tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/cold-weather-49689/articlesCold weather – The Conversation2024-03-04T18:25:48Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231532024-03-04T18:25:48Z2024-03-04T18:25:48ZGlobal warming may be behind an increase in the frequency and intensity of cold spells<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575431/original/file-20240213-30-h2gkre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bradford-uk-02-08-2024-electronic-2423109221">bennphoto / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Global warming caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases is already affecting our lives. Scorching summers, more intense heatwaves, longer drought periods, more extended floods, and wilder wildfires are consequences linked to this warming.</p>
<p>One less obvious consequence of global warming is also getting growing attention from scientists: <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/extreme-cold-snaps-could-get-worse-as-climate-warms/#:%7E:text=Many%20studies%20have%20shown%20that,and%20understood%20from%20physical%20reasoning.">a potential increase</a> in the intensity and frequency of winter cold snaps in the northern hemisphere.</p>
<p>Weather phenomena like the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/feb/26/uk-braces-for-beast-from-the-east-as-met-office-warns-of-snow">Beast from the East in winter 2018</a>, the <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/great-texas-freeze-february-2021">cold spell of Arctic air</a> that reached as <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2022/02/17/texas-winter-storm-2021-stories/">far South as Texas in February 2021</a>, or the storm that left <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/11/world/europe/spain-snow-storm-filomena.html">Madrid</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2021/feb/16/unusually-heavy-snow-blankets-athens-in-pictures">Athens</a> unusually covered in snow for days in early 2021 are becoming more common.</p>
<p>Some of the mechanisms that lead to their occurrence are strengthened by global warming. Key climate mechanisms, like exchanges of energy and air masses between different altitude ranges in the atmosphere, are evolving in ways expected to cause an increase in both the intensity and duration of cold snaps. These link to the behaviour of a region in the high atmosphere called the stratosphere.</p>
<p>Winter cold snaps have major societal impacts, from direct effects on health and loss of life, to effects on transport and infrastructure, surges in energy demand and damage to agricultural resources. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Acropolis in 2021." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577870/original/file-20240226-21-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Acropolis in Athens covered in snow in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/athens-greece-february-16-2021-acropolis-2258307795">Savvas Karmaniolas / Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>This winter, we have seen these effects over large parts of Europe and the US, with flight cancellations, airport closures, road queues and drivers trapped in extreme cold temperatures. There have also been sharp increases in energy demand to cope with indoor heating, an increase in cold-related hospital admissions and the activation of services needed to assist the most vulnerable.</p>
<p>We need to develop forecasting tools that can predict these events further in advance.</p>
<h2>Polar vortex</h2>
<p>Some of these cold snaps are linked to disruptions in a seasonal atmospheric phenomenon called the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV). </p>
<p>In the northern hemisphere, this vortex consists of masses of cold air centred over the north pole, surrounded by a jet of very strong westerly winds between 15-50km above ground. These spinning winds act as a wall and keep cold air confined to the Arctic region, stopping it from travelling to lower latitudes. </p>
<p>Something that can disrupt the vortex is a sudden stratospheric warming (SSW), when the stratosphere experiences an abrupt increase in temperature due to energy and momentum being transferred from lower to higher altitudes. </p>
<p>When a major SSW occurs, the wall of strong winds around the polar stratosphere can break, allowing cold air to escape the polar vortex and travel down to lower atmospheric altitudes and lower latitudes. When that air approaches the Earth’s surface, significant cold spells can occur.</p>
<p>Even when SSWs are not strong enough to break the vortex, they can weaken it. This can cause polar air circulation patterns to meander further south into lower latitudes, reaching populated areas of North America and Eurasia, instead of staying nearer the north pole. Those areas can then experience temperatures tens of degrees lower than their winter average.</p>
<p>Under climate change, the transfer of energy from the lowest layers of the Earth’s atmosphere to the higher stratospheric layer is changing and seems to be disrupting the polar vortex to a greater degree. A <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/23/1259/2023/">study has shown</a> that the strength and duration of SSWs in the stratosphere have increased over the last 40 years. This increase is also expected to result in stronger winter cold snaps at surface levels.</p>
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<img alt="Polar Vortex" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579217/original/file-20240301-22-1lzoqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The polar vortex is a crucial component in cold snaps affecting the Northern Hemisphere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/facts/vortex_NH.html">NASA</a></span>
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<h2>Forecasting challenge</h2>
<p>Accurately forecasting these cold snaps is crucial for helping society prepare appropriately for them. Developing computer-based forecasting tools that reproduce realistic interactions between the lower levels of the troposphere and the stratospheric region is an essential step towards this goal.</p>
<p>To correctly simulate the behaviour of the stratosphere and how it interacts with the troposphere, forecasting tools must include realistic descriptions of the abundance and distribution of stratospheric ozone. Ozone influences the interaction of air masses outside and inside the vortex, and therefore also the transport of colder air from higher to lower altitudes.</p>
<p>However, including all the chemical processes that ozone is involved in, at the resolution needed to predict these weather events, is prohibitive in terms of the computing power needed. This is even truer if we want to predict events one season ahead. </p>
<p>My research looks at ways to improve forecasting models to better capture the type of stratospheric behaviour that leads to these cold spells. To do this I have developed alternatives that can realistically simulate processes in the stratosphere, including aspects of ozone chemistry, using less computing power. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/22/4277/2022/">study I led</a>, we used these alternatives to simulate interactions between the ozone layer, temperature and solar radiation in the global computer model used to produce some of the best weather forecasts in the world.</p>
<p>The experiments we did with this model showed that including this realistic alternative representation of stratospheric ozone led to improvements in simulations of temperature distribution in the stratosphere. This means that it can help provide useful information about triggers of cold spells like SSWs.</p>
<p>Developing and using these alternatives in climate modelling is a significant milestone towards what we call seamless prediction: using the same computer modelling tools to predict both weather and climate. This allows for a more accurate establishment of causal links between climate change and extreme weather events.</p>
<p>A question many may be wondering is if this extreme cold could be counteracting global warming. Unfortunately, not. While this winter has brought days of extremely cold temperatures and heavy snowfall in the northern hemisphere, the current summer in the southern hemisphere has seen some of the hottest days on record for populated areas of Australia, with temperatures of around 50ºC.</p>
<p>Global warming makes extreme weather more extreme, and scientific studies are starting to provide proof that this also applies to extreme winter cold spells. Developing the best possible modelling tools is essential to predict the evolution of extreme weather events in the coming years so that we can be better prepared for them.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beatriz Monge-Sanz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cold snaps can affect everyday services and infrastructure, putting lives at risk.Beatriz Monge-Sanz, Senior Researcher, Department of Physics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2228512024-02-26T13:38:23Z2024-02-26T13:38:23ZHow is snow made? An atmospheric scientist describes the journey of frozen ice crystals from clouds to the ground<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576863/original/file-20240220-22-v6kq2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C5%2C3764%2C2055&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some parts of the U.S. see well over 100 inches (2.5 meters) of snow per year.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/downhill-sledging-royalty-free-image/488074477?phrase=sledding+in+snow">Edoardo Frola/Moment Open via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>How is snow made? – Tenley, age 7, Rockford, Michigan</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>The thought of snow can conjure up images of powdery slopes, days out of school or hours of shoveling. For millions of people, it’s an inevitable part of life – but you may rarely stop to think about what made the snow.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.eaps.purdue.edu/people/profile/ablanch.html">professor of atmospheric and planetary sciences</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xClwTzUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I’ve studied how ice crystals floating</a> in the sky become the snow that coats the ground.</p>
<p>It all starts in the clouds.</p>
<p>Clouds form when air near the Earth’s surface rises. This happens when sunlight warms the ground and the air closest to it, just like the Sun can warm your face on a cold winter day. </p>
<p>As the slightly warmer air rises, it cools – and the water vapor in that rising air condenses to form liquid water or water ice. From that, <a href="https://climatekids.nasa.gov/cloud-formation/#:%7E">a cloud is born</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Cf6El0mI1fM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">You need just two things for snow to form.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Endless pathways</h2>
<p>When temperatures are well below freezing on the ground, the clouds are primarily made of water in the form of ice. Under 32 degrees Fahrenheit – that’s zero degrees Celsius – the frozen water molecules arrange themselves into a hexagonal, or six-sided, crystalline shape. As ice crystals grow and clump together, they become too heavy to stay aloft. With the help of gravity, they begin to fall back down through and eventually out of the cloud.</p>
<p>What these ice crystals look like once they reach land depends on the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere. As the humidity – or the amount of water vapor in the cloud – increases, some of the ice crystals will grow intricate arms at their six corners. That branching process creates what we think of as the <a href="https://www.timeforkids.com/g2/snowflake-science-g2-5-plus/?rl=en-500">characteristic shapes of snowflakes</a>. </p>
<p>No two ice crystals take the same path through a cloud. Instead, every ice crystal experiences different temperatures and humidities as it travels through the cloud, whether going up or down. The ever-changing conditions, combined with the infinite number of paths the crystals could take, result in a unique growth history and crystalline shape for each and every snowflake. This is why you’ve likely heard the saying, “<a href="https://www.willyswilderness.org/post/no-two-snowflakes-are-alike-it-s-actually-true">No two snowflakes are exactly alike</a>.” </p>
<p>Many times, these differences are visible to the naked eye; sometimes a microscope is required to tell them apart. Either way, scientists who study clouds and snow can examine a snowflake and ultimately understand the path it took through the cloud to land on your hand. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Snow crystals attached to a window." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576901/original/file-20240220-23-n5kry6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">It takes approximately one hour for a snowflake to reach the ground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/snowflakes-royalty-free-image/158720307?phrase=snowflakes">LiLi/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<h2>Liquid water as glue</h2>
<p>When snow falls from the sky, you don’t usually see individual ice crystals, but rather clumps of <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/storms/snowflakes">crystals stuck together</a>. One way ice crystals aggregate is through what’s called mechanical interlocking. When ice crystals bump into each other, crystals with intricate branches and arms intertwine and stick to others. </p>
<p>This mechanism is the main sticking process in cooler, drier conditions – what people call a “<a href="https://compuweather.com/the-important-difference-between-wet-snow-and-dry-snow/">dry snow</a>.” The result is a snow perfect for skiing, and easily picked up by the wind, but that won’t hold together when formed into a snowball. </p>
<p>The second way to stick ice crystals together is to warm them up a bit. When ice crystals fall through a region of cloud or atmosphere where the temperature is slightly above freezing, the edges of the crystals start to melt. Just a tiny bit of liquid water allows ice crystals that bump into each other to stick together very efficiently, almost like glue. </p>
<p>The result? Large clumps of ice crystals falling from the sky, what we call a “<a href="https://www.acurite.com/blog/types-of-snow.html">wet snow</a>” – less than ideal for hitting the slopes but perfect for building a snowman. </p>
<p>Snow formed in clouds typically reaches the ground only in winter. But almost all clouds, no matter the time of year or location, <a href="https://scijinks.gov/clouds/">contain some ice</a>. This is true even for clouds in warm tropical regions, because the atmosphere above us is much colder and can reach temperatures below freezing even on the warmest of days. In fact, scientists who study weather discovered that clouds containing ice produce more rain than those that don’t contain any ice at all.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandria Johnson receives funding from NASA. </span></em></p>There are an infinite number of paths an ice crystal can take before you touch it.Alexandria Johnson, Professor of Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215222024-02-09T10:35:24Z2024-02-09T10:35:24ZWeather v climate: how to make sense of an unusual cold snap while the world is hotter than ever<p>Earlier this year, the UK’s weather and climate service, the Met Office, announced average global temperatures in 2023 were <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2024/2023-the-warmest-year-on-record-globally">1.46°C</a> above pre-industrial levels. This made it the hottest year on record, 0.17°C higher than the previous record in 2016. </p>
<p>However, shortly after that announcement, the Met Office also forecast a multi-day blast of cold Arctic air bringing sub-zero temperatures, snow and ice to many parts of the UK. When the cold snap arrived, temperatures dropped to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/jan/18/more-snow-and-ice-warnings-as-uk-wakes-up-from-subzero-night">-14°C in the Scottish Highlands and -11°C even in England</a>. </p>
<p>Ten days later, a village in the Scottish Highlands reached <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-68119951">a balmy 19.9°C</a>, the warmest January temperature ever recorded anywhere in the UK – by a full degree Celsius. That might seem more in keeping with the global warming trend. Yet just ten days on from that record warmth, much of the UK has again been hit by unusually <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/uk-weather-latest-25cm-of-snow-forecast-in-places-as-weather-warnings-issued-across-uk-13066412">cold and snowy weather</a>. </p>
<p>It’s not just the UK. This winter, record-low temperatures have been observed right across <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/extreme-cold-climate-change-1.7087754">Canada</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/jan/15/us-weather-arctic-blast-extreme-cold">the US</a> and <a href="https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/parts-china-shanxi-hebei-liaoning-gripped-record-low-temperatures-icy-snap-3994976">China</a>.</p>
<p>This might seem confusing. Why are the weather and the climate producing such opposing signs? The reason is that they refer to atmospheric characteristics on substantially different timescales.</p>
<h2>You cannot sense the climate</h2>
<p>I do not think there is a person on Earth who can truly experience a “global annual average” of temperature. No one really knows what a degree of extra warmth over a century feels like, especially given temperatures might vary by 10°C between day and night in the UK, for example, or by 20°C and more between a hot summer day and a cold winter night. </p>
<p>This means we usually have a hard time feeling or recalling seasonal averages and how they change with passing years. We can spot climate changes in environmental shifts like receding glaciers or early flowering plants, and we can track changes with instruments. But it remains very hard to “feel” climate change.</p>
<p>In contrast, we feel and much better remember the weather on daily and weekly timescales – particularly extreme weather like a cold snap, heatwave or strong storm. </p>
<h2>Hot one day, cold the next</h2>
<p>Weather phenomena are very rapid and variable compared with climate properties that are defined and changing on longer time scales. The weather might be hot one day and cold the next, but an annual mean climate cannot suddenly slide from warm to cold. </p>
<p>The climate is essentially an accumulation of weather across a considerable amount of time. For example, weather information might refer to the local temperature at noon or 4pm, the daily minimum, average or maximum temperatures, or the weekly average. Whereas climate is much longer term. </p>
<p>Climate information might refer to, for example, average temperatures over a month, or averages over seasonal (three-month) periods, years or decades. In climate analysis, we usually look for anomalies with respect to the “baseline” – a longer-term average of perhaps 30 or 50 years of data. </p>
<h2>The line wiggles upwards</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two graphs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570877/original/file-20240123-21-5zlwlc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: global annual mean carbon dioxide (black curve) and air temperature (red curve) since 1850. Right: Average temperatures over central England in summer (red curve) and winter (curve). Temperatures relative to 1850–1900 average.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Neven Fuckar / Data: Met Office HadCRUT5 and HadCET</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We can use more than a century of data to spot patterns, such as the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/climate-change/causes-of-climate-change">close relationship</a> in the left graph (above) between global atmospheric CO₂ and near-surface temperatures. There are, of course, some variations of around 0.1°C or so – the wiggles in the red line – as the climate does not change perfectly smoothly. That’s why 2016 was exceptionally hot, and the years after were slightly cooler.</p>
<p>These variations become more pronounced when we zoom in and examine a smaller regional area or shorter time units. For example, the right-hand graph above shows data from the Central England Temperature (<a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadcet/">HadCET</a>) record, the world’s longest-running instrumental temperature record which began in 1659. This graph, which shows both winter and summer mean temperatures for central England, picks up more substantial variability over the same period from 1850 by both measures – on the order of 1°C. The internal variability of these seasonal means in essence drowns out long-term climate change at this regional scale before 1960s.</p>
<p>Looking at the right-hand graph alone – 174 years of data – you’d struggle to spot recent climate change. But zoom out to the global annual mean data in the left graph, and the long-term trend becomes clear.</p>
<p>We can zoom in even further to look at daily winter weather variability <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/data/haduk-grid/haduk-grid">in the English county of Oxfordshire (HadUK-Grid)</a>. The histograms below show daily minimum temperatures (the left panels 2.a and 2.c) and daily mean temperatures (the right panels 2.b and 2.d) from two distinct 21-year periods. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four histograms of winter (December-January-February: DJF) daily minimum and mean temperatures in Oxfordshire" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=709&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=709&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570879/original/file-20240123-15-7710ay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=709&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How winters are changing in Oxfordshire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Neven Fuckar / Data: Met Office HadUK-Grid</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They show that the chances of experiencing sub-zero weather is still significant even in the more recent 2002-2022 period. However, the “tail” of daily minimum temperatures to the left of the mean is thinner, so extreme cold temperatures are less common. The average daily minimum of 0.59°C (the number in blue) has increased by about 1°C to 1.6°C in the more recent period, while the daily mean increased by 1.29°C – both increases are greater than global warming over this time.</p>
<p>These are signs that Oxfordshire is warming over the long term, and its winters are warming slightly faster than the world as a whole. Global climate change makes high temperature extremes more likely, even in winter. It does not forbid winter cold snaps, but it does reduce their likelihood. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neven Fučkar receives funding from NIHR.</span></em></p>It’s getting warmer, but there are bumps on the way.Neven S. Fučkar, Senior Researcher, School of Geography and the Environmen, University of Oxford, and Lecturer, School of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2217092024-01-30T13:35:00Z2024-01-30T13:35:00ZDog care below freezing − how to keep your pet warm and safe from cold weather, road salt and more this winter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571552/original/file-20240125-22431-dyxkh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C0%2C4715%2C3067&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dogs get cold in the winter too, but there are things pet owners can do to help them feel comfortable. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NYColdWeather/de8019836ce9475e91bf816b1401fa3b/photo?Query=dog%20in%20snow&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=310&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=NaN&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/David Duprey</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Time outside with your dog in the spring, summer and fall can be lovely. Visiting your favorite downtown café on a cool spring morning, going to a favorite dog park on a clear summer evening or going on walks along a river when the leaves are changing color are all wonderful when the weather is favorable. But in much of the country, when winter rolls around, previously hospitable conditions can <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-winter-miserable-for-wildlife-108734">quickly turn chilly and dangerous</a> for people and pups alike. </p>
<p>Winter brings some unique challenges for dog owners, since dogs still need activity and socialization during colder seasons. Studies have shown that dog owners are almost 50% less likely to walk their dogs <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11113302">when the weather gets cold</a>. Knowing the basics of winter safety is critical to maintaining a healthy lifestyle for your dog. </p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/faculty/erik-olstad">assistant professor</a> at the University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine who weathered polar vortexes with my dog while living in Michigan early in my career. While I’ve since moved to sunny California, I’ve seen how quickly frigid temperatures can turn dangerous for pets.</p>
<h2>Breed and age differences</h2>
<p>Not all dogs have the same abilities to deal with cold weather. A short-coated dog like a Chihuahua is much more susceptible to the dangers of cold weather than a thick-coated husky. When the weather dips below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), the well-acclimated husky may be comfortable, whereas the Chihuahua would shiver and be at risk of hypothermia. </p>
<p>Additionally, if your dog is used to warm weather, but you decide to move to a colder region, the dog will need time to acclimate to that colder weather, even if they have a thick coat. </p>
<p>Age also affects cold-weather resilience. Puppies and elderly dogs can’t withstand the chill as well as other dogs, but every dog is unique – each may have individual health conditions or physical attributes that make them more or less resilient to cold weather. </p>
<h2>When is my dog too cold?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small dog wearing a thick, fluffy red coat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571548/original/file-20240125-29-dudlyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dog jackets can keep pets warm in the cold.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/WinterWeatherTexas/b82392611da74eb69750dd2a12c73817/photo?Query=dog%20jacket&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=320&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=1&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/David J. Phillip</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Pet owners should be able to recognize the symptoms of a dog that is getting too cold. Dogs will shiver, and some may vocalize or whine. Dogs may resist putting their feet down on the cold ground, or burrow, or try to find warmth in their environment when they are uncomfortable. </p>
