tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/fiji-2307/articlesFiji – The Conversation2024-03-12T19:15:29Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2250882024-03-12T19:15:29Z2024-03-12T19:15:29ZPacific Islanders have long drawn wisdom from the Earth, the sky and the waves. Research shows the science is behind them<p>One afternoon last year, we sat in a village hall in Fiji chatting to residents about traditional ways of forecasting tropical cyclones. One man mentioned a black-winged storm bird known as “manumanunicagi” that glides above the land only when a cyclone is forming out to sea. As the conversation continued, residents named at least 11 bird species, the odd behaviour of which signalled imminent changes in the weather. </p>
<p>As we were leaving later that evening, an elder took us aside. He was pleased we had taken their beliefs seriously and said many older Pacific people won’t talk about traditional knowledge for fear of ridicule.</p>
<p>This reflects the dominance of science-based understandings in adapting to climate change and its threats to ways of life. Our <a href="https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcc.882">new research</a> suggests this attitude should change. </p>
<p>We reviewed evidence on traditional knowledge in the Pacific for coping with climate change, and found much of it was scientifically plausible. This indicates such knowledge should play a significant role in sustaining Pacific Island communities in future.</p>
<h2>A proven, robust system</h2>
<p>Our research was co-authored with 26 others, most Pacific Islanders with long-standing research interests in traditional knowledge.</p>
<p>People have inhabited the Pacific Islands for 3,000 years or <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Archaeology-of-Pacific-Oceania-Inhabiting-a-Sea-of-Islands/Carson/p/book/9781032486376">more</a> and have experienced many climate-driven challenges to their livelihoods and survival. They have coped not by luck but by design – through robust systems of traditional knowledge built by diverse groups of people over time.</p>
<p>The main short-term climate-related threats to island livelihoods in the Pacific are tropical cyclones which can damage food crops, pollute fresh water and destroy infrastructure. Prolonged droughts – common during El Niño events in the southwest Pacific – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03112-1">also cause</a> widespread damage.</p>
<p>Traditional knowledge in the Pacific explains the causes and manifestations of natural phenomena, and identifies the best ways to respond. It is commonly communicated orally between generations. </p>
<p>Here, we describe such knowledge relating to animals, plants, water and sky – and show how these beliefs make scientific sense.</p>
<p>It’s important to note, however, that traditional knowledge has its own intrinsic value. Scientific explanations are not required to validate it.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/secrets-in-the-canopy-scientists-discover-8-striking-new-bee-species-in-the-pacific-222599">Secrets in the canopy: scientists discover 8 striking new bee species in the Pacific</a>
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<h2>Reading the ocean and sky</h2>
<p>Residents of Fiji’s Druadrua Island interpret breaking waves to predict a cyclone as long as one month before it hits. In Vanuatu’s Torres Islands, 13 phrases exist to describe the state of the tide, including anomalies that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.2004.tb02856.x">herald uncommon events</a>.</p>
<p>These observations make scientific sense. Distant storms can drive ocean swells onto coasts long before the winds and rain arrive, changing the usual patterns of waves.</p>
<p>In Samoa, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/25148486211047739">ten types of wind</a> are recognised in traditional lore. Winds that blow from the east (matā ‘upolu) indicate the imminent arrival of heavy rain, possibly a tropical cyclone. The south wind (tuā'oloa) is most feared. It will cease to blow, it is said, only when its appetite for death is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-009-9722-z">sated</a>.</p>
<p>Many Pacific Island communities believe a cloudless, dark blue sky signals the arrival of a tropical cyclone. Other signs include unusually rapid cloud movements and the appearance of “short rainbows”. </p>
<p>These beliefs are supported by science. Rainbows are sometimes “shortened” or partly obscured by a distant rain shower. And Western science has <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-71543-8">long recognised</a> changes in clouds and winds can signal the development of cyclones.</p>
<p>In Vanuatu, a halo around a moon signals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/wcas-d-13-00053.1">imminent rainfall</a>. Again, this belief is scientifically sound. According to Western science, high thin cirrus clouds signal nearby storms. The clouds contain ice crystals through which moonlight is filtered, creating a halo effect.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teaching-our-children-from-books-not-the-sea-how-climate-change-is-eroding-human-rights-in-vanuatu-192016">'Teaching our children from books, not the sea': how climate change is eroding human rights in Vanuatu</a>
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<h2>The wisdom of animals and plants</h2>
<p>As mentioned above, birds are are said to herald weather changes across the Pacific.</p>
<p>In Tonga, when the frigate bird flies across the land – unusual behaviour for an ocean species – it signals a tropical cyclone is developing. This traditional knowledge is captured in the logo of the <a href="https://met.gov.to">Tonga Meteorological Service</a>. Birds are similarly interpreted in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2015.1046156">Fiji</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/25148486211047739">northern Vanuatu</a>.</p>
<p>This belief stacks up scientifically. One <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.079">study</a> in North America, for example, showed golden-winged warblers dodged tornadoes by detecting shifts in infrasound. Another <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41481-x">study</a>, which included data on frigate birds in the Pacific, found seabirds appeared to circumvent cyclones, probably by sensing wind strength and direction.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="plantain tree in field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581159/original/file-20240312-18-84kk3r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When the central shoot of the plantain is curled, people know a cyclone is developing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick Nunn</span></span>
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<p>Traditional knowledge about insect behaviour in the Pacific Islands is also used to predict wet weather.</p>
<p>Bees, wasps and hornets usually build nests in tree branches. When nests are built close to the ground, Pacific Islanders know the forthcoming wet season will be wetter than normal, probably due to more tropical cyclones. This type of nest-building may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2015.1046156">prompt</a> residents to make appropriate preparations such as storing food.</p>
<p>Studies suggest insect behaviour can predict changes in weather. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2009.10.007">a study</a> of wasp nesting in French Guiana found their ability to quickly move nests to more sheltered locations may help them survive wet years.</p>
<p>Across the Pacific, common signs of impending wet weather are found in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01613-w">behaviours</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08100-210207">some plants</a>. The central shoot of the plantain, for example, will be conspicuously curled instead of straight.</p>
<p>This can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eru327">explained</a> scientifically by a process in which plant leaves close to protect their reproductive organs from extreme weather.</p>
<h2>Planning for a warmer future</h2>
<p>Since colonisation imposed Western worldviews around the world, traditional knowledge has been sidelined. This is true of the Pacific Islands, where in some places, traditional knowledge is all but <a href="https://theconversation.com/teaching-our-children-from-books-not-the-sea-how-climate-change-is-eroding-human-rights-in-vanuatu-192016">forgotten</a>. </p>
<p>But both Western and traditional knowledges have their pros and cons. Science-based knowledge, for example, is generic and often can’t realistically be applied <a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-islands-must-stop-relying-on-foreign-aid-to-adapt-to-climate-change-because-the-money-wont-last-132095">at local scales</a>. </p>
<p>As climate change impacts worsen, optimal planning for island peoples should combine both approaches. This will require open-mindedness and a respect for diverse sources of knowledge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick D. Nunn receives funding from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) via the Australia Pacific Climate Partnership (APCP), the Australian Research Council, and the Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roselyn Kumar receives funding from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) via the Australia Pacific Climate Partnership (APCP)</span></em></p>We reviewed evidence on traditional knowledge in the Pacific for coping with climate change, and found much of it was scientifically plausible.Patrick D. Nunn, Professor of Geography, School of Law and Society, University of the Sunshine CoastRoselyn Kumar, Adjunct Research Fellow in Geography and Social Sciences, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225992024-02-26T05:03:51Z2024-02-26T05:03:51ZSecrets in the canopy: scientists discover 8 striking new bee species in the Pacific<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577494/original/file-20240222-16-pcdtt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Dorey Photography</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After a decade searching for new species of bees in forests of the Pacific Islands, all we had to do was look up. </p>
<p>We soon found <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2024.1339446/full">eight new species</a> of masked bees in the forest canopy: six in Fiji, one in French Polynesia and another in Micronesia. Now we expect to find many more. </p>
<p>Forest-dwelling bees evolved for thousands of years alongside native plants, and play unique and important roles in nature. Studying these species can help us better understand bee evolution, diversity and conservation.</p>
<p>Almost <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02626-w">21,000 bee species are known to science</a>. Many more remain undiscovered. But it’s a race against time, as the twin challenges of habitat loss and climate change threaten bee survival. We need to identify and protect bee species before they disappear forever.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of research students using stepping stones to cross a creek in the rainforest while carrying sampling nets on short poles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577774/original/file-20240225-24-qvx9ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Searching for bees in the rainforest on Vanua Levu, formerly known as Sandalwood Island, the second largest island of Fiji.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Dorey Photography</span></span>
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<h2>Introducing the new masked bees</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/brv.12947">Pollinators abound in forests</a>. But scientific research has tended to focus on bees living closer to the ground.</p>
<p>We believe this sampling bias is replicated across much of the world. For example, another related Oceanic masked bee, <em>Pharohylaeus lactiferus</em> (a cloaked bee), was recently found in the canopy <a href="https://theconversation.com/phantom-of-the-forest-after-100-years-in-hiding-i-rediscovered-the-rare-cloaked-bee-in-australia-156026">after 100 years in hiding</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Closeup of one of the new masked bees showing the yellow markings on its face" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577776/original/file-20240225-30-ni8m63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">This masked bee was collected from a canopy-flowering mistletoe near Mount Nadarivatu on Viti Levu, Fiji.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Dorey Photography</span></span>
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<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4674.1.1">first decade of bee sampling</a> in Fiji turned up only one bee from the genus <em>Hylaeus</em>. This bee probably belonged in the canopy so we were very lucky to catch it near the ground. Targeted attempts over the next few years, using our standard short insect nets, failed to find any more. </p>
<p>But this changed when we turned our attention to searching the forest canopy. </p>
<p>Sampling in the canopy is physically challenging. Strength and skill are required to sweep a long, heavy net and pole through the treetops. It’s quite a workout. We limit our efforts to the edges of forests, where branches won’t tangle the whole contraption.</p>
<p>By lifting our gaze in this way, we discovered eight new bee species, all in the genus <em>Hylaeus</em>. They are mostly black with stunning yellow or white highlights, especially on their faces – hence the name, masked bees. </p>
<p>They appear to rely exclusively on the forest canopy. This behaviour is striking and has rarely been identified in bees before (perhaps because few scientists have been looking for bees up there). </p>
<p>Because the new species live in forests and native tree tops, they’re likely to be vulnerable to land clearing, cyclones and climate change. </p>
