>
<p>Their journeys are critical for their life cycles – to find food, mates or a better climate. To undertake these journeys, animals must be in good condition with plenty of fat stores, and they must have safe flyways, swimways and pathways. </p>
<p>On land, roads and fences carve up migratory routes for animals like wildebeest. At sea, fishing trawlers chase migrating schools of fish and often accidentally collect sea turtles, albatrosses and whales. On seashores, development or land reclamation take away vital resting points for migrating shorebirds. </p>
<p>What the report shows us is that migration between countries is getting harder and harder. While a few species are benefiting greatly from farming and artificial wetlands, many more are being severely harmed. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="wildebeest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574874/original/file-20240212-20-5wyi5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Even the largest migrations can be stopped by fences or other barriers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wildebeest-on-savannah-africa-1612993756">Mcknub/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Overexploitation is the top risk</h2>
<p>Human exploitation of migratory species – taken as food, bycatch or exterminated as “pest” species – is the main reason why these species are in decline. </p>
<p>Animals often migrate in large groups, making them an appealing target for hunting or fishing. This is why we no longer have species such as the passenger pigeon, once numbering in their billions but hunted to extinction in 100 years. </p>
<p>Marine species are often out of sight, out of mind. But this report is a huge red flag for ocean ecosystems. Oceanic shark and ray populations have fallen 71% since 1970, which coincides with an 18 fold increase in fishing pressure. Bycatch in commercial fisheries is a huge problem for sharks, turtles, mammals and birds, but it can be massively reduced with existing technology, if deployed across all fleets </p>
<p>Overexploitation can be stopped. In 1981, <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1981/6.html">Australia and Japan agreed</a> to stop hunting Latham’s Snipe, a migratory shorebird that travels between the two countries. It’s the same story for humpback whales, which have returned in large numbers – and created a new industry, whale-watching. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="dead manta ray fishing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574865/original/file-20240212-22-rd6a4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Populations of sharks and rays have plummeted since 1970 – and fishing pressure is to blame.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/on-seashore-laid-out-manta-rays-157715903">Orin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>On fences and stepping stones</h2>
<p>Direct killing of migratory animals isn’t the only threat. Clearing forests and grassland for farming destroys habitat. Light pollution can mess with navigation, climate change plays havoc with the timing of migration, and underwater noise pollution can confuse marine migrants. Even simple actions like building fences, roads and dams can disrupt migrations over land and through rivers. </p>
<p>Many migratory species need stepping stones: resting sites linking up their whole migratory route. If just one site is lost – or if animals are intensely hunted there – the whole chain can collapse. </p>
<p>Once identified, key areas have to be protected, which is where we often get stuck. But there are glimmers of hope. Last year conservation of these areas in the ocean got a boost when the world’s nations agreed to <a href="https://www.un.org/bbnj/">better protect</a> the high seas beyond national jurisdictions, which fills a planet-sized gap in biodiversity governance. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-now-have-a-treaty-governing-the-high-seas-can-it-protect-the-wild-west-of-the-oceans-201184">We now have a treaty governing the high seas. Can it protect the Wild West of the oceans?</a>
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<h2>What the report didn’t cover</h2>
<p>This is a groundbreaking report, but it has limitations. First, it only covers species listed under the UN convention, a tiny fraction of all migratory species. Listing unlocks stronger protections and urgently needs to be rolled out to more species.</p>
<p>For instance, around 60 migratory fish species are covered – but more than 1,700 others are not. Of these unprotected species, almost 25% are threatened, near threatened or there’s not enough data to know. </p>
<p>That’s to say nothing of insects. To date, only one insect is listed on the convention, the famous Monarch butterfly which migrates from the United States to Mexico. But <a href="https://radarentomology.com.au/">millions of tonnes of insects</a> migrate through the airspace each year, and we have largely no idea what they are, where they’re going or how they’re faring. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="monarch butterfly" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574881/original/file-20240212-28-ubdzxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Monarch butterflies get the press – but many more insect species migrate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/monarch-butterflies-danaus-plexippus-flying-on-2232245525">Gudkov Andrey/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Can we save these species?</h2>
<p>We now know much more about why migratory species are in decline. But we’re still not acting to protect them adequately. </p>
<p>More than 90% of the world’s migratory birds aren’t adequately protected by national parks and other protected areas. Only 8% of the world’s protected land is joined up, preventing migrating animals from moving safely across their routes. Because of this, animals have to make daring sorties across unprotected land or sea to complete their journeys. </p>
<p>So what can be done? Agreements between countries can create more action, but in practice, each country needs to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12345">actually do</a> what it has already promised. </p>
<p>Policymakers can turn to a bevy of new tools, including <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/projects/ibas-mapping-most-important-places/">Important Bird & Biodiversity Areas</a> and the <a href="https://mico.eco/">Migratory Connectivity in the Ocean</a> system, to provide easy access to knowledge on how migratory species use and move through the world.</p>