<p>Just like people, <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/frostbite-in-dogs">dogs can get frostbite</a>. And just like people, the signs can take days to appear, making it hard to assess them in the moment. The most common sites for frostbite in dogs are their ears and the tips of their tails. Some of the initial signs of frostbite are skin discoloring, turning paler than normal, or purple, gray or even black; red, blistered skin; swelling; pain at the site; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ulcer">or ulceration</a>.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/frostbite-in-dogs">serious signs of hypothermia</a> include sluggishness or lethargy, and if you observe them, please visit your veterinarian immediately. A good rule to live by is if it is too cold for you, it is too cold for your dog. </p>
<p>Getting your dog a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/cnn-underscored/pets/best-winter-dog-coats-jackets">sweater or jacket</a> and <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/vets-corner/protect-dogs-paws-snow-ice-salt/">paw covers</a> can provide them with protection from the elements and keep them comfortable. Veterinarians also recommend closely monitoring your dog and limiting their time outside when the temperature nears the freezing point or drops below it.</p>
<h2>Road salt dangers</h2>
<p>Road salt that treats ice on streets and sidewalks <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ice-salt-toxic-for-pets-1.5020088">can also harm dogs</a>. When dogs walk on the salt, the sharp, rough edges of the salt crystals can irritate the sensitive skin on their paws. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A fluffy dog sits in the snow wearing two cloth, polka dot paw covers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=703&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=703&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571542/original/file-20240125-19-4pvz2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=703&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paw covers for dogs can keep their feet warm and protected from road salt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/PetsColdFeet/711807120a854c5787e5dfdaba307a44/photo?Query=dog%20boots&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=379&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=12&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/Jim Cole</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Dogs will often lick their feet when they’re dirty, wet or irritated, and if they ingest any salt doing that, they may face GI upset, dehydration, kidney failure, seizures or even death. Even small amounts of pure salt can <a href="https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/pet-tips/my-dog-ate-road-salt-will-they-be-okay/">disrupt critical body functions</a> in dogs.</p>
<p>Some companies make pet-safe salt, but in public it can be hard to tell what type of salt is on the ground. After walking your dog, wash off their feet or boots. You can also keep their paw fur trimmed to prevent snow from balling up or salt collecting in the fur. Applying a thin layer of petroleum jelly or <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/how-to-make-your-own-paw-balm-for-winter/">paw pad balm</a> to the skin of the paw pads can also help protect your pet’s paws from irritation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A snowy sidewalk covered in tiny chunks of salt." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571553/original/file-20240125-28-o148ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Road salt can be harmful to dogs’ sensitive paws.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Road_salt_in_Moscow_01.jpg">Stolbovsky/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Antifreeze risks</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/antifreeze-chemical-substance">Antifreeze, or ethylene glycol</a>, is in most vehicles to prevent the fluids from freezing when it gets cold out. Some people pour antifreeze into their toilets when away from their home to prevent the water in the toilet from freezing.</p>
<p>Antifreeze is an exceptionally dangerous chemical to dogs and cats, as it tastes sweet but can be deadly when ingested. If a pet ingests even a small amount of antifreeze, the substance causes a chemical cascade in their body that results in severe kidney damage. If left untreated, the pet may have <a href="https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/pet-owner-blog/antifreeze-poisoning/">permanent kidney damage or die</a>.</p>
<p>There are safer antifreeze options on the market that use ingredients other than ethylene glycol. If your dog ingests antifreeze, please see your veterinarian immediately for treatment.</p>
<p>When temperatures dip below freezing, the best thing pet owners can do is keep the time spent outside as minimal as possible. Try some <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/great-indoor-games-to-play-with-your-dog/">indoor activities</a>, like hide-and-seek with low-calorie treats, fetch or even an interactive obstacle course. Food puzzles can also keep your dog mentally engaged during indoor time.</p>
<p>Although winter presents some unique challenges, it can still be an enjoyable and healthy time for you and your canine companion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221709/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erik Christian Olstad does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dogs might have furry coats, but they can still get cold when the temperature drops.Erik Christian Olstad, Health Sciences Assistant Professor of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2211752024-01-16T18:03:04Z2024-01-16T18:03:04ZWhat is frostbite, what are the signs and how should we treat it?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569540/original/file-20240116-17-9m16xs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5801%2C3855&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Identifying the early symptoms of cold injury could help to prevent frostbite</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/ice-crystals-on-a-frozen-leaf-during-frosty-weather-in-news-photo/1245472287?adppopup=true">Victoria Jones/PA Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As countries in the northern hemisphere face <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/arctic-blast-map-states-brace-50-degree-temperature-drop-1859564">a bitterly cold snap</a>, there is serious risk of injury – and even death – from freezing weather. </p>
<p>Thankfully, with the right preventative and protective measures, the human body can survive these icy temperatures. </p>
<p>Here’s what you need to know about identifying and treating the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15715518/">most common cold injury</a>: frostbite. </p>
<p>The body runs most optimally at <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279457/">37°C</a> and has a number of inbuilt mechanisms to adjust to cold or hot changes in environments. </p>
<p>These include changing our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1115695/">breathing rate</a>, adjusting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2963327/">blood supply</a> to various areas of the body or altering our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9694412/">fluid intake</a> to ensure we replenish what we lose through <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232870/">respiration, exertion and urination</a>.</p>
<p>However, despite our bodies’ inherent temperature controls, without the right protection, we might still be vulnerable to cold weather injuries.</p>
<p>Frostbite is the result of damage to tissues – usually skin – on exposure to subzero temperatures. </p>
<p>Most commonly damaged areas are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4922379/">ears, fingers</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9559177/">toes</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2528788/">cheeks</a>, lips, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4922379/">nose</a> and other extremities that are exposed – or not covered enough – such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/polar-penis-the-hazards-of-winter-sports-177654">penis in winter sports</a> or the <a href="http://www.grandroundsjournal.com/articles/gr120002/gr120002.pdf">eyes</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman's face with purple discolouration on cheek from frostbite injury" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569549/original/file-20240116-25-pw5ha0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indian Everest climber Ameesha Chauhan was hospitalised with frostbite in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/indian-everest-climber-ameesha-chauhan-speaks-during-an-news-photo/1146410955?adppopup=true">GOPEN RAI/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For frostbite to occur, exposed body parts need to be subjected to a temperature that is below <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/frostbite/">minus 0.55°C</a>. At this temperature it will take several hours for exposed skin to become frostbitten.</p>
<p>But length of exposure to the cold is not the sole factor. The further below zero the temperature, the quicker the onset of frostbite. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.weather.gov/bou/windchill">Windchill</a> has a significant impact on the likelihood of getting frostbite too. For example, temperatures in the -20s can cause frostbite on exposed skin in under 30 minutes.</p>
<p>Wet clothing also increases the risk of developing frostbite: the moisture removes heat away from the body far quicker than air does, reducing the time taken to develop it.</p>
<h2>Who does it affect?</h2>
<p>Frostbite is seen more <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1534734620941479?icid=int.sj-full-text.citing-articles.1">commonly in men</a> and is increasingly found in certain occupational groups such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3023354/">farming</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2018.03.001">fishing</a> professionals, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1725087/">mountaineers</a>, manual labourers and the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38051632/">military</a>. However, with the global population beginning to live in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306456520304885">harsher</a> environments and an increase in winter and snow sports, this is likely to increase in the general population.</p>
<p>Those who are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-019-0092-1">diabetic or pre-diabetic</a> are also at increased risk, not because of their inability to metabolise glucose, but because <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5583955/">damage to the nervous system</a> means they are less likely to feel and respond to the cold. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8115134/">Reduced ability to sense the cold</a> also increases the frostbite vulnerability of those who’ve had a stroke or have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/peripheral-nerve-injury">peripheral nerve damage</a>.</p>
<p>People with heart conditions are also more at risk because the cold, especially the wind, takes the heat away from the body placing increased strain on the heart, which must work harder to keep warm. </p>
<p>Significant alcohol consumption is a further risk factor for frostbite. Heavy intoxication inhibits the body’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7486564/">protective response to low temperatures</a> and can result in the sufferer not recognising the pain and discomfort as an early warning sign of cold damage. </p>
<p>The consumption of alcohol also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8130994/">reduces blood pressure</a>, which may also reduce the amount of blood pumped to extremities. </p>
<h2>Symptoms</h2>
<p>Cold weather causes exposed skin temperature to drop, which triggers a response from the body to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31045297/">reduce the blood flow – known as vasoconstriction</a> – to these cold areas to maintain core body temperature. Preserving the core body temperature is key to keeping the brain, heart, kidneys and lungs functioning and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4593810/">preventing hypothermia</a>. </p>
<p>Withdrawing blood from the extremities reduces the risk of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9460447/">ice crystals forming</a> in blood, however, over time with continued exposure to the cold, the water in the tissues begins to freeze, causing ice crystals to damage the tissues.</p>
<p>This cooling brings about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020138322005186">tingling and numbness</a> of the exposed areas, and skin flushes red or white as the body frantically tries to rewarm itself. </p>
<p>This initial stage is known as <a href="https://gpnotebook.com/en-GB/pages/geriatric-medicine/frostnip">frostnip</a>, and, although uncomfortable, leaves no permanent damage to tissues. Beyond this stage, tissues begin to freeze. </p>
<p>If only the skin and the underlying connective tissues are frozen, this is termed superficial frostbite. The skin turns pale or even <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2278351/">greyish blue</a> because of decreased blood flow, ice crystal formation, limited blood supply – and there’s total numbness in the affected areas.</p>
<p>As exposure progresses, the freezing of tissue moves deeper involving <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10731172/">muscles and tendons</a>, blood vessels and even <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1080603219300973?via%3Dihub">bones</a>. This level of freezing is deep frostbite and is associated with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1080603219300973?via%3Dihub">more extreme outcomes</a>, such as amputation. </p>
<h2>Treatment and prevention</h2>
<p>For frostbite, immediate medical treatment should be sought – sadly the pain of recovery is often far worse than the injury. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2020/0401/p440.html">Rewarming</a> is the process of bringing the affected parts back to functioning body temperature. However, where ice crystals have damaged tissue, <a href="https://www.cureus.com/articles/108090-severe-frostbite-due-to-extreme-altitude-climbing-in-south-america-a-case-report#!/">blisters</a> are common and the nerves become hypersensitive, causing excruciating <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3994495/">pain</a>. </p>
<p>In severe cases, <a href="https://extremephysiolmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-7648-3-7">debridement surgery may be needed to remove dead</a> tissue. </p>
<p>In the most extreme cases, however, there is the possibility that the affected area cannot be saved and requires amputation – if the tissue hasn’t <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2615432/">already died</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2615432/">fallen off</a>. </p>
<p>During this cold snap, if you have to go out in the cold weather, minimise your time outside. </p>
<p>Ensure that you have multiple layers on, this minimises heat loss. Wearing anything to provide a barrier to your extremities to the cold. Hats, gloves and scarfs can protect the areas most affected by frostbite.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How to protect your extremities to avoid frostbite in cold weather.Adam Taylor, Professor and Director of the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2200272023-12-26T17:16:54Z2023-12-26T17:16:54ZHow to jump-start your New Year with cold weather running<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567208/original/file-20231222-29-cdexst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=494%2C8%2C5497%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Checking the weather frequently can serve to preemptively avoid injury pitfalls from extreme cold or slippery surfaces.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-to-jump-start-your-new-year-with-cold-weather-running" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>As 2024 approaches, many people look to begin the year with resolutions to become more fit. Some people find it challenging to get enthusiastic about outdoor exercise during the winter. However, don’t discount the joys of running in a winter wonderland. It’s accessible, available to all and doesn’t involve gym fees or expensive equipment.</p>
<h2>Health benefits</h2>
<p>First off, exercising has immense physical health benefits such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-2440">increased heart and blood vessel health, increased metabolism</a>, favorable <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fhealthcare11162348">body composition</a> and enhanced immune function. <a href="https://www.miracle-recreation.com/blog/benefits-of-outdoor-exercise/?lang=can">Regular exercise can also help with mental health including reducing depression, anxiety and improving overall mood</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/exercise-can-help-prevent-and-treat-mental-health-problems-and-taking-it-outside-adds-another-boost-to-those-benefits-202343">Exercise can help prevent and treat mental health problems, and taking it outside adds another boost to those benefits</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In fact, there is some recent evidence to show that outdoor exercise may provide <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26093-2">additional improvements in well-being</a>. These improvements could also contribute to combating <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09291010802067171">seasonal affective disorders</a> during the winter months and help to combat a slew of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106644">seasonal illnesses</a>. So, what can we do to jump in and reap these health benefits in winter? </p>
<h2>Motivation 101</h2>
<p>Before you start running, think about what motivates you. <a href="https://theconversation.com/got-health-goals-research-based-tips-for-adopting-and-sticking-to-new-healthy-lifestyle-behaviours-173740">New year’s resolutions</a> are a great start, but there needs to be a consistent motivator — something that won’t <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/new-years-resolution-janine-hubbard-1.5412777">go away by February</a> — to get you out and running when the weather forecast begins with a minus sign. </p>
<p>If you’re looking for motivation, <a href="https://blog.mercy.com/staying-motivated-exercise-during-cold-weather/">start with these tips for pumping yourself up</a>. Once you’ve found your motivation, lacing up and taking the first (and next) steps, consistently, won’t be as tough. Here’s a few helpful hints to make that winter run a bit easier and much more enjoyable. </p>
<h2>Getting started</h2>
<p>The biggest injury concerns to cold weather running are slippery conditions and <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/frostbite">frostbite</a>. With that in mind, make sure you’re set with the right equipment. When out in the winter, think <strong>COLD</strong>. This is not only an assessment of the weather. <a href="https://lowellstrauss.com/stay-warm-with-c-o-l-d">It’s an acronym that stands for</a>: </p>
<ul>
<li><strong>CLEAN:</strong> Keeping your gear (clothing and shoes) clean, allows them to work properly. Mud and slush on your hands and feet can make you lose heat quickly.<br></li>
<li>Avoid <strong>OVERHEATING</strong>: If it’s your first time exercising in the cold, you might think you have to put on a snowsuit. However, with poorly chosen outfits, you run the risk of overheating.<br></li>
<li><strong>LAYERED</strong> clothing: Wearing a fitted and moisture-wicking base layer, a light but insulating middle layer, and a breathable, but wind- and water-repellent jacket will give you the best of all worlds. Cover the parts of your body most likely to be exposed such as your hands, neck, and face with running gloves, a neck gaiter or scarf, and toque to keep these sites warm. Consider running with a waist bag or backpack, to carry these items along with your phone for safety.<br></li>
<li>Keep your clothing <strong>DRY</strong>: Breathable, but wind and water repellant clothing will keep your clothes from becoming too damp with either sweat or the environmental conditions, which could suck your heat away.<br></li>
</ul>
<p>Finally, understand that clothing is a matter of personal preference. As a coach of local, national and international (Olympic) track and field athletes, Kurt Downes, co-author of this story, has coached athletes who run in shorts with mittens and others who can barely move with so many layers on. Experiment with what works for you, and makes you comfortable. </p>
<h2>Tips for success and safety</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A runner's shoes standing in snow" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567214/original/file-20231222-23-bsi02m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keeping your gear (clothing and shoes) clean allows them to work properly. Mud and slush on your hands and feet can make you lose heat quickly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Piqsels)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Make sure you have a clearly defined goal. Do you want to increase fitness, burn calories, enjoy some fresh air or just move your body? Whatever your goal, make it something that is <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/smart-fitness-goals">short-term, sweet and attainable</a>. Leave room to adjust and scale up as you crush those running goals. </p>
<p><strong>Schedule and plan:</strong> Find a slot of time that works best for you and block it out. In winter, it is especially important to plan your runs. My sound advice is to start slow and follow a gradual progression. </p>
<p>Don’t skip ahead despite how well you may be doing. Think about your current level of fitness: you might set out with the intention of running 10 kilometres, but if you’re five kilometres from home and get tired or twist an ankle, the long walk (or hobble) home increases the risks of cold injuries like <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/winter/staysafe/hypothermia.html">hypothermia and frostbite</a>, and may also mean you’re returning in the dark. </p>
<p><strong>Connect:</strong> Get to nature. Find a local well-lit and travelled trail, a riverfront, a park or take to your neighbourhood streets. Grab a partner, connect with people in your workplace, download a running app or join a running club. Meet at a local spot or pick a hang out spot after your running session. Make it a weekly social event. </p>
<p><strong>Weather check:</strong> Lastly for those of us who have smartphones connected to our hip, have a solid weather app on your home screen. Checking the weather frequently can serve to preemptively avoid injury pitfalls from extreme cold or slippery surfaces. </p>
<h2>Injury prevention</h2>
<p>Be mindful of the times that you head out for runs; if possible, find a time during sunlight hours. It will add a bit of warmth, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.116-a160">positively affect mood and increase vitamin D production</a> for bone health and immune function. Run in well-lit areas and wear bright colours so you’re visible to others, especially if running on the road.</p>
<p><strong>Fix your eyes forward:</strong> Focus on what’s coming ahead. It’s easy to get into the zone and lose yourself in thoughts or your favourite tune, but judging the terrain ahead is important to prevent a misplaced step, a twisted ankle <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKZj2W2YyKY">or a slip</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Stride wise:</strong> First, focus on settling into a rhythm at a fixed tempo. This will allow you to create a stride pattern that’s neither too short nor too long to keep on moving. Shortening your stride length will provide more stability when ice and snow are present (this is not the time to work on an Olympic-level stride pattern). If you can’t avoid a snowy or icy patch, it’s probably best to stop and walk around it. </p>
<p><strong>Breathing:</strong> Check your breath. The effects of cold exposure can often impede normal physiological function. Specifically, inhaling cold dry air during physical activity can have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091296">adverse health effects on breathing</a>. Especially true for those with compromised respiratory systems or those predisposed to asthma. </p>
<p><strong>Hydration:</strong> Even though it may not seem like an immediate need, it’s important to be well hydrated before and throughout your workouts. Cold and snow don’t mean the air is wet (much of the arctic is actually <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cold-desert">classified as a desert</a> because of the lack of precipitation). Also, your body generates a lot of heat, even more when you’re exercising, causing heat loss from sweat. </p>
<p>If you’re just getting started with winter running, know that there are plenty of others out there too. In cities across North America, runners kick-start their year by hitting the streets to cover five-kilometre and 10-kilometre distances <a href="https://www.newyearsrun.com/">on New Year’s Day</a>, which could be a great inspiration to jump-start your winter exercising. Remember, as you get started, make a plan to do it safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220027/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kurt Michael Downes is affiliated with The Border City Athletics Club, a not-for-profit athletics club.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Milne does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Winter running has all the health benefits of aerobic exercise, as well as fresh air. However, be aware of the specific safety and injury-prevention concerns that come with cold weather.Kurt Michael Downes, PhD Student, Kinesiology, University of WindsorKevin Milne, Associate professor, Kinesiology, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173502023-12-14T13:13:03Z2023-12-14T13:13:03ZWinter brings more than just ugly sweaters – here’s how the season can affect your mind and behavior<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562242/original/file-20231128-15-6g8udc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=672%2C84%2C5212%2C4063&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Short winter days can influence your brain chemistry.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/holiday-cottage-in-the-dark-in-winter-royalty-free-image/1443007227">Schon/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What comes to mind when you think about winter? Snowflakes? Mittens? Reindeer? In much of the Northern Hemisphere, winter means colder temperatures, shorter days and year-end holidays.</p>