<p>More work is needed to uncover the secrets hidden in these dense tropical treetops. It may require engineering solutions such as canopy cranes and drones, as well as skilful tree-climbing using ropes, pulleys and harnesses.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/move-over-honeybees-aussie-native-bees-steal-the-show-with-unique-social-and-foraging-behaviours-200536">Move over, honeybees: Aussie native bees steal the show with unique social and foraging behaviours</a>
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<h2>Michener’s missing links</h2>
<p>The journey of bees across the Pacific region is a tale of great dispersals and isolation.</p>
<p>Almost 60 years ago, world-renowned bee expert <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/787658">Charles Michener described</a> what was probably the most isolated masked bee around, <em>Hylaeus tuamotuensis</em>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Searching for bees on Fiji’s highest peak, Mount Tomanivi, here two researchers are picking a path through dense undergrowth while carrying nets on short poles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577779/original/file-20240225-16-iay0de.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fiji’s highest peak, Mount Tomanivi, is home to unique bee species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Dorey Photography</span></span>
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<p>The specimen was found in French Polynesia. At the time, Michener said that was “entirely unexpected”, because the nearest relatives were, as the bee flies, 4,000km north in Hawaii, 5,000km southwest in New Zealand, and 6,000km west in Australia. </p>
<p>So how did it get there and where did it come from?</p>
<p>Our research helps to answer these questions. We found eight new <em>Hylaeus</em> species including one from French Polynesia. Using genetic analysis and other methods, we found strong links between these species and <em>H. tuamotuensis</em>. </p>
<p>So Michener’s bee was probably an ancient immigrant from Fiji, 3,000km away. A journey of that magnitude is no mean feat for bees smaller than a grain of rice.</p>
<p>Of course, there are <a href="https://geoscienceletters.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40562-016-0041-8">more than 1,700 islands in the Pacific</a>, which can serve as stepping stones for bees on their long journeys. </p>
<p>We don’t yet know how many new <em>Hylaeus</em> species might exist in the South Pacific, or the routes they took to get to their island homes. But we suspect there are many more to be found.</p>
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<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/phantom-of-the-forest-after-100-years-in-hiding-i-rediscovered-the-rare-cloaked-bee-in-australia-156026">Phantom of the forest: after 100 years in hiding, I rediscovered the rare cloaked bee in Australia</a>
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<h2>Our Pacific emissaries</h2>
<p>The early origins of Fijian bees – both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03721426.2020.1740957">ground-dwelling <em>Homalictus</em></a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.018">forest-loving <em>Hylaeus</em></a> – can be traced to the ancient past when Australia and New Guinea were part of one land mass, known as Sahul. The ancestors of both groups then undertook epic oceanic journeys to travel from Sahul to the furthest reaches of the Pacific, where they diversified. But the <em>Hylaeus</em> travelled furthest, by thousands of kilometres.</p>
<p>These little emissaries have similarly brought together researchers across the region. We resolved difficulties sampling and gathering knowledge by working with people across the Pacific, including Fiji, French Polynesia, and Hawaii. It shows what can be accomplished with international collaboration. </p>
<p>Together we are making great strides towards understanding our shared bee biodiversity. Such collaborations are our best chance of discovering and conserving species while we can.</p>
<p><em>We would like to thank Ben Parslow and Karl Magnacca for their contribution to this article. We would further like to thank our collaborators and their home institutions, the Hawiian Department of Land and Natural Resources, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, University of the South Pacific, the South Australian Museum and Adelaide University.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222599/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James B. Dorey has received funding for this work from The Playford Trust as a PhD and Honours scholarship recipient, Flinders University through the AJ and IM Naylon PhD Scholarship, and the Australian Government through the New Colombo Plan . He is affiliated with both Flinders University and the University of Wollongong.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy-Marie Gilpin is affiliated with the School of Science and Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University. Funding to publish this work was in part provided by Western Sydney University. Amy-Marie is also a member of the IUCN Wild Bee Specialist Group Oceania. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olivia Davies does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>By lifting their gaze to the treetops rather than poking around on the ground, researchers discovered eight new species of masked bees.James B. Dorey, Lecturer in Biological Sciences, University of WollongongAmy-Marie Gilpin, Lecturer in Invertebrate Ecology, Western Sydney UniversityOlivia Davies, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2192002024-01-24T20:33:54Z2024-01-24T20:33:54ZThe Australia-Tuvalu deal shows why we need a global framework for climate relocations<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-australia-tuvalu-deal-shows-why-we-need-a-global-framework-for-climate-relocations" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The recent climate migration deal signed by Australia and Tuvalu in November 2023 has been touted as providing a “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/tuvalu-climate-change-migration-1.7024777">lifeline</a>” to the people of the South Pacific nation who face existential threats from rising sea levels and climate change.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/tuvalu/australia-tuvalu-falepili-union-treaty">Australia-Tuvalu Falepili Union treaty</a> is the world’s first bilateral agreement on climate mobility. Under the treaty, Australia will grant permanent residence to up to 280 Tuvaluans facing dangers posed by climate change each year. </p>
<p>In exchange, Tuvalu will not enter into any security or defence agreements with other countries without Australian approval. In addition, Australia will defend Tuvalu from foreign threats and provide assistance following disasters.</p>
<p>Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese called the deal groundbreaking and a “<a href="https://twitter.com/AlboMP/status/1722846875655794728">comprehensive partnership</a>” that respected sovereignty. </p>
<p>However, others have criticized it as <a href="https://indepthnews.net/concerns-in-the-pacific-over-neo-colonial-australia-tuvalu-agreement/">neo-colonial</a>, especially for the control it grants Australia over Tuvalu’s security, maritime zones and resources. </p>
<h2>Groundbreaking or neo-colonial?</h2>
<p>There have long been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/10/tuvalu-residency-and-security-treaty-what-is-it-and-why-is-australia-doing-it">heated debates</a> about the idea of such an arrangement, and some see the treaty as an <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-offer-of-climate-migration-to-tuvalu-residents-is-groundbreaking-and-could-be-a-lifeline-across-the-pacific-217514">important step</a>. </p>
<p>As the consequences of climate change become more severe, the international community needs to protect populations who face becoming stateless as their countries literally sink into the ocean. </p>
<p>However, some see this deal as yet another example of western countries exerting colonial influence over others. Former Tuvalu Prime Minister, Enele Sopoaga, turned down a 2019 proposal to offer Australian citizenship to climate refugees from island states in the South Pacific in exchange for granting Australia control of their exclusive economic zones and territorial seas. He called the proposal neo-colonial and an example of “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-18/tuvalu-pm-slams-kevin-rudd-suggestion-as-neo-colonialism/10820176">imperial thinking</a>.” </p>
<p>Sopoaga has reiterated those concerns regarding the Falepili Union and accused the current Prime Minister of <a href="https://www.pacificislandtimes.com/post/where-would-tuvalu-stop-auctioning-its-sovereignty-for-money">auctioning Tuvalu’s sovereignty for money</a>.</p>
<p>There were also concerns about the <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/503354/australia-tuvalu-falepili-union-shameful-former-tuvalu-pm">lack of consultation</a> with Tuvaluans, the use of this treaty to <a href="https://devpolicy.org/the-australia-tuvalu-falepili-union-tuvaluan-values-or-australian-interests-20231115/">counter China’s growing influence</a> in the Pacific and how it is a <a href="https://toda.org/global-outlook/2023/this-is-not-climate-justice-the-australia-tuvalu-falepili-union.html">poor example of climate justice</a>.</p>
<h2>Relocation is understudied</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2022.100177">Not enough focus</a> has been given to relocation and the topic has been <a href="https://researchinginternaldisplacement.org/short_pieces/planned-relocations-what-we-know-dont-know-and-need-to-learn/">understudied</a>. </p>
<p>The existential dangers posed by climate change are all too real for small island nations like Tuvalu. Many face a real risk of becoming uninhabitable due to climate change. For example, Tuvalu and Vanuatu could be <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-10/sinking-islands-turn-to-court-as-they-fight-for-climate-survival?leadSource=uverify%20wall">completely submerged</a> by the end of this century. </p>
<p>Research shows that more than <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1pDR-t1hVApqJiVk6E5DJ7TN0cOtXJiKvS1w8QIP149o/edit#gid=1611800107">400 climate and weather related relocations</a> have taken place globally since 1970 and <a href="https://researchinginternaldisplacement.org/short_pieces/planned-relocations-what-we-know-dont-know-and-need-to-learn/">more will happen in the future</a>. Fiji has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/08/how-to-move-a-country-fiji-radical-plan-escape-rising-seas-climate-crisis">one of the most thorough plans ever devised to tackle planned relocation</a> and identifies the many logistical, financial, social and cultural challenges involved.</p>
<p>Among the complex plans are deeply personal and moral decisions, like what to do with burial sites. These nations are often faced with two traumatic options: let them sink or exhume the remains.</p>
<p>Fiji’s relocation, as well as most others, will be internal. However, the question of international relocation is even more challenging with much higher-level geopolitical challenges and social and economic consequences. </p>
<h2>Sovereignty and disappearing land</h2>
<p>One of the hardest questions is that of sovereignty. Will there be a time when most Tuvaluans live outside Tuvalu? How would those in the diaspora be able to exercise their national rights, if they have them? How can they maintain their distinct nationhood without land? These questions are important, but also hard to answer.</p>
<p>Is a country that no longer has land still sovereign? <a href="https://www.ilsa.org/Jessup/Jessup15/Montevideo%20Convention.pdf">International law defines a sovereign state</a> as having 1) a permanent population, 2) a defined territory, 3) a government, and 4) the capacity to enter relations with other states. </p>
<p>Aware of this, Tuvalu has already amended its constitution to assert that its <a href="https://devpolicy.org/the-australia-tuvalu-falepili-union-tuvaluan-values-or-australian-interests-20231115/">statehood is permanent</a>, so its sovereignty persists despite losing its land to sea-level rise.</p>
<p>They are also developing <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/27/tuvalu-climate-crisis-rising-sea-levels-pacific-island-nation-country-digital-clone">a digital nation</a> by recreating its land in the metaverse, archiving its culture and digitalizing its government. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hilly tropical island surrounded by the ocean" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570998/original/file-20240123-19-ukq6i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Island nations like Fiji have developed plans to relocate people due to the impacts of climate change and rising sea levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Maritime boundaries</h2>
<p>Maritime boundaries are divisions of Earth’s water surface areas in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones and exclusive economic zones. The maritime boundaries of small island nations are vast. For example, Tuvalu’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-13/what-happens-to-maritime-boundaries-after-sea-level-rise/10804478">ocean territories cover more than 900,000 square kilometres</a>, which is about the size of Nigeria. </p>
<p>Rising oceans could shrink the maritime zones as an island sinks. There are <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2022/09/12/-is-climate-change-disrupting-maritime-boundaries-.html">serious implications</a> of this as maritime boundaries determine who has the right to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-13/what-happens-to-maritime-boundaries-after-sea-level-rise/10804478">Pacific fisheries worth billions of dollars</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2014.926086">Sovereignty and maritime boundaries</a> can be the main challenges that a global governance framework for international relocation can help to address first as those have implications on how planned relocation can unfold. In terms of how the planned relocation itself can take place, there are several ideas:</p>