<p>Animal migrations have collapsed on our watch. We need to do all we can to stem the losses and begin recovery if we want future generations to be able to experience nature in all its glory.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-australia-to-africa-fences-are-stopping-earths-great-animal-migrations-114586">From Australia to Africa, fences are stopping Earth's great animal migrations</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222986/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Fuller receives funding for migratory species research from the Australian Research Council and the National Environmental Science Program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Dunn receives funding from the Australian Research Council for a Discovery Project focused on understanding migratory connectivity in the ocean, and leads the development of the Migratory Connectivity in the Ocean (MiCO; mico.eco) system, which has been previously supported by the German International Climate Initiative (IKI) and UNEP-WCMC, the authors of the UN report.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lily Bentley works on the Migratory Connectivity in the Ocean (MiCO; mico.eco) system, which has been previously supported by the German International Climate Initiative (IKI) and UNEP-WCMC, the authors of the UN report.</span></em></p>Wildebeest herds churning dust. Sturgeon seeking spawning grounds. Shorebirds flying from Siberia. These iconic animal migrations could soon be a memory.Richard Fuller, Professor in Biodiversity and Conservation, The University of QueenslandDaniel Dunn, A/Prof of Marine Conservation Science & Director of the Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science (CBCS), The University of QueenslandLily Bentley, Postdoctoral research fellow, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223902024-02-08T19:17:30Z2024-02-08T19:17:30ZHarry Potter and the Disenchanted Wildlife: how light and sound shows can harm nocturnal animals<p>Light and sound shows in parks can enthral crowds with their colour, music and storytelling. Lasting for weeks to months, the shows provide entertainment and can boost local economies. But unless they are well-located, the shows can also harm wildlife.</p>
<p>A planned production at a wildlife sanctuary in outer Melbourne has brought these concerns to the fore. In April and May this year, a wildlife reserve on the Mornington Peninsula will host <a href="https://hpforbiddenforestexperience.com/melbourne/#location">Harry Potter: A Forbidden Forest Experience</a>. The event involves a two-kilometre night walk where, according to organisers, characters from the film are “brought to life”.</p>
<p>The event has prompted an <a href="https://www.savebriarssanctuary.com/">outcry</a> from people worried about the effect on the reserve’s vulnerable wildlife. The sanctuary, known as The Briars, is <a href="https://biocache.ala.org.au/explore/your-area#-38.2695%7C145.0465%7C14%7CAnimals">home to</a> native animals <a href="https://ebird.org/hotspot/L2294907">including</a> powerful and boobook owls, owlet-nightjars, koalas, wallabies, Krefft’s gliders, <a href="https://biocache.ala.org.au/explore/your-area#-38.2695%7C145.0465%7C14%7CReptiles">lizards</a>, <a href="https://biocache.ala.org.au/explore/your-area#-38.2695%7C145.0465%7C14%7CAmphibians">frogs</a>, moths and spiders. A <a href="https://www.change.org/p/urge-mornington-peninsula-shire-to-relocate-the-harry-potter-forbidden-forest-experience">petition</a> calling for the event to be relocated has attracted more than 21,000 signatures.</p>
<p>Research shows artificial light, sound and the presence of lots of people at night can harm wildlife. It’s not hard to see why. Imagine if a music and light show, and thousands of people, turned up at your house every night for weeks on end. How would you feel?</p>
<h2>A history of community opposition</h2>
<p>In addition to the lights and sounds, these shows can involve artificial smoke and animated sculptures. While they often take place along existing walking trails, they attract huge crowds at a time when animals usually have the place to themselves.</p>
<p>Most of Australia’s mammals and frogs and many bird and reptile species are nocturnal, or active at night. They have adapted to the natural darkness, sounds and smells of the night.</p>
<p>The Harry Potter experience planned for The Briars has taken place elsewhere around the world, including at a nature area near the Belgian capital of Brussels. That event, in February last year, was also <a href="https://www.brusselstimes.com/325125/belgian-harry-potter-theme-park-draws-backlash-from-local-residents">opposed by locals</a> on ecological grounds. Belgian Minister for Nature Zuhal Demir has <a href="https://www.brusselstimes.com/363616/no-repeat-flanders-says-evanesco-to-harry-potter-event">reportedly</a> said the show would not return this year due to concern for wildlife.</p>
<p>Light shows proposed for other wildlife conservation areas have also faced community opposition. In Australia, there were calls to halt the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/16/calls-to-halt-nt-light-festival-over-fears-for-vulnerable-rock-wallaby">Parrtjima</a> light festival in the Alice Springs Desert Park over potential harm to the threatened black-footed rock wallabies. The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-03/lumina-light-show-mount-coot-tha-wildlife-concerns/102804780">Lumina</a> light show proposed for Mount Coot-tha in Brisbane has also attracted concern for wildlife.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/predators-prey-and-moonlight-singing-how-phases-of-the-moon-affect-native-wildlife-140556">Predators, prey and moonlight singing: how phases of the Moon affect native wildlife</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Light, sounds, action!</h2>
<p>Research shows <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/S41559-020-01322-x">artificial light</a> affects wildlife in many ways. For example, it can <a href="https://biodiversitycouncil.org.au/media/uploads/2023_12/biodiversity_council_2023_impacts_of_artificial_light_on_wildlife_gVmenJh.pdf">change</a> their hormone levels, and the numbers and health of their offspring.</p>
<p>Light also interferes with the ability of many species to navigate. This can cause birds to become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1708574114">disorientated</a> and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44973632">crash</a>. It can also prevent <a href="https://www.ecolsoc.org.au/?hottopic-entry=the-impacts-of-artificial-light-on-marine-turtles">baby turtles</a> from finding the sea. </p>
<p>Some animals will forgo <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12206">feeding</a> or <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acv.12340">drinking</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z06-142">attracting mates</a>. Other animals will try to move to a darker location. In the Belgian case, locals claimed owls left the park to avoid the lights.</p>
<p>Studies of small mammals such as <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acv.12635?campaign=wolearlyview">bats</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.12034">micro-bats</a>, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-37166-1">possums and bandicoots</a> have shown many will avoid using habitat that is artificially lit. When there is no alternative dark habitat, species forced to deal with bright conditions – whether natural or artificial – have been found to reduce their activity. </p>
<p>Conversely, some animals are attracted to light. Insects such as moths will cluster around the artificial light source, unable to leave. Some will become so exhausted they will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12381">become easy prey</a>. </p>
<p>What’s more, human-caused <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1130075/full">noise</a> also stresses animals and changes animal behaviour. It <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1135-4">masks the natural soundscape</a>, making it harder for animals to find mates or hear the calls of their young. It can also mean animals can’t hear predators or their prey.</p>
