tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/catfish-10860/articlesCatfish – The Conversation2023-07-25T12:25:16Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2074722023-07-25T12:25:16Z2023-07-25T12:25:16ZIn search of the world’s largest freshwater fish – the wonderfully weird giants lurking in Earth’s rivers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536146/original/file-20230706-27-zfk4cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=357%2C393%2C3941%2C2417&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Alligator gar can grow to gargantuan sizes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zeb Hogan</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rivers have been the lifeblood of human civilization throughout history, and yet we know surprisingly little about what lives in many of them – including the giant creatures that prowl their depths.</p>
<p>While we know the biggest animal in the ocean is the blue whale and the largest marine fish is the whale shark, the identity of the world’s largest freshwater fish species long remained a mystery.</p>
<p>Until 2022, that is, when fishers in Cambodia <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61862169">caught a giant freshwater stingray</a> in the remote reaches of the Mekong River. </p>
<p>Weighing an astounding 661 pounds, the stingray surpassed by 15 pounds a giant catfish caught in Thailand in 2005 that had previously been considered the unofficial record holder.</p>
<p>The discovery marked a milestone in fish biologist Zeb Hogan’s more than two-decade quest to study and protect giant freshwater fish. As a group, these megafish are <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/one-third-of-freshwater-fish-face-extinction-and-other-freshwater-fish-facts">among the most endangered</a> animals on the planet.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FprTA4lOMOk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The world’s largest freshwater fish confirmed so far is a stingray caught in the Mekong River.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Before releasing the female ray back into the river, Hogan’s research team put an acoustic tracker on her. She has been sending back clues about stingrays’ elusive behavior ever since.</p>
<h2>Colossal catfish and gargantuan gars</h2>
<p>In a new book, “<a href="https://www.amazon.com/Chasing-Giants-Search-Largest-Freshwater/dp/1647790573">Chasing Giants:</a> In Search of the World’s Largest Freshwater Fish,” Hogan and I tell the troubling story of the 30 or so fish species that live exclusively in rivers and lakes and can grow to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/wild-explorers-zeb-hogan-monster-fish">more than 200 pounds</a> or at least 6 feet (1.8 meters) long.</p>
<p>Found on all continents except Antarctica, they are a wonderfully weird bunch of creatures, from colossal catfish and carp to gargantuan gars. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in the water next to a giant catfish. The fish's giant eye appears to be looking toward the camera. The fish's head is far larger than the man's." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536168/original/file-20230706-24-puzybz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mekong’s giant catfish can grow to lengths and weights much larger than those of the humans catching them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zeb Hogan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But freshwater vertebrate populations have declined over the past five decades at <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/freshwater_practice/freshwater_biodiversity_222/">twice the rate</a> experienced by species within terrestrial or marine ecosystems. Megafish numbers in particular fell by a shocking 94%, according to <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14753">one study</a> of more than 200 large freshwater species.</p>
<p>One of the largest species, the Chinese paddlefish, is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136242">believed to have gone extinct</a> sometime in the 2000s. “This is a fish that had been on Earth for more than 100 million years before disappearing in a flash,” says Hogan, who used to host National Geographic’s “<a href="https://www.natgeotv.com/za/shows/natgeo/monster-fish">Monster Fish</a>” television show and now leads a University of Nevada, Reno, research project I am involved with called <a href="https://www.usaid.gov/cambodia/fact-sheet/wonders-mekong">Wonders of the Mekong</a>, supported by the U.S. Agency for International Development.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Several preserved fish in a museum display, with the top one a long fish with a long snout." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536169/original/file-20230706-17-cgavp5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A specimen of Chinese paddlefish, <em>Psephurus gladius</em> (top), with other types of fish at the Tianjin Natural History Museum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_specimen_of_Psephurus_gladius_with_a_few_sort_of_fish,_Tianjin_Natural_History_Museum.jpg">Calliston3/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The importance of very large fish to freshwater ecosystems has been woefully understudied. Many giant freshwater fish are <a href="https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/apex-predators-what-they-are/">apex predators</a> that can have profound effects on the ecosystems in which they live by keeping their prey populations in check and maintaining biodiversity.</p>
<h2>What’s killing off the megafish</h2>
<p>The decline of giant freshwater fish is due to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/freshwater-threats">human impacts</a>, such as overfishing, dam building and climate change.</p>
<p>Large fish are disproportionately targeted by fishing. Since many of these species are slow to mature, they may never reach the age to reproduce. Dam building is <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2020/07/migratory-freshwater-fish-in-peril-as-report-shows-population-plunge/">another major threat</a>, because large fish often need to make long migrations to complete their life cycles, and a new dam can block their migration paths.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two men stand beside a giant fish much longer than they are. On its side, its body is as high as a man's knee." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536229/original/file-20230707-16-znrg45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This 646-pound Mekong giant catfish was caught in 2005.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Suthep Kritsanavarin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the Mekong, where more giant fish species are found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B1041:OOIW%5D2.0.CO;2">than in any other river</a>, climate change is causing more severe droughts and disrupting the monsoon seasons that govern the river’s essential flood regime.</p>
<p>There are signs that interest in freshwater species is gaining momentum, including increasing calls to explicitly include freshwater ecosystems in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/protecting-30-of-earths-surface-for-nature-means-thinking-about-connections-near-and-far-180296">30x30 initiative</a>, a global effort to set aside 30% of land and sea area for conservation by 2030. So far, however, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/inside-the-plan-to-save-some-of-the-biggest-freshwater-fish">conservation efforts</a> to protect endangered giant freshwater fish species are mostly regional. </p>
<h2>Alligator gars and sturgeon make a comeback</h2>
<p>Although the outlook for most giant fish remains grim, some species, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.00887">the air-breathing arapaima</a> in South America, may be bucking the trend.</p>
<p>The arapaima, a torpedo-shaped giant that can grow to lengths of more than 12 feet, has long been overharvested by fishers in the Amazon, where it’s known as the Amazonian cod. But <a href="https://freshwaterblog.net/2019/01/14/community-based-conservation-of-arapaima-and-giant-turtles-in-the-amazon-basin/">stricter fishing regulations</a> introduced by Indigenous communities appear to have led to populations’ rebounding in many places.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large fish with a flat head and scales that look like shell imprints in sand swims underwater." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536190/original/file-20230707-17-17u4zh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Arapaima, found in South America, are often over 200 pounds and can grow much larger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zeb Hogan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the United States, <a href="https://tpwd.texas.gov/fishboat/fish/management/alligator-gar/">the alligator gar</a>, another air-breathing megafish, was once largely considered a “trash fish” thought to devour game fish, so it was systematically exterminated from much of its southern range. But then scientists began to study the species and found it was an important contributor to ecosystem functions. Today, alligator gar populations have <a href="https://www.texasmonthly.com/travel/all-hail-the-alligator-gar-a-giant-and-primordial-river-monster/">bounced back</a> in rivers like the Trinity in Texas.</p>
<p>A similar case involves the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/facts/lake-sturgeon">lake sturgeon</a>, one of the few true freshwater sturgeons, whose populations in Wisconsin have benefited from <a href="https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Fishing/sturgeon/SturgeonInlandFishery.html">long-term conservation efforts</a> and science-driven management that includes strictly regulated seasonal recreational fishing.</p>
<h2>Protecting the giants of the Mekong</h2>
<p>Back in Cambodia, our Wonders of the Mekong project is raising public awareness about the plight of the megafish, and we are working closely with local fishers to encourage them to protect threatened species.</p>
<p>In an example of those efforts’ paying off, fishers in early 2023 caught a <a href="https://www.wwf.org.kh/projects_and_reports2/endangered_species/fish/mekong_giant_catfish/">Mekong giant catfish</a> weighing more than 200 pounds. Instead of killing it and selling the meat for a sizable profit, the fishers decided to release the fish in an elaborate ceremony in which it was sprinkled with flowers before it was let go.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People fill the prow of a large fishing boat as people release a very big fish into the water below from a tarp." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536150/original/file-20230706-16-yjmdkg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The giant catfish released into the Mekong River with a ceremony in early 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wonders of the Mekong</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In recent months, our project has also reintroduced into the Mekong rare giant catfish that were captured as young fish and raised in Cambodia, and giant barb, another critically endangered megafish species that historically has grown to 600 pounds. </p>
<p>While giant freshwater stingray numbers have plummeted in other parts of its native Southeast Asian range, the population appears to be relatively robust in the upper stretches of the Mekong River in Cambodia where the record ray was discovered. Data collected from that female, and reported <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/15/10/1936">in a study</a> I co-authored, shows it is staying in much the same location, leading researchers to believe the area could be an important refuge for the stingrays and possibly other megafish.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A close up of the head of a sting ray shows the large breathing openings and smaller eyes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536148/original/file-20230706-15-a89wwd.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Giant freshwater stingray like this one can breath air.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stefan Lovgren</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Long-standing plans by the Cambodian government to build two large dams on this section of the river appear to have been scrapped, at least for now. At the end of 2022, the government instead put forth <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2022/12/cambodia-seeks-unesco-world-heritage-status-to-protect-a-mekong-biodiversity-hotspot/">a proposal</a> to turn the biodiverse stretch of the river, which is also home to a critically endangered population of Irrawaddy river dolphins, into a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/faq/19">UNESCO World Heritage site</a>.</p>
<p>While the record stingray is big, it might not be the largest of this species of ray in the Mekong. Local fishers speak of rays growing up to 200 pounds heavier.</p>
<p>It’s also possible the giant stingray is not the largest freshwater fish species. Research on the arapaima, for example, suggests it could grow <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165783620302095">as big, or even bigger</a>, in places like Guyana. But, as Hogan says, “It’s not about finding the biggest fish. It’s about learning more about these amazing creatures to figure out how to better protect them.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207472/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefan Lovgren is a research scientist at the University of Nevada, Reno, and affiliated with the Wonders of the Mekong research project, which is financed by USAID</span></em></p>Freshwater megafish numbers have fallen by 94%, according to one study.Stefan Lovgren, Research Scientist in River Ecosystems, University of Nevada, RenoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2014952023-03-30T13:55:10Z2023-03-30T13:55:10ZCatfish in Nigeria: we set about finding ways of making it more appealing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517860/original/file-20230328-16-83nr91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cooking catfish for the working class can be time-consuming because of the preparation process.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/october-2021-mecklenburg-western-pomerania-rostock-african-news-photo/1236675591?adppopup=true">Jens Büttner/picture alliance via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>African catfish (<em>Clarias</em> <em>gariepinus</em>) farming has become a popular agricultural business sector in Nigeria. This is because the species can adapt to a wide range of temperatures and to low oxygen and low salinity levels. <a href="https://animals.mom.com/effects-low-salinity-levels-fish-11549.html">Salinity</a> refers to the salt content of water. And the fish matures in about six months. Nigeria is now <a href="https://thefishsite.com/articles/nigerian-catfish">the largest producer of catfish in the world</a> and the livelihoods of millions depends on it. </p>