<p>Along with these changes, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916231178695">a growing body of research in psychology</a> and related fields suggests that winter also brings some profound changes in how people think, feel and behave.</p>
<p>While it’s one thing to identify seasonal tendencies in the population, it’s much trickier to try to untangle why they exist. Some of winter’s effects have been tied to cultural norms and practices, while others likely reflect our bodies’ innate biological responses to changing meteorological and ecological conditions. The natural and cultural changes that come with winter often occur simultaneously, making it challenging to tease apart the causes underlying these seasonal swings.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=mbqOySoAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">With</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=InwaMwEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">our</a> colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GsJOu0sAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Alexandra Wormley</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7BGThtkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Mark Schaller</a>, we recently conducted an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916231178695">extensive survey of these findings</a>.</p>
<h2>Wintertime blues and a long winter’s nap</h2>
<p>Do you find yourself feeling down in the winter months? You’re not alone. As the days grow shorter, the American Psychiatric Association estimates that <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/seasonal-affective-disorder">about 5% of Americans will experience</a> a form of depression known as seasonal affective disorder, or SAD.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)01015-0">People experiencing SAD</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.146.7.829">tend to have feelings of hopelessness</a>, decreased motivation to take part in activities they generally enjoy, and lethargy. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1998.tb09954.x">Even those who don’t meet the clinical threshold</a> for this disorder may see increases in anxiety and depressive symptoms; in fact, some estimates suggest <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810090065010">more than 40% of Americans experience these symptoms</a> to some degree in the winter months.</p>
<p>Scientists link SAD and more general increases in depression in the winter to decreased exposure to sunlight, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.65.9.1072">leads to lower levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin</a>. Consistent with the idea that sunlight plays a key role, SAD tends to be more common <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.149.9.1176">in more northern regions of the world</a>, like Scandinavia and Alaska, where the days are shortest and the winters longest.</p>
<p>Humans, special as we may be, are not unique in showing some of these seasonally linked changes. For instance, our primate relative the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.005">Rhesus macaque shows seasonal declines in mood</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="man lying in bed in a room with dim daylight" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562243/original/file-20231128-17-e58d24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It can feel hard to get out of bed on dark mornings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/side-view-of-a-tired-man-in-bed-royalty-free-image/1411640794">Lighthouse Films/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some scientists have noted that <a href="https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.3/rlevitan">SAD shows many parallels to hibernation</a> – the long snooze during which brown bears, <a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-microbes-help-hibernating-ground-squirrels-emerge-strong-and-healthy-in-spring-175610">ground squirrels</a> and many other species turn down their metabolism and skip out on the worst of winter. Seasonal affective disorder may have its roots in adaptations that conserve energy at a time of year when food was typically scarce and when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23071">lower temperatures pose greater energetic demands</a> on the body.</p>
<p>Winter is well known as a time of year when many people put on a few extra pounds. Research suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwz087">diets are at their worst</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602346">waistlines at their largest</a>, during the winter. In fact, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.03.018">recent review</a> of studies on this topic found that average weight gains around the holiday season are around 1 to 3 pounds (0.5 to 1.3 kilograms), though those who are overweight or obese tend to gain more.</p>
<p>There’s likely more going on with year-end weight gain than just overindulgence in abundant holiday treats. In our ancestral past, in many places, winter meant that food became more scarce. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602346">Wintertime reductions in exercise</a> and increases in how much and what people eat may have been an evolutionary adaptation to this scarcity. If the ancestors who had these reactions to colder, winter environments were at an advantage, evolutionary processes would make sure the adaptations were passed on to their descendants, coded into our genes.</p>
<h2>Sex, generosity and focus</h2>
<p>Beyond these winter-related shifts in mood and waistlines, the season brings with it a number of other changes in how people think and interact with others.</p>
<p>One less discussed seasonal effect is that people seem to get friskier in the winter months. Researchers know this from analyses of condom sales, sexually transmitted disease rates and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9996-5">internet searches for pornography and prostitution</a>, all of which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00871.x">show biannual cycles</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.1993.9940826">peaking in the late summer</a> and then <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/014107689909200204">in the winter months</a>. Data on birth rates also shows that in the United States and other countries in the Northern Hemisphere, babies are <a href="https://theconversation.com/tis-the-season-for-conception-106663">more likely to be conceived in the winter months</a> than at other times of the year.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman with hand on man's shoulder at a holiday gathering" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562245/original/file-20231128-20-8a0vq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There’s more to a holiday bump in romance than just opportunity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/multi-ethnic-young-couple-in-love-enjoying-a-home-royalty-free-image/1424097623">RgStudio/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although this phenomenon is widely observed, the reason for its existence is unclear. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/09654280810842120">Researchers have suggested many explanations</a>, including health advantages for infants born in late summer, when food may historically have been more plentiful, changes in sex hormones altering libido, desires for intimacy motivated by the holiday season, and simply increased opportunities to engage in sex. However, changes in sexual opportunities are likely not the whole story, given that winter brings not just increased sexual behaviors, but greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9996-5">desire and interest in sex</a> as well.</p>
<p>Winter boosts more than sex drive. Studies find that during this time of year, people may have an easier time paying attention at school or work. Neuroscientists in Belgium found that performance on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518129113">tasks measuring sustained attention</a> was best during the wintertime. Research suggests that seasonal changes in levels of serotonin and dopamine driven by less exposure to daylight may help explain <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518129113">shifts in cognitive function during winter</a>. Again, there are parallels with other animals – for instance, African striped mice <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0892-y">navigate mazes better</a> during winter.</p>
<p>And there may also be a kernel of truth to the idea of a generous Christmas spirit. In countries where the holiday is widely celebrated, rates of charitable giving tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.07.004">show a sizable increase around this time of year</a>. And <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.10.014">people become more generous tippers</a>, leaving about 4% more for waitstaff during the holiday season. This tendency is likely not due to snowy surroundings or darker days, but instead a response to the altruistic values associated with winter holidays that encourage behaviors like generosity.</p>
<h2>People change with the seasons</h2>
<p>Like many other animals, we too are seasonal creatures. In the winter, people eat more, move less and mate more. You may feel a bit more glum, while also being kinder to others and having an easier time paying attention. As psychologists and other scientists research these kinds of seasonal effects, it may turn out that the ones we know about so far are only the tip of the iceberg.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Varnum has received past grant funding from the National Science Foundation and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Hohm does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some of winter’s effects have been tied to cultural norms and practices, while others likely reflect our bodies’ innate biological responses to shorter days and colder weather.Michael Varnum, Associate Professor of Psychology, Arizona State UniversityIan Hohm, Graduate Student of Psychology, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148742023-10-17T16:42:46Z2023-10-17T16:42:46ZWhy heating your home this winter may be even harder than last year<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554293/original/file-20231017-29-o9d9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8192%2C5464&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-gloves-hugging-hot-water-bottle-2212717459">Daisy Daisy/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Domestic energy prices <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">more than doubled</a> during 2022 compared with the year before. This meant that the number of UK households in fuel poverty who could not afford to heat their homes to a safe level rose from 4.5 million to 7.3 million.</p>
<p>The UK government attempted to alleviate the impact of rocketing bills with <a href="https://www.gov.uk/get-help-energy-bills/getting-discount-energy-bill">a package of support measures</a>. This included capping the unit cost of electricity and gas, a £400 rebate to all households using mains gas for heating and £200 for those using alternative fuels, and a further £650 “cost of living payment” to claimants of means-tested benefits.</p>
<p>Many of these schemes ended in spring 2023. And with wholesale gas costs and the government’s energy price cap having come down somewhat, you could be forgiven for thinking that the worst of the energy crisis has passed. </p>
<p>But that’s not the case for many billpayers – in fact, this winter is likely to be worse than the last for many households.</p>
<p>The energy price cap, introduced in 2019 by market regulator Ofgem, limits how much people pay for each unit of gas and electricity. The <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/information-consumers/energy-advice-households/energy-price-cap">latest price cap</a>, set on October 1 2023, means that a typical household will pay £1,834 a year for energy – less than £2,000 for the first time in 18 months.</p>
<p>This might sound like good news, but it’s still a substantial increase on the pre-crisis cap. In August 2021, the most a typical household could expect to pay in a year for energy was £1,277. </p>
<p>Although the unit prices of electricity and gas have fallen, there has been a steep increase in standing charges. These are a levy on all energy bills which cover the costs associated with supplying energy to homes. </p>
<p>Standing charges have gone up from around £186 a year pre-crisis to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/aug/25/ofgem-energy-price-cap-falls-but-consumers-still-face-high-bills">just over £300</a> now – effectively adding £110 to bills.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An engineer atop of wooden electricity transmission pole." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Standing charges pay for the upkeep of the UK’s energy supply network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/engineer-repairing-cables-on-telegraphic-pole-1358108471">KingTa/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Standing charges are regressive because they are the same for everyone, regardless of <a href="https://www.moneysavingexpert.com/news/2022/08/ofgem-rules-out-shifting-the-costs-of-supplier-failure-out-of-th/">how much energy you consume</a>. Poorer households often use much less energy than wealthier ones, so standing charges make up a larger proportion of their energy costs. </p>
<p>In fact, some low-income households use such small amounts of energy that they are <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">paying little more than their standing charges</a>. </p>
<h2>Energy bill rebates ended</h2>
<p>The £400 energy bill rebate paid to all households last winter has now ended. Meanwhile, cost of living payments to claimants of means-tested benefits have <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/cost-of-living-payment?gclid=*&source=CIR10&advsrcSuggest=CIR10medical-loans/&gclid=2070a23933c012f4a389c71fabe04081&gclsrc=3p.ds&">increased from £650 to £900 a year</a>. This will be helpful to those who qualify, but one third of households eligible for means-tested welfare payments <a href="https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/low-income-not-claiming-means-tested-benefits">do not claim them</a> due to stigma, lack of awareness or bad experiences with the assessment process, and so will receive no assistance. </p>
<p>Many households who do receive these cost of living payments will spend it on other expenses, such as food, <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">rather than heating their home</a>. This reflects the fact that energy is often seen by struggling households as something that can be <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/over-half-of-parents-may-resort-to-washing-childrens-school-uniforms-by-hand-amid-cost-of-living-crisis/">rationed</a>.</p>
<p>If you’re in a household that does not qualify for the cost of living payment then the savings of around £150 that resulted from the lowering of the cap will <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-58090533">soon be more than cancelled out</a> by the lack of a rebate. </p>
<h2>Cold homes can kill</h2>
<p>Despite the financial support offered last winter, average levels of energy debt for people contacting Citizens Advice in England and Wales have risen sharply over the last year, from around £1,400 per household on average in March 2022 to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/aug/25/ofgem-energy-price-cap-falls-but-consumers-still-face-high-bills">£1,711 in July 2023</a>. One-third of UK energy customers are now <a href="https://www.stepchange.org/policy-and-research/2022-personal-debt-statistics.aspx">in arrears</a>. </p>
<p>So although energy bills have fallen slightly, many households are less resilient to financial shocks than they were in early 2022. Volatile energy prices are predicted to last until <a href="https://www.cornwall-insight.com/press/volatile-energy-prices-set-to-continue-into-2030/">the end of the decade</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fuelpovertyresearch.net/comment/tackling-fuel-poverty-learning-from-winter-research/">Research</a> last winter found that households in fuel poverty were underheating their homes, causing damp and mould that can create <a href="https://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/resources-reports/fuel-poverty-cold-homes-and-health-inequalities-in-the-uk/read-the-report.pdf">serious health problems</a> and exacerbating anguish and stress. The health risks of a cold home increase with repeated exposure.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A PVC window frame with black mould growing on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Poorly heated homes are at risk of damp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mold-corner-window-516787591">Burdun Iliya/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As temperatures begin to fall again, a range of measures are urgently needed to prevent a crisis worse than that of last winter.</p>
<h2>What can be done to help?</h2>
<p>Since energy prices are expected to remain high for years, long-term solutions are vital. There must be increased investment in efforts to insulate the UK’s leaky housing stock. But with winter just weeks away, what can the government do right now? </p>
<p>To start, it could offer greater energy bill rebates. Given the scale of the fuel poverty problem, eligibility for these rebates must be wide enough for anyone on a below average income to receive help. </p>
<p>Alternatively, the government could make the rebates universal again, and potentially recoup the costs by increasing taxes on the most wealthy or energy company profits. At the very least, unclaimed energy bill support from last winter should be used to support those <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">likely to struggle in the coming winter</a>, rather than being returned to the treasury. </p>
<p>Cut funding for government-backed advice services could also be restored. And there are reforms to the retail energy market that could be implemented fairly quickly, such as bringing standing charges in line with levels of usage. </p>
<p>More fundamentally, there are a number of proposals that would be fairer than the current system and could be implemented together for maximum impact. These include a “<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/sustainable/sites/bartlett_sustainable/files/navigating_the_energy-climate_crises_working_paper_4_-_green_power_pool_v2-2_final.pdf">green power pool</a>”, which would ensure that the cheap power generated by renewables such as wind and solar benefits those most in need first and foremost, <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/social-tariff-consultation/">social tariffs</a> (discounted energy bills for low-income households), or a <a href="https://neweconomics.org/campaigns/national-energy-guarantee">national energy guarantee</a> that would secure access to enough free energy to meet everyone’s basic needs.</p>
<p>The government’s forthcoming autumn statement must not sidestep these issues if people in fuel poverty are to stay safe and warm this winter.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214874/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aimee Ambrose receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the Economic and Social Research Council and the Energy Innovation Centre. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucie Middlemiss receives funding from Horizon 2020, the Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions and the British Academy. She has previously received funding from the UK Energy Research Centre (UKRI) and the Nuffield Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Simcock receives funding from the Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions. He has previously received funding for fuel poverty research from the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) and the EU under the Horizon 2020 programme.</span></em></p>Time is running out to ensure that people in fuel poverty can afford to keep warm this winter.Aimee Ambrose, Professor of Energy Policy, Member of Fuel Poverty Evidence and Trustee of the Fuel Poverty Research Network, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLucie Middlemiss, Professor in Environment and Society, University of LeedsNeil Simcock, Senior Lecturer in Geography, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2081822023-06-21T02:42:02Z2023-06-21T02:42:02ZWhy is it so damn cold right now? A weather researcher explains<p>If you woke up this morning and thought “Gosh, it’s a bit brisk!”, you’re not alone. </p>
<p>Temperatures plummeted across southeast Australia this week, with Weatherzone <a href="https://www.weatherzone.com.au/news/coldest-morning-in-5-years-for-parts-of-nsw-qld-act/1342232">reporting</a> Canberra’s low of -7.2ºC was “its lowest temperature since 2018 and the lowest for June since 1986.”</p>
<p>Sydney experienced its <a href="https://www.weatherzone.com.au/news/coldest-morning-in-5-years-for-parts-of-nsw-qld-act/1342232">coldest June morning</a> today since 2010, with a temperature of 5.2ºC. In Victoria, temperatures of -7.2ºC were <a href="https://www.weatherzone.com.au/news/coldest-morning-in-5-years-for-parts-of-nsw-qld-act/1342232">recorded</a>.</p>
<p>So what’s going on? Here’s what you need to know.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1671308113843216384"}"></div></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flash-droughts-can-dry-out-soil-in-weeks-new-research-shows-what-they-look-like-in-australia-161286">'Flash droughts' can dry out soil in weeks. New research shows what they look like in Australia</a>
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<h2>A big pool of Antarctic air</h2>
<p>It started off at the beginning of the week, when a low-pressure system saw a big cold front come through southeastern Australia on Sunday night. This basically means a lot of very cold air came from higher latitudes close to Antarctica, and swept across southeastern Australia. </p>
<p>So everywhere from Melbourne to Sydney to South Australia was getting this big pool of incredibly cold air at the start of the week.</p>
<p>Even though that cold front has now moved off over the Tasman Sea, it has left behind it a really big high-pressure system sitting over the southeast of Australia. </p>
<p>This has led to calm conditions, where winds are very light and the skies are clear with not a lot of cloud during the day or night. </p>
<p>So it’s getting really, really cold in the early mornings because there are no clouds to act as an insulating blanket for the Earth and trap the heat that the planet radiates to space overnight. </p>
<p>The result, in many places, has been very cold temperatures before sunrise, often with a lot of frost.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1670299102301626368"}"></div></p>
<h2>Remind me, what’s a low-pressure system? And what’s a high-pressure system?</h2>
<p>The air above the Earth’s surface has mass, but it’s not uniform everywhere. The way the atmosphere is moved around by what’s going on at upper levels will mean the mass of the atmosphere is redistributed. That transmits down to the surface where we live and causes low- and high-pressure systems. </p>
<p>At some points the pressure is lower because there’s not as much mass of air above that point over the Earth. This is what we call a low-pressure system. Air rises in a low, reducing the pressure at the surface.</p>
<p>The winds around the low are clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. So when that low is approaching Australia, the winds on the western side are bringing air from near Antarctica. That’s why a low-pressure system in Australia often means cooler conditions. </p>
<p>At some points above the Earth, the pressure is higher because the mass of air above that area is greater. This is what we call a high-pressure system. Air descends in a high, raising the surface pressure.</p>
<p>High-pressure systems tend to mean very calm weather; the wind isn’t very strong, the skies tend to be clear and there’s little to no cloud.</p>
<p>In summer, that means the sun is baking down all day onto Earth with no protection from cloud. So a high-pressure system in summer can mean a heatwave.</p>
<p>In winter, the lack of cloud in a high-pressure system means that much of the heat the Earth has absorbed during the day just re-radiates out to space again, as the cloud isn’t there to act as a blanket and keep all that heat in. </p>
<p>That’s why a high-pressure system can mean very cold weather in winter, especially when there are lower levels of sunlight coming in to warm up the Earth in the first place.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-ways-to-understand-why-australia-is-so-cold-right-now-despite-global-warming-184834">4 ways to understand why Australia is so cold right now despite global warming</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208182/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tess Parker receives funding from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes (CE170100023).</span></em></p>Temperatures plummeted across southeast Australia this week, with Canberra experiencing its lowest temperature since 2018 and the lowest for June since 1986. What’s going on?Tess Parker, Research Fellow, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2048322023-05-10T13:22:45Z2023-05-10T13:22:45ZSouth Africa’s cold weather has arrived – some tips on how to stay warm and safe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524611/original/file-20230505-21-1gxzfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When cold weather sets in there are several ways to keep yourself warm.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NickyLloyd/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Research shows that the world is undoubtedly warming. And, as the global average temperature keeps rising, heatwaves are increasing in their <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-16970-7">frequency, duration and intensity</a> for most of the world’s regions.</p>
<p>But that doesn’t mean cold weather will disappear entirely. While annual extreme cold events are becoming <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6947">less frequent and less intense</a>, as you’d expect in a warming world, researchers suggest the climate systems that drive anomalously cold weather will continue to cause cold snaps <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2011GL047103">globally into the 21st century</a>. As we become more accustomed to a warmer world, we become less accustomed to these cold events, and therefore more vulnerable. </p>