<p>When thousands of humans travel through an area they leave strong <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320717314453">predator-like smells</a>. This can be <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/9104/">stressful</a> for wildlife. It can also <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1135-4">mask smells</a> vital for an animal’s <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsbl.2015.1053">survival</a>, such as that of food and predators.</p>
<h2>Long-term harm</h2>
<p>When faced with all this disruption, many nocturnal animals will hide until a site returns to normal, which in the case of light shows is often close to midnight. This cuts in half the time animals have to go about their life-sustaining activities and <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2206339119">exposes them to greater risks</a> when they do go out.</p>
<p>Light and sound shows are usually temporary – but can have major long-term impacts.</p>
<p>In species with low birth rates and short lifespans, a disturbance to breeding can be catastrophic. For example, males of the genus <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/186/2/553/5480676?login=true">Antechinus</a> (small marsupials) live long enough for just one <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-007-0250-8">short breeding season</a>. If they are <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/zo17041">disrupted</a>, there are no second chances.</p>
<p>The stress of human lights, sounds, smells and disturbance can shorten an animal’s <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2011.1291">life</a>. Stress can make them more prone to <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2011.1291">illness</a> and create <a href="https://biodiversitycouncil.org.au/media/uploads/2023_12/biodiversity_council_2023_impacts_of_artificial_light_on_wildlife_gVmenJh.pdf">problems</a> with <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/221/6/jeb156893/20849/Hormonally-mediated-effects-of-artificial-light-at">sleeping</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113883">reproduction</a>, development and growth that can last for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159114000574">multiple generations</a>. </p>
<h2>Find a better location</h2>
<p>The Mornington Peninsula Shire Council has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-12-31/briars-wildlife-reserve-harry-potter-experience-petition/103275544">defended</a> the Harry Potter event, saying the placement of props, lights and sounds has been carefully considered.</p>
<p>Organisers may have minimised impacts where they can, but evidence suggests the impact on wildlife will still be extensive. </p>
<p>The sanctuary where the event will be held is <a href="https://www.mornpen.vic.gov.au/files/content/public/environment/the-briars/whats-on-at-the-briars/briars-dl-brochure-wildlife-sanctuary_v02_2020-1.pdf">billed as</a> “an ark – a place which nurtures, protects and celebrates the unique flora and fauna of the peninsula, now rare but not lost”. Deliberately locating a light and sound show at the reserve seems at odds with this mission.</p>
<p>Events such as this clearly affect wildlife. Finding genuinely suitable locations should be done with care – and should avoid wildlife conservation areas altogether.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222390/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaana Dielenberg works for the Biodiversity Council. The Biodiversity Council was founded by 11 universities and receives support from The Ian Potter Foundation, The Ross Trust, Trawalla Foundation, The Rendere Trust, Isaacson Davis Foundation, Coniston Charitable Trust and Angela Whitbread. Jaana is employed by the University of Melbourne and is a Charles Darwin University Fellow.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan Ritchie receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Department of Energy, Environment, and Climate Action. Euan is a Councillor within the Biodiversity Council, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Therésa Jones receives funding from the Australian Research Council and is affiliated with NERAL (Network for Ecological Research on Artificial Light).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Loren Fardell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A Harry Potter nightwalk experience at a wildlife sanctuary on the Mornington Peninsula has raised concern for wildlife. Evidence suggests the fears are well-founded.Jaana Dielenberg, University Fellow, Charles Darwin UniversityEuan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLoren Fardell, Research Fellow, The University of QueenslandTherésa Jones, Professor in Evolution and Behaviour, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2214662024-02-07T21:17:33Z2024-02-07T21:17:33ZEndangered by the 49th Parallel: How political boundaries inhibit effective conservation<p>Canada is wasting scarce resources conserving species that are not endangered elsewhere.</p>
<p>Some Canadian scientists advocate for conservation efforts to focus on species unique to this country, while others argue for a more global focus. However, most ignore the fact that the U.S. – Canada border creates endangered species.</p>
<p>Scientists preserve their objectivity by excluding politics from their research. The truth is, however, that conservation science can’t help being geopolitical. We must consider the global context when designing Canadian endangered species, and biodiversity, protections.</p>
<h2>Time for a chat about Chats</h2>
<p>Take the <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Yellow-breasted_Chat/id">Yellow-breasted Chat</a>, a <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Canada_Warbler/overview">charismatic warbler</a> <a href="https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/bird-status/oiseau-bird-eng.aspx?sY=2019&sL=e&sB=YBCH&sM=p1">listed as Endangered under the (Canadian) federal Species at Risk Act (SARA)</a>. The Canadian fragment of the Southern Mountain subspecies survives in a handful of sites in B.C. along the Okanagan and Similkameen rivers. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/plans/rs_yellow-breasted_chat_auricollis_southern_mountain_pop_e_final.pdf">2014 federal Action Plan estimated</a> the entire B.C. population to be 170 <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/breeding-pair">breeding pairs</a>. According to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22722057/138772425">International Union for Conservation (IUCN) Red List</a>, though, the global population is around 17 million across North America. </p>
<p>As a result the Chat’s status is “least concern”, the lowest in the IUCN ranking.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bird sings on a branch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574129/original/file-20240207-26-6mn8al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Yellow-breasted Chat is found throughout the U.S. and Canada, with the majority populations found in the U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The federal Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-assessments-status-reports/yellow-breasted-chat-2011.html">says</a> the Southern Mountain subspecies “occurs at the northern edge of its range in Canada” as a peripheral to the huge American core population. </p>