<p>1) Special visas and treaties that facilitate climate mobility such as the Falepili Union.</p>
<p>2) Leasing territories has been a common solution that small island states have explored, like <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/01/kiribati-climate-change-fiji-vanua-levu">Kiribati’s purchase of land in Fiji</a>.</p>
<p>3) Merging of several states, like how <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6ae3f9d7-4d5f-55ce-bfee-1b124561e486/content">Zanzibar and Tanganyika unified in 1964 to form Tanzania</a>, so people on islands that will be submerged can move to other areas of country.</p>
<p>4) <a href="http://www.qil-qdi.org/sinking-states-the-statehood-dilemma-in-the-face-of-sea-level-rise/">Artificial and floating islands</a> to replace submerged land territory have been contemplated, but the legal status of such islands is highly uncertain and could set dangerous precedents, such as new islands being used to claim territories within the maritime boundaries of others. </p>
<p>All these potential ways to allow for planned relocation come with significant challenges, which is why a global governance framework is required.</p>
<p>Planned relocation and, specifically, international relocation, is one of the biggest challenges of our time as the sovereignty, maritime boundaries and rights of affected nations are all at risk, let alone the lives and futures of millions around the world. Most importantly, significant action to combat the climate crisis is required from all nations so the need for mass plan relocation can be mitigated.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219200/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yvonne Su does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The climate migration deal has been dubbed as offering Tuvaluans a lifeline, but others say it is a neocolonial arrangement that does not tackle rising ocean levels.Yvonne Su, Assistant Professor in the Department of Equity Studies, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2195062024-01-08T19:16:36Z2024-01-08T19:16:36Z‘We don’t know what tomorrow will bring’: how climate change is affecting Fijians’ mental health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568135/original/file-20240107-23-1x8kwc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3542%2C2565&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amy Lykins</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s unlikely any region of the world will escape the <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/climate-change/climate-change-impacts/">effects of climate change</a>. These include increasing temperatures, more frequent and intense extreme weather events such as bushfires and floods, rising sea levels, and more. </p>
<p>But some areas, like the Pacific Islands, are likely to experience <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2017-0012/full/html">disproportionate effects</a> from advancing climate change. Pacific island nations are uniquely vulnerable to sea level rise, coastal erosion and cyclones of escalating intensity. </p>
<p>Increasing temperatures and increasingly unpredictable weather patterns present additional risks to populations largely reliant on traditional fishing and farming practices for both food sources and trade. </p>
<p>The consequences of climate change also pose significant risks to the mental health and wellbeing of the people living in these countries, as we observed in a <a href="https://gep.psychopen.eu/index.php/gep/article/view/11447/11447.html">recent study</a> with rural Fijians.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-the-law-of-the-sea-be-used-to-protect-small-island-states-from-climate-change-208842">Could the law of the sea be used to protect small island states from climate change?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Shifts in the environment</h2>
<p>We interviewed more than 70 Indigenous and other traditional Fijians living in rural villages in coastal, coastal hinterland and river delta regions of the country. </p>
<p>Interviewees from each village described environmental changes they had observed, ranging from shifts in seasons and rainfall, to warmer temperatures, to sea level rise resulting in more frequent flooding of the villages, particularly during “king tides”. As one participant said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Now it is like we are having the hot season throughout. Now we are experiencing the abnormal changes in the weather like never before.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another commented:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Sea level is not where it used to be since it is moving into the village, especially when it is high tides. We are really worried and concerned.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A number of items washed up on a beach in Fiji." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566813/original/file-20231220-23-llkkny.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">King tides sometimes see items washed away from coastal villages in Fiji.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amy Lykins</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A strong theme of loss of traditional culture ran through our interviews, with many participants describing the ways these environmental changes were contributing to the loss of traditional ways of life and their broader cultural practices. </p>
<p>One participant talked about yatule, a fish customarily found in seas of the Nadroga-Navosa province, traditionally fished using only nets:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>No longer is it [yatule] seen [here]. Fishing for the yatule here […] is done traditionally […] the traditional method is slowly fading.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These observed losses were having an effect on mental wellbeing. In particular, participants routinely expressed concerns and grief about what would be left for future generations.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Due to the climate change we are very concerned about our future generation. At least now we can still eat fish, we don’t know what tomorrow will bring.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/their-fate-isnt-sealed-pacific-nations-can-survive-climate-change-if-locals-take-the-lead-136709">Their fate isn’t sealed: Pacific nations can survive climate change – if locals take the lead</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The idea of relocation fuelled further distress</h2>
<p>All interviewees were aware of a potential need in the future to migrate (indeed, a couple of the villages we visited are already in the process of relocating to higher grounds). But this prospect was met with both reluctance and substantial anticipated loss. As one participant said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[The villagers] will not follow suit since they have strong ties with this place. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>This is our only land where we have lived in all our lives.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Given the strong connections Pacific island peoples traditionally have to their ancestral lands, there is no question any forced relocation would have significant negative effects on their mental health and wellbeing. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Fijian island surrounded by blue ocean and blue sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566814/original/file-20231220-25-ke2jj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The images tourists might have in their heads when they think of Fiji are very different to the reality for residents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amy Lykins</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eco-grief</h2>
<p>Our interviews highlight the substantial distress associated with the rapidly changing environment of Fiji. </p>
<p>In many ways, these themes mirror those observed in the Indigenous Inuit peoples of the Circumpolar North, found in Alaska, northern Canada and Greenland. In these locations, rapidly declining sea ice is having a major impact on traditional cultural practices (such as fishing and travel), also resulting in grief, worry and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0092-2">mental ill-health</a>. </p>
<p>Across the globe, it’s clear people and cultures with strong place-based attachments are especially vulnerable to the mental health effects of climate change, sometimes called “eco-grief”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rise-of-eco-anxiety-climate-change-affects-our-mental-health-too-123002">The rise of 'eco-anxiety': climate change affects our mental health, too</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>More research is urgently needed to better understand mental ill-health in Pacific peoples related to the effects of climate change, and to develop <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17565529.2022.2145171">culturally informed supports</a>. There’s also a need to strengthen mental health systems in <a href="https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0301-z">Pacific island nations</a>. </p>
<p>Finally, concerted climate change mitigation efforts are crucial to protect these unique Pacific cultures, which will aid in protecting their mental health and wellbeing. </p>
<p><em>The authors would like to thank Patrick Nunn, Roselyn Kumar, Cassandra Sundaraja, Mereoni Camailekeba, Samisoni (“Samson”) Baivucago and Sala Tabaka for their contribution to the research that informed this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219506/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pacific Island nations face disproportionate threats from climate change. Rural Fijians are seeing the effects now and are worried for the future.Amy Lykins, Associate Professor in Clinical Psychology, University of New EnglandSuzanne Cosh, Associate Professor in Clinical Psychology, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155332023-12-14T22:54:08Z2023-12-14T22:54:08ZAustralia has invested heavily in a Pacific peacekeeping hub. So, where are the recruits?<p>Nestled not far from Fiji’s Nadi airport is the Blackrock Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Disaster Relief Camp. Before reopening in March 2022, this military complex was renovated and expanded in a <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/australia-hands-over-redeveloped-blackrock-military-training-camp-to-fiji/2534521">A$100 million</a> <a href="https://www.defence.gov.au/programs-initiatives/pacific-engagement/blackrock-camp-fiji">joint collaboration</a> between Australia and Fiji. </p>
<p>The complex is <a href="https://www.fbcnews.com.fj/news/plans-to-certify-rfmf-blackrock-camp/">envisioned</a> as a future training and regional response hub for both natural and man-made disasters in the Pacific. It’s also emblematic of Australia and Fiji’s <a href="https://ministers.dfat.gov.au/minister/zed-seselja/transcript/opening-blackrock-peacekeeping-and-humanitarian-assistance-and-disaster-relief-camp">commitment</a> to an international rules-based order. This is made more notable by the fact Australia narrowly <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/366386/australian-offer-over-fiji-base-beats-china-s">outbid</a> China as the funder for the camp’s renovation.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1503265666555846656"}"></div></p>
<p>The need for a regional humanitarian logistics hub is clear. Oceania and South-East Asia experience <a href="https://www.undrr.org/publication/2020-non-covid-year-disasters">roughly 40%</a> of the world’s natural disasters – often in the form of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and increasingly destructive cyclones.</p>
<p>The new complex is based on a Pacific-centric and co-operative approach to addressing disasters, guaranteeing a speedy deployment of humanitarian relief workers and supplies when emergencies occur. As such, other Pacific Island countries have <a href="https://pina.com.fj/2022/09/19/pacific-ministers-endorse-fiji-militarys-blackrock-camp-as-disaster-relief-depot/">endorsed</a> it. </p>
<p>Nearly two years after opening, however, Blackrock’s value as a Pacific peacekeeping hub is not as clear. </p>
<h2>A history of Pacific peacekeeping</h2>
<p>Fiji has long been a consistent contributor to UN peacekeeping operations. The country <a href="https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors">sends</a> more than 300 peacekeepers to global hot spots every year. <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/fiji-the-peacekeepers/">Per capita</a>, Fiji provides more peacekeepers than any other country. </p>
<p>Other countries in the Pacific have been far less engaged. Besides Fiji, only Papua New Guinea and Tonga have traditional militaries from which they can draw soldiers to become peacekeepers. </p>
<p>PNG first fielded personnel on peace operations as part of the <a href="https://www.ramsi.org/about/">Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands</a> in 2000. While national pride and a belief in the importance of “nation building” have <a href="https://www.aspi.org.au/report/mapping-pacific-peacekeeping">motivated</a> PNG deployments, the country only has the capacity to contribute a few peacekeepers at a time. </p>
<p>Tonga has participated in US-led coalition operations in Iraq and Afghanistan in the past, as well as Australia and New Zealand-led operations in Bougainville and Solomon Islands. However, it has never contributed to a UN peace operation.</p>
<p>The remaining Pacific Islands have contributed to peacekeeping in other ways. Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste and Vanuatu have all provided police, military advisers or other personnel in small numbers.</p>