<p>Despite being the highest producer of African catfish, <a href="http://eprints.covenantuniversity.edu.ng/3561/#.ZCKiAnZBzIU">the country is still struggling to bridge the gap</a> between consumer demand and fish supply. The country’s annual fish demand is 3.6 million metric tonnes, but only 1.2 million tonnes is produced domestically. The shortfall is usually met through <a href="https://punchng.com/2-4-million-metric-tonnes-fish-imports-depleting-nigerias-forex-fg/">importing frozen fish</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://punchng.com/2-4-million-metric-tonnes-fish-imports-depleting-nigerias-forex-fg/">About 2.5 million tonnes</a> of frozen fish is imported into Nigeria annually to meet demand. This depletes the country’s revenue. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1477-9552.12423">Imported fish is expensive</a>.</p>
<p>One way to support and boost the local catfish production industry would be to improve the processing and packaging of the fish. </p>
<p>Though catfish is popular, preparing and cooking it is not easy. It takes time and patience to remove the slime from the flesh. And processed products such as dried catfish are not always appealing to urban consumers and foreigners in or outside the country. </p>
<p>What’s needed, then, is a way of processing it that adds value to the fish and makes it more attractive for both domestic consumption and export. </p>
<p>We did an experiment to establish if the fish could be canned in a way that would make it appealing to more people. If we could establish a way of preserving the fish it might attract investors, generate employment and help meet the food demands of the growing population. </p>
<h2>Canning catfish</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ijfsab.com/index.php/fsab/article/view/162">Our research</a> was conducted for several purposes: to add value to African catfish; reduce reliance on expensive imported fish; create employment; increase accessibility to protein all year round; create a Nigerian brand; encourage small and medium scale industries; and promote agribusiness and bioeconomy. These aims are aligned with sustainable development goals. The research was not patented because our team is interested in promoting agribusiness in Nigeria. </p>
<p>We canned catfish in tomato sauce with turmeric, known as <em>ata ile pupa</em> in the Yoruba language. <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/turmeric-benefits">Turmeric</a> is a deep, golden-orange spice known for adding colour, flavour and nutrition to foods. A relative of ginger, turmeric comes from the rhizome (root) of a native Asian plant and has been used in cooking for hundreds of years. The turmeric was used as a spice and a bio-preservative. </p>
<p>Catfish were slaughtered and washed in hot salty water to remove the slime. The fish were cut into chunks, gutted, washed, cooked and drained. The chunks were placed in cans and boiled tomato paste containing turmeric was added to fill the can to the brim. The cans were sealed and sterilised in an autoclave for 30 minutes under pressure at 121°C. Cooking at this temperature was done to ensure safety and prevent spoilage.</p>
<h2>Safely preserved</h2>
<p>The canned African catfish was evaluated for safety and spoilage during the period of storage. Canned fish stored at room temperature and elevated temperature (40°C, as is sometimes experienced in Nigeria) were both safe and their qualities conformed to specified standards. This means that it cannot cause illness when consumed and the fish will not get spoilt. After three weeks on the shelf the fish was still safe for consumption. Further work should be done to evaluate the products for an extended period.</p>
<p>The canned catfish samples were also presented to people for evaluation to determine consumer acceptability. All samples compared favourably with the most popular commercial brand available on the market. </p>
<p>The data obtained from this research showed that African catfish can be canned in tomato sauce and still maintain an acceptable taste, colour, aroma and appearance. The analyses conducted also confirmed that there was no spoilage and the products were safe for consumption. </p>
<h2>Benefits and opportunities</h2>
<p>Canned catfish can provide nutrition for people living in urban areas who have little or no time to prepare food. They can use it to prepare stew or soup or eat it with bread or yam as part of a balanced diet. The products contained no chemical preservatives.</p>
<p>Canning of African catfish could provide work and trade opportunities for small and medium scale operators.</p>
<p>We plan to work more on increasing the shelf life of the product, to make it more marketable and acceptable. Microbial and other analysis will be considered beyond three weeks of storage. Then we will be ready to introduce this product onto the global market.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Malomo Adekunbi Adetola works for Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile - Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. She receives funding from Carnegie and Dutch Government.
</span></em></p>African catfish can be prepared for sale in canned form, which is more attractive to consumers.Malomo Adekunbi Adetola, Lecturer in Food Science and Technology, Obafemi Awolowo UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1987552023-02-16T02:39:26Z2023-02-16T02:39:26ZWhat kinds of people ‘catfish’? Study finds they have higher psychopathy, sadism, and narcissism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509098/original/file-20230209-28-nbas4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5310%2C3537&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Online dating has revolutionised romance, creating more opportunities to meet potential partners than ever before.</p>
<p>However, alongside the benefits is the risk of abuse, harassment, and exploitation. In late January this year, the Australian government convened a <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/department/media/news/government-convenes-national-roundtable-online-dating-safety">national roundtable on online dating</a> to explore what could be done to improve safety. </p>
<p><a href="https://minister.infrastructure.gov.au/rowland/media-release/albanese-government-convenes-national-roundtable-online-dating-safety?_ga=2.175973863.4162575.1675400995-1565035519.1675400995">Alarming figures</a> compiled by the Australian Institute of Criminology showed three out of four Australian dating app users who responded to the survey had experienced sexual violence on dating apps in the last five years.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1619834288010059776"}"></div></p>
<p>One such harm is “<a href="https://www.esafety.gov.au/young-people/catfishing">catfishing</a>” – when someone creates, or steals, an identity with the purpose of deceiving and exploiting others.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107599">study</a> by myself and Cassandra Lauder at Federation University, we wanted to find out what psychological traits were common among people who conduct behaviours associated with catfishing. We surveyed the perpetration of catfishing behaviours in nearly 700 adults. </p>
<p>We found a cluster of psychological traits that are associated with catfishing – known as the “dark tetrad” of personality. This includes psychopathy, sadism, narcissism, and Machiavellianism. </p>
<p>So what are these traits, and how can you spot a potential romance scam?</p>
<h2>What’s catfishing again?</h2>
<p>What differentiates catfishing from phishing and other online scams is the lengths the catfisher will go to to deceive and exploit their targets. Often, this includes establishing long-term relationships – with <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/insight/article/catfishing-my-relationship-of-12-years-was-all-a-lie/fw28o2lcf">some accounts of these relationships lasting over a decade</a>. </p>
<p>For many of these scams, the goal is often financial exploitation. According to the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC), in 2019 Australians reported just under 4,000 romance scams, costing Australians <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/romance-scammers-move-to-new-apps-costing-aussies-more-than-286-million">over A$28 million</a>. In 2021, that number was <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/scam-statistics?scamid=13&date=2021">just over $56 million</a>. </p>
<p>However, not all catfishing scams involve financial exploitation. In some cases, there may appear to be no real reason why the victim-survivor was psychologically exploited and manipulated – a form researchers have termed <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-about-money-we-asked-catfish-why-they-trick-people-online-100381">social catfishing</a>. </p>
<p>The experience of catfishing can cause significant <a href="https://bulliesout.com/need-support/catfishing/#:%7E:text=Being%20catfished%20can%20cause%20mental,catfisher%20will%20expose%20them%20publicly.">psychological and financial</a> damage to the victim-survivor.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-about-money-we-asked-catfish-why-they-trick-people-online-100381">It's not about money: we asked catfish why they trick people online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The ‘dark tetrad’</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107599">our study</a>, we recruited a sample of 664 participants (55.8% men, 40.3% women, 3.9% other/missing) via social media. We asked participants to indicate how often they perpetrated a range of catfishing-related behaviours. This included “I orchestrate online scams” and “I present inaccurate personal information online in order to attract friends or romantic partners”. </p>
<p>We also assessed participants on a range of personality traits commonly associated with antisocial behaviour, known as the “<a href="https://myfamilypsychologist.com/the-truth-about-the-dark-tetrad/">dark tetrad</a>” of personality.</p>
<p>This included</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/narcissism">narcissism</a> (self-grandiosity, entitlement)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/psychopathy">psychopathy</a> (callousness, low empathy)</li>
<li><a href="https://psyche.co/ideas/ever-taken-pleasure-in-anothers-pain-thats-everyday-sadism">everyday sadism</a> (enjoying harming others)</li>
<li>and <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/machiavellians-gulling-the-rubes/201509/meet-the-machiavellians">Machiavellianism</a> (strategic and calculating).</li>
</ul>
<p>We found people who perpetrated catfishing behaviours had higher psychopathy, higher sadism, and higher narcissism. Sadism in particular was a very strong predictor of catfishing behaviours.</p>
<p>We also found that men were more likely than women to catfish. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1515088682306396161"}"></div></p>
<p>It’s worth noting that in this research, participants filled out the survey themselves, meaning the data are what we call “self-reported” in research. As we asked people if they performed socially undesirable behaviours such as interpersonal manipulation, exploitation, and deception, a key issue is that people may not be entirely honest when responding to the survey. This could lead to bias in the data.</p>
<p>We addressed this by measuring participants’ “<a href="https://www.scribbr.com/research-bias/social-desirability-bias/">social desirability</a>” – the degree to which a person conceals their true self to look good to others. We used this measure in all of our findings to reduce some of this potential bias.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-about-money-we-asked-catfish-why-they-trick-people-online-100381">Previous research</a> found those who catfished cited motivations such as loneliness, dissatisfaction with physical appearance, identity exploration, and escapism. </p>
<p>Knowing why people might catfish could be empowering for catfishing victim-survivors. Although the above motives may certainly still play a part, our findings add to the story.</p>
<h2>6 signs of a potential romance scam</h2>
<p>We found people who perpetrate catfishing behaviours are more likely to be callous, egotistical, lack empathy, and – importantly – enjoy harming other people. This suggests that not all catfishers are necessarily indifferent to the harm they could cause. Indeed for some, harm could be the goal. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-psychopaths-to-everyday-sadists-why-do-humans-harm-the-harmless-144017">From psychopaths to 'everyday sadists': why do humans harm the harmless?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are other practical ways to identify a possible online romance scam. I have been researching antisocial online behaviours for almost a decade. Drawing on The <a href="https://www.psychiatrypodcast.com/psychiatry-psychotherapy-podcast/episode-160-the-psychology-behind-catfishing">Psychiatry Podcast</a>, and in collaboration with the Cyberpsychology and Healthy Interpersonal Processes Lab at Federation University, here are six signs of a potential catfishing scenario:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>They contact you first.</strong>