<p>Being exposed to cold temperatures can increase the risk of hypothermia, frostbite, and other cold-related <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/coldstress/coldrelatedillnesses.html#:%7E:text=Prolonged%20exposure%20to%20cold%20will,think%20clearly%20or%20move%20well">illnesses</a> like cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. That’s especially true for people who are homeless, live in poorly insulated homes, or who cannot warm their homes using heaters, hot water bottles and electric blankets.</p>
<p>As we’re writing this article, South Africa is heading into winter. The first cold fronts have already reached the country’s south-western regions of Cape Town and surrounds, and the interior has started to experience cooler weather. Rolling blackouts known as loadshedding exacerbate the situation; loadshedding is often <a href="https://www.esi-africa.com/features-analysis/loadshedding-in-winter-whats-that-going-to-be-like/">worst during the winter months</a> due to the heightened pressure on the electrical grid as people try to heat their homes and keep lights on during the longer hours of darkness.</p>
<p>As researchers who have been exploring extreme temperature events and thermal comfort in South Africa, we have some advice about how to keep yourself as warm as possible during the winter months.</p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>South Africa is often marketed to tourists as a “<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-sunny-south-africa-really-have-an-ideal-climate-for-tourism-103852">sunny</a>” holiday destination. The country experiences <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2016.1251933?casa_token=xZYXtQLGv_wAAAAA%3AGeIX9-k_8LcCmQVK0oiDurB4INI-jHskbxGbAcHjDVwEmWUHrgrG01VtuoYkDl1Su5eVRx7tPRkp">warm summers and frequent clear skies</a>, providing an ideal destination for beach vacations. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-sunny-south-africa-really-have-an-ideal-climate-for-tourism-103852">Does sunny South Africa really have an ideal climate for tourism?</a>
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<p>But its winters can be bitterly cold, particularly in the mountainous regions of the Drakensberg-Maloti and the Cape Fold Mountains, and in towns such as Sutherland in the Northern Cape province.</p>
<p>O<a href="https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/joc.6947">ur research</a> has explored trends in extreme climate events over the past six decades. </p>
<p>Using data from <a href="https://www.wcrp-climate.org/etccdi">indices developed by expert teams</a> from the World Meteorological Organisation, we have identified extreme cold events across South Africa’s nine provinces. Our research confirms that these events are occurring less often and for shorter periods than in previous decades. The duration of extreme cold events is decreasing at a rate of 1 day per decade; the number of these events is decreasing by 0.2 events per decade. </p>
<h2>Provincial trends</h2>
<p>However, for some locations in the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and North West provinces, these average trends do not hold true. Cold waves in these locations are increasing in duration. </p>
<p><a href="https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/joc.8009">An analysis</a> of the Universal Thermal Climate Index outputs for Southern Africa over the period 1979 to 2021 confirms that large areas of the South African interior still experience slight cold stress from June to August, while the high-lying mountainous regions experience moderate cold stress in the middle of each year. </p>
<p>There have been several newsworthy extreme cold events in recent years that have seen low temperatures and snowfall affecting various regions of the country. One, in March 2016, was unseasonal (South Africa’s winter months are June to August) – southern regions of the Western Cape experienced temperatures below -6°C, which is unusual for that time of the year.</p>
<p>In June and July 2019, Gauteng and the Western Cape experienced several cold fronts that led to consecutive cold days and nights and resulted in one reported casualty due to hypothermia in <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/the-star/news/one-more-freezing-night-gauteng-cold-front-to-end-wednesday-28418895">Dobsonville, Soweto</a> and one in <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/news/homeless-man-freezes-to-death-on-sea-point-beach-30027920">Sea Point, Cape Town</a>. </p>
<p>In July 2021, a severe cold snap, caused by a succession of cold fronts making landfall over South Africa, resulted in <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/photos-south-africans-shiver-as-freezing-conditions-sweep-across-the-interior-20210723">record-breaking temperatures and snowfall</a> across many parts of the country, including the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal. </p>
<p>These events are a reminder of how dangerous extreme cold can be. Here’s how you can mitigate its effects.</p>
<h2>Some tips</h2>
<p>First, it’s important to know your risks:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Infants (younger than 1 year) lose body heat more easily than adults.</p></li>
<li><p>Adults over 65 are more susceptible to extremely cold temperatures due to their slow metabolisms and levels of physical activity.</p></li>
<li><p>People who spend longer periods outdoors, including homeless individuals, sportspeople and outdoor workers, are at increased risk for cold-related health problems. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>However, everyone should take precautions to prevent cold exposure and minimise the risk of cold stress. These include the following tips:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Limit your time outdoors, where possible.</p></li>
<li><p>Dress warmly (thermal clothing, jerseys and closed shoes) and cover up exposed skin to reduce the risk of hypothermia.</p></li>
<li><p>Close windows and even use thicker curtains in the winter evenings to keep in the heat.</p></li>
<li><p>Identify and close gaps in doorways and window frames that could be letting in the cold.</p></li>
<li><p>Insulate homes and buildings to reduce the need for heating and retain any heat generated between loadshedding.</p></li>
<li><p>Intensify your physical activity.</p></li>
<li><p>Invest in some extra and thicker blankets.</p></li>
<li><p>Stay informed about the latest loadshedding schedules to ensure you can cook warm meals while the power is on.</p></li>
<li><p>Stay informed and monitor the local media about the latest weather updates and warnings.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Policy shifts</h2>
<p>In addition to these individual measures, broader policy solutions can help mitigate the impact of loadshedding during extreme cold weather. These include increasing investment in renewable energy, improving the electricity grid’s efficiency, and implementing targeted measures to support vulnerable populations and communities during loadshedding periods such as by providing shelters and soup kitchens.</p>
<p>While the push for these policies continues, make sure you dress in layers and stay indoors as much as you can this winter.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204832/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriaan Van Der Walt receives funding from the National Research Foundation, South Africa </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Fitchett receives funding from GENUS: the DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Palaeosciences and the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Roffe receives funding from the National Research Foundation, South Africa.</span></em></p>Climate systems which drive anomalously cold weather will still cause cold extreme events into the 21st century.Adriaan Van Der Walt, Senior Lecturer of Physical Geography and GIS, University of the Free StateJennifer Fitchett, Associate Professor of Physical Geography, University of the WitwatersrandSarah Roffe, Researcher, Agricultural Research CouncilLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2028312023-04-05T04:06:07Z2023-04-05T04:06:07Z3 reasons you feel hungrier and crave comfort foods when the weather turns cold<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519444/original/file-20230405-16-e8gas5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1866%2C3360%2C2369&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/crop-unrecognizable-woman-with-fork-enjoying-yummy-bolognese-pasta-6287539/">Klaus Neilson/Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we move through Autumn, parts of Australia are starting to see cooler weather. For some of us, that can mean increasing feelings of hunger and cravings for “comfort food” such as as pasta, stews and ramen. </p>
<p>But what’s happening in our body?</p>
<h2>3 things change when it gets cold</h2>
<p><strong>1. Our body conserves heat</strong> </p>
<p>It sends this energy it conserves to our internal organs so they can maintain their temperature and work properly. The body can also perform heat-generating activities (such as shivering), which uses <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21261804/">energy</a>. The body will then look for additional energy through calories from eating food. </p>
<p><strong>2. Our body warms up when eating</strong> </p>
<p>When we eat, the body needs to expend energy to digest, absorb, and metabolise the nutrients. This process requires the use of energy, which generates heat in the body, leading to an increase in body temperature termed “<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36012714/">diet-induced thermogenesis</a>”. </p>
<p>However, the amount of energy used to keep us warm is quite <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/nonshivering-thermogenesis">modest</a>.</p>
<p><strong>3. Some people experience a drop in the neurotransmitter called serotonin</strong></p>
<p>This is partly because the rate our body produces serotonin is related to <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140673602117375.pdf">sunlight</a>, which is lower in winter. </p>
<p>Serotonin helps to regulate mood, appetite, and sleep, among other things. When serotonin levels are low, it can lead to increased hunger and decreased satiety (feeling that you’ve had enough to eat), making us feel hungrier and less satisfied after meals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="dish of freshly cooked pie with potato topping, one portion taken out" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519452/original/file-20230405-24-2hw4e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Shepherds pie – vegetarian or meat-based – might be just the thing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/vegan-shepherds-pie-lentils-mashed-potatoes-1900996696">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Why we love comfort food in winter</h2>
<p>Many of us struggle to eat salad in winter and crave mum’s chicken soup or a slow cooked, brothy ramen. </p>
<p>Research shows our brain detects the cold weather and looks for warm <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/6/592">food</a>. Warm food can provide a sense of comfort and cosiness, which is particularly appealing during the colder months when we spend more time indoors. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-psychology-of-comfort-food-why-we-look-to-carbs-for-solace-135432">The psychology of comfort food - why we look to carbs for solace</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878450X16300786">Comfort food</a> can mean something different for everyone. They are foods we reach for in periods of stress, nostalgia, discomfort (like being cold), or emotional turmoil. For most of us, the foods we often over-indulge in are rich and carbohydrate heavy.</p>
<p>A drop in serotonin has also been shown to stimulate an urge to eat more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16340952/">carbohydrate-rich</a> foods such as gnocchi, pasta, ragout, mashed potatoes. </p>
<h2>What happens to those extra calories?</h2>
<p>If you consume more energy in cooler weather, some of it will be used to keep you warm. Beyond keeping us warm, extra calories we consume are stored.</p>
<p>While most humans today have access to a year-round food supply, some research shows our bodies may still have some leftover instincts related to storing energy for the cooler months when food was harder to come by. </p>
<p>This behaviour may also be driven by biological factors, such as changes in hormone levels that regulate appetite and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2013.00140/full">metabolism</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gaining-weight-in-winter-isnt-inevitable-unless-you-decide-you-will-40320">Gaining weight in winter isn't inevitable, unless you decide you will</a>
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<p>A fundamental principle of nutrition and metabolism is that the balance between the energy content of food eaten and energy expended to maintain life and to perform physical work affects body <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3302369/">weight</a>. This means any excess energy that we don’t use will be stored – usually as fat.</p>
<p>Using mathematical modelling, researchers <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2015.2443">have predicted</a> weight gain is more likely when food is harder to find. Storing fat is an insurance against the risk of failing to find food, which for pre-industrial humans was most likely to happen in winter. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="hands cradle a bowl of pumpkin soup" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519453/original/file-20230405-28-gdqfpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Winter is coming … so it’s soup time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bowl-warm-pumpkin-soup-hands-holding-1176327610">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>It doesn’t have to be unhealthy</h2>
<p>No matter your cravings during cooler months, it’s important to remember your own personal health and wellbeing goals. </p>
<p>If you’re worried about excess energy intake, a change in season is a great time to rethink healthy food choices. Including lots of whole fresh vegetables is key: think soups, curries, casseroles, and so on. </p>
<p>Including protein (such as meat, fish, eggs, legumes) will keep you feeling fuller for longer.</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-nice-warm-bowl-of-porridge-3-ways-plus-a-potted-history-137007">A nice warm bowl of porridge: 3 ways plus a potted history</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202831/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball works for The University of Queensland and receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch works for Southern Cross University.</span></em></p>Reaching for pasta or a bowl of comforting soup? Here’s how the cooler months can affect our cravings.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Dietitian, Researcher & Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1983222023-01-24T12:48:28Z2023-01-24T12:48:28ZWhy forecasting snow is so difficult in the UK<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505873/original/file-20230123-7706-p65rcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5046%2C3366&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's hard to tell whether or not snow is on its way in the UK</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/traditional-red-english-public-phone-post-65450200">RTimages/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cold winter weather in the UK almost always brings with it talk of snow.</p>
<p>British people tend to approach weather forecasts of snow with a combination of excitement and trepidation. Who doesn’t like the sight of unspoilt snow glittering over the rooftops like a Christmas card? But not many people enjoy the aftermath – an ice slush nightmare, soaking up the dirt from our streets and roads. </p>
<p>Forecasting snow is tricky in Britain though. And predictions tend to be uncertain. By the time British people reach adulthood, particularly those who live in southern England, a lot learn to treat forecasts of snow with cynicism. You might go to bed delighted by forecasts of snow only to wake the next day greeted by rain.</p>
<p>The UK’s erratic winter weather is caused by two things: its location and the fact that small differences in temperature can cause dramatic changes to the forecast. </p>
<p>The UK is located right where a <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/atmosphere/weather-fronts">number of different global weather systems converge</a>. Unlike many places in the world, freezing weather in Britain is generally accompanied by northerly or easterly winds. But heavy precipitation (liquid or frozen water) is usually from the west. Colder weather in the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/seasons/winter/factors-that-influence-uk-winters">UK makes precipitation less likely</a>. Which is why if we see snow, it often arrives as a light shower or flurry. </p>
<p>Thick snow usually happens when precipitation from the west hits cold air from the east or north. </p>
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<h2>Don’t shoot the messenger</h2>
<p>Weather forecasting has come a long way over the last four decades. Improved computing, satellites, transformed communication and data science have made weather forecasting much more accurate. In 2022, <a href="https://theconversation.com/storm-eunice-how-forecasters-predicted-super-strong-winds-days-before-it-even-formed-177487">storm Eunice</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/heatwave-why-extreme-weather-forecasts-have-improved-so-much-186261">summer 40°C heatwave</a> are both examples of how much forecasting has improved. It is not only able to accurately predict “normal” weather, but also when extreme weather will occur. </p>
<p>Forecasters today can predict widespread precipitation down to the hour. So mapping out wet weather is not the problem. The issue is that British winters make it a lot harder to tell what form precipitation will take when it reaches us. </p>
<p>This means predicting whether we will get sleet, <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/rain/freezing-rain">freezing rain</a>, snow or just rain. If you watch weather forecasts on a regular basis you will probably have heard the vague phrase “<a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/uk-weather-brits-braced-arctic-29018485#:%7E:text=wintry%20precipitation">wintry precipitation</a>”. This is the forecaster wrangling with an uncertain forecast as the term covers everything from rain to snow. </p>
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<p>A lot of the rain that we see in the UK, at all times of year, was snow when it started falling, but has fallen into air that is warmer than 0⁰C and melted. That means when forecasters predict rain, they are often predicting melted snow. If it’s 20⁰C in the summer, there is no doubt that by the time the snow reaches the ground it will have turned to rain. </p>
<p>For many places in the world the reverse is true. If the temperature is going to be -10⁰C, it <a href="https://weather.com/storms/winter/news/2022-12-%2023-winter-storm-elliott-bomb-cyclone-midwest-northeast-winds-snow">will settle on the ground as snow</a>. Back in 2018, in the UK the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-%20news/2018/mar/01/beast-from-east-storm-emma-uk-worst-weather-years">Beast from the East</a> brought with it temperatures so low the meteorologists could confidently predict snow. </p>
<h2>A headache for weather forecasters</h2>
<p>Most of the time, however, UK weather forecasters are working with expected temperatures close to 0°C. In this case a very small change to the temperature totally changes the weather. Weather forecasts tend to be accurate down to a couple of °C. But when your baseline is 0°C then a rise of 2⁰C will mean the snow melts and we get rain. But 2⁰C colder and it’s just snow. Somewhere in the middle creates sleet. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"548610686960807937"}"></div></p>
<p>And this is the other main reason why predicting snow is so hard in the UK. A small difference in temperature makes a really big difference to the outcome.</p>
<p>Precipitation lowers the air temperature. Heavier rain drops the temperature even more. Heavier sleet turns to snow. This means that even if the temperature of the system is predicted correctly, the fine details of the rate of precipitation will affect the form. It just so happens that much of the wintry weather in the UK falls at the temperature that makes the outcome sensitive to tiny changes. So, I’m afraid the phrase “wintery precipitation” is here to stay.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Thompson receives funding from ESA and previously NERC.</span></em></p>It’s important to be prepared for snow but UK winter weather forecasts can be unreliable. Here’s why.Rob Thompson, Postdoctoral Research Scientist in Meteorology, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1935092023-01-19T13:37:05Z2023-01-19T13:37:05ZCold weather brings itchy, irritated, dry and scaly skin – here’s how to treat eczema and other skin conditions and when to see a doctor<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498142/original/file-20221130-16-t58j7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5342%2C3564&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For some skin conditions, keeping hydrated is key.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cropped-image-of-mother-holding-kids-hands-royalty-free-image/1398092187?phrase=eczema%20child&adppopup=true">Yuliya Shevtsova/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In many parts of the U.S., the winter months bring frigid temperatures and drier conditions that can wreak havoc on the skin.</p>
<p>The primary role of the skin, as the largest organ in the body, is to act as a physical barrier to the external environment. When your skin is healthy, it helps protect you from allergens and infections. But in winter, when the outside temperature and humidity drop, skin can become especially irritated. </p>
<p>We are a <a href="http://dermatology.pitt.edu/people/sonal-choudhary-md">dermatologist</a> and a <a href="https://dom.pitt.edu/jeffrey-chen-awarded-prep-fellowship/">medical student</a> who study a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OFQxFnMAAAAJ&hl=en">broad range of common skin conditions </a> and the effects of the environment on skin health. </p>
<p>Heading into the winter months, a handful of common dermatological conditions can develop or worsen in response to the cold. These include eczema, chilblains, Raynaud’s phenomenon, cold urticaria and cold panniculitis. All are conditions that can be irritating and uncomfortable, and some are harder to treat than others. So it’s helpful to know when to manage these conditions on your own and when to see a dermatologist.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Although eczema often affects infants, one form affects people 60 and older.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Eczema</h2>
<p>Eczema is an inflammatory skin condition that causes dry and itchy skin and may be triggered by soaps and detergents, environmental or food allergens, hormonal changes and skin infections. There are numerous types of eczema, which often have overlapping symptoms. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pinkish splotches of eczema appear on an extended right arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504514/original/file-20230113-14-njqskz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">According to the Cleveland Clinic, eczema affects more then 30 million Americans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/eczema-allergy-skin-atopic-dermatitis-royalty-free-image/1270933857?phrase=eczema&adppopup=true">tylim/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549807/">Asteatotic eczema</a>, also known as winter itch, is common in older adults. During the winter months, skin can become drier and, in some instances, cracked, fissured and inflamed. </p>
<p>Severe dryness may lead to itchiness and scratching. In turn, this can create open wounds that may allow allergens and bacteria to penetrate the skin and cause a rash or an infection. </p>
<p>This type of eczema typically occurs on the lower legs, but eruptions can occur anywhere on the skin, such as the trunk, arms and hands. </p>
<p>Keeping the skin hydrated is the primary treatment. Water-based lotions may worsen skin drying, so <a href="https://nationaleczema.org/eczema/treatment/moisturizing/#:%7E">applying moisturizers with a high oil content</a> – like petroleum jelly, mineral oil or Vaseline – on wet or damp skin is recommended. Hypoallergenic and anti-itch moisturizers designed specifically for eczema are also available. </p>
<p>Other tips include replacing long hot baths with quick warm showers, switching to a milder soap, and using a room humidifier if the climate is dry. If itchiness and dryness persist, seek care from a dermatologist, who may prescribe a topical steroid.</p>
<p>Hand eczema may also worsen in the winter as your <a href="https://eczema.org/information-and-advice/types-of-eczema/hand-eczema/">hands are frequently exposed to cold, dry air</a>. Scaling, fissuring and bleeding on the hands is common. Minimizing exposure to hard or antibacterial soaps, along with using gentle cleansing products followed by applying a petroleum-based unscented moisturizer can improve symptoms. </p>
<h2>Chilblains</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1024/0301-1526/a000838">Chilblains</a>, also known as pernio, are small, itchy patches that can occur when the skin is exposed to cold and damp weather, resulting in swollen and painful bumps that affect the fingers, toes, ears and face. Poor circulation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.07.011">blood vessel constriction</a>, a history of autoimmune disease and being underweight may predispose people to chilblains. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Against a blue background, a woman's hand shows chilblains -- swollen, bright red markings on her middle and ring fingers just below the nails." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504517/original/file-20230113-24-7wuq83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Although they usually heal if protected from cold, chilblains can be painful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/chilblains-on-the-fingers-royalty-free-image/1372816804?phrase=chilblains&adppopup=true">Elizabeth Fernandez/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Afflicted areas are painful, itchy, swollen and usually have a blueish to purple hue. In severe cases, blisters and ulcers may occur. But for most people, the condition tends to spontaneously resolve within one to three weeks. </p>