<p>In other words, the Yellow-breasted Chat is listed as endangered in Canada because, in 1846, the British accepted that the <a href="https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/the-49th-parallel-our-defining-line/">border with the U.S. should lie at the 49th parallel</a>. </p>
<h2>Endangered, or not?</h2>
<p>The question then is, should conservation efforts be dedicated to tiny Canadian populations of otherwise healthy species? </p>
<p><a href="https://soscp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Yellow-breasted-Chat.pdf">Elder Richard Armstrong’s traditional story</a> illuminates why the Chat, which his people call xʷaʔɬqʷiləm’ (whaa-th-quil lem), matters to the transboundary Nsyilxcən speaking Peoples. This story is an example of the cultural values that always <a href="https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226358338-006">shape</a> conservation laws, both in Canada and around the world, and which provide good reasons for legal protection even of treasured peripheral populations. The First Nation’s special care for the Chat, in turn, makes it more likely that COSEWIC’s listing will help. </p>
<p>Not in every case, though. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/h13010038">our recent study</a> on the conservation status of transboundary mammal species in Canada and the U.S., Cardiff University doctoral student Sarah Raymond, Sarah Perkins from the School of Biosciences at Cardiff University, and I, found just six species — including the polar bear, wood bison and two species of right whale — were listed by both COSEWIC and U.S. authorities. </p>
<p>Of 20 transboundary species listed in just one country, 17 were listed only in Canada. Fourteen of those were, like the chat, ‘Least Concern’ globally, while just one bat species, Myotis lucifugus, was universally assessed as endangered. </p>
<p>Other research supports our findings. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12430">recent study found</a> that 22 per cent of those species that straddled the U.S.-Canada border were only protected on one side – almost always in Canada. The authors, though, take it for granted that peripheral populations deserve to have high conservation status. </p>
<p>Another <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.03.001">study scored</a> 729 COSEWIC-listed species, subspecies and <a href="https://biologydictionary.net/population/">populations</a> to assess the global context of these conservation measures. The study questions the fact that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“In many cases, … subspecies units (e.g. twelve kinds of caribou) and peripheral populations of globally secure species are being given high priority, while endemic and globally endangered species are neglected.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Sometimes isolated populations, like the <a href="https://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/esr.do?id=17481">fishers</a> of the Columbia region, are valued because they are genetically distinctive, but these should be rare exceptions. Instead, Canada has so many peripheral populations marooned on the wrong side of the border that Fred Bunnell, a UBC forest ecologist, named the phenomenon <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/species-ecosystems-at-risk/species-at-risk-documents/cf_primer.pdf">“jurisdictional rarity.”</a> Bunnell argued that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Efforts to conserve species that are locally rare but globally common often ignore the ecologically marginal nature of habitat and population. They engage in a fight with nature.” </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Overcoming jurisdictional rarity</h2>
<p>I live in one of the skinny fragments of shrub steppe that snake up from the Columbia plateau in the U.S. through Osoyoos to Kamloops — an area which seems purpose-built for jurisdictional rarity. </p>
<p>Take the burrowing owl, a ground-nesting raptor with a vexed facial expression. </p>
<p>The bird, <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/species-ecosystems-at-risk/brochures/burrowing_owl.pdf">while protected in B.C. since 2004</a>, is mostly absent from the province. Meanwhile, the IUCN’s <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22689353/93227732">range map</a> for the burrowing owl (Least Concern), stretches from Alberta to Argentina. </p>
<p>B.C. has <a href="https://www.burrowingowlbc.org/">spent considerable resources reintroducing</a> the owl within the province. Ecologists might defend its role as a grasslands predator, and British Columbians might, given the choice, like to have the charming bird species thrive in the province. However, this choice, which is arguably ‘a fight with nature’, is never presented as a political one. </p>
<p>Public information about endangered species dodges jurisdictional rarity, leaving decisions to scientists and bureaucrats. </p>
<h2>Reframing the conversation</h2>
<p>Ontario’s Endangered Species Act (OESA) was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12483">lauded by conservationists</a> because, unlike SARA, it gave scientists the power to impose automatic listing with no political interference. </p>
<p>Doug Ford’s government defanged OESA with its <a href="https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-42/session-1/bill-108">More Homes, More Choice Act in 2019</a>, though it did include a sensible requirement that the Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario (COSSARO) consider jurisdictional rarity.</p>
<p>Scientists opposed to Ford’s pandering to property developers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2020-0064">want the legislation restored to its former glory</a>, meaning COSSARO would list species “based on their status solely in Ontario, as was formerly done.” But why? </p>
<p>Over-listing shouldn’t be a partisan issue. Scientists may feel protective towards Canadian populations they know and love, but citizens won’t want limited resources wasted on conservation of un-endangered species. Scientific and political processes <a href="https://sierraclub.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/Species-at-risk-Recovery-Report-Brief_0.pdf">gummed up</a> with peripheral species make it less likely that critically imperilled species will be saved. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/environmental-laws-in-canada-fall-short-of-addressing-the-ongoing-biodiversity-crisis-162983">Environmental laws in Canada fall short of addressing the ongoing biodiversity crisis</a>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2018-0042">Some biologists claim</a> that effective conservation needs tough laws that put scientists alone in charge of listing and protection (on public land, at least). I would argue, though, that legitimacy, not coercive power, is the most precious commodity in conservation. </p>
<p>Social science research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.11.014">shows that most Canadians, regardless of background, want species protected</a>, yet their support — vital in a vast nation like Canada — is fragile. It <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269957">depends on a belief</a> that listing processes are democratically legitimate, and that listed species deserve protection. </p>
<p>Where good reasons exist to protect peripheral species, those arguments should be public and open to debate. </p>