It’s unusual for the victim-survivor to have made the initial contact. Typically, the catfisher will make the first contact. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>They are too good to be true.</strong>
Great profile? Check. Good looking? Check. Maybe even educated and rich? Check. The catfisher wants to look good and lure you in.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Love bombing.</strong>
Prepare yourself for the pedestal you are about to be put on. The catfisher will shower you with compliments and protestations of love. It’s hard not to be flattered by this amount of attention. You may also find terms of endearment are common – saves the catfisher having to remember all those different names.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>They never call.</strong>
There’s always something that will get in the way of phone calls, video calls, and meetings.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Strange communication.</strong>
There may be typos, delayed or vague responses. Something about this communication feels a bit off.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>They ask for money.</strong>
Money isn’t always the goal of the catfisher. But any of the signs above combined with asking for money should be a red flag. Don’t make any decisions before talking to someone – a trusted friend or family member. Often, people on the outside have a clearer view of the situation than those who are involved.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198755/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evita March does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People who catfish tend to score highly in the ‘dark tetrad’ personality traits.Evita March, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Federation University AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1519042021-03-26T12:24:08Z2021-03-26T12:24:08ZFarming fish in fresh water is more affordable and sustainable than in the ocean<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391754/original/file-20210325-15-bts8vt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5503%2C3650&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jeremiah Kiarie rounds up tilapia at Green Algae Highland fish farm in central Kenya on April 29, 2017.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/jeremiah-son-of-fish-farmer-william-kiarie-rounds-up-news-photo/696599724">Tony Karumba/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A tidal wave of interest is building in farming the seas. It’s part of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-economy-how-a-handful-of-companies-reap-most-of-the-benefits-in-multi-billion-ocean-industries-153165">global rush</a> to exploit oceanic resources that’s been dubbed the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-acceleration-our-dash-for-ocean-resources-mirrors-what-weve-already-done-to-the-land-130264">blue acceleration</a>.” </p>
<p>Optimistic projections say that smart mariculture – fish farming at sea – could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y">increase ocean fish and shellfish production</a> by 21 million to 44 million metric tons by 2050, a 36%-74% jump from current yields. Other estimates suggest that an ocean aquaculture area <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-tiny-portion-of-the-worlds-oceans-could-help-meet-global-seafood-demand-82680">the size of Lake Michigan</a> might produce the same amount of seafood as all of the world’s wild-caught fisheries combined. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br><em>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network.</em></p>
<p>Our work as interdisciplinary researchers studying <a href="https://worldfishcenter.org/strategy-2030/">aquatic</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gs3YPlEAAAAJ&hl=en">food</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wenbo-Zhang-18">systems</a> shows that these claims <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9">exaggerate mariculture’s true potential</a>, and that increasing mariculture in a sustainable way is fraught with challenges. </p>
<p>We see <a href="https://theconversation.com/let-them-eat-carp-fish-farms-are-helping-to-fight-hunger-90421">freshwater fish farms</a> as a better way to help fight hunger and bolster food security. In our view, governments, funders and scientists should focus on improving aquaculture on land to help meet the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">United Nation Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-yhtVSW65Ag?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In recent years Bangladesh has become a leader in low-cost, sustainable aquaculture.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Questionable assumptions</h2>
<p>Ocean aquaculture advocates often cite limited supplies of wild-caught fish and call for <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/how-aquaculture-can-feed-the-world-and-save-the-planet-at-the-same-time">cultivating them to feed the world</a>. As they see it, aquaculture on land is limited by scarce land and freshwater resources, while the oceans offer vast areas suitable for farming. </p>
<p>Framed this way, mariculture seems to offer boundless potential to meet future demand for seafood and feed vulnerable populations with <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/how-to-build-a-bluer-ocean-economy-after-cobid-19/">little environmental impact</a>. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9">our research</a> paints a different picture. We see far fewer technical, economic and resource constraints for freshwater aquaculture than for ocean farming, and far greater potential for land-based fish farms to contribute to global food security.</p>
<p>Freshwater aquaculture has grown steadily over the past three decades. Asia is at the center of this boom, accounting for <a href="http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en">89% of world aquaculture production</a>, excluding plants. </p>
<p>The most important species groups – carp, tilapia and catfish – are herbivorous or omnivorous, so they don’t need to eat animal protein to thrive. While they may be fed small amounts of fish to speed growth, their mainstay diet consists of inexpensive byproducts of crops like rice, groundnut and soy, as well as natural plankton.</p>
<p>It’s relatively cheap and easy to grow freshwater fish in small earthen ponds. Aquaculture has been an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.08.077">economic boon</a>, especially in Asia, providing jobs and income for vast numbers of family farms, workers and small businesses. Farmed freshwater fish tend to be an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.005">affordable staple food</a> for millions of low- and middle-income consumers – and many better-off ones, too. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1362437219651379203"}"></div></p>
<h2>Raising marine fish</h2>
<p>Raising marine fish is a different proposition. The harsh ocean environment makes production risky, and the biology of these species makes many of them difficult and costly to breed and grow. </p>
<p>Most marine aquaculture species are carnivores, so they need other fish as part of their diets. About <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12209">20 million metric tons of fish</a> caught each year is used instead to feed farmed fish. It’s a <a href="https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-basics/sustainable-solutions/limit-wild-fish-use-as-feed">contentious environmental and ethical issue</a>, as some of these fish could otherwise be food for humans.</p>
<p>Improvements in technology have reduced, though not eliminated, the amount of fish used in feeds, especially for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2011.597890">farmed salmon</a>. It now takes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2019.100216">half as much fresh fish</a> to raise salmon as it did 20 years ago. </p>
<p>These innovations were achieved through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2019.1632391">massive investments</a> by the Norwegian government and the industry, dating back to the 1970s. Research focused on genetic improvement, nutrition and production systems, and it’s paid off. Farmed salmon now accounts for <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-production/en">45% of all fish farmed from the sea</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Floating salmon pens off Canadian coast." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grieg Seafood operates a salmon farm in Clio Channel, Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia, Canada, in partnership with the Tlowitsis First Nation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2jnT5gB">David Stanley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, it’s unlikely that other less popular fish, like grouper, sea bass or cobia, will be as thoroughly researched or farmed with the same efficiency. The market is too small. </p>
<p>For a land-based analogy, think of chickens. Like salmon, they have long been the focus of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180325">intensive research and development</a>. As a result, they now grow to market size in just 45 days. On the other hand, the guinea fowl – a chickenlike bird raised for specialty markets – has undergone limited selective breeding, develops slowly and yields far less meat, making it more costly to raise and more expensive to buy. </p>
<h2>Farming the open ocean</h2>
<p>Marine fish farming is currently done in sheltered bays and sea lochs. But there is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808737115">growing interest</a> in a new high-tech method that raises fish in huge submersible cages anchored far from land in the open ocean. It’s risky business, with high operating costs. Expensive infrastructure is vulnerable to intense storms. </p>
<p>To be successful, offshore farms will need to grow high-priced fish such as bluefin tuna. And they will need to operate at industrial scale, like SalMar’s massive “Ocean Farm” in Norway, which has capacity for <a href="https://salmonbusiness.com/salmars-gigantic-ocean-farm-gears-up-for-harvest/">1.5 million fish</a>.</p>
<p>While open-ocean mariculture may be technically feasible, its economic viability is questionable. Pilot projects in Norway, <a href="https://www.marinelink.com/news/aquaculture-inside-de-maas-offshore-fish-483165">China</a> and the <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/can-deepwater-aquaculture-avoid-the-pitfalls-of-coastal-fish-farms">U.S.</a> are not yet commercially successful. And though there is strong global demand for salmon, other species like grouper have small niche markets. They are likely to remain specialized high-end products because of steep production costs. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Boats move a 100-foot-tall circular pen through ocean waters." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A tugboat tows an offshore ocean farming facility in Qingdao, China, on June 14, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-offshore-ocean-farming-facility-ocean-farm-1-is-towed-by-news-photo/696148000">Visual China Group via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Freshwater alternatives</h2>
<p>Human population is growing fastest in <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2019-highlights.html">Africa</a>, and incomes are rising most rapidly in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/12/asia-economic-growth/">Asia</a>. Most additional future demand for fish will come from low- and middle-income consumers in these regions. Farming tilapia and catfish is already becoming more popular in Egypt and both West and East Africa. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Meanwhile, total seafood consumption in high-income countries <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/I9540EN/i9540en.pdf">has plateaued</a> since 2000. But even in these countries, demand for farmed freshwater fish is growing because it’s an affordable source of protein. In the U.S., tilapia, <a href="https://www.seafoodhealthfacts.org/description-top-commercial-seafood-items/pangasius">pangasius</a> (freshwater catfish) and channel catfish are the fourth-, sixth- and eighth-most-<a href="https://aboutseafood.com/about/top-ten-list-for-seafood-consumption/">consumed</a> seafood items.</p>
<p>Offshore mariculture might one day produce luxury fish that generate profits for a few large investors. But we believe freshwater aquaculture will continue to feed far more people and benefit many more farmers and small businesses. </p>
<p>Investments in selective breeding, disease control and farm management through public-private partnerships can create a more sustainable aquaculture industry, reducing the amount of land, freshwater and feed used to grow fish while increasing productivity. For more inclusive and sustainable development, we believe governments and funders should prioritize raising fish on land.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151904/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Belton shares a joint appointment with WorldFish as Global Lead for Social and Economic Inclusion</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Little receives funding from, and works on a voluntary basis for, various organisations supporting knowledge development and promotion of aquaculture. He has interests in a commercial tilapia company.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wenbo Zhang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Aquaculture is a growing source of healthy protein for millions of people around the world, but there are big differences between farming fish on land and at sea.Ben Belton, Associate Professor of International Development, Michigan State UniversityDave Little, Professor of Aquatic Resources Development, University of StirlingWenbo Zhang, Lecturer in Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1152272019-04-30T20:13:35Z2019-04-30T20:13:35ZFrom catfish to romance fraud, how to avoid getting caught in any online scam<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271706/original/file-20190430-136784-11vbpdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=183%2C259%2C1405%2C893&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Casey Donovan (right) talks about her catfish experience during her interview with Andrew Denton (left) on Channel 7.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Denton: Interview</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian singer-songwriter Casey Donovan opened up again last night about the six years she thought she was involved in a relationship with a man she never met, someone called “Campbell”.</p>