<p>Despite historically limited engagement, many Pacific countries <a href="https://www.aspi.org.au/report/mapping-pacific-peacekeeping">want</a> to increase their participation in peacekeeping operations. They are motivated by: </p>
<ul>
<li>a desire to support countries wracked by conflict</li>
<li>political and cultural links in the region </li>
<li>national pride</li>
<li>the opportunity to gain operational experience </li>
<li>financial incentives.</li>
</ul>
<p>So far, Blackrock has been able to train roughly 400 Fijian peacekeepers every year. It has also begun to host training and joint exercises with troops and military experts from key partner <a href="https://www.contactairlandandsea.com/2022/09/18/multinational-shoot-house-exercise-in-fijis-new-blackrock-camp/">nations</a>, such as the US, Australia, Britain, New Zealand and <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/blackrock-camp-gets-france-backing/">France</a>. Most recently, Blackrock <a href="https://images.defence.gov.au/assets/Home/Search?Query=20230329adf8671822_3002.jpg&Type=Filename">hosted</a> 14 Fijian and 10 Australian defence personnel for their first joint peacekeeping pre-deployment training. </p>
<p>Despite these notable achievements, the camp has not attracted peacekeeping candidates from elsewhere in the Pacific. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1503164410570833921"}"></div></p>
<h2>What Australia can do to help</h2>
<p>Pacific countries already have a high level of co-ordination on peace and security initiatives through the Pacific Islands Forum and other regional <a href="https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/pacific-robp-2015-2017-sd.pdf">programs</a>. Therefore, a co-operative approach to peacekeeping seems reasonable.</p>
<p>As Inia Seruiratu, Fiji’s minister for defence, national security and foreign affairs, <a href="https://www.ipinst.org/2019/03/a4p-troop-contributing-countries-key-stakeholders#8">put it</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>For small developing countries like Fiji, partnerships are the way forward. It is the new model of peacekeeping for us. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, there are formidable challenges to making Blackrock a truly successful training base for a future Pacific peacekeeping force. </p>
<p>First, many Pacific countries cannot afford to lose high-performing police and military personnel to peace operations. </p>
<p>Then there is the cost of operating a peacekeeping training centre year in, year out. This includes the massive cost of moving potential recruits around the region, as well as trainers and other personnel. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-the-wake-of-the-china-solomon-islands-pact-australia-needs-to-rethink-its-pacific-relationships-181702">In the wake of the China-Solomon Islands pact, Australia needs to rethink its Pacific relationships</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This is where the support of partner countries like Australia is vital.</p>
<p>Australia will likely <a href="https://www.defence.gov.au/programs-initiatives/pacific-engagement/infrastructure/maintenance-sustainment-program#:%7E:text=The%20Maintenance%20and%20Sustainment%20Program,of%20infrastructure%20assets%20is%20realised.">continue</a> to support the day-to-day operating costs of Blackrock as part of its enhanced engagement in the Pacific. </p>
<p>Beyond that, Australia can help meet the challenge of finding recruits by leveraging its old and new defence initiatives in the region.</p>
<p>For example, in recent days, Australia and PNG signed a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/dec/07/australia-to-train-papua-new-guinea-police-as-two-nations-strike-new-security-deal">A$200 million deal</a> to help boost PNG’s security capacities, in part by establishing a new police recruit and investigations training centre. Earlier this year, Australia also <a href="https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/penny-wong/transcript/joint-statement-tarawa-kiribati">signed</a> a memorandum of understanding with Kiribati to help expand its police training, including training for UN peacekeeping operations. </p>
<p>These agreements should include Australian financial and transportation support for police and military personnel who are being upskilled to travel to Blackrock. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1732865237634949505"}"></div></p>
<h2>Why a regional peacekeeping force matters</h2>
<p>Supporting Pacific peacekeeping partnerships is a complex challenge that will require sustained support from Australia, but the benefits are substantial.</p>
<p>For one, Pacific countries’ security forces will continue to develop and professionalise by training in a multinational environment. These links will also improve the interoperability between the Australian Defence Force and its counterparts in the Pacific.</p>
<p>From a geo-strategic standpoint, cultivating regional security networks helps position Australia as the “security provider of choice” for Pacific Island states. </p>
<p>Lastly, the entire region will benefit from the creation of a well-trained force capable of deploying in support of conflicts and disasters. It will take the pressure off outside powers (including Australia, the US and even China) to do so.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215533/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shannon Zimmerman is affiliated with Deakin's Centre for Future Defence and National Security </span></em></p>The new $100 million Blackrock peacekeeping training facility in Fiji has high ambitions, but will need Australia’s ongoing support to succeed.Shannon Zimmerman, Lecturer in Strategic Studies, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2189812023-12-12T08:55:11Z2023-12-12T08:55:11ZHuman trafficking, sexual abuse and exploitation: the ‘loss and damage’ from climate change a fund will not compensate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564873/original/file-20231211-23-wvorvb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1280%2C852&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A child's doll discarded during a storm.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Violence against women and children, including sexual abuse and exploitation, remains a taboo subject in the policy debates attended by international delegates at COP28, the latest round of the UN climate negotiations in Dubai. However, the connections between climate change and gender-based violence, including human trafficking, are real and already blight lives worldwide.</p>
<p>Countries at COP28 have agreed to set up a loss and damage fund which would pay poor nations for the irreparable harm caused by the deteriorating climate. How can we compensate <a href="https://theconversation.com/mental-health-distress-in-the-wake-of-bangladesh-cyclone-shows-the-devastation-of-climate-related-loss-and-damage-171712">non-economic loss and damage</a> – the impacts of climate change that cannot be easily measured in monetary terms? </p>
<p>To answer this question, we must understand how these impacts already affect people in the world’s most vulnerable regions. By <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-023-03624-y">interviewing</a> people in Bangladesh, Fiji and Vanuatu, we found that climate change is a trigger that can worsen, intensify or prolong the perpetration of violence and coercive control.</p>
<h2>Entrapment in Bangladesh</h2>
<p>Among the girls and young women I spoke to in Bangladesh, child marriage was a common coping mechanism for the lost income and insecure food supplies associated with unpredictable weather. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101904">Storms</a>, punishing heat and unreliable rain made migration from the countryside to cities inevitable. Many migrant women and girls turned to work in the garment industry. In the factories and nearby dwellings, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207485">violence</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/ijwh.s137250">poor mental health</a> are especially common for female migrant workers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Aerial view of a slum with high-rise buildings bordering it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563753/original/file-20231205-15-o8sdvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bhola slum in Dhaka. Most residents migrated from Bangladesh’s disaster-prone southern coast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hunger has pushed numerous households to marry off their daughters and sisters. Belkis, a woman I <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2020.1777078">interviewed</a>, described how her family struggled with poverty and health issues during her childhood after they migrated from the southern coast of Bangladesh to the capital Dhaka, escaping <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2020.100237">cyclones</a> and land erosion:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I got married when I was 12 years old. A few years later I gave birth to my first son. I faced a lot of problems giving birth to him … A woman from work was a doctor so she took me to Dhaka Medical Hospital. There they did some tests and noticed that my kidneys were failing.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RTyp9t9lScc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Her sons may also need to leave school and start working. If she has a daughter, she may be forced to marry as a child. Harsh living and working conditions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0443-2">scar the health and wellbeing</a> of entire families – but hit women and children hardest.</p>
<h2>Child sexual exploitation and trafficking in Fiji</h2>
<p>Unrest swept Fiji in 2021 after a ten-year-old girl on Vanua Levu, one of the islands in the north east, was raped by her uncle in a cyclone shelter. He was sentenced to 14 years imprisonment. </p>
<p>The incident was not an isolated event. Women we spoke to in Nadi, a city on Fiji’s main island, describe rapes in shelters and report children being trafficked for sexual purposes after the floods.</p>
<p>Overcrowded shelters create unsafe conditions. Many of the toilets have windows but no doors, let alone locks. Disaster evaluation reports also indicate that many emergency responders in Fiji lack necessary training to identify signs of abuse (sexual or otherwise) and so are unable to prevent further violence. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A boy sat surrounded by corrugated iron pouring a bucket of water over his head." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563775/original/file-20231205-23-12w9aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Informal sanitation can be a safety risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lusi*, a Red Cross health coordinator, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Women are more vulnerable to violence in the wake of cyclones. In tents and makeshift shelters, there’s a lack of privacy and proper lighting, which makes it harder to stay safe.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Nasele*, a 22-year old woman that we interviewed in Nadi, explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the dark [women] have to go out and this places [them] in unsafe conditions. In evacuation centres, women and children get exposed to sexual dangers – children’s rights are ignored. In this country, disaster management [offers no] quick recovery for women and children.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Nacanieli*, a Save the Children officer working in Nadi observed trafficking, sexual exploitation and violence:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The woman moved her family to Nadi to live with her new [Australian] husband. One year later, she returned to our office and told the SCF staff [that]…her new husband had moved the family to Australia and upon their arrival they were held captive in his house. She told me about the sexual exploitation of her oldest daughter (she was 14 years old at the time). …The woman was too scared to go to the police and lived in fear while in Australia. She and her children eventually fled the country with the help of a neighbour. The oldest daughter is now involved in prostitution in Nadi … We saw the scars of what looked like needle marks and cigarette burns on the woman and all four of her children.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In recent years, tourist hotspots such as Nadi in Fiji have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-023-03624-y">seen a peak</a> in child sexual abuse, trafficking and exploitation, primarily by perpetrators from Australia, New Zealand, the US and Europe.</p>
<h2>Loss and healing in Vanuatu</h2>
<p>Women in Vanuatu found recovery and healing in their social networks, which stuck together and aided their recovery from cyclones and drought. The women ensured there was support for the most in need, such as widows and people living with disabilities.</p>
<p>Women and children may be more vulnerable, but they should not be seen as passive victims. In Vanuatu, ideals that are typically considered to be feminine traits – such as inclusiveness and caring for the weak – were strengths that supported the entire population’s <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781032275611-25/women-stories-loss-recovery-climatic-events-pacific-islands-rachel-clissold-karen-mcnamara">recovery</a> from natural hazards.</p>