<p>Until that happens, it’s important to keep affected areas protected from the cold. If the sensitive area starts to blister, or if fevers, muscle aches and chills develop, it’s best to see a dermatologist or physician.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.19243">Pseudo-chilblains</a>, also known as “COVID toes,” can be caused by COVID-19 infection. Chilblains associated with COVID-19 resemble the rash in chilblains – painful red to blue-colored nodules on the toes – but it is not specific to winter. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FKRjNLqZrsU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Dry, cracked skin can lead to infections.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Raynaud’s phenomenon</h2>
<p>Like chilblains, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)05118-7">Raynaud’s phenomenon</a> is a skin condition characterized by a significant constriction of blood vessels in the fingers and toes in response to cold exposure. The digits may turn red or blue, but they quickly flush red upon rewarming. Afflicted areas may also be numb or painful, and when severe, may develop ulcers.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Against a black background, an adult hand with a pale middle finger displays Raynaud's phenomenon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504518/original/file-20230113-15-z93hrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Although Raynaud’s phenomenon typically affects fingers and toes, it can also affect the nose, ears and lips.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/adult-hand-and-fingers-raynauds-phenomenon-royalty-free-image/1387926245?phrase=Raynauds%27s%20phenomenon&adppopup=true">Barb Elkin/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>To treat Raynaud’s phenomenon, it’s necessary to avoid cold-weather exposure. Ideally patients with Raynaud’s should dress for the cold in layers. At a minimum, make sure to wear gloves and insulated footwear. Avoid tobacco, caffeine and decongestants; they may cause <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/7748770">blood vessels to constrict more</a>. If symptoms don’t improve quickly – Raynaud’s due to cold typically gets better after only a few minutes – see a dermatologist or your physician, as Raynaud’s phenomenon can also be a manifestation of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)05118-7">a more serious systemic disease</a>, including cancer, infections and/or trauma.</p>
<h2>Cold urticaria</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/all.14674">Cold urticaria</a> is a skin rash believed to be triggered by an autoimmune response, which leads to the release of inflammatory molecules, including histamine. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman's arm covered in the blotchy red marks known as hives." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504520/original/file-20230113-20-eq8ps2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cold urticaria is more commonly known as hives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-with-urticaria-royalty-free-image/1389641807?phrase=hives&adppopup=true">Elk Scott/i Stock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Soon after the skin is exposed to sudden drops in temperature, wheals – also known as hives – may develop. These are reddish, itchy and swollen areas of skin. Such episodes can last for approximately two hours. Occasionally, other symptoms accompany the outbreak, including headache, chills, shortness of breath, abdominal pain and diarrhea. </p>
<p>People can test for cold urticaria using the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.00028.x">ice cube test</a>. This is done simply by placing an ice cube on an area of skin for five minutes; if you have cold urticaria, the skin will raise and itch within five to 15 minutes. Treatment involves avoiding cold exposure and using over-the-counter antihistamines. </p>
<p>For those who have experienced cold urticaria, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1927430/">swimming in cold water</a> can be dangerous, as it can lead to loss of consciousness and drowning. </p>
<h2>Cold panniculitis</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2008.05.015">Cold panniculitis</a> – which appears as enlarged, red and painful nodules on the skin – develops 12 to 72 hours after cold exposure. </p>
<p>Cases of cold panniculitis have been documented in <a href="https://www.consultant360.com/article/popsicle-panniculitis">children eating Popsicles</a> and in adults undergoing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdcr.2018.02.010">whole-body cryotherapy</a>, which is often used as treatment for chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, or for improving post-exercise recovery. </p>
<p>Cold panniculitis is more common during childhood and usually resolves on its own by avoiding cold exposure and direct contact with frozen products.</p>
<p>Symptoms from winter skin conditions are often self-limiting and resolve on their own with adequate protection from the cold. But if symptoms do not resolve, you should see a licensed dermatologist, as cold-induced rashes may be a sign of a more concerning underlying health condition. </p>
<p>If visiting your dermatologist in person proves difficult, you may consider seeing a dermatologist virtually, as many academic medical centers and private practices now <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2019.11.055">offer telehealth dermatology</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193509/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sonal Choudhary is a speaker for Regenron Pharmaceuticals and Sanofi, a pharmaceutical and health care company. Their atopic dermatitis drug Dupixent could potentially benefit from an article which mentions worsening of eczema in winters. There is no direct mention of the drug in the article.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Chen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Although most skin conditions aren’t dangerous, they can be painful, irritating and frustrating to deal with.Sonal Choudhary, Assistant Professor of Dermatology and Dermatopathology, University of Pittsburgh Health SciencesJeffrey Chen, Medical Student, University of Pittsburgh Health SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1971902023-01-10T22:02:33Z2023-01-10T22:02:33ZTaking fitness outside: 9 tips for becoming more active through the Canadian winter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503753/original/file-20230110-14-gm9uml.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=97%2C516%2C4461%2C2806&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Thick snow covers tree branches as people walk along a street in Ottawa after a snowstorm.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Justin Tang</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you made a New Year’s resolution about physical activity, you are not alone. <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/canadians-quick-make-new-years-resolutions-slow-see-them-through">Many Canadians make resolutions, and most focus on moving more</a>. Despite best intentions, it can be difficult for people to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0234097">maintain New Year’s goals; in fact, nearly half fail to achieve their resolution</a>. There are many reasons for this, and one is that physical activity goals are hard to achieve, regardless of the time of year. </p>
<p>As researchers in the fields of behavioural medicine, physical activity and outdoor recreation, we have some ideas about how to make those resolutions stick.</p>
<p>Try to change up your physical activity and make it fun and enjoyable. Research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577522">adherence to physical activity is improved when you mix things up and choose an activity that fills your cup</a>. </p>
<p>One way to increase variety and enjoyment might be choosing outdoor physical activities. And it seems Canadians (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-020-05938-4">with</a> and <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1334779/share-canadians-engaging-outdoor-recreational-activities-by-frequency/">without</a> chronic conditions) desire outdoor activity, especially since the <a href="https://ccpr.parkpeople.ca/2021/overview/lessons">COVID-19 pandemic</a>. </p>
<h2>Outdoor benefits</h2>
<p>Taking your physical activity outside comes with some added benefits. We have found that a single trail walk can reduce participants’ reported levels of anxiety, and that after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s41241-020-00094-x">eight weeks of trail walking two times per week, stress is decreased</a>. We also know that people who engage in physical activity <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.03.002">outdoors stick to it better and longer</a>, and may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.06.016">work harder than when exercising indoors</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman in red snow-pants and a blue jacket holding a yellow snow shovel and tossing snow into the air while a dog leaps into the air" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503758/original/file-20230110-17-ar95nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shovelling snow counts as intense physical activity. Be the neighbourly snow shoveller, just ensure that you are warmed up and don’t go too hard.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This may be explained in part by the shift in focus outwards, to the environment, rather than on inner bodily sensations, making the exercise feel easier. </p>
<p>In a recent study currently under peer review, we (Thomson and Lesser) found that individuals with both low and high functional capacity (a measure of aerobic fitness) were able to complete hikes of varied difficulty. Those who were less fit simply slowed down to be able to complete the same hike at the same level of effort as their fit counterparts. </p>
<p>This suggests that outdoor physical activity, such as hiking, is feasible from a fitness perspective and is perceived as easier.</p>
<h2>The great outdoors in winter</h2>
<p>If you live in a four-season climate, you may be wondering how to take physical activity outside during a Canadian winter. </p>
<p>First and foremost, if you are just getting started, determine your readiness to move more. You can try an online assessment like the <a href="https://csep.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/GETACTIVEQUESTIONNAIRE_ENG.pdf">Get Active Questionnaire</a> to see if you need to talk to your doctor first. </p>
<p>Next, try some of these tips and considerations:</p>
<h2>1. Find a support system</h2>
<p>Research has shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1183222">social support can promote sustained physical activity behaviour</a>, and may take on even greater importance when activity moves outdoors.</p>
<h2>2. Dress in layers</h2>
<p>Overdressing is always better than underdressing, and <a href="https://adventure.howstuffworks.com/outdoor-activities/hiking/wool-when-wet.htm">wool is your best bet</a> to reduce moisture and keep in heat. Make sure you are covered from head to toe — that means wearing a scarf to help warm the incoming air when the temperatures plummet.</p>
<h2>3. Have a plan B</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, depending on where you live, it might be too cold or icy to be outdoors. In this case, take a break and move it inside for a bit. That way, you can continue your active lifestyle and build up some excitement about getting back outside when the weather improves.</p>
<h2>4. Safety First</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of the bottoms of a pair of shoes with orange soles, displaying two types of external ice cleats" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503767/original/file-20230110-14-99arna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two kinds of exterior cleats attached to running shoes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Dan Joling)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When it gets slippery outside, ensure that you have proper footwear. We love snow cleats that can be put over your shoes to enhance your grip. You can also consider using walking poles to improve your balance and reduce the risk of falls.</p>
<h2>5. Hydrate</h2>
<p>Even though you might not feel as warm and sweaty as you would in warmer months, you are still losing water and you need to stay hydrated.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cover-your-face-wear-a-hat-and-stay-hydrated-to-exercise-safely-through-the-winter-173807">Cover your face, wear a hat and stay hydrated to exercise safely through the winter</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>6. Make it part of your day</h2>
<p>Find different ways to incorporate the outdoors into your daily activities! Did you know that <a href="https://theconversation.com/snow-shovelling-healthy-exercise-or-deadly-activity-129183">shovelling snow</a> counts as intense physical activity? Be the neighbourly snow shoveller — just ensure that you are warmed up and don’t go too hard. If you love biking to work, try fat tires on your bike. They increase your traction on snow and ice. </p>
<p>If these sound a bit too strenuous, you can always park farther away at work, school or the grocery store to add some steps to your day, or consider taking a brief walk outside on your lunch break.</p>
<h2>7. Light it up</h2>
<p>With the days ending so early, it can be a challenge to fit in physical activity before the sun sets. A head lamp will allow you to be out early or past dark. Just ensure that you are in a safe location (and maybe bring someone from your support system along).</p>
<h2>8. Try something new</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A blue sign picturing a snowshoer on a tree trunk with snow in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503762/original/file-20230110-12-k3nhwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you’re interested in trying snowshoeing, winter hiking or cross-country skiing, consider borrowing equipment from a friend, renting from your local recreation facility or purchasing used equipment from a sports trader.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Graham Hughes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is a perfect time to break out of your routine. Ever tried snowshoeing, winter hiking or cross-country skiing? Now could be the time. Don’t have equipment? Consider borrowing from a friend, renting from your local recreation facility or purchasing used equipment from a sports trader.</p>
<h2>9. Enjoy the tranquillity</h2>
<p>Outdoor experiences in winter tend to be quieter and include more expansive terrain with different sounds, wildlife and colour experiences. Try taking advantage of it and notice how you feel.</p>
<p>We hope you will try taking it outside to reap the benefits of our beautiful Canadian winters. Who knows, maybe you will even increase the likelihood of sticking to those hard-to-meet New Year’s resolutions in the process!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197190/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Taking your physical activity outside comes with added benefits. Here are ways to pursue your fitness goals outdoors, even in the middle of a Canadian winter.Iris Lesser, Assistant professor in kinesiology, University of The Fraser ValleyAmanda Wurz, Assistant Professor, School of Kinesiology, University of The Fraser ValleyCynthia Thomson, Assistant Professor in Kinesiology, University of The Fraser ValleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1955022022-12-16T11:50:47Z2022-12-16T11:50:47ZHow wildlife in ponds has evolved to survive frozen water – and how you can help more animals stay alive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499756/original/file-20221208-13-zix3b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1281&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">"Great!"</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/duck-water-bird-water-fowl-animal-3944495/">Mabel Amber/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When filled with ice-skaters or a clumsy Bambi on a Christmas card, a frozen pond is a merry sight. But spare a thought for the living things trapped below. The aerial wizardry of dragonflies and summer sculling of pond skaters are long gone. As the cold grips and shadows lengthen over the pond, its inhabitants face a terrible enemy: ice.</p>
<p>But while the cold of winter is a threat to most wildlife, it can be endured. Many land-based creatures – particularly amphibians such as toads and newts, and other animals without spines known as invertebrates – have evolved the ability to cool their bodily fluids down to below zero. This allows them to sit out the lean months of winter without freezing.</p>
<p>For example, the wood frog can cope with up to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jez.2306">70%</a> of the water inside its body turning to ice. These frogs don’t lurk, iced up, in ponds, however – they nestle in the dry leaf litter of the woodland floor. They only head to ponds once they have thawed out in springtime, warmed up and ready for some frenzied reproduction.</p>
<p>During winter, the biggest danger for the pond life that becomes trapped in ice is internal freezing, as expanding ice wreaks havoc on cells and tissues.</p>
<h2>Winterkill is coming</h2>
<p>Hibernating pond invertebrates such as beetles, dragonfly larvae and waterboatmen (a type of aquatic bug) get around this problem by allowing internal fluids to freeze. Proteins in their blood encourage the formation of ice crystals which draw water out of vulnerable tissue. These little creatures are not only frozen but dried out – and all <a href="https://jlimnol.it/index.php/jlimnol/article/view/jlimnol.2004.s1.45">the safer for it</a>.</p>
<p>Other bugs rely on natural antifreeze chemicals in their fluids to resist freezing at temperatures <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/235277932.pdf">well below 0°C</a>. Researchers tested several species of pond and stream beetle, mayfly and mollusc and found all of them could cool their internal temperature in water to between -3 and -7°C. However, if the ice ensnared them, even at higher temperatures, they were doomed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An oval-shaped beetle with feathery limbs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499759/original/file-20221208-6401-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hardy beetles have evolved chemical defences against the chill.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/diving-beetle-pond-closeup-1334686157">Vitalii Hulai/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some pond invertebrates prepare for winter by secreting insulating cocoons. The majority try to find refuge in deeper water or another pond, although some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prairie_Pothole_Region">Prairie Pothole</a> water boatmen huddle together in <a href="https://usurj.journals.usask.ca/article/view/38">icebound clusters</a>. This mass of dark little bodies may thaw out faster in the springtime sunshine, but not all will make it through alive.</p>
<p>Many species succumb, and scientists call these mass deaths in iced-over ponds “winterkill”. At least <a href="https://digitalcommons.denison.edu/facultypubs/163/">one study</a> has showed that numbers of invertebrates, tadpoles and fish can take years to recover from such a freeze. However, winterkill may also bring smaller inhabitants of ponds some longer-term benefits.</p>
<p>The word “winterkill” comes from fisheries, where the effect of prolonged ice cover and reduced oxygen – as gases dissolve less effectively and oxygen from plants is limited as they too die back – has long been known to <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2307/1948427">kill lots of fish</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1899/0887-3593(2004)023%3C0237:WCIEOA%3E2.0.CO;2">A fortuitous experiment</a> on four frozen Albertan lakes, which were monitored for five years, showed the ecological consequences of winterkill clearly.</p>
<p>In two of the lakes, it did away with most of the fish – yet the other two, which were comparable in other ways, were unaffected. Invertebrate numbers shot up in the lakes where the fish died, with freshwater shrimps, caddisflies and midges particularly benefiting, but not in the other two.</p>
<p>Winterkill is a great example of how disturbances reset the ecological stage with a new cast of characters, creating richness and variety across the landscape.</p>
<h2>What to do if you have a pond</h2>
<p>What should you do if you have a pond (or more than one – a cluster is usually best for maximising the diversity of invertebrates and plants) that freezes? Reams of blogs and leaflets offer <a href="https://freshwaterhabitats.org.uk/habitats/pond/cold-weather/">advice</a> on this topic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Water lilies encased in ice." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499757/original/file-20221208-6292-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pond plants take a long nap when ice sets in too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/leaf-lily-frozen-pond-529066717">Kuiper/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sweeping the snow off a pond and keeping some of its surface ice-free may well help aquatic life by letting in sunlight. But never smash a hole in the ice, since it might shock the fish to death. Indeed, when I last saw this attempted, the friend doing the smashing slipped over and landed in a sodden heap, so he was quite shocked too. Icy ponds are dangerous places so doing anything that risks you falling in is definitely best avoided.</p>
<p>Of course, our wildlife has been living with winterkills for thousands of years. Much better to make sure the whole landscape is rich in all sorts of ponds – shallow, deep, large, small, temporary or freezing – and then the frogs and bugs will do just fine on their own.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195502/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Jeffries does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some species beat the big freeze with natural antifreeze in their blood.Mike Jeffries, Associate Professor, Ecology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1931252022-10-31T13:26:52Z2022-10-31T13:26:52ZCold homes increase the risk of severe mental health problems – new study<p>Concerns about <a href="https://theconversation.com/energy-crisis-the-uk-is-still-heading-for-widespread-fuel-poverty-despite-the-governments-price-cap-190290">fuel poverty</a> and people not being able to heat their homes adequately are not new in the UK, but these worries have been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/oct/26/warm-banks-open-wolverhampton-cost-of-living-crisis">heightened</a> by significant increases in energy costs and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-cost-of-living-crisis-has-been-many-years-in-the-making-but-politicians-on-both-sides-ignore-this-189483">cost-of-living crisis</a>. And as winter approaches, things are about to get a lot worse.</p>
<p>Despite a relatively mild climate, the UK has higher levels of excess winter deaths – deaths associated with cold weather – than <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673614621140">many colder countries</a>. This greater exposure to cold, despite milder weather, is related to poor housing quality, the high cost of heating homes and poverty. </p>
<p>We know quite a lot about how living in a home that you can’t keep warm enough affects your physical health. Colder temperatures <a href="https://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/resources-reports/the-health-impacts-of-cold-homes-and-fuel-poverty/the-health-impacts-of-cold-homes-and-fuel-poverty.pdf">suppress the immune system</a>, for example. But we know relatively little about the effects on mental health. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115461">Our new research</a> shows that living in a cold home is a significant mental health risk.</p>
<p>Living in a cold home can affect your mental health in several ways. For many, heating costs are a source of stress and financial strain. Not being able to keep your home and family comfortably warm reduces feelings of control and autonomy over your environment. People who are unable to heat their home often adopt coping mechanisms that <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2524.2005.00558.x">limit socialising</a> – for example, not inviting friends over and going to bed early to keep warm. And many people are just worn down by the drudgery of a whole winter of being uncomfortably cold. </p>
<p>Using <a href="https://www.understandingsociety.ac.uk/">data</a> from a large representative sample of adults in the UK, we followed people over many years and tracked the effect of being unable to keep your home warm on mental health. </p>
<p>When people’s homes became cold, their risk of severe mental distress significantly increased. For people who previously had no mental health problems, the odds of severe mental distress doubled when they had a cold home, while for those who had some (but not severe) mental health symptoms, the risk tripled (see chart below). We found these effects even after taking into account many other factors associated with mental health, including income.</p>
<p><strong>Odds of reporting severe mental distress following transition into cold housing compared to those who remained in warm homes</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492381/original/file-20221028-61968-sxkqgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Sadly, the risk of living in a cold home differs greatly across the UK population. Lone parents and people who are unemployed or long-term sick are much more likely to live in cold homes. There is also significant inequality across ethnic groups – more than 12% of black people live in cold homes compared with under 6% of white British people, for example. Those who rent rather than own their home are also far more likely to live in cold homes, for social renters this is despite the, on average, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1088447/EHS_Housing_quality_and_condition_report_2020.pdf">higher quality and</a><a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1091144/Energy_Report_2020_revised.pdf">efficiency</a> of social rented homes. </p>
<p>Putting on another jumper won’t be enough to get many in the UK through the coming winter. And mental health distress is just one consequence. Cold homes cause issues with significant personal and societal costs – from individual health effects to the increased pressure on the NHS, as well as broader economic loss due to missed work. Rishi Sunak’s new government needs to help people live in adequately warm homes this winter. But how? </p>