<p>The Australian Idol winner told the <a href="https://7plus.com.au/andrew-denton-interview">Andrew Denton: Interview show</a>, on Channel 7, how she was a victim of catfishing – a cruel hoax in which someone creates a false identity to play on the romantic emotions of a person by pretending to be someone they’re not, either online or, in Donovan’s case, over the phone.</p>
<p>“Hope kept me there,” <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=2337566352970407">she told the program</a>. “To think that no-one could actually do that to another human being and to think of all the shit I’d already encountered in my life, to be at that point and to […] just have everything fall apart, it really hurt.”</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-abuse-tactics-fraudsters-use-to-break-the-hearts-and-wallets-of-those-looking-online-for-love-93663">The abuse tactics fraudsters use to break the hearts and wallets of those looking online for love</a>
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<p>Donovan has <a href="https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/casey-donovans-bizarre-confession-my-sixyear-relationship-was-a-hoax/news-story/9b45d2496a06fbcea6e376cd42a6f2f2">spoken about her case before</a> and there are many others who have been catfished – just do a quick search of YouTube.</p>
<p>There are some similarities between catfishing and online romance fraud, something I’ve been involved in studying for more than ten years.</p>
<p>So is there anything we can do to avoid being deceived by both? </p>
<h2>They play with your heart</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/view/person/Cross,_Cassandra.html">research on romance fraud</a> has focused on the use of online deception to destroy both the hearts and wallets of victims worldwide.</p>
<p>Latest figures on romance fraud in Australia show victims <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/publications/targeting-scams-report-on-scam-activity/targeting-scams-report-of-the-accc-on-scam-activity-2018">lost more than A$24 million in 2018 cases reported to ScamWatch</a>, run by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission. About A$19.5 million were losses reported by women.</p>
<p>While catfishing arguably uses the same types of deception and manipulation as romance fraud, the ultimate end goal is different. Those who catfish others online usually don’t have a financial motive.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, there are no known statistics on the prevalence of catfishing, so the extent of this type of victimisation is largely unknown. </p>
<p>While the statistics on romance fraud are problematic – the 2018 ScamWatch figure is up $4.1 million on the year before – it is still officially recognised as a form of fraud and a legitimate form of victimisation. </p>
<p>Catfishing itself is not a crime. It is only the deception associated with it that can be classed as fraud, and is therefore criminal.</p>
<h2>A catfish captured</h2>
<p>Earlier last month, Lydia Abdelmalek was <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-09/lincoln-lewis-fake-catfish-internet-stalker-court-trial/10919538">found guilty</a> in a Melbourne Court of stalking six people.</p>
<p>Adbelmalek was also a catfish. </p>
<p>In her case she took on the persona of Australian actor Lincoln Lewis to deceive several women online. The depth of her deception and the extent of her harassment and ongoing threatening behaviour to her victims tragically resulted in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-09/lincoln-lewis-warns-of-social-media-catfish-dangers/10985118">one of her victims taking her own life</a>.</p>
<p>Abdelmalek is to be sentenced in June.</p>
<h2>Victim violation</h2>
<p>The sense of violation and betrayal is common across both romance fraud and catfishing. </p>
<p>In romance fraud, it is termed the “<a href="https://fido.nrk.no/d6f57fd73b9898b42c8c322c961c8255f370677fbac5272b71d86047a5359b66/Whitty_romance_scam_report.pdf," title="The Psychology of the Online Dating Romance Scam">double hit</a>” of victimisation, whereby the emotional loss is actually more severe and traumatising than the financial loss itself.</p>
<p>This same sense of emotional harm is evident in the case of those who are catfished. </p>
<p>The same issues around acknowledgement of victimisation and reporting are consistent. Many victims likely do not ever realise they are involved in a relationship with someone who doesn’t exist or who has been lying to them. </p>
<p>If they are aware, it is also likely that many do not report or disclose to family or friends. The level of embarrassment, shame and <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/83702/" title="No laughing matter: Blaming the victim of online fraud">stigmatisation</a> experienced by victims is likely to be similar. </p>
<h2>How it works</h2>
<p>The techniques used by catfish are similar in many ways to what we know about <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/118434/" title="Understanding romance fraud: Insights from domestic violence research">romance fraud</a>.</p>
<p>The same social engineering techniques, the same grooming process that seeks to develop trust and rapport with the victim. The same level of patience used by offenders to maintain the ruse for weeks, months, and even years in the case of Donovan. </p>
<p>Nobody sets out to be a victim of online deception, whether it is catfishing or romance fraud. These perpetrators identify a weakness or vulnerability in a potential victim, and exploit this by whatever means necessary.</p>
<h2>Why do people catfish?</h2>
<p>There is limited research as to why individuals engage in online deception, across both catfishing and romance fraud. For romance fraud, there is a strong argument that offenders are motivated to defraud victims for financial reasons.</p>
<p>There is also emerging links of romance fraud to <a href="https://torontosun.com/2017/02/02/scam-artist-who-posed-as-fictitious-soldier-faces-extradition/wcm/b6d8fd0e-3f29-4997-8c59-202799eb91e1">global organised crime</a> networks. </p>
<p>But this does not hold for catfishing. Rather, the small amount of <a href="https://www.qt.com.au/news/its-hard-to-stop-the-addiction-the-reasons-why-peo/3477706/">research</a> that explores the reasons fuelling catfish activities, link to a perpetrator’s feelings of loneliness, low self-esteem, escapism, and a desire to explore their sexuality through a different persona.</p>
<p>These are all focused on the offender themselves, rather than being concentrated on any victim characteristic. </p>
<p>Given the extent of the harm incurred by online deception, it is imperative to gain a better understanding of the factors which motivate those behind both romance fraud and catfishing. </p>
<h2>How not to get caught in a scam</h2>
<p>Online deception is difficult to guard against. How can you convince someone that the person they are in love with is not real?</p>
<p>In the case of romance fraud, all prevention messages revolve around the inevitable <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/types-of-scams/dating-romance">request to send money</a>. But in the case of catfishing, this message is redundant. </p>
<p>But there are similar signs to look out for. A refusal to meet in person or sometimes to communicate via other social media platforms. Inconsistencies in the stories used by those who perpetrate these acts. A gut feeling that something is not quite right. </p>
<p>On the <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2498968/">US television documentary series Catfish</a>, hosts Nev and Max use a range of techniques to try to find the real identities of those who are behind the online catfish.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Caught out!</span></figcaption>
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<p>Sometimes, a simple reverse image search on pictures used by the catfish may provide answers. </p>
<p>Ultimately, looking for love or friendship online comes with risk, in the same way that driving to work each day carries with it an understood level of risk.</p>
<p>But we should not disengage from social media or communicating online. Instead, we need to take precautions to reduce the likelihood that we become victims to online deception, in the form of either catfishing or romance fraud.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115227/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Cross has received funding from the Criminology Research Grants program, Australian Institute of Criminology. </span></em></p>Whether you’re caught by a catfish or an online romance scammer, both use similar techniques to play with your emotions.Cassandra Cross, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1097022019-01-23T11:47:45Z2019-01-23T11:47:45ZHave you caught a catfish? Online dating can be deceptive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253768/original/file-20190114-43538-jlhcv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=398%2C1571%2C5417%2C3080&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You should see the one that got away.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-fisherman-big-catfish-trophy-boat-1154538595">FedBul/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the internet, you can become <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/comic-riffs/post/nobody-knows-youre-a-dog-as-iconic-internet-cartoon-turns-20-creator-peter-steiner-knows-the-joke-rings-as-relevant-as-ever/2013/07/31/73372600-f98d-11e2-8e84-c56731a202fb_blog.html">anyone you want to</a> – at least for a while. And though deception doesn’t fit well with lasting romance, people lie all the time: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.052">Fewer than a third of people in one survey</a> claimed they were always honest in online interactions, and nearly nobody expected others to be truthful. Much of the time, lies are meant to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqy019">make the person telling them seem better</a> somehow – more attractive, more engaging or otherwise worth getting to know.</p>
<p>“Catfishing” is a more advanced effort of digital deception. Named in a <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1584016/">2010 movie</a> that later expanded into an <a href="http://www.mtv.com/shows/catfish-the-tv-show">MTV reality series</a>, a catfish is a person who sets up an intentionally fake profile on one or more social network sites, often with the purpose of defrauding or deceiving other users. </p>
<p>It happens more than people might think – and to more people than might believe it. Many times in my own personal life when I was seeking to meet people online, I found that someone was being deceptive. In one case, I did a <a href="https://images.google.com/">Google image search</a> and found a man’s profile picture featured on a site called “Romance Scams.” Apparently, not everyone looking for love and connection online wants to start from a place of truth and honesty. Yet, as the show demonstrates to viewers, online lies can often be easy to detect, by searching for images and phone numbers and exploring social media profiles. Some people lie anyway – and plenty of others take the bait.</p>
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<h2>Why might someone become a catfish?</h2>
<p>When a deep emotional bond grows with someone, even via texts, phone calls and instant messages, it can be devastating to find out that person has been lying about some major aspect of their identity or intentions. My analysis of the <a href="https://scholarworks.uni.edu/etd/153/">first three seasons of the “Catfish” TV show</a> reveals that there are several reasons someone might choose to become a deceitful catfish. On the show, ordinary people who suspect they’re being catfished get help from the hosts to untangle the lies and find the truth.</p>
<p>Sometimes the deception is unintentional. For instance, some people <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00020.x">don’t know themselves well</a>, so they tend to see and present themselves more positively than is accurate. In episode 13 from the show’s second season, a <a href="http://www.mtv.com/news/3064701/catfish-chasity-family-cousin-mandy/">woman named Chasity</a> uses someone else’s pictures and claims to be named Kristen. Others may intentionally create a fake profile but then <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3188104/">connect with someone unexpectedly deeply</a> and find the situation hard to come clean about.</p>
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<p>Other catfish intend to deceive their targets, though not out of malice. For instance, they pretend to be someone else because they have low self-esteem or for some other reason <a href="https://www.bustle.com/articles/29450-miranda-james-are-a-catfish-miracle-these-skyping-pals-give-us-hope-for-future">think people won’t like the real person</a> they are. On the show, there are several episodes about people who are struggling with aspects of their gender identity or sexual orientation and don’t know how to behave appropriately about those internal conflicts, or who fear bullying or violence if they openly identify their true selves.</p>