<p>Research such as ours gathers local experiences of non-economic loss and damage. Despite this, few climate change studies apply similar people-centred approaches.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A girl decorating her friend's arm with henna." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563770/original/file-20231205-19-21gzl6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vanuatu’s woman-led recovery networks are a model for post-disaster mutual aid.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is a problem because loss and damage is never entirely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03053-9">environmental</a>. As well as the destruction of land, crops or livestock, loss and damage must come to include child marriage, sexual violence, coercive and controlling behaviour, human trafficking and exploitation. </p>
<p>By widening our understanding of what loss and damage means, we can support more people more thoroughly. We must all learn from the women in Vanuatu by caring for those in need and healing collectively from the trauma of climate-related violence.</p>
<p>Losses and damages to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102594">wellbeing</a> and dignity can never be wholly measured and compensated within a market.</p>
<p><em>*Aliases were used to protect people’s identity.</em></p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson receives funding from The Modern Slavery and Human Rights Policy and Evidence Centre led by the Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law and is funded by the Art and Humanities Research Council on behalf of UK Research and Innovation (UKRI).</span></em></p>Though hard to quantify, the social consequences of climate change are vast.Dr Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson, Associate Professor in Policy and Intersectionality, UCL & Honorary Senior Researcher, United Nations UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116192023-08-17T00:58:14Z2023-08-17T00:58:14ZA dramatic volcano eruption changed lives in Fiji 2,500 years ago. 100 generations have kept the story alive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542953/original/file-20230816-20-ud5god.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=126%2C205%2C3663%2C2571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Can you imagine a scientist who could neither read nor write, who spoke their wisdom in riddles, in tales of fantastic beings flying through the sky, fighting each another furiously and noisily, drinking the ocean dry, and throwing giant spears with force enough to leave massive holes in rocky headlands?</p>
<p>Our newly published research <a href="https://journal.oraltradition.org/driva-qele-stealing-earth-oral-accounts-of-the-volcanic-eruption-of-nabukelevu-mt-washington-kadavu-island-fiji-2500-years-ago/">in the journal Oral Tradition</a> shows memories of a volcanic eruption in Fiji some 2,500 years ago were encoded in oral traditions in precisely these ways.</p>
<p>They were never intended as fanciful stories, but rather as the pragmatic foundations of a system of local risk management.</p>
<h2>Life-changing events</h2>
<p>Around 2,500 years ago, at the western end of the island of Kadavu in the southern part of Fiji, the ground shook, the ocean became agitated, and clouds of billowing smoke and ash poured into the sky.</p>
<p>When the clouds cleared, the people saw a new mountain had formed, its shape resembling a mound of earth in which yams are grown. This gave the mountain its name – Nabukelevu, the giant yam mound. (It was renamed Mount Washington during Fiji’s colonial history.)</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo of a flat-topped volcano with a beach in front, and a drawing of a similar mountain in the top left corner" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542950/original/file-20230816-17-71orq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nabukelevu from the northeast, its top hidden in cloud. Inset: Nabukelevu from the west in 1827 after the drawing by the artist aboard the <em>Astrolabe</em>, the ship of French explorer Dumont d’Urville. It is an original lithograph by H. van der Burch after original artwork by Louis Auguste de Sainson.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons; Australian National Maritime Museum</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So dramatic, so life-changing were the events <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0377027303004141">associated with this eruption</a>, the people who witnessed it told stories about it. These stories have endured more than two millennia, faithfully passed on across roughly 100 generations to reach us today.</p>
<p>Scientists used to dismiss such stories as fictions, devalue them with labels like “myth” or “legend”. But the situation is changing. </p>
<p>Today, we are starting to recognise that many such “stories” are authentic memories of human pasts, encoded in oral traditions in ways that represent the worldviews of people from <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/au/edge-of-memory-9781472943286/">long ago</a>.</p>
<p>In other words, these stories served the same purpose as scientific accounts, and the people who told them were trying to understand the natural world, much like scientists do today.</p>
<h2>Battle of the <em>vu</em></h2>
<p>The most common story about the 2,500-year-old eruption of Nabukelevu is one involving a “god” (<em>vu</em> in Fijian) named Tanovo from the island of Ono, about 56km from the volcano.</p>
<p>Tanovo’s view of the sunset became blocked one day by this huge mountain. Our research identifies this as a volcanic dome that was created during the eruption, raising the height of the mountain several hundred feet.</p>
<p>Enraged, Tanovo flew to Nabukelevu and started to tear down the mountain, a process described by local residents as <em>driva qele</em> (stealing earth). This explains why even today the summit of Nabukelevu has a crater.</p>
<p>But Tanovo was interrupted by the “god” of Nabukelevu, named Tautaumolau. The pair started fighting. A chase ensued through the sky and, as the two twisted and turned, the earth being carried by Tanovo started falling to the ground, where it is said to have “created” islands.</p>
<p>We conclude that the sequence in which these islands are said to have been created is likely to represent the movement of the ash plume from the eruption, as shown on the map below.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map showing a jagged landmass with an inset showing a plume of ash swirling across it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542959/original/file-20230816-19-96orcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Smaller offshore islands named in seven versions of the Nabukelevu story as having formed following the Nabukelevu eruption. Inset shows the possible trace of the ash cloud based on the stories.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Myths’ based in fact</h2>
<p>Geologists would today find it exceedingly difficult to deduce such details of an ancient eruption. But here, in the oral traditions of Kadavu people, this information is readily available.</p>
<p>Another detail we would never know if we did not have the oral traditions is about the tsunami the eruption caused. </p>
<p>In some versions of the story, one of the “gods” is so frightened, he hides beneath the sea. But his rival comes along and drinks up all the water at that place, a detail our research interprets as a memory of the ocean withdrawing prior to tsunami impact.</p>
<p>Other details in the oral traditions recall how one god threw a massive spear at his rival but missed, leaving behind a huge hole in a rock. This is a good example of how landforms likely predating the eruption can be retrofitted to a narrative.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange rock jutting out of the water with a large hole within" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542952/original/file-20230816-23-afpteq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The hole made when a spear was thrown by one god at the other, on the north coast of eastern Kadavu.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our study adds to the growing body of scientific research into “myths” and “legends”, showing that many have a basis in fact, and the details they contain add depth and breadth to our understanding of human pasts.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://kaidravuni.com/">Kadavu volcano stories</a> discussed here also show ancient societies were no less risk aware and risk averse than ours are today. The imperative was to survive, greatly aided by keeping alive memories of all the hazards that existed in a particular place.</p>
<p>Australian First Peoples’ cultures are <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-the-bullin-shrieked-aboriginal-memories-of-volcanic-eruptions-thousands-of-years-ago-81986">replete with similar stories</a>.</p>
<p>Literate people, those who read and write, tend to be impressed by the extraordinary time depth of oral traditions, like those about the 2,500-year old eruption of Nabukelevu. But not everyone is.</p>
<p>In early 2019, I was sitting and chatting to Ratu Petero Uluinaceva in Waisomo Village, after he had finished relating the Ono people’s story of the eruption. I told him this particular story recalled events which occurred more than two millennia ago – and thought he might be impressed. But he wasn’t.</p>
<p>“We know our stories are that old, that they recall our ancient history,” he told me with a grin. “But we are glad you have now learned this too!”</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Acknowledgements: The original research was conducted in collaboration with Loredana Lancini and Rita Compatangelo-Soussignan (University of Le Mans), Meli Nanuku and Kaliopate Tavola (Fiji Museum), Taniela Bolea (University of the Sunshine Coast) and Paul Geraghty (University of the South Pacific).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211619/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick D. Nunn receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Australia Pacific Climate Partnership, the Asia-Pacific Network, the Natural Environment Research Council (UK) and the British Academy.
The original research was conducted in collaboration with Loredana Lancini and Rita Compatangelo-Soussignan (University of Le Mans), Meli Nanuku and Kaliopate Tavola (Fiji Museum), Taniela Bolea (University of the Sunshine Coast) and Paul Geraghty (University of the South Pacific).</span></em></p>Many ‘myths’ are authentic memories of human pasts, told by people who passed down precise accounts of their history.Patrick D. Nunn, Professor of Geography, School of Law and Society, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2113532023-08-11T15:39:27Z2023-08-11T15:39:27ZMilitary coups in Africa: here’s what determines a return to civilian rule<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542141/original/file-20230810-25-hyb3hk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Supporters of Niger's July 2023 coup celebrate in the capital, Niamey. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Balima Boureima/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Slightly more than two years after Niger’s first peaceful handover of power from one civilian president to another, the military seized power in July 2023. The coup – <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13943662">the fourth in Nigerien history</a> – follows on the heels of recent military interventions in Africa. Mali (August 2020 and May 2021), Chad (April 2021), Guinea (September 2021), Sudan (October 2021) and Burkina Faso (January and September 2022). </p>
<p>Since the end of the Cold War in 1991, the number of military coups has <a href="https://arresteddictatorship.com/coups/">declined sharply</a>. However, francophone west Africa now accounts for <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-west-africa-has-had-so-many-coups-and-how-to-prevent-more-176577">approximately two-thirds of all military coups</a> that have occurred since then. </p>
<p>As a political scientist analysing African politics, I have <a href="https://people.clas.ufl.edu/selischer/">studied</a> military coups and their outcomes for the last decade and a half. In a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13569775.2023.2230718">recent article</a>, Justin Hoyle, a doctoral candidate in political science at the University of Florida, and I demonstrate that since 1989, military coups across the world have resulted in two outcomes. </p>
<p>First is the withdrawal of the junta from executive power. This means the junta doesn’t participate or interfere in post-coup elections. While it is necessary for the transition to democracy, it isn’t sufficient in itself. This scenario played out in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/110/439/295/164122">Nigerien coup of 2010</a> and the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00472330701651929">Thailand coup of 2006</a>. </p>
<p>Second is electoral rigging by the junta in favour of its own candidate. This scenario establishes a regime in which coup leaders entrench themselves in executive power.</p>
<p>Examining how military coups unfold is crucial to understanding a country’s path back to democracy. It also provides insights into the effect of coups on the <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691217000/shock-to-the-system">quality of democracy</a>.</p>
<h2>The research</h2>
<p>We <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13569775.2023.2230718">studied</a> five countries and 12 post-coup transitions: Egypt (coups in 2011 and 2013), Mauritania (coups in 2005 and 2008), Niger (1996, 1999 and 2010), Fiji (2000 and 2006) and Thailand (1991, 2006 and 2014). </p>
<p>Overall, we examined slightly more than a third of all military coups between 1989 and 2017.</p>
<p>Out of a total of 32 post-coup environments, we found that in half of all cases, juntas withdrew from executive power in the coup’s aftermath.</p>
<p>However, even with the military’s withdrawal from power, the transition period to civilian rule was highly volatile. Particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, counter-coup attempts by a rival faction within the armed forces intending to remain in power occurred rather frequently. This was the case most recently in <a href="https://www.npr.org/2015/09/17/441222504/presidential-guard-announces-takeover-of-burkina-faso">Burkina Faso in 2015</a>. </p>