<p>The older age of housing in the UK is <a href="http://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/projects/the-health-impacts-of-cold-homes-and-fuel-poverty">heavily implicated</a> in the UK’s high levels of cold. Support for energy efficiency improvements is therefore a possible means of reducing cold homes. This will also mean tackling the so-called “split incentive” in the private rented sector, which houses a significant proportion of households. The split incentive refers to the challenge of the benefits of improvements not being experienced by the property owners but by tenants, reducing the incentive for owners to invest. This results in poorer quality and more expensive homes for renters.</p>
<h2>Heat or eat? Most can’t afford either</h2>
<p>The high proportion of cold homes in the social housing sector – despite having the best average energy efficiency due to insulation and building types (flats) – shows that energy efficiency improvements alone will not eliminate cold. <a href="https://www.resolutionfoundation.org/publications/the-living-standards-outlook-2022/">Incomes in the UK are falling</a>. Benefit levels are <a href="https://theconversation.com/raising-benefits-in-line-with-earnings-will-make-the-poor-worse-off-heres-why-192880">painfully low</a> and worsened by policies including the benefit cap, two-child limit and sanctions. Years of cuts and <a href="https://www.jrf.org.uk/file/59072/download?token=acsEgZp7&filetype=briefing">below inflation rises</a> mean that the term “heat or eat”, used to describe difficult spending decisions for low-income households, is now out of date, as <a href="https://www.jrf.org.uk/file/59191/download?token=PCFIM8W9&filetype=briefing">many can afford neither</a>. </p>
<p>The combination of low household incomes with surging energy costs has created devastating pressure on household budgets. While the energy cap has limited energy cost increases below the worst estimates, energy bills have still <a href="https://theconversation.com/energy-crisis-the-uk-is-still-heading-for-widespread-fuel-poverty-despite-the-governments-price-cap-190290">more than doubled in the past year</a>. And prepayment meters mean that those the with the least end up paying the most.</p>
<p>There are, therefore, many areas for potential government intervention, and clear evidence that failing to intervene will cause harm to health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Clair receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Baker receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC), the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), and the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI) . She holds a board position for Habitat for Humanity SA. </span></em></p>When people’s homes became cold, their risk of severe mental distress significantly increased.Amy Clair, Research Associate, University of EssexEmma Baker, Professor of Housing Research, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1848342022-06-22T20:03:13Z2022-06-22T20:03:13Z4 ways to understand why Australia is so cold right now despite global warming<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470177/original/file-20220622-21-yknk7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C13%2C4394%2C2918&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s an offhand joke a lot of us make – it’s freezing, can we get a bit more of that global warming right about now? </p>
<p>But how should we really conceive our day-to-day weather in the context of climate change, especially when Australia’s east coast is enduring a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-cold-right-now-and-how-long-will-it-last-a-climate-scientist-explains-184155">colder-than-normal start to winter</a>? Here are four ways.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-cold-right-now-and-how-long-will-it-last-a-climate-scientist-explains-184155">Why is it so cold right now? And how long will it last? A climate scientist explains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1. Put the weather in a long-term context</h2>
<p>The recent cold conditions in some parts of Australia haven’t been seen in decades, but they aren’t unprecedented. In Melbourne, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jun/16/australia-weather-coldest-winter-start-decades-east-coast-cold-snap-power-grid-strain">for instance</a>, the first two weeks of June were coldest since 1949. In Brisbane, they were the coldest since 1990. </p>
<p>Under the global warming trend, cold events such as these are becoming less and less likely. But Australia naturally has a variable climate, which means they, of course, still do occur. </p>
<p>And given Australia’s instrumental records go back only 112 years (a relatively short length of time), it’s actually still possible we’ll see new record cold temperatures, even in a warming climate.</p>
<p>Still, record hot temperatures in Australia are being broken <a href="https://theconversation.com/sure-winter-felt-chilly-but-australia-is-setting-new-heat-records-at-12-times-the-rate-of-cold-ones-35607">12 times more often</a> than cold ones. </p>
<p>The climate would need to be warming incredibly fast for there to be zero cold records broken, and even faster still if we were to see no cold weather at all. No one suggests this is the reality.</p>
<h2>2. Zoom out for a wider view</h2>
<p>Let’s look at an individual day – say, Tuesday June 13 – using <a href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/">Climate Reanalyser</a>, a platform for visualising climate and weather datasets.</p>
<p>That day was certainly colder than the 1979-2000 average in eastern Australia and Tasmania. But it was warmer than average in parts of Western Australia and many places around the world, including large parts of Africa. Meanwhile, parts of the United States and Europe were experiencing major heatwaves. </p>
<p>On this day, the global average was 0.3°C warmer than the 1979-2000 baseline, and this baseline was around 0.6°C warmer than the pre-industrial climate. </p>
<p>This is exactly what you expect from weather variability in a warming climate – variations day to day and place to place, but a consistently warmer climate when you take the wide view.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/after-the-vicious-cold-snap-here-are-our-tips-to-warm-up-while-keeping-your-environmental-footprint-down-143458">After the vicious cold snap, here are our tips to warm up while keeping your environmental footprint down</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children and adults cool off in fountain in a park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469712/original/file-20220620-18-ocfpdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heatwaves from North Africa to Spain brought temperatures over 40°C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photos.aap.com.au/search/spain%20heatwave%202022">Manu Fernandez/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Look at the climate indicators with more ‘memory’</h2>
<p>Looking at the weather day to day is a bit like watching the live share market updates from one stock exchange. To understand the trends and the bigger picture, you need to track it over time and space. </p>
<p>Given instrumental records only go back so far, scientists can use climate indicators found in nature. Glaciers, for example, respond to temperature over time, with almost all glaciers around the world receding in response to a warmer climate.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470176/original/file-20220622-15-950bh6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate change is causing the Franz Josef glacier in New Zealand to rapidly retreat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The oceans have longer memories than the atmosphere. Ocean warming is clear in, for instance, the East Australian Current, which now <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-08/scientists-study-warming-east-australian-current/100124448">extends further south</a>, bringing warmer water down the southeast coast. This, in turn, is driving fish species further south and devastating kelp forests.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most reliable indicator of warming planet is the total “ocean heat content” – the total amount of extra energy stored in our oceans, which can store a lot more than the atmosphere. There has been a rock-steady increase of ocean heat content <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content">in recent decades</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-made-the-melting-of-new-zealands-glaciers-10-times-more-likely-143626">How climate change made the melting of New Zealand's glaciers 10 times more likely</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Consider the concept of attribution</h2>
<p>Determining whether <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-of-the-most-extreme-disasters-in-colonial-australian-history-climate-scientists-on-the-floods-and-our-future-risk-178153">climate change helped</a> make a particular weather <a href="https://ecos.csiro.au/climate-change-attribution/">event more likely or more severe</a> than it would have been – whether a cold snap, a heatwave or flooding rains – requires a formal attribution study, which looks for a climate change “fingerprint”.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DT74khAyvqQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A video explaining climate change attribution | CSIRO.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, the planet has <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-the-most-sobering-report-card-yet-on-climate-change-and-earths-future-heres-what-you-need-to-know-165395">warmed 1.09°C</a> since pre-industrial times. And since 2012, the human caused climate change fingerprint <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0666-7">has been clear</a> in any single day of <em>global</em> weather. </p>
<p>Thanks to event attribution studies, we can confidently state that cold extremes are now less likely than they would be in a world without climate change, while heatwaves and extreme heat events are far more likely. </p>
<p>For example, climate change made the recent devastating heatwave in India and Pakistan <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/climate-change-made-devastating-early-heat-in-india-and-pakistan-30-times-more-likely/">30 times more likely</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A construction worker walks across a mirage on the road in front of a historical building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469691/original/file-20220620-26-7pltnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The severe heatwave in India and Pakistan caused critical electricity and water shortages.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photos.aap.com.au/search/record%20hot%20weather">AP Photo/Manish Swarup</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Our weather intuitions</h2>
<p>Our intuitions and common sense are great tools for navigating our day-to-day life and making decisions. But our first-hand experience is rooted at the scale of centimetres to kilometres, seconds to days. </p>
<p>Our brains are not perfect data loggers over decades, and our memories are subjective. Vivid childhood memories of hot asphalt on our young feet, cars with hot vinyl seats and houses with no air conditioners affect how we compare the past to today. And we aren’t exposed to all weather, especially us city dwellers who spend a lot of time indoors.</p>
<p>Pulling at our intuitions about cold weather to comment about climate change can be compelling. United States senator James Inhofe famously brought a snowball into the senate in 2015 to claim that if there’s cold weather then the climate can’t be warming. </p>
<p>While this was widely mocked at the time, these appeals do tug at our instincts to turn to our experiences to understand the world. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3E0a_60PMR8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">James Inhofe bringing a snowball into the US Senate.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To get out of these local scales, we need to feed our intuitions some more input. So, data are important. </p>
<p>With data, we can inform and guide our intuitions and overcome our natural focus on the local scale. To be convinced the climate is warming, we need to watch the long-term trends and expect the wiggles.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1220046647394213888"}"></div></p>
<p>And just like in places such as southern Australia where the climate is drying, we <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-likely-driving-a-drier-southern-australia-so-why-are-we-having-such-a-wet-year-172409">still expect some wet years</a>, we still expect cold spells in a warming climate.</p>
<p>It is instinctual to downplay or doubt the idea the climate is getting warmer when you’re feeling cold right now. But next time, consider these four points.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-youre-renting-chances-are-your-home-is-cold-with-power-prices-soaring-heres-what-you-can-do-to-keep-warm-184472">If you're renting, chances are your home is cold. With power prices soaring, here's what you can do to keep warm</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184834/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Grose receives funding from the National Environmental Science Program.</span></em></p>Cold snaps are becoming less and less likely as the world warms. But that doesn’t mean they don’t happen. An expert helps you put the colder-than-normal start to winter in context.Michael Grose, Climate projections scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1843292022-06-07T06:02:22Z2022-06-07T06:02:22ZYes, women might ‘feel the cold’ more than men. Here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467343/original/file-20220607-26-juyzsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C4944%2C3600&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We all have different preferences for when it’s the right time to bring out the winter blankets. And the thermostat’s setting often forms the basis of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2741">office arguments</a> between women and men regarding the “correct” temperature for it to be set.</p>
<p>Between the sexes, there are always <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25581005/">more similarities than differences</a>. But research does consistently show <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00023.2004">women</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132306000242">prefer</a> a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132316303560">higher</a> indoor temperature to men.</p>
<p>But is there any science backing up the widespread belief women “feel the cold” more than men?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/d2NNm8MTboA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Biological differences between men and women</h2>
<p>At around the same body weight, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1751351/">women</a> tend to have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10904038/">less muscle</a> to generate heat. Women also have more fat between the skin and the muscles, so the skin <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00421-014-2988-5">feels colder</a>, as it’s slightly further away from blood vessels.</p>
<p>Women also tend to have a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778821006447">lower metabolic rate</a> than men, which reduces heat production capacity during cold exposure, making women more prone to feeling cold as the temperature drops.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-my-hands-and-feet-always-cold-and-when-should-i-be-worried-184154">Why are my hands and feet always cold? And when should I be worried?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Hormonal differences</h2>
<p>The hormones oestrogen and progesterone, found in large quantities in women, contribute to the core body and skin temperatures.</p>
<p>Oestrogen dilates blood vessels at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26674572/">extremities</a>. This means more heat can be lost to the surrounding air. And progesterone can cause the vessels in the skin to <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1113/jphysiol.2010.194563">constrict</a>, meaning less blood will flow to some areas to keep the internal organs warmer, leaving women feeling cooler. This hormone balance changes throughout the month alongside the menstrual cycle.</p>
<p>The hormones also make women’s <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(05)78875-9/fulltext">hands</a>, feet and ears stay around three degrees Celsius cooler than men’s.</p>
<p>The core body temperature is highest in the week after <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33123618/">ovulation</a>, as progesterone levels increase. This means that around this time, women may be particularly sensitive to cooler outside temperatures.</p>
<p>Although the hands and feet are cooler, women do have warmer average core temperatures than men. This is likely the source of the saying “<a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(05)78875-9/fulltext">cold hands, warm heart</a>”.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Woman in beanie warming her hands" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467346/original/file-20220607-24949-sw0wvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women’s hands are around three degrees colder than men’s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-need-to-pee-more-in-the-cold-184236">Why do I need to pee more in the cold?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is it just humans?</h2>
<p>The phenomenon that some of us prefer warmer temperatures to others isn’t unique to humans. Studies on many species of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z81-207">birds</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.13393">mammals</a> report that males commonly congregate in cooler areas where there is shade, while females and offspring stay in warmer environments where there is sunlight.</p>
<p>Male <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0134573">bats</a> prefer to rest at the cool, high peaks of mountains, whereas females remain in the warmer <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0054987">valleys</a>.</p>
<p>Female mammals may have developed a preference for warmer climates to encourage them to rest with offspring during stages when the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.13393">young</a> are unable to regulate their own body temperature.</p>
<p>So the difference between heat-sensing mechanisms may provide an evolutionary <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2307/1936182">advantage</a>.</p>
<h2>So how do we agree on the ideal temperature?</h2>
<p>The “<a href="https://www.moderndane.com/blogs/the-modern-dane-blog/sleeping-the-scandinavian-way-pros-and-cons-of-separate-duvets">Scandinavian sleep method</a>”, where couples sleep with separate blankets, is one way to overcome the differences in temperature preferences.</p>
<p>In the workplace, personal comfort systems are thermal systems that heat or cool and can be locally positioned in individual work stations such as desktops, chairs, or near the feet and legs. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778821010501">Examples include</a> small desk fans, heated chairs and blankets, or footwarmers. </p>
<p>These systems provide individualised thermal comfort to meet personal needs without affecting others in the same space, and have been found to produce <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360132318307078?via%3Dihub">higher comfort satisfaction</a> in the workplace.</p>
<p>They may also be an energy-efficient method to balance thermal comfort and health in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778821010501">office environments</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-if-our-bodies-are-happy-at-37-why-do-we-feel-so-unhappy-when-its-too-hot-outside-159134">Curious Kids: if our bodies are happy at 37℃, why do we feel so unhappy when it's too hot outside?</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184329/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You’ve fought over the thermostat in the office right? Here’s why it’s usually women turning it up and men turning it down.Charlotte Phelps, PhD Student, Bond UniversityChristian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1842362022-06-02T01:52:03Z2022-06-02T01:52:03ZWhy do I need to pee more in the cold?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466532/original/file-20220601-49081-pmkbqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C1000%2C658&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-female-distress-having-go-restroom-1882909777">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re taking a stroll through the park on a cold winter’s morning, when it hits you – the need to find a bathroom, and quick! This didn’t used to happen in summer.</p>
<p>Is there something about winter that makes us need to pee more?</p>
<p>We study the bladder and lower urinary tract. Here are two main explanations for what’s going on.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-my-hands-and-feet-always-cold-and-when-should-i-be-worried-184154">Why are my hands and feet always cold? And when should I be worried?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1. Our lifestyle changes</h2>
<p>In summer, we tend to be outside and more active. We sweat more (to lose heat) and it’s easy to become dehydrated if we don’t drink enough water.</p>
<p>This impacts the amount of free fluid our body is willing to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ejcn2015233">excrete</a>, and our urine volume is often reduced because of this.</p>
<p>In winter, we’re often indoors, around water sources, so we are more likely to be hydrated, less active, and to sweat less. As such, we tend to have more free fluid to excrete via our urine.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-if-our-bodies-are-happy-at-37-why-do-we-feel-so-unhappy-when-its-too-hot-outside-159134">Curious Kids: if our bodies are happy at 37℃, why do we feel so unhappy when it's too hot outside?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Our body wants to avoid losing too much heat</h2>
<p>If we become cold very quickly, the body protects our internal organs in a number of ways.</p>
<p>One is “<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4655205/">cold-induced diuresis</a>”, or an increase in urine excretion in response to the <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajpregu.1993.264.3.R524">cold</a>.</p>
<p>Initially, blood is diverted away from the skin to avoid losing its heat to the outside air. This means more blood ends up flushing through your internal organs.</p>
<p>In particular, blood rushes to your kidneys in a greater volume and at a higher pressure. This increases the amount the kidneys need to <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajprenal.00430.2005">filter</a>. As a result, your rate of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2022.841181/full">urine excretion</a> increases.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-cold-right-now-and-how-long-will-it-last-a-climate-scientist-explains-184155">Why is it so cold right now? And how long will it last? A climate scientist explains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What should I do?</h2>
<p>Our diet, age, blood pressure, and personal situation can all impact how much we urinate.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/blVmyrBPves?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Could you have a small bladder? Or an overactive bladder?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Producing more urine can also be a sign of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-201X.1998.0314f.x">hypothermia</a>. This is your body responding to the cold as a stressor, so act quickly. Find somewhere away from the cold, and slowly warm up your body. </p>
<p>If the increased urine is also accompanied by <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/hypothermia">other symptoms</a>, such as extensive shivering, breathing difficulties, or confusion, seek medical attention immediately.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-why-do-some-people-feel-the-cold-more-than-others-37805">Health Check: why do some people feel the cold more than others?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Keep up the fluids in winter too</h2>
<p>If you’re out in the cold, you may not feel thirsty. Nonetheless, be sure to drink plenty of fluids during the day. Although it may be tempting to avoid drinking so you don’t need to keep rushing to the bathroom, this can lead to dehydration.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Smiling woman wearing yellow puffer jacket holding water bottle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466716/original/file-20220602-18-4l0pci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep drinking fluids, even in winter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-hispanic-girl-smiling-happy-drinking-2053295111">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you’re often out in the cold in light gear, and you find this increases your urinary output, there can be impacts over the long term.</p>
<p>Frequent urination can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/osmotic-diuresis">detrimental</a> to your body’s natural salt balance (particularly sodium and <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/low-potassium/basics/causes/sym-20050632">potassium</a>). So be sure to maintain a healthy diet.</p>
<p>It does seem like a bit of a balancing game. The key, however, is to avoid stressing your body this way when it’s cold. To do this, be sure to dress appropriately and keep warm.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-heatwaves-our-cold-houses-are-much-more-likely-to-kill-us-83030">Forget heatwaves, our cold houses are much more likely to kill us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What if you don’t notice a difference?</h2>
<p>Although the body has mechanisms to make you <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7330607/">urinate more</a> in the cold, not everyone notices peeing more in winter.</p>
<p>If you keep warm, there’s no reason to think your body would often be “shocked” into responding to cold temperatures.</p>
<p>In fact, when tracked in research studies, it has been common for researchers to record no difference in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7330607/">urinary</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1172/">output</a> between the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757578/">seasons</a>.</p>
<h2>What about the urine?</h2>
<p>It’s not just the volume of urine that might be different in winter. The composition can change too.</p>