<p>Some catfish, though, set out to hurt people: for instance, to get revenge on a particular person because they are angry, hurt or embarrassed about something that has happened between them. In one episode, for instance, a <a href="http://www.mtv.com/news/2384114/catfish-jasmine-mhissy/">woman catfishes her best friend</a> to get back at her because they’re both interested in the same real-world man.</p>
<p>The show also highlighted a few catfish who found enjoyment making fake profiles and <a href="https://www.bustle.com/articles/26966-catfish-tracie-thoms-superfan-sammie-bring-an-episode-thats-both-dark-and-redeeming">getting attention from strangers</a> online. Others wanted to see if they could <a href="https://www.vulture.com/2013/09/catfish-recap-season-2-aaliyah-alicia-iphone.html">make money</a>. Still others hoped to capitalize on the growing popularity of the show itself, wanting to actually meet someone famous or <a href="http://www.mtv.com/news/2158036/catfish-where-now-sneak-peek-dee-pimpin/">become famous</a> by being on TV.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Some people think they’re actually dating a celebrity online.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Why do people fall for a catfish?</h2>
<p>People want to trust those they interact with online and in real life. If a person believes he or she is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818792425">on a date with someone being deceptive</a>, things tend not to progress to a second date. </p>
<p>In the TV show, victims find out about the lies the catfish have told, exposed by the show’s hosts and co-investigators. Many who learn of being lied to <a href="http://www.mtv.com/video-clips/99acvt/catfish-the-tv-show-confidence-in-jenn">aren’t particularly interested in meeting up</a> with the real person behind the mask they’d been communicating with. </p>
<p>Someone who is enthralled in their connection with another person often fully believes what they’re told – even if it seems too good to be true. This is what scholars call the “<a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/socialpsychology/f/halo-effect.htm">halo effect</a>,” which suggests that if a person likes someone initially, they’re more likely to continue to view them as good, even if that person does something bad. Effectively, that positive first impression has created a figurative angelic halo, suggesting the person is less likely to do wrong. In the very first episode of “Catfish: The TV Show,” Sunny believes that her love interest Jamison is a model holding cue cards on a late-night comedy show and studying to become an anesthesiologist. Sunny has a very hard time accepting that none of those claims are true of Chelsea, the real person claiming to be Jamison.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Sometimes the catfish is someone the victim knows.</span></figcaption>
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<p>A complementary idea, called “hyperpersonal connection,” suggests that people who <a href="http://doi.org/10.1177/009365096023001001">develop deep emotional ties to each other very quickly</a> may be more trusting, and may even feel safer sharing things facelessly online than they would in person. So someone who met a new friend online and felt an immediate connection might share deeply personal feelings and experiences – expecting the other person to reciprocate. Sometimes the catfish do, but they’re not always telling the truth.</p>
<p>Another reason people might not look too deeply into whether the person they’re talking to is real is that they don’t want the relationship to change, even if they say they do – or think they might in the future. If it’s meeting their needs to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.052">feel accepted, appreciated, connected and less lonely</a>, why rock the boat? That could risk shattering the fantasy of a potential “happily ever after.” Some people also might not really plan ever to meet in real life anyway. So they don’t feel a need to verify the identity behind the online mask, and any lying will never actually matter.</p>
<p>Other people might feel guilty, as if they were <a href="https://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A297135951/AONE?u=googlescholar&sid=AONE&xid=a49adec8">snooping on someone</a> they should trust, who might be upset if they found out their claims were being verified – even though the liar is the one who should feel bad, not the fact-checker.</p>
<p>People can still meet and develop real relationships through dating sites, apps and social media. But catfish are still out there, so it pays to be skeptical, especially if the person is never able to talk on the phone or by video chat. Ask questions about their lives and backgrounds; beware if someone gives fishy answers. Do your own background checking, searching images, phone numbers and social networks like they do on the “Catfish” show. Someone who’s sincere will be impressed at your savvy – and that you care enough to ensure you’re both being honest.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109702/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Marie Allaire does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Online lies can often be easy to detect, by searching for images and phone numbers and exploring social media profiles. Some people lie anyway – and countless others take the bait.Nicole Marie Allaire, Lecturer in English, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1003812018-07-25T20:10:00Z2018-07-25T20:10:00ZIt’s not about money: we asked catfish why they trick people online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228986/original/file-20180724-194158-zeswib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our likelihood of falling victim to catfish scams is increasing along with our screen time.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/modern-design-fingerprint-catfish-word-term-204911647?src=iWpwU1cetXL4Ds5iuak2zw-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you have engaged with internet culture at all in recent years, you have probably come across the term “catfish”, first coined in the 2010 <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1584016/">documentary</a> of the same name. </p>
<p>A catfish is someone who uses false information to cultivate a persona online that does not represent their true identity. This commonly involves using stolen or edited photos, usually taken from an unwitting third party. </p>
<p>Catfish will use this information to create a more appealing version of themselves, then engage in continued one-on-one interactions with another person (or people) who are unaware of the deception. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/facebook-is-fighting-social-media-identity-theft-in-india-but-its-a-global-problem-81471">Facebook is fighting social media identity theft in India, but it's a global problem</a>
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<h2>Falling prey to catfish</h2>
<p>In the 2010 documentary, Nev Schulman learns that a woman with whom he has developed an online relationship over nine months is actually fake. Another married woman (who originally claimed to be her mother) has used pictures from a model’s account to create the complicated, phoney relationship.</p>
<p>There have been several high-profile cases of catfishing reported in the media since then. </p>
<p>Singer Casey Donovan, in her 2014 memoir, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/casey-donovan-i-spent-six-years-in-a-fake-relationship-20140226-33gz2.html">wrote</a> about a six-year relationship that turned out to be fake – in her case, the catfish even lied about her gender. </p>
<p>In 2011, NBA star Chris Andersen became embroiled in a <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/nba-star-aspiring-model-victims-massive-catfishing-scheme/story?id=46755887">catfishing scandal</a> that ended in prison time for the catfish. </p>
<p>Then there is the popular <a href="http://www.mtv.com.au/catfish-the-tv-show">MTV reality docuseries</a>, hosted by catfish victim Nev Schulman himself. It is currently in its seventh season of “[taking] online romances into the real world”.</p>
<h2>A complicated problem</h2>
<p>Since 2016, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (<a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/">ACCC</a>) has collected and published data on dating and romance scams. </p>
<p>Its <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/types-of-scams/dating-romance">website</a> provides detailed statistics of reported romance fraud in Australia, yet there is little information available about social catfishing – deception in the absence of financial fraud. There are also questions about the legality of impersonating someone who does not exist.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-record-340-million-lost-to-fraud-in-australia-says-latest-accc-report-96912">A record $340 million lost to fraud in Australia, says latest ACCC report</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Until these issues are resolved, there is no clear avenue to pursue for victims of social catfish. Victims may remain unaware of the deception for months or years – another reason catfishing often goes unreported – making it even harder to quantify.</p>
<h2>The personality traits of catfish scammers</h2>
<p>As smartphones and connected devices become ever more pervasive, the chances of falling victim to deception are increasing along with our <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/30/health/americans-screen-time-nielsen/index.html">screen time</a>. </p>
<p>But what sort of person becomes a social catfish? </p>
<p>We have begun psychological research to investigate this question. In the past year we have recruited 27 people from around the world who self-identified as catfish for online interviews. </p>
<p>The interviews focused mainly on their motivations and feelings about their catfishing behaviour. Some of our key findings included:</p>
<ul>
<li>Loneliness was mentioned by 41% of the respondents as the reason for their catfishing. One respondent said:</li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>I just wanted to be more popular and make friends that could talk to me, some part of the day. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Others claimed that a lonely childhood and ongoing struggles with social connection were contributing factors.</p>
<ul>
<li>Dissatisfaction with their physical appearance was also a common theme, represented in around one-third of responses:</li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>I had lots of self-esteem problems … I actually consider myself ugly and unattractive … The only way I have had relationships has been online and with a false identity. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another respondent said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If I try to send my real, unedited pictures to anyone that seems nice, they stop responding to me. It’s a form of escapism, or a way of testing what life would be like if you were the same person but more physically attractive.</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Some reported using false identities or personas to explore their sexuality or gender identity. For example:</li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>I was catfishing women because I am attracted to women but have never acted on it … I pretend to be a man as I would prefer to be in the male role of a heterosexual relationship than a female in a homosexual relationship.</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li>More than two-thirds of responses mentioned a desire to escape:</li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>It could seem magical, being able to escape your insecurities … But in the end, it only worsens them.</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Many reported feelings of guilt and self-loathing around their deceptive behaviour: </li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s hard to stop the addiction. Reality hit, and I felt like a shitty human.</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li><p>More than one-third of participants expressed a desire to confess to their victims, and some had continued relations with them even after coming clean.</p></li>
<li><p>Somewhat surprisingly, around a quarter of respondents said they began catfishing out of practicality, or because of some outside circumstance. One said:</p></li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>Being too young for a website or game meant I had to lie about my age to people, resulting in building a complete persona.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>No simple solution</h2>
<p>What does it take to become a catfish, and how should we deal with this growing problem? Unsurprisingly, our initial research suggests that there’s no simple answer. </p>
<p>Social catfishing seems to provide an outlet for the expression of many different desires and urges. Although not yet officially a crime, it is never a victimless act. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-all-online-catfish-are-bad-but-strong-communities-can-net-the-ones-that-are-47981">Not all online catfish are bad, but strong communities can net the ones that are</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As we move further online each year, the burden of harmful online behaviour becomes greater to society, and a better understanding of the issues are needed if we are to minimise harm in the future. From our small survey, it appears that catfish themselves aren’t universally malicious.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/has-the-smartphone-destroyed-a-generation/534198/">Psychologist Jean Twenge has argued</a> that the post-millenial generation is growing up with smartphones in hand at an early age and are thus spending more time in the relatively “safe” online world than in real-life interactions, especially compared with previous generations. </p>
<p>Catfishing will likely become a more common side-effect for this generation in particular. </p>