<p>My field — environmental humanities — is generally better at asking awkward questions than proposing solutions. In this case, though, I have a simple recommendation: new conservation laws, such as B.C. is <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/biodiversity-habitat-management/draft_biodiversity_and_ecosystem_health_framework.pdf">considering</a>, should require that peripheral species be identified transparently, using agreed definitions, as ‘endangered in B.C.’, or ‘threatened in Canada’. If it does, I would vote for conservation of Okanagan chats regardless.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221466/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Greg Garrard's research is funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, grant no. 435-2020-1220. Sarah Raymond's research visit to UBC Okanagan was funded by UKRI-MITACS Globalink. </span></em></p>Canada is wasting resources, and legitimacy, conserving species that are not endangered elsewhere. Transparent cross-border considerations should inform all new conservation laws.Greg Garrard, Professor of Environmental Humanities, Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221712024-02-05T14:19:56Z2024-02-05T14:19:56ZPesticides urgently need reform – the UK’s overdue action plan must make these drastic changes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572923/original/file-20240201-29-9wbv50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This oil seed rape field is just one of many sprayed with pesticide chemicals. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-tractor-spraying-oilseed-rape-crop-1586693839">Juice Flair/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nature is in crisis, with a human-caused global mass extinction event <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1704949114">well underway</a>. There is widespread recognition that the ongoing global increase in pesticide use is a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-021-00712-5">significant contributor</a> to the biodiversity crisis. But we still haven’t heeded the warning that Rachel Carson’s book, <a href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/57236/silent-spring-by-rachel-carson-introduction-by-lord-shackleton-preface-by-julian--huxley-afterword-by-linda-lear/9780141184944">Silent Spring</a>, gave us in 1962. </p>
<p>If we are to tackle the biodiversity crisis, then radical and specific action is needed by governments around the world to mitigate the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1">impact of pesticides</a>. But progress in the UK has not been picking up pace. It is deeply concerning that the UK national action plan for the sustainable use of pesticides is six years late. </p>
<p>A plan is rumoured to finally be due for publication in February 2024, but based on a previous draft there are also concerns among scientists and environmentalists that it won’t be sufficient to address the problem. There are some specific steps that these experts agree the UK government should start taking to ensure pesticides don’t continue contributing to the collapse of our ecosystems. </p>
<p>Under an EU directive, the UK was supposed to produce a plan in 2018, but a first draft for consultation did not appear until <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/pesticides-future-strategy/sustainable-use-of-pesticides-national-action-plan/">4 December 2020</a>. By the end of the 12-week consultation period, Defra had received a remarkable 1,568 responses, 68% of them from private individuals, plus <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/sustainable-use-of-pesticides-draft-national-action-plan/outcome/summary-of-responses">37,000 emails</a>. </p>
<p>It is fair to say that there was a lot of criticism of the draft, summarised in detailed documents released by charities including the <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/21JAN_NAP_PRELIM_FINAL.pdf">Wildlife Trusts</a> and <a href="https://www.pan-uk.org/site/wp-content/uploads/PANUK_NAP_response_FINAL_Feb2021.docx.pdf">Pesticide Action Network</a> among others, and also in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/sustainable-use-of-pesticides-draft-national-action-plan/outcome/summary-of-responses">Defra’s response</a>. The high-level aim of the plan was to reduce pesticide use and minimise impacts of pesticides on humans and the environment, while still effectively managing pests. Almost everybody agreed with that, but there was widespread dissatisfaction with the detail. </p>
<h2>On target?</h2>
<p>In particular, the plan completely lacked <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02120-x">targets</a>: there were no clear targets for reducing overall pesticide use, no ambition to phase out pesticides in urban green spaces or along pavements and around hospitals and schools, and no plan to ban the more harmful pesticides. But several <a href="https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/sustainable-use-pesticides/farm-fork-targets-progress_en">European countries</a> are making significant progress through the use of targets in these areas. </p>
<p>Many environmental organisations also called for more concrete plans to support farmers to properly implement <a href="https://www.pan-uk.org/integrated-pest-management/">integrated pest management</a>. This approach considers pesticide use a last resort. </p>
<p>Research has shown that integrated pest management is an effective way to <a href="https://pure.sruc.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/26612788/14799_300326IPMFinalreportpDF.pdf">reduce pesticide use</a>. It involves a combination of crop rotations, resistant varieties, encouraging natural predators, and other techniques to minimise pest problems, only applying pesticide if all else fails and pest numbers exceed economic thresholds. </p>
<p>The draft action plan offered no mechanism for meaningful progress here, which might have included providing farmers with independent agronomic advice, provision of demonstration farms, and funding for research.</p>
<p>More recently, the government has received considerable criticism over its decision to repeatedly grant <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/22/ban-use-bee-killing-pesticide-uk-business-government">emergency derogations</a> (exemptions) allowing use of banned neonicotinoid insecticides on sugar beet. This decision went against the recommendations of both the <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/65a7e912ed27ca000d27b172/Cruiser_SB_HSE_emergency_registration_report_2024_-_redacted.pdf">Health and Safety Executive</a> and the government’s <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6570a03f809bc300133081c1/ECP-Full-Minutes-Sept2023.pdf">ExpertCommittee on Pesticides</a>, and so does not appear to be following the science. </p>
<p>These emergency derogations were declared illegal in the EU in 2023, so the UK has now departed from all EU member states in still allowing farmers to use neonicotinoids. </p>
<h2>Strengthening the strategy</h2>
<p>This has all fuelled existing concerns among environmental NGOs that the UK government may be using the freedoms of Brexit to weaken environmental protections and that the country is becoming the dirty man of Europe.</p>
<p>Defra has remained quiet for three years since the consultation on the national action plan ended in February 2020, perhaps trying to digest the 1,568 responses like a python having a nap after a large meal. </p>