<p>The body excretes a higher amount of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757578/">calcium</a> in the urine during <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7106963/">winter</a>.</p>
<p>This is more likely due to lifestyle during cold seasons rather than anything internal. We tend to be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800047/">less active</a> in winter, gain <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31093925/">extra weight</a>, and eat more salty, preserved and processed foods.</p>
<p>This means there can be a higher risk of developing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6237522/">kidney stones</a> during winter for people who are susceptible.</p>
<p>So as the weather cools down, be sure to maintain a healthy lifestyle, stay warm, and don’t forget to stay hydrated, even when it’s cold.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-is-urine-yellow-117747">Curious Kids: why is urine yellow?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>No, you’re not imagining it. You can pee more in winter. Mostly, there’s nothing to worry about. But it could be a sign of hypothermia.Christian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond UniversityCharlotte Phelps, PhD Student, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1841542022-06-01T00:50:40Z2022-06-01T00:50:40ZWhy are my hands and feet always cold? And when should I be worried?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466174/original/file-20220531-18-3vveuv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C38%2C5182%2C3413&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you, or someone you know, often complain of having constantly cold hands and feet? In most cases, this is not a problem, and simply due to the body maintaining its temperature.</p>
<p>For our bodies, blood is a fantastic store of heat. By diverting blood to the skin, heat is transferred to the outside air, helping to cool us down. This is why we might look a bit “flushed” on a hot day.</p>
<p>On the other hand, when we are feeling cold, the blood vessels in our skin narrow so less blood is diverted there. Less blood means less warmth, and this becomes particularly noticeable in the hands and feet.</p>
<p>It’s a normal process, and shows that our body is doing its job of maintaining a normal internal temperature and protecting our organs.</p>
<p>Normally, the feeling is only temporary. But if someone <em>always</em> has cold hands and feet, even when their body is quite warm, it could be a sign that something else is contributing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466173/original/file-20220531-18-2azl89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ever put your cold feet on someone else to warm them up?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-my-armpits-smell-and-would-using-glycolic-acid-on-them-really-work-183354">Why do my armpits smell? And would using glycolic acid on them really work?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Could there be other causes?</h2>
<p>Anything that induces a narrowing of blood vessels can impact how warm your extremities feel. </p>
<p>This could be from causes such as <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/raynauds-phenomenon">Raynaud’s phenomenon</a>, in which some blood vessels going to the extremities temporarily narrow. </p>
<p>People with Raynaud’s typically present with very pale and cold fingers or toes.</p>
<p>In some cases, it is not clear why people exhibit symptoms of Raynaud’s. In other instances, it may be a result of more serious <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/raynauds-phenomenon">underlying causes</a>, such as an immune deficiency or associated with high blood pressure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466467/original/file-20220531-49050-6su25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People with Raynaud’s typically present with very pale and cold fingers or toes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But other factors could also be behind unusually cold hands. Anything that blocks blood getting through the vessels can result in colder extremities.</p>
<p>For example, people with uncontrolled <a href="https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/about-diabetes/diabetes-in-australia/">diabetes</a> have a higher chance of fatty deposits forming inside blood vessels, making them narrow and hard, and inhibiting blood flow.</p>
<p>Trauma or tissue damage could also result in inhibited blood flow to the area. If someone has undergone hand or arm surgery, or had a past injury, it may impact how warm their extremities feel.</p>
<p>Another possible cause is <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/anaemia">anaemia</a>, which can impair the transport of oxygen-rich blood around the body and result in cold hands and feet. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/smoking-effects-on-your-body">Smoking</a> can also be behind a case of icy fingers and toes; nicotine causes the blood vessels to narrow and reduces blood flow.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466231/original/file-20220531-22-3axo0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ever poured a cup of tea chiefly because you want to warm your hands?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christian Moro</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-our-toes-and-fingers-get-wrinkly-in-the-bath-120229">Curious Kids: why do our toes and fingers get wrinkly in the bath?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>When is it a concern?</h2>
<p>Under normal circumstances, cold hands and feet are not a worry. </p>
<p>But just keep in mind that it’s due to a reduced blood supply reaching the extremities. Over time, this can result in brittle nails, dry or cracked skin, discoloured skin, and a feeling of tingling or numbness in the areas.</p>
<p>These regions may also be less sensitive when cold; and it can even become quite painful to use your fingers or feet when they are ice cold.</p>
<p>A reduced blood supply might make the hands and feet slower to heal if injured, potentially allowing infections to persist and grow.</p>
<p>Over time, inhibited blood flow can also damage the nerves as well. The impact on the nerves, alongside increased risks of infection, can sometimes result in the requirement for <a href="https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/about-diabetes/diabetes-in-australia/">amputations</a>.</p>
<p>So if consistently cold hands and feet are a worry, it’s always worth mentioning this to your family doctor.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-dry-lips-and-how-can-you-treat-them-does-lip-balm-actually-help-161264">What causes dry lips, and how can you treat them? Does lip balm actually help?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What should I do about my cold hands and feet?</h2>
<p>If you do start to feel a temporary chill in your extremities, stick to the basics. You can:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>pop on a pair of thick socks; this is also beneficial for sleep, as research shows warming up the feet can help with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29699592/">sleep quality</a></p></li>
<li><p>wear gloves or mittens</p></li>
<li><p>wash your hands in warm water and <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-know-hand-dryers-can-circulate-germs-through-the-air-why-are-they-still-used-everywhere-157410">immediately dry</a> them afterwards</p></li>
<li><p>avoid abrupt changes in temperature by wearing layers of warm clothing to maintain your core temperature</p></li>
<li><p>steer clear of air-conditioned rooms where possible and find cozy spots in the sun during the day.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466188/original/file-20220531-16-syprb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you do start to feel a temporary chill in your extremities, stick to the basics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the long term, improving your circulation is key. It helps warm your hands and feet, by ensuring the body efficiently pumps blood to where it needs to go.</p>
<p>This can be achieved with daily exercise, moving around at regular intervals during the day, and stretching your arms and legs. And of course, maintaining a healthy diet.</p>
<p>This way, even if you get a temporary chill, you’ll be back to warm in no time!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Normally, the feeling is only temporary. But if someone always has cold hands and feet, even when their body is quite warm, it could be a sign that something else is contributing.Christian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond UniversityCharlotte Phelps, PhD Student, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1841552022-05-31T23:27:08Z2022-05-31T23:27:08ZWhy is it so cold right now? And how long will it last? A climate scientist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466465/original/file-20220531-48861-lq4u0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C321%2C5630%2C2497&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The sun rises over Lake Crackenback on a cold morning in New South Wales.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone living in the southeast of Australia will have noticed the chill that has set in the last few days. After relatively mild conditions last week, an early blast of winter has arrived.</p>
<p>These temperatures are well below average, even for the middle of winter.</p>
<p>So why is it so cold? And how long is the chill going to last?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-of-the-most-extreme-disasters-in-colonial-australian-history-climate-scientists-on-the-floods-and-our-future-risk-178153">'One of the most extreme disasters in colonial Australian history': climate scientists on the floods and our future risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466254/original/file-20220531-16-mcvtf.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Temperature failed to reach double digits over swathes of southeast Australia on Monday.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bureau of Meteorology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An Antarctic blast</h2>
<p>Much of southeastern Australia is currently under a cold air mass that has come from the south. </p>
<p>This is because a low pressure system that brought heavy rain, strong winds, and even <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-30/adelaide-north-hit-by-torrential-rain-homes-roads-flooded/101109342">a possible tornado</a> to South Australia, has moved eastwards.</p>
<p>Air moves clockwise around low pressure systems in the Southern Hemisphere, so low pressure over Tasmania and the Tasman Sea means we have strong southerly and south-westerly winds over Victoria and New South Wales.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466269/original/file-20220531-20-eym7sj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This weather map for 4am on May 31 shows the low pressure to the southeast of Australia and cold fronts and troughs crossing the region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bureau of Meteorology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the low pressure moves east, cold fronts and troughs have crossed the region. This has led to most of southeast Australia experiencing rain or snow.</p>
<p>While a high pressure system briefly dominates our weather on Thursday, a new low brings cold and wet conditions again through the weekend. Another cold front is forecast to cross Tasmania, Victoria and southern New South Wales on Friday night.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-vigorous-cold-front-why-its-been-so-cold-this-week-with-more-on-the-way-158876">'A vigorous cold front': why it's been so cold this week, with more on the way</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How unusual is this?</h2>
<p>For many Australians this cold snap will have been an unpleasant shock to the system. But it is not unusual to have cold spells bringing wet and windy conditions to Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. </p>
<p>However, this cold air outbreak has come quite early and has brought significant rain totals and persistent below-average temperatures.</p>
<p>For example, Melbourne is forecast to have nine days in a row where maximum temperatures are below long-term averages.</p>
<p>That includes five days where the daytime highs are more than 3°C cooler than normal.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466251/original/file-20220531-22-82gpje.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Daily maximum temperature anomalies relative to 1900-2021 for the same calendar date. May 30-31 are based on observed data while June 1-7 are based on forecast data. The 1900-2021 climatology is calculated from the Melbourne Regional Office (1900-2013) and Olympic Park (2014-) observations collected by the Bureau of Meteorology. Note, the Olympic Park site is slightly cooler on average than the Regional Office.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Melbourne’s daytime temperatures are highly variable in summer – days over 30°C as well as days where it doesn’t reach 20°C are pretty common.</p>
<p>But at this time of year and throughout winter our daytime temperatures are <a href="http://www.baywx.com.au/melbmeantemp.html">much less variable</a>.</p>
<p>The cold temperatures we’re seeing right now are only a few degrees below normal, but five days in this cold spell are in the bottom 10% of daytime temperatures we have seen at this time of year.</p>
<p>The cold weather is widespread across southeast Australia and is bringing significant early winter snowfall to some ski resorts.</p>
<h2>Is this a sign for a cold winter to come?</h2>
<p>Today is the first day of meteorological winter which covers June, July and August. With cold weather already here and forecast to persist over the coming days, does that mean we can expect a particularly cold winter?</p>
<p>The Bureau of Meteorology’s seasonal outlook suggests cooler than normal conditions are likely over the interior of the continent. </p>
<p>This is remarkable since the average conditions the seasonal outlook is compared with are for 1981–2018. Over the last few decades <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/change/#tabs=Tracker&tracker=timeseries&tQ=graph%3Dtmean%26area%3Daus%26season%3D0112%26ave_yr%3D0">Australia has warmed significantly</a> making cooler than average conditions more unusual.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466306/original/file-20220531-16-vjfhok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colder than average daytime temperatures are forecast over much of the continent this winter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bureau of Meteorology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The rainfall outlook is for widespread wetter-than-average conditions this winter. </p>
<p>This continues the pattern of rainy conditions we’ve seen in recent months which resulted in the devastating floods seen in February and March in southeast Queensland and coastal New South Wales especially.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466311/original/file-20220531-22-6l45ff.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The seasonal outlook is for a wet winter over most of Australia too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bureau of Meteorology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-of-the-most-extreme-disasters-in-colonial-australian-history-climate-scientists-on-the-floods-and-our-future-risk-178153">'One of the most extreme disasters in colonial Australian history': climate scientists on the floods and our future risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australia’s climate is most strongly tied to conditions in the Pacific and Indian Oceans <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/10/2009mwr2861.1.xml">in winter and spring</a>.</p>
<p>This increases skill in the Bureau of Meteorology’s seasonal outlooks <a href="https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/qj.3789">compared with warmer times of year</a>.</p>
<p>The cool and wet outlook is related to the persistent La Niña and the forecast development of a negative <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-wet-winter-a-soggy-spring-what-is-the-negative-indian-ocean-dipole-and-why-is-it-so-important-164957">Indian Ocean Dipole</a> (a natural climate phenomenon that influences rainfall patterns around the Indian Ocean). </p>
<p>Both of these phenomena are associated with warmer ocean temperatures near Australia, and are conducive to more moisture over the continent and stronger low pressure systems over southern Australia. </p>
<p>This in turn raises the probability of wetter than normal conditions and suppressed daytime temperatures.</p>
<p>Cold air outbreaks like we’re currently seeing over southeast Australia are a normal part of our cool season weather.</p>
<p>The outlook suggests we may see more of these cold spells than normal in winter 2022.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-wet-winter-a-soggy-spring-what-is-the-negative-indian-ocean-dipole-and-why-is-it-so-important-164957">A wet winter, a soggy spring: what is the negative Indian Ocean Dipole, and why is it so important?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew King receives funding from the National Environmental Science Program. </span></em></p>These temperatures are well below average, even for the middle of winter.Andrew King, Senior Lecturer in Climate Science, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762172022-02-07T20:43:50Z2022-02-07T20:43:50ZEmbrace your inner Winter Olympian: The art and science of enjoying exercise in the cold<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444747/original/file-20220207-25-30y832.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=111%2C33%2C6359%2C4859&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Winter Olympians know they must be ready to perform at their best despite the cold.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Alessandra Tarantino)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/embrace-your-inner-winter-olympian--the-art-and-science-of-enjoying-exercise-in-the-cold" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Let’s face it: When most of us see the temperature outside fall to minus double digits, our first instinct isn’t to gleefully run outside. </p>
<p>I was no different. I was a sedentary kid who found my sport — rowing — relatively late, but as soon as I did, I craved rowing on New Brunswick’s Saint John River in the spring, summer and fall months. Winter was an obstacle. </p>
<p>I feel very differently about winter activity these days. Along my journey from sedentary adolescent to Olympic athlete, I’ve realized that having the right supports in place can make a big difference, not just in people’s attitudes towards physical activity and sport participation, but in their ability to identify and overcome barriers as well. </p>
<p>I experienced some of those barriers myself, especially when it came to outdoor activity in the cold. </p>
<h2>Failing to prepare is preparing to fail</h2>
<p>As a researcher and physician, I know how critical physical activity is for our health. So it became my <a href="https://returntohealthandperformance.org/">mission</a> to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2021-140829">educate</a> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096291">health-care providers</a>, support people to <a href="https://twitter.com/MyActivIngrednt?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Eauthor">be more active</a>, create <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-104266">access to activity</a> and provide <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/15424">tools to remove barriers</a> — not just in elite sport, but even becoming active in the first place. While the message often gets through to patients when the outdoors beckons in the milder weather, one barrier often remains: winter.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman walking through snow using Nordic poles and towing a sled." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444649/original/file-20220206-27-rup666.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The author exercising outside with her family. ‘A silver lining I’m trying to find in the pandemic is finding new ways for our whole family to enjoy being outdoors.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Jane Thornton)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The pandemic has been limiting in many ways, but throughout it one of the freedoms available to many people has been to exercise outside. And that is what did it for me: the need to get outside daily, breathe air outside of masks, create space and feel normal again. </p>
<p>Yet as I watch the 24th edition of the Winter Olympics, I am in awe of the skiers and snowboarders performing aerial feats, skaters gliding effortlessly on the ice, hockey players focused on the puck, all devoting their lives to being excellent… in the cold. How do they do that?</p>
<p>It’s a good question to start with since we might be able to glean a few pearls from high-performance sport to make enjoying the cold a bit easier to imagine in our own lives. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two snowboarders in the air against a blue sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444725/original/file-20220207-23-brexbi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snowboarders train in the halfpipe at the Beijing Olympics. Winter Olympians pursue athletic excellence in the cold.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Olympic athletes know they must be ready to perform at their best <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091296">despite the cold</a>. If they don’t prepare for the weather conditions, it can hurt their performance and even their health.</p>
<p>Frigid wind is a big concern for alpine skiers and sliding sport athletes, while Nordic skiers and biathletes push themselves for hours at a time in the cold. Exposure to the cold transfers valuable body heat to the environment and can lead to hypothermia and/or frostbite. What’s the Olympic solution all these athletes have in common? Limit exposure to limit risk. In other words, cover up!</p>
<p>Many people will have heard how athletes train in the heat to acclimatize to it. Canada’s Tokyo-bound athletes <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=obVZRadjWjA">did so in the lead-up to the 2020 Olympic Games</a>. But can you acclimatize to the cold? Unfortunately, the answer appears to be no, although living in a cold environment <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189700">may help your metabolism adapt</a>. But if you’re rested, fit and wearing wind-protective clothing, you’re a step ahead. </p>
<p>Know the weather conditions before you head out the door. In Olympic Games, these are measured and recorded before and during outdoor events. Officials monitor the weather and cancel the event if it’s too cold.</p>
<h2>No such thing as bad weather, just bad clothing</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Luge athlete Dominik Fischnaller of Italy dressed in blue with a white helmet, smiling as he reaches the bottom of the track at the 2022 Winter Olympics." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444727/original/file-20220207-70545-3k8je6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Frigid wind is a big concern for alpine skiers and athletes in sliding sport like luge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mark Schiefelbein)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091296">Current recommendations</a> include avoiding competitions if the combined air temperature and wind speed (including the speed of the competitor) would achieve an effective wind chill temperature colder than −27 C. While most of us can’t easily measure wind speed, a useful takeaway is, once again, keep your skin protected. Even without wind chill, an ambient air temperature of −15 C or lower increases the risk of frostbite on exposed skin.</p>
<p>Modify your plans and avoid competing or exercising when you’re sick. Prolonged intense breathing in the cold can irritate your airways. Olympic athletes may be at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3181f1c0b1">higher risk</a> for asthma and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100487">respiratory illnesses</a>, which can occur in over half of elite Nordic skiers. Respiratory viral infections and not taking enough recovery time between vigorous physical activities in the cold tend to make things worse. </p>
<p>A balaclava, neck gaiter or heat-and-moisture exchange mask are all good options to help protect the airways. Also, be sure to take time to recover fully between any outdoor sessions. </p>
<h2>Steps toward embracing winter like an Olympian</h2>
<p>Plan your equipment. First, layer up! Add or remove layers as necessary, or be like our Olympic Nordic skiers who <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189700">change their base layer right before competition</a>. Experiment to find the right system for you.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three cross-county skiers collapsed on the snow after a race while three other skiers remain on their skis looking exhausted." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444746/original/file-20220207-999-cr0vpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Exhausted competitors rest after finishing the men’s 15km + 15km skiathlon cross-country skiing competition at the 2022 Winter Olympics. Nordic skiers often change their base layer right before competition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Alessandra Tarantino)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you’re trying a new sport for the first time, get rental equipment and ask for help in choosing the right sizes. Use a helmet and/or appropriate safety gear for the sport. </p>
<p>If you’re taking up walking or hiking, use anti-slip devices, like traction cleats or rubber grips, on the soles of your boots. They are proven to decrease fall risk especially in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-012-2256-7">older adults</a>. Consider the use of Nordic poles. Here are some <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/whitecoat/what-are-the-dos-and-don-ts-of-getting-the-most-out-of-my-daily-walk-1.5889192">tips for getting the most of your walk</a>.</p>
<p>Have fun! Yes, serious athletes have fun too! As an Olympian I had the most fun when I felt most prepared, physically and mentally. Many people find it fun to try something new and challenge themselves, but it’ll be even more fun if you’re well prepared.</p>
<p>If you’re already active in the winter, can you remove obstacles for a friend or family member? The pandemic has <a href="https://theconversation.com/lack-of-exercise-linked-to-increased-risk-of-severe-covid-19-163865">widened the gap</a> for accessing physical activity for many in our population. This is a great time to reach out.</p>