<p>Although many coups result in the withdrawal of juntas from executive power, many of the cases from our study were near-misses – the country could’ve ended up under <a href="https://theloop.ecpr.eu/military-coups-are-key-to-understanding-contemporary-autocracies/">military authoritarian rule</a>.</p>
<p>We examined four key variables and their influence on coup outcomes. These are: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>the internal coherence of the armed forces</p></li>
<li><p>the ability of civil society organisations and political parties to mobilise against the junta</p></li>
<li><p>the deployment of donor leverage </p></li>
<li><p>trade dependency on regional and western partners. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Of these, we argue that the two that matter the most are: the internal cohesion of the military and the vibrancy of civil society groups. </p>
<h2>The findings</h2>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13569775.2023.2230718">analysis</a>, we found that the single most important variable that accounts for different coup outcomes is the internal coherence of the military.</p>
<p>When there’s internal coherence, militaries generally feel <a href="https://academic.oup.com/fpa/article-abstract/12/2/192/2367607">inclined</a> to <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691217000/shock-to-the-system">withdraw</a> from executive power. This is because holding on to power <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-polisci-032211-213418">challenges</a> their internal cohesion.</p>
<p>Internal cohesion <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13569775.2023.2230718">is based on</a> the factors that triggered the coup. If a coup occurs in response to threats to the country’s territorial integrity, to the preservation of public order, or to the military’s material or reputational benefits, the junta will have the backing of the military at large. This is because the benefits of seeking power outweigh the risks of not being in power. </p>
<p>If a coup occurs for reasons outside these, the junta either won’t seek power or will face resistance from within the military and withdraw. We found this confirmed in all the coups that we analysed.</p>
<p>Another relevant yet less significant variable is the positioning of civil society toward the junta. </p>
<p>Where civil society groups manage to rally the population to demand a return to democratic civilian rule, juntas depart from power. The most prominent example of this was in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=de&lr=&id=xSZwAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=egypt+2011+nepsted&ots=r-G56kRRmg&sig=YmiQioJNNM-ECTabvUcrsIT2w_c#v=onepage&q=egypt%202011%20nepsted&f=false">Egypt after the 2011 coup</a>. </p>
<p>Interestingly, we didn’t find that aid dependency or membership in an international organisation with anti-coup rules exerted any discernible influence on juntas. This means that domestic variables – and in particular the drivers of the coup – influence political aftermaths.</p>
<h2>What it all means</h2>
<p>For the current transitions in parts of Africa, these findings are troubling. </p>
<p>In Sudan, Mali, Burkina Faso and Chad, militaries overthrew their governments because of threats to their countries’ territorial integrity or to the military’s material benefits. The juntas in these countries can rely on the backing of the military at large. This decreases the likelihood of a return to civilian rule. </p>
<p>The implications of our findings for Niger and Guinea are less straightforward, however. Here, coups were staged by a sub-section of the military, even though such a move wasn’t in line with the interests of the armed forces at large. Our research findings suggest a more volatile dynamic for these two post-coup states.</p>
<p>At this stage, no one can predict how the motives of Niger’s presidential guard will shape future action. Much will depend on <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66430115">coup leader Abdourahmane Tchiani’s</a> ability to convince the military that a coup was the right thing to do politically. </p>
<p>Generally, military coups bode ill for democratic processes. In instances where juntas withdraw from power, democracies don’t emerge. When juntas rig post-coup elections, they <a href="https://theloop.ecpr.eu/military-coups-are-key-to-understanding-contemporary-autocracies/">become entrenched in power</a> in the medium to long-term. This has devastating consequences for the political and civil rights of their populations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211353/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastian Elischer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Examining how military coups unfold is crucial to understanding a country’s path back to democracy.Sebastian Elischer, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2047482023-05-01T05:56:30Z2023-05-01T05:56:30ZWhy Australia would be smart to recruit soldiers in the Pacific – a Fijian who served in the British Army explains<p>Fiji has a track record of service to the British crown. Travel to Hereford, where the Special Air Service is based, and you will find a statue of Sergeant Talaiasi Labalaba, who was one of the <a href="https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/fijis-military-ethos-212-soldiers-for-the-queen/">212 Fijians</a> who joined the British Army in 1961 and gave his all in the 1972 Battle of Mirbat in Oman. </p>
<p>When you arrive at Nadi International Airport in Fiji, there is another <a href="https://fijisun.com.fj/2018/10/26/prince-harry-and-meghan-in-fiji-statue-unveils-emotions-for-labalaba-family/">statue</a> honouring his sacrifice.</p>
<p>Opposition defence spokesperson <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/the-radical-proposal-to-recruit-foreigners-to-fight-for-australia-20230427-p5d3p7.html">Andrew Hastie’s call</a> for foreigners, including from the Pacific, to enlist in the Australian Defence Force (ADF), is therefore neither new, nor necessarily unwelcome, in parts of the Pacific. </p>
<p>If Australia wanted to recruit Fijians into the ADF tomorrow, it would have no problem raising a battalion in one day. </p>
<p>Fiji has what is called a “<a href="https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/pacific/youth-fiji-solomon-islands">youth bulge</a>”, which occurs when a country’s youth population is particularly large compared with other age ranges. Unemployment is a challenge, and recruits might see enlisting in the ADF as one of their few routes to economic opportunity – and eventual Australian citizenship.</p>
<p>The challenge will be finding the ideal recruits that meet the standards for the required roles needed for the ADF. Therefore, strict criteria for entry should be considered, given there will be no shortage of volunteers.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1652843067744079873"}"></div></p>
<h2>Why I chose to join the British Army</h2>
<p>Since 1998, thousands of young Fijian men and women have travelled to the United Kingdom to fill in the gaps of the British armed forces. I was one of them. I served in the 1st Battalion Duke of Wellington’s Regiment (now Royal Yorkshire Regiment) with multiple tours to Iraq.</p>
<p>No one joins the British Army with the hope of going to war. The September 11 attacks changed everything and new theatres opened up in Afghanistan and Iraq. Fijian men and women served in these wars, and some paid with their lives. There is nothing unique about this. It is the cost for taking the queen’s shilling. Fijians in the British Army understand they are not special, and should not be given any special treatment because of where they have travelled from.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1272607435824533506"}"></div></p>
<p>When I joined the British Army in 2001, I was 19 attending the University of the South Pacific with a full scholarship, studying chemistry. I made a calculated decision to join given what was going on in the country at the time. The 2000 coup had recently taken place and I was concerned for my future. Like any young person, the opportunity to travel and see the world through the army appealed.</p>
<p>Observers may question whether recruiting Fijians or other Pacific citizens constitutes exploitation. But Fijians who join the British Army do not feel exploited; they see it as an honourable duty that comes with economic benefits to improve their own welfare and those of their families. There have been hundreds of Fijian soldiers completing their 22 years of service in the British Army from last year. They are entitled to retire with a full pension after this length of service. </p>
<p>Australia should consider targeting these Fijians first if they are serious about recruitment and wish to test the idea.</p>
<p>If not, consider recruiting those who are still serving with the British Army. Fijians would prefer to be closer to home with the same economic value they get out of the UK forces. They would have already been vetted from a security standpoint, too. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523588/original/file-20230501-22-ys3s45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A statue of Talaiasi Labalaba at Nadi International Airport in Fiji.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Developing trust in the Pacific</h2>
<p>Recruitment from the Pacific Islands should also be considered a smart security strategy for Australia. This kind of policy change goes beyond any memorandum of understanding or government security agreement. </p>
<p>In Fiji, households that have sent their sons and daughters to serve in the British armed forces develop a close connection with the United Kingdom. Fijian servicemen and women are remembered in the prayers in the households of these families. </p>
<p>Australia has already developed this kind of trust by helping Fiji during natural disasters. Former Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama’s government softened its tone with Canberra after Australia provided critical support in the aftermath Cyclone Winston in 2016. The sight of <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2016/02/hmas-to-the-rescue-in-fiji/">HMAS Canberra</a> arriving in Fiji was a welcome one. </p>
<p>Australian tourists have also been coming to Fiji for decades contributing to Fiji’s economic growth, so the close relationship with Fiji is already there. And then there is our nations’ shared love of rugby. </p>
<p>The currency of meaningful relationships is valued in the Pacific Islands region. Get this right, and you have trust.</p>
<p>If I had the opportunity to join the Australian Army back in 2001, I would have been outside a recruitment centre in record time. An opportunity is presenting itself here which will simultaneously be a step towards fulfilling Australia’s security needs, while also helping Fiji.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/penny-wong-said-this-week-national-power-comes-from-our-people-are-we-ignoring-this-most-vital-resource-203145">Penny Wong said this week national power comes from 'our people'. Are we ignoring this most vital resource?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Waqavakatoga served in the British Army. </span></em></p>Many Pacific islanders would likely not feel exploited serving in a foreign army; they would see it as an honourable duty that comes with economic benefits to improve their lives.William Waqavakatoga, PhD candidate, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2000542023-03-16T20:10:24Z2023-03-16T20:10:24ZUncovering the violent history of the Canadian sugar industry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514332/original/file-20230308-20-sn5ci6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C8%2C2784%2C1818&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">By reflecting on sugar's origins, we can trace the pathways that have made this commodity so abundant.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/uncovering-the-violent-history-of-the-canadian-sugar-industry" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Sugar, we are often told, is bad for us. According to <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/the-sweet-danger-of-sugar">recent health advice</a>, adults should restrict their sugar intake to between six and nine teaspoons daily. But what is more upsetting about sugar is its atrocious history. </p>
<p>Western Europe’s <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/322123/sweetness-and-power-by-sidney-w-mintz/">appetite for “sweetness</a>” helped fuel the horrific transatlantic trade of enslaved peoples, in which at least 15 million enslaved people from Africa were forced to work on <a href="https://uncpress.org/book/9781469663685/capitalism-and-slavery-third-edition/">plantations in the Americas</a>. To this day, working conditions in sugar <a href="https://theconversation.com/child-labour-poverty-and-terrible-working-conditions-lie-behind-the-sugar-you-eat-95242">are among the world’s worst</a>.</p>
<p>Given its heinous human rights record, the question becomes: why do we continue to eat sugar? The answer is complicated. Crucial, however, are <a href="https://sugar.ca/international-trade/canadian-sugar-market/value-of-sugar-to-the-canadian-economy">the significant profits that sugar represents</a>, together with the low prices that sugar commands. </p>
<h2>History of sugar</h2>
<p>For nearly five centuries, European planters made dizzying fortunes in sugar, made possible by <a href="https://uncpress.org/book/9781469663685/capitalism-and-slavery-third-edition/">enslaving workers in colonized lands</a>. Sugar became so integral to European profiteering that it started <a href="https://doi.org/10.7312/beck18524-016">being produced on a global scale</a>. Canadian investors, too, have reaped massive sugar profits.</p>