<p>Now that a final plan is thought to be imminent, members of the <a href="https://pesticidecollaboration.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/NAP-red-lines-final.pdf">Pesticide Collaboration</a> is gearing up to prepare a response. This large consortium of environmental and human health-related charities including RSPB, Breast Cancer UK, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, Cure Parkinson’s, WWF and The Wildlife Trusts, recently met to discuss what they are hoping for. </p>
<p>As outlined by <a href="https://pesticidecollaboration.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/NAP-red-lines-final.pdf">this coalition</a>, there was broad agreement that the national action plan’s new iteration should include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>a continued commitment to the precautionary principle and a hazards-based approach to pesticide regulation</p></li>
<li><p>ambitious and unambiguous targets to reduce impacts of pesticides on the environment via reducing usage and toxicity (and not simply a promise to introduce such targets at a future date)</p></li>
<li><p>a strategy to phase out pesticide use in urban areas</p></li>
<li><p>provision of support, advice and training for farmers to adopt integrated pest management, with a clear definition of what is meant by the term</p></li>
<li><p>a commitment to breaking the link between agronomic advice and profits from pesticide sales (at present most of the agronomists who advise farmers work for pesticide companies)</p></li>
<li><p>an end to emergency authorisations of banned chemicals.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Other issues that have been raised by environmental organisations include provision for better monitoring of pesticide use and environmental fate. For example, monitoring of rivers is patchy while soils are scarcely ever screened for pesticides. </p>
<p>It would also be in the public interest for all pesticide usage data collected by Defra to be made open access, enabling researchers to examine links between use and environmental harms or human health impacts.</p>
<p>Few people at the recent Pesticide Collaboration discussion were optimistic that many of these aspirations will be met by the new action plan, if it does arrive this month. There is a keen appetite for meaningful action, not more kicking the can down the road. </p>
<p>If actions are not delivered, this could become a highly politicised issue in this election year. With environmental issues becoming increasingly <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/society/trackers/the-most-important-issues-facing-the-country">important for voters</a>, it remains to be seen whether any of the main UK political parties will grasp the opportunity to win over the green vote.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Goulson is a member of the Green Party</span></em></p>The six-year-late UK national action plan for the sustainable use of pesticides is finally due but experts doubt it will be radical enough.Dave Goulson, Professor of Biology (Evolution, Behaviour and Environment), University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2218062024-02-02T17:35:14Z2024-02-02T17:35:14ZHow trophy fishing can have a sustainable future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572280/original/file-20240130-29-g3zie3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Blue sharks are popular targets of a catch-and-release fishery along the southern coast of England</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/magnificent-blue-shark-elegant-proud-look-2318078271">Vladimir Turkenich/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It was 1984, and a hot tropical sun beat down on the inky blue depths of the Huon Gulf, a large inlet of the Solomon Sea just off the coast of Papua New Guinea. Suddenly, the peace was broken by the scream of a fishing reel as a four-metre-long blue marlin (<em>Makaira mazaraburst</em>) burst from the water. </p>
<p>For the next hour the giant fish surged, leapt and tail walked, as my best friend and fishing companion mostly just held on. Then, suddenly, it was gone. </p>
<p>The trace had frayed. No fishermen likes to lose a fish, but for me, there was also a sense of relief that it had got away. That fish was the most magnificent creature I’d ever seen, and that moment helped inspire my lifelong career in marine biology.</p>
<p>Recreational fishing for the largest species and individual fish in the sea like this is often called trophy fishing. Anglers seek to set new size records, either overall or using particular line strengths. These can be incredible specimens – the <a href="https://www.marlinmag.com/biggest-marlin-ever-caught/">largest marlin ever caught</a> weighed over 700kg, similar to a small car. </p>
<h2>What’s the catch?</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aqc.4051">In a new paper</a>, we analysed 80 years of trophy fishing world records, using data recorded by the International Game Fishing Association (IGFA) to reveal some intriguing trends. Notably, in the 1950s, the average record-holding fish weighed a hefty 168kg, but this figure fell drastically to just 8kg in the 2010s. </p>
<p>The fish are not shrinking, instead anglers are now targeting a broader range of smaller species. However, this might signal a concerning decline in the population of larger fish species.</p>
<p>There has also been a noticeable expansion of trophy fishing worldwide. While the US dominated the scene historically, recent decades have seen an uptick in records from regions like Japan and New Zealand. </p>
<p>This global spread offers potential social and economic benefits to these new areas, but also raises concerns about increased fishing pressure on local fish populations that were previously less targeted.</p>
<p>Perhaps our most significant observation was the sharp decline in new records for fish species listed as threatened with extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Comparing the last decade (2010–2018) to the 2000s, there has been a roughly 66% decrease in records for these at-risk species. </p>
<p>This trend could indicate a growing awareness towards conservation issues in trophy fishing or could reflect the worrying reality of diminished populations of these species. The exact implications of this trend are yet to be fully understood.</p>
<p>Trophy fishing is controversial. Some people will never be fans. The largest fish in the ocean are often <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/71/8/2171/748104">the most productive breeders</a>, so catching and killing them, especially threatened species, doesn’t make sense. However, while world record fish accredited by the IGFA gain the spotlight, they account for a very small number of fish in total. </p>
<p>Much more concerning are the fishing tournaments that offer <a href="https://www.bisbees.com/News/Article/166">highly lucrative prizes</a> for landing the largest and most fish and <a href="https://sharkallies.org/shark-fishing-tournaments">sharks</a> in a given period of time. </p>
<h2>Tackling sustainability</h2>
<p>Trophy fishing, and sport fishing in general, is changing to become more sustainable, and even a force for good. In 2011, the IGFA introduced the <a href="https://igfa.org/announcement/igfa-launches-all-tackle-length-record-release-category/">“all-tackle length” category</a>. This approach records the length of the fish rather than weight, enabling it to be released without needing to kill it. </p>