<p>The next phase of our research is to learn what we can do to help both victims and the catfish themselves. We hope to recruit at least 120 people who have catfished so that we can develop a more thorough picture of their personalities. If you have been a catfish, or know someone who has, please contact us to participate in our research: <a href="http://tinyurl.com/catfishstudy">tinyurl.com/catfishstudy</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author would like to acknowledge the contribution to this article of Samantha Lo Monaco, an honours student at the University of Queensland.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100381/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Vanman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As younger generations spend more time interacting with people online and less time in real life, they are more likely to experience catfishing – both as victims and instigators.Eric Vanman, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/904212018-03-08T11:43:59Z2018-03-08T11:43:59ZLet them eat carp: Fish farms are helping to fight hunger<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205503/original/file-20180208-180844-1db2u8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Farmed fish like these carp now make an important contribution to global food security.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ben Belton</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past three decades, the global aquaculture industry has risen from obscurity to become a critical source of food for millions of people. In 1990, only 13 percent of world seafood consumption was farmed; by 2014, aquaculture was providing <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3720e.pdf">more than half</a> of the fish consumed directly by human beings. </p>
<p>The boom has made farmed fish like shrimp, tilapia and pangasius catfish – imported from countries such as Thailand, China and Vietnam – an increasingly common sight in European and North American supermarkets. As a result, much research on aquaculture has emphasized production for export. </p>
<p>This focus has led scholars to question whether aquaculture contributes to the <a href="https://www.wfp.org/node/359289">food security</a> of poorer people in producing countries. Many have concluded <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2006.06.001">it does not</a>. Meanwhile, the industry’s advocates often emphasize the potential for small-scale farms, mainly growing fish for home consumption, to <a href="http://www.aquaculturewithoutfrontiers.org/">feed the poor</a>. Farms of this kind are sometimes claimed to account for <a href="http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/hlpe/hlpe_documents/HLPE_S_and_R/HLPE_2014_Sustainable_Fisheries_and_Aquaculture_Summary_EN.pdf">70 to 80 percent</a>
of global aquaculture production. </p>
<p>Our research shows that both of these perspectives are wildly out of sync with current developments. In fact, the vast majority of farmed fish is consumed in the same developing countries where it is produced, and is widely accessible to poorer consumers in these markets. Most of it comes from a dynamic new class of small- and medium-scale commercial farms, the existence of which is rarely recognized. To understand the potential of aquaculture to feed the world, researchers and consumers need to appreciate how dynamic this industry is.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205506/original/file-20180208-180805-1x8ipy5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Farming pangasius catfish for export in Vietnam.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ben Belton</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Farmed fish is a critical food source</h2>
<p>Fish is a rich source of vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids and high-quality protein. It plays a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-015-0427-z">particularly important role</a> in the diets of billions of consumers in low- and middle-income countries. Many of these people are poor, malnourished and unable to afford alternative nutrient-rich foods such as fruit, eggs and meat. </p>
<p>Throughout human history most of the fish people eat has been captured from oceans, rivers and lakes. But the total quantity of fish harvested from these sources <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10244">peaked in the mid-1990s</a> due to overfishing and environmental degradation. Demand for seafood has continued to increase since this time, as urbanization and average incomes have risen globally. Aquaculture is filling the gap. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206664/original/file-20180215-131038-7vnqvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global total of wild fish capture and aquaculture production (million metric tons).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_fisheries_production#/media/File:Global_total_fish_harvest.svg">Construct, data from FAO</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Overemphasis on exports</h2>
<p>Academic research on aquaculture has focused predominantly on internationally traded species such as shrimp, salmon, and Vietnamese pangasius. These three fish account for less than 10 percent of global farmed fish production, but are the focus of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12035">the majority of social science publications</a> on aquaculture. This bias reflects the priorities and concerns of developed countries that fund research, as well as civil society organizations that work to promote sustainable aquaculture production through international trade.</p>
<p>Because they assume that this small group of internationally traded species is representative of global aquaculture, many scholars believe that fish farmed in developing nations is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/534317a">mainly exported to wealthy countries</a>. The literature also suggests that fish farmers find it most profitable to grow species with a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfb.12187">high market value</a>, generating little benefit for poorer consumers.</p>
<h2>Fact-checking the numbers</h2>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.005">recent analysis</a> of fish production and trade, we used <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/en">data</a> published by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization to show that the importance of global trade in farmed seafood has been vastly overstated. We analyzed farmed fish production and exports for 2011 – the most recent year both sets of data were available – for the 10 most important aquaculture producing developing countries, which together account for 87 percent of global aquaculture production and half of the world’s human population. </p>
<p>Our analysis shows that export trade from these countries is relatively insignificant. In fact, we found 89 percent of the fish farmed in these countries remain in their domestic markets. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205507/original/file-20180208-180821-crornh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mobile vendor selling affordable fish in Bangladesh.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ben Belton</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Aquaculture is pro-poor</h2>
<p>But is this fish reaching the poor? To answer this question, we pieced together multiple sources of information on fish prices and fish consumption in these same 10 countries. A consistent pattern emerged: Where the quantity of farmed fish has grown substantially, the real price of farmed fish, adjusted for inflation, has fallen significantly, and the quantity of fish consumed by poorer consumers has grown. </p>
<p>For example, in Bangladesh – one of Asia’s poorest countries – the farmed fish market grew <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.06.006">by a factor of 25</a> in three decades to exceed two million tons in 2015. This growth caused the real price of farmed fish to drop by nine percent from 2000 to 2010, at the same time that wild fish were becoming scarcer and more expensive. Consumption of farmed fish by poorer households – who are particularly sensitive to changes in food prices – increased rapidly over this period, more than offsetting a decline in the quantity of wild fish eaten. </p>
<p>These trends imply that the expansion of fish farming has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.035">good for the poor</a>. Low-income households in the countries that we studied would eat less fish of any kind today, wild or farmed, were it not for the growth of aquaculture. </p>
<h2>A quiet revolution</h2>
<p>So who is producing this fish, and how? The “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.06.006">quiet revolution</a>” in farmed fish supply has been driven neither by corporate agribusiness nor by tiny backyard farms. Rather, most of aquaculture’s growth over the past three decades has come from a dynamic and increasingly sophisticated segment of small- and medium-sized commercial farms and the myriad businesses that support them by supplying inputs such as feed, logistics and other services.</p>
<p>Rather than focusing on producing expensive species for export markets or wealthy domestic customers, these unsung heroes have focused on growing affordable fish such as carp. Where these species are produced in large quantities, they have become affordable for huge numbers of low- and middle-income consumers close to home. </p>
<p>This transformation has not yet taken hold in many developing countries, particularly in Africa, where access to inexpensive fish could greatly improve food security. By learning from the example of nations where farmed fish supply has boomed, governments and aid organizations can make better targeted investments in infrastructure, institutions, policies and technologies to expand the impact of aquaculture’s quiet revolution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90421/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Belton receives funding from the United States Agency for International Development, and the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Little receives funding from Progammes funded by the Department for International Development, UK, and the European Union </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Bush receives funding from the Dutch Scientific Organisation (NWO), Addessium Foundation and Monterrey Bay Seafood Watch Programme.</span></em></p>Many critics say that fish farms mainly sell their output to wealthy countries and don’t provide much benefit to poor people in producing countries. Three aquaculture experts show why this view is wrong.Ben Belton, Assistant Professor of International Development, Michigan State UniversityDave Little, Professor of Aquatic Resources Development, University of StirlingSimon Bush, Professor and Chair of Environmental Policy, Wageningen UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/856542017-10-18T23:33:53Z2017-10-18T23:33:53ZThe difference between cybersecurity and cybercrime, and why it matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190490/original/file-20171016-30993-j01u8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Confidence scams carried out online are still rampant.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/crestresearch/35077887820/">R. Stevens/CREST Research</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A Texas woman in her 50s, let’s call her “Amy,” met a man online calling himself “Charlie.” Amy, who lived in Texas, was in a bad marriage. Charlie said he was a businessman and a Christian, and wooed her. “He was saying all the right things,” Amy later <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/romance-scams">told the FBI</a>. “He was interested in me. He was interested in getting to know me better. He was very positive, and I felt like there was a real connection there.” Early on, Charlie told her he was having some problems with his business and needed money. She wanted to help.</p>
<p>From 2014 to 2016, she sent him US$2 million – often in installments of a few thousand dollars at a time, always hoping and expecting to get paid back. After she alerted the FBI, two Nigerian citizens were arrested near Houston – both <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/romance-scams">pleaded guilty to wire fraud charges</a> in connection with Amy’s relationship with Charlie. The person who played the character of Charlie has not been identified.</p>
<p>This story is a cautionary example of a crime that happens online. But most advice for avoiding online dangers – like <a href="https://theconversation.com/using-truly-secure-passwords-6-essential-reads-84092">having long passwords</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-age-of-hacking-brings-a-return-to-the-physical-key-73094">using two-factor authentication</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/end-to-end-encryption-isnt-enough-security-for-real-people-82054">encrypting data</a> – wouldn’t have helped Amy. </p>
<p>The crime that befell her has nothing to do with cybersecurity. It’s cybercrime, a human-centered crime committed in a digital environment. There are more of these each year: In the U.S. in 2016, <a href="https://www.ic3.gov/media/annualreport/2016_IC3Report.pdf">298,728 complainants reported losing more than $1.3 billion</a> in various types of cybercrimes, including romance scams but also involving fraudulent online sales, extortion, violent harassment and impersonation scams, among others. As a social scientist who <a href="https://odu.academia.edu/RoderickGraham">studies online behavior</a> and as the program coordinator for one of the few <a href="https://www.odu.edu/academics/programs/undergraduate/cybercrime">cybercrime</a> undergraduate programs in the United States, I find it unfortunate that problems like Amy’s get relatively little national attention, especially compared to cybersecurity.</p>
<p><iframe id="QT61l" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/QT61l/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Understanding the differences</h2>
<p>Cybersecurity is not merely a set of guidelines and actions intended to prevent cybercrime. The two types of problems differ substantially in terms of what happens and who the victims are, as well as the academic areas that study them.</p>