<p>During the 1700s and 1800s, most Europeans, in what is now Canada, were implicated in the transatlantic sugar and slave trades. Not only did many consume the fruits of the enslaved sugar industry — including molasses and rum, in addition to sugar, <a href="https://cha-shc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/The-Enslavement-of-Africans-in-Canada.pdf">as historian Afua Cooper writes</a> — but some also invested in Caribbean trade, itself powered by enslaved sugar work. </p>
<p>Several Canadian banks — including the Imperial Bank of Commerce and the Bank of Nova Scotia (now known as Scotiabank) — have their origins in the West Indies, where their forerunners <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/07990537-2642737">established themselves early in the 19th century</a>. According to Cooper, the Bank of Nova Scotia exists “in the shadow of West Indian slavery.”</p>
<p>Western Canadians have also profited from unfree sugar labour. The famed western Canadian brand, Rogers Sugar, was established by American Benjamin Tingley Rogers who moved to Canada in 1889. Having grown up in the sugar industry, <a href="http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio.php?id_nbr=7676">Rogers had both sugar connections and expertise</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black and white photo of old factory bulidings" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514551/original/file-20230309-2232-l3hp15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Original B.C. Sugar refinery buildings in Vancouver in 1892.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(City of Vancouver Archives)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Building <a href="https://blogs.ubc.ca/buildingempire/2021/02/21/rogers-sugar-vancouver-1981/">a refinery in Vancouver</a>, a city newly constructed on the unceded territories of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam), Sḵwx̱wú7mesh (Squamish) and səlilwətaɬ (Tsleil-Waututh) Nations, Rogers created a western Canadian sugar empire — one that sourced raw sugar cane through the Pacific, refined it in British Columbia and sold it throughout the Canadian West. </p>
<p>Railway magnate <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sir-william-cornelius-van-horne">William Cornelius Van Horne</a>, together with noted investors such as <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/richard-bladworth-angus">Richard Bladworth Angus</a>, Edmund Boyd Osler and <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/donald-alexander-smith-1st-baron-strathcona-and-mount-royal">Donald Alexander Smith</a>, were among the ventures’ early shareholders. By the time of his death in 1918, <a href="http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio.php?id_nbr=7676">Rogers had become “quite wealthy</a>.”</p>
<p>Now owned by Lantic Inc., <a href="https://www.lanticrogers.com">Rogers Sugar remains a recognized Canadian brand</a>. Less well known, though, is Rogers Sugar’s violent past.</p>
<h2>Sugar plantations</h2>
<p>To make the refined sugar that is so familiar to Canadians today, B.C. Sugar (the name of the company that owned Rogers Sugar) sourced both beet and cane sugars. Canadian beet sugar has its own atrocious labour history, as <a href="https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol2/002/NR33801.PDF?is_thesis=1&oclc_number=530949579">University of Saskatchewan professor Ron Laliberté</a>, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-law-and-society-la-revue-canadienne-droit-et-societe/article/abs/cartographies-of-violence-women-memory-and-the-subjects-of-the-internment/F291FCC6A7EC2F460E89E7C3CE07E610">York University professor Mona Oikawa</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0829320100006360">other experts</a> have demonstrated. </p>
<p>Refined predominantly in Vancouver, Rogers Sugar was made mostly from raw cane sugar. Since sugar cane cannot grow in Canada, <a href="https://worldcat.org/en/title/20094617">B.C. Sugar sourced internationally</a> from places including Mauritius, Java, Peru, Hawaii, Cuba, Fiji and the Dominican Republic. </p>
<p>B.C. Sugar also ventured into sugar cane plantation ownership: in Fiji between 1905 and 1922, and in the Dominican Republic between 1944 and 1955. Notably, it purchased the latter from the Bank of Nova Scotia.</p>
<p>In both cases, workers reported horrendous conditions. The pay was so low and the work was so menial in the Dominican Republic that, as historian Catherine C. Legrand points out, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/00182168-75.4.555">workers left the plantation whenever they could</a>.</p>
<p>In Fiji between 1905 and 1920, B.C. Sugar employed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/001946468502200103">indentured workers from India</a> who migrated to the colony on five-year contracts. As on other Fiji plantations, workers were subject to numerous atrocities and treated in ways similar to how enslaved and indentured people <a href="https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/chalo-jahaji">were treated on plantations globally</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black and white photo of rows of tram cars full of sugar cane. In the distance a factory building can be seen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514535/original/file-20230309-305-61e1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sugar cane cars lined up in front of a cane factory in Fiji in the early 20th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(City of Vancouver Archives)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Forced into hard physical labour with little time for sleep, indentured workers at B.C. Sugar’s Fiji plantation endured sickness, confinement, hunger, abuse, injuries, whippings, beatings and more, all for below subsistence pay and the <a href="http://girmit.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/vnaidu_violence_preface.pdf">eventual chance to move out of indentured work</a>. </p>
<p>Conditions were so dire that some workers <a href="https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p212781/pdf/16.-Death-On-Fiji-Plantations-1900-1909-Nicole-Duncan.pdf">tragically perished in B.C. Sugar’s cane fields</a>. When Fiji de-criminalized the desertion of indenture contracts in 1916, it is little wonder that hundreds of workers left the colony’s sugar plantations. These <a href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/132695/1/PRM_05.pdf">included plantations operated by B.C. Sugar</a>.</p>
<h2>Understanding Canadian history</h2>
<p>Refined sugar is now so common it is difficult to imagine life without it. But, by reflecting on its origins, we can trace the pathways that have made this commodity so abundant. Canadian sugar was built upon violence, including upon enslaved and indentured labour. </p>
<p>By building upon <a href="https://teaching.usask.ca/indigenoussk/import/grab-a-hoe_indians.php">existing research</a> into <a href="https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v7i1.3305">Canadian</a> <a href="https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/llt/1978-v3-llt_3/llt3art05.pdf">sugar</a>, and by continuing to probe <a href="https://worldcat.org/title/281643610">Canadian sugar companies’ local</a> and <a href="https://worldcat.org/en/title/988075349">global</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00223349508572786">histories</a>, we can gain a clearer picture of how sugar became central to the Canadian diet. </p>
<p>And we can also work toward greater recognition for those who have laboured in the local and global Canadian sugar industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200054/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Donica Belisle currently holds an Insight Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for the project, "Canadian Sugar: A Local and Global History."</span></em></p>By reflecting on the violent origins of the Canadian sugar industry, we can bring wider attention to the exploitation underpinning the history of Canadian cuisine.Donica Belisle, Professor of History, University of ReginaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2010712023-03-06T00:28:58Z2023-03-06T00:28:58ZResistance to mega-tourism is rising in the South Pacific – but will governments put words into action?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513513/original/file-20230305-3621-xz0slm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C5084%2C3382&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With COVID-19 travel restrictions largely a thing of the past for
Australian and <a href="https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/travel/2022/12/fiji-more-popular-with-kiwi-tourists-than-it-was-pre-covid-19.html">New Zealand tourists</a>, Pacific destinations are enjoying the return of visitors – albeit at a <a href="https://devpolicy.org/the-pacific-emerging-from-covid-slowly-20221019/">slower pace</a> than in other parts of the world.</p>
<p>Tourism in Fiji, Samoa, Vanuatu and the Cook Islands was <a href="https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Countries/ResRep/pis-region/small-states-monitor/pacific-islands-monitor-issue-17-october-2022.ashx">hit hard by the pandemic</a>, but <a href="https://www.massey.ac.nz/about/news/pacific-islands-resilient-as-covid-19-topples-tourism/">patience and resilience</a> are starting to pay off. Foreign dollars are once again circulating in those small economies. Recently, <a href="https://www.mvariety.com/business/kiribati-welcomes-first-cruise-ship-visit/article_30ca4be0-b0f7-11ed-9b9d-93619a4dfba6.html">Kiribati welcomed</a> its first international cruise ship since 2020.</p>
<p>But this isn’t a simple case of returning to normal. The past three years have allowed time for reflection, leading to a rising awareness of <a href="https://southpacificislands.travel/pacific-sustainable-tourism-leadership-summit-calls-on-pacific-leaders-to-work-together-to-build-resilient-futures/">possible alternatives</a> to pre-pandemic tourism models.</p>
<p>From senior levels within governments to grassroots tourism operators and citizens, there has been serious discussion about the resumption of business as usual, including several <a href="https://southpacificislands.travel/2021-ends-on-a-high-with-pacific-islands-tourism-research-symposium/">regional symposiums</a> hosted by the South Pacific Tourism Organisation. </p>
<p>Issues of sovereignty and future resilience have been very much to the fore – quite untypical in a global tourism industry largely focused on <a href="https://etc-corporate.org/news/europes-tourism-rebound-predicted-to-continue-into-2023/">boosting numbers</a> as soon as possible. Questions remain, however, about the gap between rhetoric and reality. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1628595695602270208"}"></div></p>
<h2>Flipping the narrative</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://southpacificislands.travel/2022-pacific-sustainable-tourism-leadership-summit/">Pacific Sustainable Tourism Leaders Summit</a> in November 2022 brought together tourism ministers and industry stakeholders to discuss the future of regional tourism. This led to a <a href="https://southpacificislands.travel/pacific-sustainable-tourism-leadership-summit-calls-on-pacific-leaders-to-work-together-to-build-resilient-futures/">regional commitment</a> signed by 11 countries focused on promoting sustainable tourism.</p>
<p>Essentially, the aim is to flip the narrative: rather than Pacific nations being seen as dependent on tourism, regional tourism itself depends on the Pacific and its people surviving and thriving. Accordingly, Pacific countries are calling for fairer and more meaningful relationships with tourism partners.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/traditional-skills-help-people-on-the-tourism-deprived-pacific-islands-survive-the-pandemic-148987">Traditional skills help people on the tourism-deprived Pacific Islands survive the pandemic</a>
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<p>Cook Islands’ associate minister of foreign affairs and immigration, Tingika Elikana, urged other Pacific leaders at the summit to rebuild tourism in a way that was <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/inclusive-pacific-summit-calls-on-regional-leaders-to-work-together/">equitable and inclusive</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[It] is crucial that lessons are learned from recent crises and that steps are taken to embed long-term inclusivity, sustainability, and resilience into our tourism offering as it faces evolving challenges and risks.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Vanuatu has been heading in this direction since early in the pandemic, when it made “destination wellbeing” <a href="https://www.traveldailymedia.com/vanuatu-tourism-adopts-well-being-approach-for-covid-19-recovery/">central to its tourism recovery</a>. The aim of “moving beyond solely measuring visitor arrivals and contribution to GDP” then fed into the country’s <a href="https://tourism.gov.vu/images/DoT-Documents/Presentations/Vanuatu_Sustainable_Tourism_Strategy_2020-2030-2020_.pdf">Sustainable Tourism Strategy</a>, launched at the height of the pandemic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513514/original/file-20230305-3587-w9wy82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rarotonga, Cook Islands: ten times as many annual visitors as the island’s local population.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Push-back on resorts and cruise ships</h2>
<p>This reappraisal of scale and priorities has perhaps been most evident in Fiji where there has been <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/project-unoriginal/">strong opposition</a> to a US$300 million mega-project proposed by Chinese developers. </p>