<p>The Shark Angling Club of Great Britain has been releasing all sharks for decades and the <a href="https://anglingtrust.net/2023/11/22/update-from-british-record-fish-committee/">British Record Fish Committee</a> recently decided to only allow length-based records for large sharks, with fish having to be measured while still in the water. Although releasing fish does not guarantee survival, that can be maximised by using <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys/article/11/1/coad100/7503354">the right gear and careful handling</a>. Such approaches should become mandatory for all trophy anglers.</p>
<p>Anglers dedicate extensive time to their passion, developing a wealth of knowledge about the fish they catch. Harnessing this expertise is crucial for better estimating the extent of trophy fishing and increasing knowledge of fish stocks in general. </p>
<p>In the UK, anglers and scientists are working together through initiatives such as <a href="https://anglingtrust.net/sea/sea-angling-science/shark-hub-uk/">Shark Hub UK</a> and <a href="https://anglingtrust.net/sea/sea-angling-science/pollack-project/">Project Pollack</a> to gather catch data, collect samples and tag fish. </p>
<p>This approach not only aids conservation efforts but also aligns with the anglers’ interest in maintaining healthy fish populations for the future. After all, the recreational fisheries are not only a source of livelihood but also contribute to the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-3986/4/3/30">mental and physical wellbeing</a> of those who engage with them.</p>
<p>Nearly 40 years after that experience in Papua New Guinea, I marvelled at huge schools of giant fish off the coast of southern England last summer. These Atlantic bluefin tuna (<em>Thunnus thynnus</em>) have had <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/78/5/1672/6231587?login=false">a remarkable recovery</a> around the coast, most likely due to a combination of improved management and changing environmental conditions. </p>
<p>From this year, the UK government has authorised a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/recreational-fishing-for-atlantic-bluefin-tuna-set-to-start-in-english-waters-next-year#:%7E:text=Each%20UK%20fisheries%20administration%20will,commercial%20fishery%20for%20bluefin%20tuna.">catch and release only recreational fishery</a> for these fish. With continued careful management this should bring exciting angling, social and economic benefits for years to come.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Stewart receives funding from Defra and UK Research and Innovation. He is a member of the Marine Conservation Society and the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust and sits on the Marine Stewardship Council Stakeholder Advisory Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Boon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trophy fishing is a big threat to some of the most threatened species of fish, but there are ways to adapt the sport with marine conservation in mind.Bryce Stewart, Senior research fellow, Marine Biological AssociationJames Boon, PhD candidate in Marine Ecology, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209092024-01-31T23:08:48Z2024-01-31T23:08:48ZMining the depths: Norway’s deep-sea exploitation could put it in environmental and legal murky waters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572593/original/file-20240131-19-meg6yo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C1920%2C1276&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Icebergs floating in the ocean near Svalbard, an Arctic island chain on the edge of Norway’s proposed exploitation zone.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Christopher Michel/Flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/mining-the-depths-norways-deep-sea-exploitation-could-put-it-in-environmental-and-legal-murky-waters" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Norway has a reputation for environmental leadership, from championing <a href="https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=no">international biodiversity policies</a> to its wilderness <a href="https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/outdoor-recreation-act/id172932/">protection</a> and ambitious <a href="https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/nature-diversity-act/id570549/">biodiversity</a> regulations.</p>
<p>Now it is leading into another area, leveraging its long legacy of offshore oil and gas production into developing deep-sea mining.</p>
<p>In January Norway became the first nation to open its continental shelf to commercial deep-sea mineral exploration. The <a href="https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/norway-gives-green-light-for-seabed-minerals/id3021433/">approved proposal opens the door for “sustainable and responsible” exploration within an area of 281,000 square kilometres, roughly the size of Italy</a>.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-sea-mining-may-wipe-out-species-we-have-only-just-discovered-173558">Deep-sea mining may wipe out species we have only just discovered</a>
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<p>But determining what constitutes sustainable and responsible deep-sea mining could put Norway in murky legal waters by pushing the boundaries of several international agreements to which it is a signatory. Beyond legal action, Norwegian society, businesses and global politics will play a part in deciding how this controversial industry develops. Other countries, such as Canada, should take note.</p>
<p>While the current government of Canada opposes deep-sea mining and has issued a <a href="https://thenarwhal.ca/deep-sea-mining-canada-moratorium/">domestic moratorium</a>, there are <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-67935057">Canadian companies lobbying</a> for this industry to open in international waters. But there are more than a few hurdles in the way of a booming deep-sea mining industry — and for good reason.</p>
<h2>Mining in the deep</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sodir.no/en/whats-new/news/general-news/2024/norwegian-shelf-opened-for-mineral-activity/">proposal to authorize deep-sea mining</a> was initiated by the ministry that has overseen Norway’s huge offshore oil industry for decades. It was asked to map “commercially interesting mineral deposits on the Norwegian continental shelf” and found <a href="https://www.sodir.no/en/facts/seabed-minerals/">sulphides and manganese crusts</a> with high concentrations of copper, zinc and cobalt, as well as rare earth elements.</p>
<p>The technologies needed to mine manganese crusts differ than those needed to mine sulphides. Manganese crusts are mined by scraping thin layers of minerals off of the edges of the deep-sea rocks, said Walter Sognnes, CEO of deep-sea mining company Loke Marine Minerals based in Norway, whom I interviewed for this story. Whereas, <a href="https://www.sciencenorway.no/deep-sea-mineralogy-mining/heres-how-valuable-resources-can-be-extracted-from-the-seabed-theres-a-goldmine-out-there/2285672">sulphides are mined by drilling into the seabed using technology from the oil and gas industry</a>.</p>