<p>Cybersecurity is ultimately about <a href="https://www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/csd-2017-cyber-showcase">protecting government and corporate networks</a>, seeking to make it difficult for hackers to find and exploit vulnerabilities. <a href="https://cybercrime.as.ua.edu/">Cybercrime</a>, on the other hand, tends to focus more on protecting individuals and families as they navigate online life.</p>
<p><iframe id="6bGCq" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/6bGCq/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The U.S. has created several initiatives to improve its cybersecurity, including <a href="https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/01/15/vice-president-biden-announces-25-million-funding-cybersecurity-educatio">investments</a> in <a href="https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/09/fact-sheet-cybersecurity-national-action-plan">cybersecurity education</a> and expanding <a href="http://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/324238-trumps-budget-proposal-gives-dhs-15-billion-for-cybersecurity">efforts of government agencies</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, upgrading official networks and training future generations of cybersecurity professionals will not necessarily benefit people like Amy. Technical solutions won’t solve her problems. Social science research into human behavior online is how to help millions like her learn to protect themselves.</p>
<h2>Little research</h2>
<p>One of the few studies on romance scams like the one that ensnared Amy suggests that there are <a href="http://www.cybercrimejournal.com/burgardschlembachijcc2013vol7issue2.pdf">three stages to these types of cons</a>. It starts with the criminal engaging in intense online communications with the victim. In Amy’s case, Charlie undoubtedly contacted her repeatedly as their relationship began. That built her trust and lowered her defenses – and commanded much of the time and energy she had for social interaction.</p>
<p>Once the victim is isolated from other interpersonal social experiences, the illusion of connection and interdependence can deepen. Charlie no doubt kept this illusion alive any way he could, taking as much of Amy’s money as he could. In the third and final stage, the target finally sees through the veil and learns that it’s all been a scam. That’s when Amy, urged by her financial advisor, suspected fraud and called the FBI.</p>
<p>More research on cybercrime could help deepen scholars’ and investigators’ understandings of how these social science problems play out online. To my knowledge there are <a href="http://www.coloradotech.edu/degrees/bachelors/cybercrime-investigation">just</a> <a href="http://www.farmingdale.edu/academics/curriculum/bs-criminal-justice-law-enforcement-technology.shtml">four</a> <a href="http://criminology.fsu.edu/degrees/undergraduate-programs/majors/computer-criminology/">cybercrime</a> <a href="https://www.odu.edu/academics/programs/undergraduate/cybercrime">programs</a> at residential four-year colleges. With more effort and investment, academics and law enforcement could learn more and work better together to identify and protect the real people who are at risk from these online criminals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85654/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roderick S. Graham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cybercrime affects individuals and families as they navigate online life. But significant efforts focus instead on cybersecurity, protecting institutional networks and systems – rather than people.Roderick S. Graham, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Old Dominion UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/788612017-06-07T15:30:30Z2017-06-07T15:30:30ZAquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa: small successes, bigger prospects?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172689/original/file-20170607-11311-1fz7lwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Almost all production of freshwater fish includes Tilapia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you don’t know what aquaculture is, you’re not alone: a 2009 survey found that a remarkable <a href="http://www.soundinteraxions.co.za/2009AISABenchmarkingSurveyFINAL.pdf.pdf">85% of South Africans</a> had never even heard the term, and most are still unaware of its importance. The situation hasn’t improved much, more people have heard of it but few actually know what it is.</p>
<p>Aquaculture is the aquatic equivalent of agriculture. It involves essentially “growing” animals and plants that live in lakes, rivers or the sea, mostly for human consumption. It has been one of the world’s fastest growing industries in <a href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x8002e/x8002e07.htm">recent decades</a> </p>
<p>In fact today, you’re more likely to be eating “farmed” fish than fish from the wild. But that is not true in South Africa, yet. In 2014 the supply of fish for human consumption from aquaculture exceeded that from wild-caught fisheries for <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf">the first time</a>. This trend is continuing, as the amount of fish which can be supplied by the traditional fishing industry has reached a plateau, and aquaculture continues to expand at a rapid rate. It’s increasing in those countries with a long tradition of aquaculture, but also in regions where it hasn’t been done before. </p>
<p>As the supply of fish and seafood through fishing becomes less sustainable, the global challenge is to replace it sustainably through aquaculture.</p>
<p>The industry has grown slowly in sub-Saharan Africa. Freshwater fish aquaculture has recently expanded very rapidly in the region from a low base. Marine aquaculture has yet to take off, with only one or two successful examples. As fisheries become more depleted, there’s a growing need and opportunity to develop aquaculture for food. </p>
<p>Shortage of suitable sea space may eventually limit expansion in South Africa, but there are many such sea areas around the continent where marine aquaculture could increase rapidly given the required input of investment and expertise.</p>
<h2>Aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa</h2>
<p>Most of the world’s aquaculture production takes place <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf">in Asia</a>, with China (60%), and the top 6 countries – all in Asia – <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf">produce 86%</a>. The rapid growth rate in aquaculture production over the last quarter of a century in Asian countries is being mirrored in the production of freshwater fish in sub-Saharan Africa.</p>
<p>Only <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf">550 000 tonnes</a> of aquatic animals were grown in 2014, which is less than 1% of the world production. Almost all of this is of freshwater fish – mostly catfish, Tilapia and Nile Perch. Nigeria and Uganda are the <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6873e.pdf">region’s leading producers.</a></p>
<p>Marine aquaculture production in Africa is a more depressing story. Just 12 000t of animal production was reported in 2008, dropping to <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6873e.pdf">10 000t in 2014.</a> Most of this was made up of prawns in Madagascar and Mozambique, and molluscs like abalone, mussels and oysters in South Africa. The drop in output was largely because of the <a href="http://www.responsibleaqua.org/research-programs/ems/">White Spot Syndrome Virus</a> in prawn aquaculture. This has decimated the industry in Mozambique and Madagascar since 2011. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172687/original/file-20170607-11324-q67l3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">South Africa’s main marine aquaculture success story is the [local abalone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mike Stekoll</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One long-term marine aquaculture industry in the region is the <a href="https://www.farmafrica.org/us/tanzania/seaweed-farming-in-zanzibar">red seaweeds in Tanzania</a>, with a figure of 13 000t in 2014. The seaweed is not eaten directly, but is exported dry for overseas production of the colloid carrageenan. This is a type of jelly which is used mostly in the food industry as a thickening, gelling, stabilising and suspending agent in milk and water-based foods. The income from cultivation of these seaweeds is low from a global perspective, but makes a significant difference to household incomes in some areas, particularly in Zanzibar. </p>
<p>In South Africa, you’re almost certainly eating aquaculture products if you order local oysters, mussels and trout, or imported salmon, prawns, or seaweed in sushi.</p>
<h2>South African marine aquaculture</h2>
<p>The country’s main marine aquaculture success story is the <a href="http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/abalone-spearheading-sas-aquaculture-sector-2016-03-09/rep_id:4136">local abalone Haliotis midae (“perlemoen”)</a>.
It began in the 1990s, and now around 1500t are produced annually representing over 90% of the value of <a href="http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/sa-moving-to-secure-its-share-of-world-aquaculture-growth-2013-07-26-1">South African marine aquaculture.</a> South African abalone is not grown on ropes, rafts or in cages in the sea or sheltered bays/estuaries unlike most of the global marine aquaculture. It’s a high value product, grown by pumping large amounts of seawater into tanks on land. </p>
<p>A large abalone farm pumps over 10 million litres of seawater per hour, with electricity for pumping a major cost component. Such infrastructure is only economically feasible with a high value product. Most South African farmed abalone is flown live or exported in cans to China. </p>
<p>The two main success stories in marine aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa are very different: seaweed grown attached to ropes in the sea and exported as low priced raw material, and a shellfish grown in land based systems and exported as a high priced food. Both of them provide income and employment, but not food for Africans. </p>
<p>There have been numerous attempts to grow marine fish and prawns in South Africa <a href="https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/investments-immigration/science-technology/the-growth-of-fish-farming-in-south-africa">in land-based systems</a>. This works for abalone – does it often fail for fish because of a lower-priced product? Successful operations elsewhere involving sea-cage production of fish such as salmon operate as simpler systems, without <a href="https://www.dyrevern.no/english/fish-farming-in-norway">large-scale water pumping</a>. </p>
<p>South Africa has particular constraints for marine aquaculture having a very straight coastline with high wave energy, mostly unsuitable for rafts and cages. Most of South Africa’s offshore marine aquaculture happens in Saldanha Bay on the west coast, with plans to <a href="http://www.slrconsulting.com/media/files/site/DAFF-Saldanha-ADZ.pdf">extend the area used</a>, and there are a limited number of other feasible sites.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Bolton receives funding from the National Research Foundation (South Africa).</span></em></p>In light of World Oceans Day, it’s important to note the important role aquaculture can have on the continent.John Bolton, Professor of Biology and a marine plant biologist, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/627222016-07-25T14:04:55Z2016-07-25T14:04:55ZFreaks and uniques: evolution’s weirdest creatures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131767/original/image-20160725-31168-a7oeei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nationalzoo/6257374009/in/photolist-awZo8C-iMWga-89xh2W-awZo5G-awZnM7-awWERP-awWFhM-awZnJG-cEbYd5-awWEBD-4fN8qX-F377a9-gAiye-awZob1-8DgeJr-awZogq-awZnAu-a8ZyJ8-awWFfg-awWEJr-89xmrA-a5TDdV-9Q5ro4-2ALEp-5dMpAQ-9wNRwg-5VUQzW-aKjjPV-6XLvjV-5VUQt5-cgLrPN-4fKYLv-dsdsrF-qJ2x8Q-a6ybYB-aib5K6-hjyKs-iMVxy-chRs2Q-cEc6Fm-cmtQ3f-awZnDE-5Hvc6k-cgLrKo-7CvF1Z-34NkXD-ab2A8s-8Nx7By-ceaiDY-dy9qqq/">Smithsonian's National Zoo/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Evolution helps every species carve out its own niche within our planet’s huge range of diverse and adverse habitats. And sometimes the features they evolve are truly bizarre.</p>
<p>This adaptation occurs because animal DNA can experience random genetic mutations. The mutations that produce features especially beneficial for a particular environment make the animal more likely to survive and pass on its genes. Gradually, those features are passed on over many generations until they become predominant in the species.</p>
<p>In this way, unique environments can cause animals to evolve unique appearances and abilities. Whether it’s in response to extreme temperatures, or through competition for mates, some of the most unusual feats of evolution have to be seen to be believed. Here are some of the most eye-catching and impressive examples.</p>
<h2>Secretary birds (<em>Sagittarius serpentarius</em>)</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131747/original/image-20160725-31171-1vph93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kick it!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/flamesworddragon/3385513317/in/photostream/">Mark Kent/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Latin name for the secretary bird roughly translates as “snake archer”, which gives us a clue to the bird’s diet. But <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4156082.pdf">hunting for venomous snakes</a> comes with risks. If a bird were to mistime an attack it could get bitten – with serious consequences.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131751/original/image-20160725-31178-cfzm1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Let’s dance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/flamesworddragon/3385511535">Mark Kent/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This unusual predator-predator relationship has led the secretary bird to evolve faster attack and response times but also one of the strongest kicks in the animal kingdom. They can kick and stamp on their prey’s head until it is killed or incapacitated, but the first kick is particularly important because it stuns the prey before it has the chance to retaliate. </p>