<p>With the right preparation and access to physical activity and sport, we can all benefit. Let your own Winter Games begin!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176217/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Thornton receives funding as a Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health. She receives an honorarium as Editor of the British Journal of Sports Medicine.</span></em></p>Even with Winter Olympics for inspiration, outdoor activity in sub-zero weather can be hard to commit to. How can it be easier, safer and more fun to embrace your inner winter athlete?Jane Thornton, Clinician Scientist, Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health, Sport Medicine Physician, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1750992022-01-21T11:49:57Z2022-01-21T11:49:57ZFour surprising ways climate change is affecting people’s health in England and Wales<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441285/original/file-20220118-15-1n7axyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C4016&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/burning-hot-sunset-on-uk-motorway-1455388946">Jevanto Productions/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When you take age out of the equation, temperature-related deaths are on the decline in England and Wales. That’s according to the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/articles/climaterelatedmortalityandhospitaladmissionsenglandandwales/2001to2020">latest figures</a> from the Office for National Statistics (ONS). But more people are going to hospital, compared with 20 years ago.</p>
<p>It turns out, that’s not the only surprise in this new report. Here’s how else climate change is affecting health in Britain.</p>
<h2>1. Deaths during heatwaves are increasing</h2>
<p>By reporting the number of climate-related deaths per 100,000 people for each age cohort, the study effectively hid the influence of age, making factors like temperature easier to compare over time. </p>
<p>Looking at the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/excess-mortality-in-english-regions">excess mortality rate</a> instead tells us how deaths linked to a certain cause – such as heart disease or road traffic accidents – have increased compared with the average death rate over the last five years. Using this measure reveals that <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/phe-heatwave-mortality-monitoring/heatwave-mortality-monitoring-report-2020">excess deaths</a> of all causes have increased in Britain during heatwaves since 2001, especially among people over 65. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A digital thermometer displays 38°C in front of a row of terraced houses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4900%2C3264&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441106/original/file-20220117-23-95jx20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Temperatures broke 38.7°C in July 2019 in England.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/digital-thermometer-london-showing-temperatures-during-2010154742">DRG Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite this, the weighted death rate is lower today than two decades ago, perhaps because of better <a href="https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/united-kingdom/#:%7E:text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20ranks%20above,work%2Dlife%20balance%20and%20housing.">living conditions</a> and an <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/lifeexpectancies/bulletins/nationallifetablesunitedkingdom/2018to2020">increase in life expectancy</a> more generally. </p>
<h2>2. Respiratory deaths up on hot and cold days</h2>
<p>Deaths from respiratory diseases have increased on cold days as well as warm ones since 2001 according to the ONS report. </p>
<p>One reason for this may be that these weather conditions are often associated with higher levels of air pollution. The wood-burning stoves some homes use during colder weather are now a bigger source of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/16/home-wood-burning-biggest-cause-particle-pollution-fires">fine particulate pollution</a> (38%) than road traffic in the UK.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/how-weather-works/high-and-low-pressure/blocks#:%7E:text=Blocks%20are%20areas%20of%20high,eastward%20progression%20of%20pressure%20systems.">Settled periods</a> in the atmosphere often give rise to clear skies and lots of sunshine which can cause <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/preprints/acp-2021-297/acp-2021-297.pdf">heatwaves</a>. The air pressure systems causing this also allow pollution to accumulate overhead as the air <a href="https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/assets/documents/reports/aqeg/fullreport.pdf">remains trapped</a> – exacerbating respiratory illnesses. </p>
<h2>3. Drowning is a leading cause of death on hot days</h2>
<p>More people died from drowning on hot days than of heat stroke annually between 2001 and 2020. There were around 22 extra <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/2021-07-23/warnings-issued-after-at-least-20-water-deaths-amid-uk-heatwave">drowning deaths during hot weather</a> in summer 2020 compared with 2001 in England and Wales. And despite a fall in the overall number of people dying <a href="https://www.nationalwatersafety.org.uk/media/1005/uk-drowning-prevention-strategy.pdf">annually from drowning since 2001</a>, there has been an uptick since 2019.</p>
<p>Many of these cases may involve people who bathed in rivers or the sea to escape the heat. Jumping into cold water when your body is hot can cause it to <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/about/news/heatwave-bathers-warned-drowning-risk-following-recent-deaths">go into shock</a>, and drowning is a <a href="https://www.nationalwatersafety.org.uk/media/1005/uk-drowning-prevention-strategy.pdf">leading cause of accidental death</a> in the UK. More people died as a result of recreational swimming in the last 20 years than flooding. </p>
<p>The increasing popularity of wild swimming may be responsible,
and should prompt better information on rivers and beaches to alert people <a href="https://www.nationalwatersafety.org.uk/news/posts/2021/may/public-urged-to-respect-the-water-as-new-statistics-show-drowning-deaths-increased-last-year-with-more-dying-inland-than-around-the-coast">to the risks</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two people bathe in a river out of focus." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441287/original/file-20220118-19-1dhiikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wild swimming can be pleasant in hot weather – so long as bathers are careful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wild-swimming-children-out-focus-nature-1743939233">Lois GoBe/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Warm weather is raising hospital admissions</h2>
<p>The number of hospital patients admitted during cold weather has fallen over the last 20 years as winters in the UK have become milder. This is despite winter months being known as the busiest for hospitals. In comparison, the number of people admitted with a condition related to high temperatures, such as heat stroke in warm weather has increased by 12,086 a year on average for the past decade. </p>
<p>There were 2,325 more patients admitted for mental health treatment in the warmest four months of the year (June, July, August and September) in 2018 compared with when the records began in 2010 in England as well. Heatwaves tend to <a href="https://theconversation.com/heatwaves-dont-just-give-you-sunburn-they-can-harm-your-mental-health-too-121203">make mental illness worse</a>, as our bodies produce more of the stress hormone cortisol in extreme heat. But this finding alone is not enough to indicate a trend of increasing hospitalisations for mental health treatment since 2010.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dehydration/">Dehydration</a> was a leading cause of hospital admissions up to 2018 and around 800 more people were admitted to hospital due to dehydration on average in England in 2018 compared with a decade earlier in 2010. However, the report does not indicate an increasing trend since 2010.</p>
<p>Climate change will become a bigger influence on human health in <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-in-three-heat-deaths-since-1991-linked-to-climate-change-heres-how-else-warming-affects-our-health-161761">all regions of the world</a> in the future. This report suggests that the health consequences of Britain’s climate warming have been relatively mild so far. But that is not a cause for complacency.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 10,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175099/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chloe Brimicombe receives funding from NERC through the SCENARIO DTP and the University of Reading. She is seconded to ECMWF and works as an analyst with the Hidalgo project. She is associated with the Walker Institute and Evidence for Development.</span></em></p>A new report uncovers how temperature-related deaths and hospital admissions have changed since 2001.Chloe Brimicombe, PhD Candidate in Climate Change and Health, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1738072022-01-12T16:13:38Z2022-01-12T16:13:38ZCover your face, wear a hat and stay hydrated to exercise safely through the winter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439960/original/file-20220110-25-hc6fgv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C26%2C5835%2C3904&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cold weather exercise can keep us healthy, but there are risks.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Let’s face it, winter in Canada is a reality we can’t ignore. And for many of us, it means getting outside and into the cold for work, chores and exercise. But there are ways to improve your comfort and safety while being active outdoors in cold weather.</p>
<p>First off, “cold” is what physiologists (people who study human function and structure) call a “stressor,” which means your body recognizes cold as something it needs to accommodate to stay in homeostasis (when your body functions are steady). </p>
<p>We can immerse ourselves in different types of cold — including cold air and cold water — where the cold environment can be accentuated by wind and snow or rain. Here are some guidelines for exercising in cold air — there is different advice <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-7648-3-12">for cold-water swimming</a>.</p>
<p>If you have underlying heart conditions or high blood pressure, talk to your physician about how long you should stay outdoors and what sorts of activities are recommended for you in winter.</p>
<h2>Maintaining core temperature</h2>
<p>Interestingly, in a nude or semi-nude state your body starts to recognize cold as a stressor at about 28.5 C. At this air temperature, your body’s coping mechanisms kick in to ensure your core temperature is maintained. This is why when you step out of a shower, or have few clothes on (like laying on a beach in summer) you will often shiver. </p>
<p>Adding insulative clothing to your body lowers the temperature you start to sense cold stress. In cold weather environments, our bodies produce a lot of heat when using energy to move our muscles for activities like shovelling snow or cross-country skiing. So if we wear proper insulative clothing and do enough muscular work, we can feel quite comfortable — what is called thermal comfort — in cold to very cold weather. </p>
<p>However, there are still ways to reduce risk and improve comfort while exercising outside in cold weather. Here are some things to think about as you make decisions about exercise outdoors in the winter.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of people in winter athletic gear stretch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439963/original/file-20220110-23-seck51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dressing appropriately for weather conditions can keep you safe and increase your enjoyment of activities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cover your skin</h2>
<p>Reduce your exposed skin, everywhere you can. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000907">recently updated guidelines from the American College of Sports Medicine</a> indicate that frostbite, which is a “direct freezing injury … of skin surface” can occur at just -3 C. Tissues with less blood flow, such as hands, feet and head are more vulnerable, especially when the cold air is extreme (less than -15 C air temperature or -27 C wind chill). </p>
<p>Frostbite can be accelerated by contact with cold materials (metal, snow, ice) and by wet skin. Wear insulative clothing that has a high wicking ability to draw moisture off skin, and keep your head, feet and hands covered at all times!</p>
<p>Your face should also be covered for a few reasons. Covering your cheeks, forehead, nose and neck improves regulation of thermal comfort, especially in windy conditions, making activities like tobogganing or alpine skiing more comfortable. The skin on your face can takes a real beating — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050060">even in moderately windy conditions, your face skin temperature can decrease 25 C</a>. </p>
<p>If you have some underlying chronic conditions, including high blood pressure or heart disease, you should cover your face. Exposing a bare face to cold — as little as -5 C — engages parts of the nervous system which can increase blood pressure. Simply wearing a toque and scarf <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1176-5">can reduce this increase</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a young child with bare hands and reddened fingertips in the snow" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439962/original/file-20220110-22-71p8rz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Frostbite and frostnip, can result in severe health consequences if not treated quickly with appropriate medical care.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Protect your lungs and breath</h2>
<p>Our lungs are especially vulnerable to cold air environments, where exercise actually increases the stress on the lung in winter conditions. Your lungs, for good reason, want to warm and humidify the air we breathe to body temperature and 100 per cent humidity. They do a really good job of this at rest, but during exercise, it requires more effort to condition the air you breath in. </p>
<p>Add cold air on top of high breathing rates (as seen during exercise) and your lungs are really challenged to warm and humidify each breath. Cooling of the airway is associated with a nervous system response and drying of the airway is associated with an inflammatory response, both <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091292">which can constrict the lung (often called cold air bronchoconstriction)</a>. </p>
<p>Cold weather activity at less than 0 C, at moderate exercise intensity (brisk walking pace), <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2019.1583528">also results in respiratory symptoms</a> including the very common runny nose and feeling irritated in the nose (itchy, burning sensation). For more intense exercise (like a hard run or cross-country ski) the symptoms increase, and can include excess mucous, productive cough (getting that mucous out) and unproductive cough (irritating cough), chest tightness (trouble breathing), wheeze and sore throat; <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resp.2019.103262">these symptoms can persist up to 24 hours after a hard cold weather workout</a>. </p>
<p>You can take several actions to reduce these symptoms. First, slowing down your exercise intensity gives your body a chance to condition the air in each breath. Second, covering your mouth with a buff, scarf or <a href="https://skiwax.ca/collections/airtrim">cold-weather mask</a> can help some capture moisture to humidify the next breath in. Third, reducing your total exposure time in cold air, because even 30 minutes of moderate exercise can increase your symptoms and airway constriction. And finally, drink enough water during prolonged bouts of cold weather because you can lose up 100 millilitres of water per hour due to heavy breathing exercise in cold air.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/irTG3UHjU7I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Mayo Clinic provides tips on exercising in the cold.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Being prepared</h2>
<p>Being unprepared in cold weather increases your overall risk of hypothermia and other cold weather related injuries. In fact, more than half of deaths associated with natural weather events are due to cold weather — directly to accidental hypothermia (severe drop in core temperature leading to death) or when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1114208">hypothermia exacerbates a pre-existing condition</a>. Note that accidental hypothermia can also occur in moderate cold, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/H07-041">which potentially puts outdoor enthusiasts at risk</a>. </p>
<p>It is also well documented that consumption of alcohol is a major risk factor in accidental hypothermia, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr076.pdf">along with prolonged exposure and inadequate clothing</a>. Other cold weather injuries include frostbite and frostnip, which can result in severe health consequences <a href="https://www.aafp.org/afp/2019/1201/p680.html">if not treated quickly with appropriate medical care</a>. </p>
<p>I hope this has helped you better understand some of the physiology behind how humans interact with cold air environments. More importantly I hope you can use some of these tips to enhance your enjoyment and safety in the winter, especially when the temperature dips well below 0 C.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173807/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Kennedy receives funding from MITACS. </span></em></p>Preparing for being active in cold weather can help keep us safe and increase our enjoyment.Michael Kennedy, Associate professor, Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1734032022-01-10T13:36:59Z2022-01-10T13:36:59ZHow the Earth’s tilt creates short, cold January days<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439145/original/file-20220102-17-1b3kzl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4163%2C2765&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Sun rises in Midland, Michigan, shortly after 8a.m. on Jan. 13, 2017.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/Q6LNQ5">Christian Collins/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Above the equator, winter officially <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/seasons/winter/when-does-winter-start">begins in December</a>. But in many areas, January is when it really takes hold. Atmospheric scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=B5TfCvMAAAAJ&hl=en">Deanna Hence</a> explains the weather and climate factors that combine to produce wintry conditions at the turn of the year.</em></p>
<h2>How does the Earth’s orbit influence our daylight and temperatures?</h2>
<p>As the Earth orbits the sun, it spins around an axis – picture a stick going through the Earth, from the North Pole to the South Pole. During the 24 hours that it takes for the Earth to rotate once around its axis, every point on its surface faces toward the Sun for part of the time and away from it for part of the time. This is what causes daily changes in sunlight and temperature. </p>
<p>There are two other important factors: First, the Earth is round, although it’s <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/earth-round.html">not a perfect sphere</a>. Second, its axis is tilted about 23.5 degrees relative to its path around the Sun. As a result, light falls directly on its equator but strikes the North and South poles at angles. </p>
<p>When one of the poles points more toward the Sun than the other pole, that half of the planet gets more sunlight than the other half, and it’s summer in that hemisphere. When that pole tilts away from the Sun, that half of the Earth gets less sunlight and it’s winter there.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic of Earth tilting on its axis, with Northern Hemisphere toward the sun." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438275/original/file-20211217-23072-g37bxk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Earth’s tilt as it orbits around the Sun puts that one part of the planet more directly exposed to the Sun’s rays.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/tilt-of-the-earths-axis-and-earths-season-royalty-free-illustration/695485360">iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Seasonal changes are the most dramatic at the poles, where the changes in light are most extreme. During the summer, a pole receives 24 hours of sunlight and the Sun never sets. In the winter, the Sun never rises at all.</p>
<p>At the equator, which gets consistent direct sunlight, there’s very little change in day length or temperature year-round. People who live in high and middle latitudes, closer to the poles, can have very different ideas about seasons from those who live in the tropics.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">As the Earth orbits the Sun, sunlight strikes the surface at varying angles because of the planet’s tilt. This creates seasons.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>There’s an old saying, “As the days lengthen, the cold strengthens.” Why does it often get colder in January even though we’re gaining daylight?</h2>
<p>It depends on where you are in the world and where your air is coming from. </p>
<p>Earth’s surface constantly absorbs energy from the Sun and stores it as heat. It also emits heat back into space. Whether the surface is warming or cooling depends on the balance between how much solar radiation the planet is absorbing and how much it is radiating away. </p>
<p>But Earth’s surface isn’t uniform. Land typically heats up and cools off much faster than water. Water requires more energy to raise and lower its temperature, so it warms and cools more slowly. Because of this difference, water is a better heat reservoir than land – especially big bodies of water, like oceans. That’s why we tend to see bigger swings between warm and cold inland than in coastal areas.</p>
<p>The farther north you live, the longer it takes for the amount and intensity of daylight to start significantly increasing in midwinter, since your location is tilting away from the Sun. In the meantime, those areas that are getting little sunlight keep radiating heat out to space. As long as they receive less sunlight than the heat they emit, they will keep getting colder. This is especially true over land, which loses heat much more easily than water. </p>
<p>As the Earth rotates, air circulates around it in the atmosphere. If air moving into your area comes largely from places like the Arctic that don’t get much sun in winter, you may be on the receiving end of bitterly cold air for a long time. That happens in the Great Plains and Midwest when cold air swoops down from Canada.</p>
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<p>But if your air comes across a body of water that keeps a more even temperature through the year, these swings can be significantly evened out. Seattle is downwind from an ocean, which is why it is many degrees warmer than Boston in the winter even though it’s farther north than Boston.</p>
<h2>How quickly do we lose daylight before the solstice and gain it back afterward?</h2>
<p>This depends strongly on your location. The closer you are to one of the poles, the faster the rate of change in daylight is. That’s why Alaska can go from having hardly any daylight in the winter to hardly any darkness in the summer. </p>
<p>Even for a particular location, the change is not constant through the year. The rate of change in daylight is slowest at the solstices – December in winter, June in summer – and <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2019/09/11/why-losing-daylight-quickly-and-what-know-about-autumnal-equinox/ooZUrhowvIUpSgV1LfOUoO/story.html">fastest at the equinoxes</a>, in mid-March and mid-September. This change occurs as the area on Earth receiving direct sunlight swings from 23.5 N latitude – about as far north of the equator as Miami – to 23.5 S latitude, about as far south of the equator as Asunción, Paraguay. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">This satellite view captures the four changes of seasons. On the equinoxes, March 20 and Sept. 20, the line between night and day is a straight north-south line, and the sun appears to sit directly above the equator. Earth’s axis is tilted away from the Sun at the December solstice and toward the Sun at the June solstice, spreading more and less light on each hemisphere. At the equinoxes, the tilt is at a right angle to the Sun and the light is spread evenly.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>What’s happening on the opposite side of the planet right now?</h2>
<p>In terms of daylight, folks on the other side of the planet are seeing the exact opposite of what we’re seeing. Right now, they’re at the peak of their summer and are enjoying the largest amounts of daylight that they’re going to get for the year. I do research on <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=296639&org=NSF&from=news">Argentinian hailstorms</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deanna-Hence-2">Indian Ocean tropical cyclones</a>, and both of those warm-weather storm seasons are well into their peaks right now.</p>
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<p>But there’s a key difference: The Southern Hemisphere has a lot less land and a lot more water than the Northern Hemisphere. Thanks to the influence of the southern oceans, land masses in the Southern Hemisphere tend to have fewer very extreme temperatures than land in the Northern Hemisphere does.</p>
<p>So even though a spot on the <a href="https://www.geodatos.net/en/antipodes">opposite side of the planet from your location</a> may receive exactly as much sunlight now as your area does in summer, the weather there may be different from the summer conditions you are used to. But it still can be fun to imagine a warm summer breeze on the far side of the Earth – especially in a snowy January.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173403/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deanna Hence receives funding from NASA, the National Science Foundation, and the Illinois Campus Research Board.</span></em></p>The winter solstice is past, but bundle up – January is when winter really arrives in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere.Deanna Hence, Assistant Professor of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.