<p>Norway’s Ministry of Energy believes that the minerals from deep-sea mining could both meet the demand required of the green energy transition and secure the supply. But opposing scientists and organizations <a href="https://ejfoundation.org/reports/critical-minerals-and-the-green-transition-do-we-need-to-mine-the-deep-seas">argue that this logic is flawed</a>.</p>
<p>Opponents of deep-sea mining say that it will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00088-7">irreversibly damage biodiversity and ecosystems</a>, and warn that it will <a href="https://thefishingdaily.com/latest-news/norwegian-fishing-slams-government-proposal-on-deep-sea-mining/">impact fisheries</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4071">cause sediment plumes, damage the seabed, increase pollution and contribute to several other spillover effects</a>.</p>
<p>If the Norwegian government advances deep-sea mining beyond the exploration phase, Sognnes expects that full-scale mining operations could be underway in Norway by the early 2030s.</p>
<h2>Norway’s continental shelf</h2>
<p>Under United Nations law, coastal countries have a <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eez.html">200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone</a> extending out from their coastlines within which they have the right to explore and use the resources on the seabed and <a href="https://www.geo-ocean.fr/en/Science-for-all/Our-classrooms/Hydrothermal-systems/The-water-column">water column</a>.</p>
<p>This is true for Norway, however, in 2009 Norway’s request to extend its continental shelf was approved by a <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_nor.htm">governing body at the UN</a>. This decision further added 235,000 square kilometres of seabed to Norway’s territory — though the water above the seabed is, crucially, not included as Norwegian territory.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A report on deep-sea mining produced by DW Planet A.</span></figcaption>
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<p>That means that Norway’s proposed deep-sea mining activities will take place on the seabed, under Norway’s jurisdiction. However, as professor of maritime law at the University of Oslo Alla Pozdnakova described to me, any mining activities on Norway’s patch of sea-bed will “inevitably affect the water column where the <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/03/1134157">(High Seas) Treaty</a> will eventually apply” — with potentially significant legal repercussions.</p>
<h2>The High Seas — or not?</h2>
<p>In 2023, the UN’s High Seas Treaty was adopted by more than 80 nations — including <a href="https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/worlds-countries-reach-agreement-on-conservation-of-marine-biodiversity-in-the-high-seas/id2965405/">Norway</a> — and is meant to manage the two-thirds of the oceans outside any one country’s responsibility.</p>
<p>Mining brings many complicated legal issues that could involve the High Seas Treaty, said Pozdnakova.</p>
<p>For example, any of the 80 countries that signed the High Seas Treaty could propose a marine protected area anywhere in the high seas. In theory, this could be an area that Norway plans to deep-sea mine.</p>
<p>It’s also important to note that while the High Seas Treaty has been signed by Norway, it has not yet come into effect. But the timing of the treaty being ratified by Norway could align with deep-sea mining operations entering an exploitation phase, said Pozdnakova, which could further complicate the legal and political landscape for Norway.</p>
<p>There are also regional agreements that could raise concerns.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/01/1-11/svalbard-treaty.html">Svalbard Treaty</a>, for example, is an agreement signed by Canada and 45 other countries. The treaty gives Norway sovereign rights over the archipelago. And it calls for equality between the signatories when it comes to maritime, industrial, mining and commercial activities.</p>
<p>Pozdnakova notes that there is some debate about the geographic extent of the treaty, which was signed in 1920. But depending on the treaty’s extent, some of the proposed area could overlap.</p>
<p>“Once some companies get a license…then immediately you have this issue going on about whether the Svalbard Treaty applies to this particular area and what it means,” said Pozdnakova.</p>
<p>The convention that protects the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic Ocean, known as the <a href="https://www.ospar.org/convention">OSPAR Convention</a>, could also raise concerns about deep-sea mining’s impact in the region from sediment plumes to impacts on fisheries and others. However, the convention does not prohibit Norway’s activities on its continental shelf, said Pozdnakova.</p>
<h2>Beyond the laws</h2>
<p><a href="https://savethehighseas.org/voices-calling-for-a-moratorium-governments-and-parliamentarians/">Several countries</a>, including Canada, France and others, have called for a moratorium or precautionary pause on deep-sea mining in “<a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2023/07/canadas-position-on-seabed-mining-in-areas-beyond-national-jurisdiction.html">areas beyond national jurisdiction</a>.”</p>
<p>Norway opening its continental shelf throws a wrench in the moratorium movement, said Rak Kim, associate professor of earth system governance at the Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University.</p>
<p>“I think that’s why it is such a disappointment that Norway has taken a different stance. Not because of the immediate impact that exploration might have, but it changes the political dynamic,” he said.</p>
<p>However, legal action is not the only way Norway could run into trouble in getting its deep-sea mining industry up and running.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-the-seabed-for-clean-tech-minerals-could-destroy-ecosystems-will-it-get-the-green-light-209690">Mining the seabed for clean-tech minerals could destroy ecosystems. Will it get the green light?</a>
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<p>Sustainable financing could play a role — especially if there is societal push back. “We already see some examples of some banks, financial institutions not wanting to invest in these kinds of activities,” said Pozdnakova. “The implications may be quite serious through these indirect kinds of actions.”</p>
<p>If society wants to keep its status quo, making more electric cars, mobile phones and computers, there is probably a reasonable argument to make for deep-sea mining, said Kim. But “the more fundamental question is, is technology the answer to the sustainability problems that we are facing?”</p>
<p>If technology is not the answer, “then maybe society needs to make a fundamental transition to something else,” said Kim.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220909/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashley Perl works as a communications specialist for the World Wide Fund for Nature. This article was produced independently of her work there but as part of her work as a fellow in the Dalla Lana Fellowship in Journalism and Health Impact at the University of Toronto.</span></em></p>Norway has become the first nation on earth to allow deep-sea mineral exploration. But opening this industry could put Norway in murky legal waters.Ashley Perl, Fellow, Dalla Lana Fellowship in Journalism and Health Impact, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.