<p>From a standing position, secretary birds can kick with as much force as <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-35400385">five-to-six times</a> their own body weight. This is the equivalent of a grown man kicking with 400kg of force. Even more impressively, secretary birds deliver this huge force in a ridiculously short time. The foot is in contact with the snake for just 15 milliseconds. To put this in context, it takes you <a href="http://bit.ly/2aqgHAw">150-300 milliseconds</a> to blink your eye. </p>
<h2>Naked mole rats (<em>Heterocephalus glaber</em>)</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131754/original/image-20160725-31190-1b9hjcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who are you calling ‘ugly’?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nationalzoo/6257901626/in/photolist-awZo8C-iMWga-89xh2W-awZo5G-awZnM7-awWERP-awWFhM-awZnJG-cEbYd5-awWEBD-4fN8qX-F377a9-gAiye-awZob1-8DgeJr-awZogq-awZnAu-a8ZyJ8-awWFfg-awWEJr-89xmrA-a5TDdV-9Q5ro4-2ALEp-5dMpAQ-9wNRwg-5VUQzW-aKjjPV-6XLvjV-5VUQt5-cgLrPN-4fKYLv-dsdsrF-qJ2x8Q-a6ybYB-aib5K6-hjyKs-iMVxy-chRs2Q-cEc6Fm-cmtQ3f-awZnDE-5Hvc6k-cgLrKo-7CvF1Z-34NkXD-ab2A8s-8Nx7By-ceaiDY-dy9qqq">Smithsonian's National Zoo/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Naked mole rats are <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/14-fun-facts-about-naked-mole-rats-28758269/?no-ist">definitely bizarre</a>. Seemingly <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130731093255.htm">immune to cancer</a> and ageing, they have a life expectancy of over 30 years, an insect-like social society dominated by a queen, and the unusual ability of being able to run backwards as fast as they can run forwards. These features are <a href="http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.543077">thought to have evolved</a> to help the animals survive in the hot, humid, underground burrows with sparsely distributed food where they live in west Africa. </p>
<p>One interesting feature that doesn’t get as much attention is their <a>curious teeth</a>, which they use to dig with. Their lower incisors are permanently on show on the outside of the animal’s lips and can move independently of each other, almost like a pair of chopsticks. This means that mole rats can dig with their teeth, without getting too much soil in their mouths. Amazingly, naked mole rats have also been seen inserting the husks of tubers behind their incisors, placing them delicately in front of their lips to act <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s100710050009">as a face mask</a> against the dirt.</p>
<h2>Guillemot (<em>Uria aalge</em>) eggs</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131759/original/image-20160725-31187-4pne7z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where did I leave my eggs?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bird eggshells don’t just protect the developing embryo inside but also contain tiny pores to allow oxygen to pass through. Getting the pores clogged with detritus could be a serious hazard and even cause death to the growing chick. This is a particular danger for guillemots because they live <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0003347278900507">in huge colonies</a> of as many as 400,000 pairs and lay their eggs on bare cliff ledges that become covered in substantial amounts of guano (seabird faeces).</p>
<p>To overcome this somewhat extreme environment and to prevent the eggshell pores from getting clogged with muck, guillemot eggs have evolved an ingenious solution. The outside of the eggshell is covered in tiny <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/23145291">nano-scale cones</a>. These cones work to make the eggshell surface hydrophobic (“water hating”). Water droplets form a perfect sphere on the surface, rather than spreading and running off down the shell. This structure is very similar to that found on <a href="http://ice.chem.wisc.edu/Oil/On_The_Surface,_Its_All_About_Nano/Lotus_Effect.html">lotus leaves</a> and serves a self-cleaning function. This ensures the correct amount of gases are exchanged across the eggshell and helps the embryo develop successfully. </p>
<h2>Climbing catfish (<em>Lithogenes wahari</em>)</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131763/original/image-20160725-31171-1nskmhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Which way to the pool?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">S. Schaefer/American Museum of Natural History</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>You can imagine the surprise for a group of scientists exploring a small tributary of the Orinoco river valley in Venezuela, who found fish merrily walking up the rocks that fringed the river. These fish turned out to be a new species of catfish that hadn’t previously been described. </p>
<p>From above, the catfish’s typical appearance hides an extraordinary secret. Underneath is a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150429-new-cave-climbing-catfish-behaviour-filmed">giant sucker</a> and an extra pair of fleshy <a href="http://www.livescience.com/3262-catfish-species-climbs-rocks.html">pelvic fins</a>. Together, these two structures allow the catfish to climb up rock faces and out of the water because the specialised pelvic fins are able to move backwards and forwards independently.</p>
<p>Climbing is presumably such an advantage for these fish because water levels in the small tributaries are so variable. Their fins allow them to move off in search of other water sources should levels drop too far. And during heavy rain, the fish temporarily can escape from the intense flow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62722/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Portugal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our planet’s huge range of environments has led some animals to evolve some bizarre but very useful features.Steve Portugal, Senior Lecturer in Animal Biology and Physiology, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/479812015-09-28T10:42:15Z2015-09-28T10:42:15ZNot all online catfish are bad, but strong communities can net the ones that are<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95825/original/image-20150923-32028-14hkq5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Facebook: catfish's lair</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-245088322/stock-photo-gdansk-poland-january-facebook-com-homepage-on-the-screen-facebook-is-an-online-social.html?src=OtGuei_YanHKzCMT1MauGA-1-1">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The “catfish” phenomenon in which people take on different identities on social media and establish relationships with others who are unaware of their real identity is often cast as a black and white issue – a deception that is inevitably meant to cause harm. </p>
<p>But interacting with a known someone on social media using a disguised identity can be a way of changing the spoken and unspoken rules that guide our exchanges in real life. And it can be used both for good – expressing positive feelings – and for bad – <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/mum-fraudster-whose-cruel-con-6480041">taking advantage of someone</a>.</p>
<p>While online catfish are a modern phenomenon, the act of hiding behind another identity has a long history. <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/sep/15/woman-convicted-of-impersonating-man-to-dupe-friend-into-having-sex">The recent case</a> of a woman who was convicted after she impersonated a man on Facebook to dupe a friend into having sex is but one such story highlighted in the media.</p>
<h2>Cyrano de catfish</h2>
<p>Another famous example is Edmond Rostand’s play, Cyrano de Bergerac, in which Cyrano manages to express his feelings to his beloved Roxanne by hiding behind the identity of Christian. In this case, Cyrano uses the deception to express thoughts that are difficult to express in normal, day-to-day interactions. By hiding in this way, Cyrano is able to “reset” the relationship with his loved one and renegotiate the terms of this interaction. Unfortunately for Cyrano, Roxanne only realises this when it is too late.</p>
<p>Conquering the heart of a loved one is not the only reason why people create “fake” profiles on social media. Social networking sites offer an opportunity for people to try on different identities, and interact with others on the basis of that identity. This <a href="http://www.openu.ac.il/Personal_sites/download/Avner-Caspi/07Caspi.pdf">is particularly appealing to younger people</a> who are still in search of their identity. It can be fun, and allows them to find out which hat best fits. </p>
<p>Another reason to create “fake” profiles can be to express parts of one’s identity <a href="http://smg.media.mit.edu/people/Judith/Identity/IdentityDeception.html">which are not acceptable</a> according to social norms. This can range from wanting to discuss a personal issue, something health-related for example, without being identified or when being homosexual is dangerous. </p>
<h2>A better you</h2>
<p>Social networking sites <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563208000204">are used predominantly</a> to affirm one’s identity rather than conceal it. One study, which analysed 63 college students’ Facebook profiles found that they were often used to make implicit statements about the person by posting pictures or “liking” pages, or listing interests that projected a positive, socially desirable version of themselves – ones that there were aspirations to reach but which “we haven’t yet been able to embody for one reason or another”.</p>
<p>There is a vast literature on how we construct online identities <a href="http://nms.sagepub.com/content/14/7/1240.extract">that explores the ways in which</a> where users must identify themselves, they engage in a series of strategies such as the ones above to present themselves to their connections under the best light possible. </p>
<h2>Cause for concern?</h2>
<p>Despite the high-profile stories, people do not seem to be particularly dishonest online – one literature review concluded people that people actually <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/close-encounters/201407/can-you-really-trust-the-people-you-meet-online">tend to be more honest than dishonest</a> on social networking sites.</p>
<p>Of course, there is certainly the need to offer users clear guidelines on online interactions, especially when it comes to relationships that are subsequently taken offline. This is particularly important when it comes to avoiding online predators. Many online dating sites offer users very sound safety tips which could be adapted to general online social networking. </p>
<p>In many cases catfish are happy to maintain the relationship online only: research shows how people looking for a face-to-face romantic interaction <a href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/%7Eenicole/toma_et_al_2008.pdf">tend to be more honest</a>. That said, even when there is no immediate danger for a person’s physical safety, the psychological harm of being deceived cannot be underestimated. Research has shown that parasocial relationships – ones in which relationships are established with a “mediated” other (whether a fictional character or a “real” person with whom the interaction occurs only via media) – can be just as intense as relationships lived in person. </p>
<p><a href="http://spr.sagepub.com/content/21/2/187">One such study in 2004</a> suggested that viewers who expected to lose their favourite characters on television anticipated negative reactions similar to those experienced after the dissolution of a relationship in real life. Realising that one has fallen victim of online deception can therefore be as devastating as losing an “offline” romantic partner.</p>
<h2>The power of ‘we’</h2>
<p>When it comes to deception, online communities do also seem to be very aware of this phenomenon. <a href="http://vbn.aau.dk/files/17515750/understanding_social__networking._bidrag_til_bog.pdf">An ethnographic study on identity construction on social media</a> by psychologist Malene Charlotte Larsen found an overwhelming opposition to “fakers” on one close-knit Danish social networking site, who were often named and shamed by the other members of the community. Larsen showed how some users then posted about how they reached the conclusion that someone was a faker. By doing so, they were sharing important tools to avoid online deception. </p>
<p>It is certainly not the only close-knit online community, and Larsen also observed this on other social networking sites like Bebo and YouTube and Myspace. So if deception is a breach of the rules governing the interactions in the online community then the community itself can step in. </p>
<p>It is undeniable that in extreme cases catfishing can be dangerous and have negative consequences for both the person pretending to be someone else and the victims of their deception. But on social networking sites it’s not necessarily perpetrated with malevolence but something much broader: a form of entertainment, a prank, a way to explore one’s own identity or to connect with others in a different way. Safeguards can be built in and mutual support, knowledge sharing and monitoring can move to contain some of the dangers, but the evidence so far suggests that these are not as widespread as we might think.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47981/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sharon Coen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People with ‘fake’ identities can do harm but how widespread is so-called catfishing on social media?Sharon Coen, Senior Lecturer in Media Psychology , University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.