<p>The hotel, apartment and marina complex would be built in an area containing one of the last remaining remnants of mangrove forest near the capital, Suva. Conservationists and local residents have been critical of the <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/484141/conservationist-calls-on-fiji-govt-to-preserve-rare-mangrove">environmental</a> and <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/how-can-fiji-supply-water-to-project/">infrastructural</a> impact of the proposed development, as well as the <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/project-unoriginal/">authenticity of its design</a>. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-travel-industry-has-sparked-a-backlash-against-tourists-by-stressing-quantity-over-quality-83864">The travel industry has sparked a backlash against tourists by stressing quantity over quality</a>
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<p>There is <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/484710/costly-development-of-suva-forest-may-now-not-happen">now doubt</a> about whether the government will renew the developer’s lease, due to expire in June. The minister for lands and mineral resources has said “there’s been a lack of transparency” from the developers, and that he “will continue to monitor the remaining conditions of the development lease”. </p>
<p>A leading opponent of the project, Reverend James Bhagwan, <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/484710/costly-development-of-suva-forest-may-now-not-happen">told Radio New Zealand</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We’re not anti-development, but what we’re saying is we need to look at development from a perspective that places the environment at the centre, not at the periphery.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>There is a precedent here: approval for a multi-million-dollar resort and casino development on Malolo island was revoked in 2019 after another Chinese developer, Freesoul Investments, destroyed part of a reef, dumped waste and disrupted traditional fisheries. In 2022, the High Court fined the company <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/resort-developers-found-guilty-over-fiji-island-disaster-1">FJD$1 million</a>. It was the first time a developer had been punished for an “environmental crime”. </p>
<p>Environmental concerns are also causing other Pacific countries to resist a return to mass tourism. In Rarotonga, Cook Islands, annual visitor numbers before the pandemic were ten times the island’s local population. The ability to cope with that level of tourism has since been <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/443141/cook-islanders-considering-how-much-tourism-is-too-much">seriously questioned</a>. </p>
<p>And in French Polynesia, the government has <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/travel/french-polynesia-the-latest-country-to-ban-mega-cruise-ships/RXY2PDLCWPAIZRVNENLHJ6Z2N4/">banned port calls</a> for cruise ships with a capacity greater than 3,500 passengers. The decision was based on concerns about air pollution, stress on the marine environment and social impacts. Daily cruise arrivals to Bora Bora are now restricted to 1,200 passengers, much to the <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/407885/bora-bora-calls-for-ban-on-large-cruise-ships">relief of locals</a>.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-aviation-is-struggling-to-take-off-after-the-pandemic-how-can-the-blue-continent-stay-connected-187522">Pacific aviation is struggling to take off after the pandemic – how can the ‘blue continent’ stay connected?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A new kind of tourism?</h2>
<p>In the face of uncertainties due to climate change and geopolitical tensions in the region, it’s encouraging to hear local voices being heard in debates about the future of Pacific tourism – and political leaders appearing to respond.</p>
<p>The Pacific Island Forum leaders’ retreat in Fiji late last month discussed the tourism industry. The forum’s signature <a href="https://www.forumsec.org/2050strategy/">Blue Pacific Strategy</a> for regional co-operation recognises tourism is an important component of national development, and the need to balance economic pressures with environmental and cultural protection.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-borders-reopen-can-new-zealand-reset-from-high-volume-to-high-values-tourism-180298">As borders reopen, can New Zealand reset from high volume to ‘high values’ tourism?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But despite the apparent political will and regional focus on building resilience, tourism development will undoubtedly continue to challenge the desires and initiatives of Pacific peoples seeking more sustainable futures. </p>
<p>While the policy rhetoric sounds good, it remains to be seen whether Pacific governments will remain steadfast and united under mounting pressures from major cruise operators, Chinese commercial interests and large hotels looking to maximise occupancy rates.</p>
<p>Many Pacific people reported the natural environment – along with social, spiritual, physical and mental wellbeing – <a href="https://www.internationaljournalofwellbeing.org/index.php/ijow/article/view/2539">improved during the pandemic pause</a> in tourism. But the reality of putting local wellbeing ahead of profits and increased tax revenue is yet to be fully tested as tourism bounces back.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201071/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apisalome Movono receives funding from the Royal Society Te Apārangi Marsden Fast-Start Grant. He is also on public record expressing his opposition to the Fijian development (in its proposed and current form) referred to in the article. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Regina Scheyvens receives funding from the Royal Society Te Apārangi, James Cook Fellowship.</span></em></p>Big resorts, cruise ships and visitor numbers are all up for debate across the Pacific, but economic pressure may test how post-pandemic reality lives up to the sustainability rhetoric.Apisalome Movono, Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, Massey UniversityRegina Scheyvens, Professor of Development Studies, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1951002023-01-09T19:08:21Z2023-01-09T19:08:21ZWhy Pacific Islanders are staying put even as rising seas flood their homes and crops<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498419/original/file-20221201-12-72dv5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C186%2C4160%2C2771&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Merawalesi Yee</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is forcing people around the world to abandon their homes. In the Pacific Islands, rising sea levels are leaving communities facing tough decisions about relocation. Some are choosing to stay in high-risk areas.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fclim.2022.1034765/full">Our research</a> investigated this phenomenon, known as “voluntary immobility”.</p>
<p>The government of Fiji has identified around <a href="https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Overview-Fijis-Response-to-HMCCC-2019.pdf">800 communities</a> that may have to relocate due to climate change impacts (<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/08/how-to-move-a-country-fiji-radical-plan-escape-rising-seas-climate-crisis">six</a> have already been moved). One of these is the village on Serua Island, which was the focus of our study. </p>
<p>Coastal erosion and flooding have severely damaged the village over the past two decades. Homes have been submerged, seawater has spoiled food crops and the seawall has been destroyed. Despite this, almost all of Serua Island’s residents are choosing to stay.</p>
<p>We found their decision is based on “Vanua”, an Indigenous Fijian word that refers to the interconnectedness of the natural environment, social bonds, ways of being, spirituality and stewardship of place. Vanua binds local communities to their land.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Waves submerge a house" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=688&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=688&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=688&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=865&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=865&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498821/original/file-20221204-55824-yy2py5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=865&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A house on Serua Island is submerged by seawater.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Serua Island resident</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-forced-these-fijian-communities-to-move-and-with-80-more-at-risk-heres-what-they-learned-116178">Climate change forced these Fijian communities to move – and with 80 more at risk, here's what they learned</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Residents feel an obligation to stay</h2>
<p>Serua Island has historical importance. It is the traditional residence of the paramount chief of Serua province. </p>
<p>The island’s residents choose to remain because of their deep-rooted connections, to act as guardians and to meet their customary obligations to sustain a place of profound cultural importance. As one resident explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Our forefathers chose to live and remain on the island just so they could be close to our chief.”</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498410/original/file-20221201-20-30j1mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sau Tabu is the burial site of the paramount chiefs of Serua.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Merewalesi Yee</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The link to ancestors is a vital part of life on Serua Island. Every family has a foundation stone upon which their ancestors built their house. One resident told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“In the past, when a foundation of a home is created, they name it, and that is where our ancestors were buried as well. Their bones, sweat, tears, hard work [are] all buried in the foundation.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many believe the disturbance of the foundation stone will bring misfortune to their relatives or to other members of their village.</p>
<p>The ocean that separates Serua Island from Fiji’s main island, Viti Levu, is also part of the identity of men and women of Serua. One man said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“When you have walked to the island, that means you have finally stepped foot on Serua. Visitors to the island may find this a challenging way to get there. However, for us, travelling this body of water daily is the essence of a being Serua Islander.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The ocean is a source of food and income, and a place of belonging. One woman said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The ocean is part of me and sustains me – we gauge when to go and when to return according to the tide.”</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498413/original/file-20221201-16-byel1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The sea crossing that separates Serua Island from Viti Levu is part of the islanders’ identity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Merewalesi Yee</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Serua Islanders are concerned that relocating to Viti Levu would disrupt the bond they have with their chief, sacred sites and the ocean. They fear relocation would lead to loss of their identity, cultural practices and place attachment. As one villager said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It may be difficult for an outsider to understand this process because it entails much more than simply giving up material possessions.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>If residents had to relocate due to climate change, it would be a last resort. Residents are keenly aware it would mean disrupting – or losing – not just material assets such as foundation stones, but sacred sites, a way of life and Indigenous knowledge. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-entire-pacific-country-will-upload-itself-to-the-metaverse-its-a-desperate-plan-with-a-hidden-message-194728">An entire Pacific country will upload itself to the metaverse. It's a desperate plan – with a hidden message</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Voluntary immobility is a global phenomenon</h2>
<p>As climate tipping points are reached and harms escalate, humans must adapt. Yet even in places where relocation is proposed as a last resort, people may prefer to remain. </p>
<p>Voluntary immobility is not unique to Fiji. Around the world, households and communities are choosing to stay where climate risks are increasing or already high. Reasons include access to livelihoods, place-based connections, social bonds and differing risk perceptions.</p>
<p>As Australia faces climate-related hazards and disasters, such as floods and bushfires, people living in places of risk will need to consider whether to remain or move. This decision raises complex legal, financial and logistical issues. As with residents of Serua Island, it also raises important questions about the value that people ascribe to their connections to place.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/I4ZH63d62ro?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Serua Island is one of about 800 communities in Fiji being forced to consider the prospect of relocation.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coastal-property-prices-and-climate-risks-are-both-soaring-we-must-pull-our-heads-out-of-the-sand-195357">Coastal property prices and climate risks are both soaring. We must pull our heads out of the sand</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A decision for communities to make themselves</h2>
<p>Relocation and retreat are not a panacea for climate risk in vulnerable locations. In many cases, people prefer to adapt in place and protect at-risk areas.</p>
<p>No climate adaptation policy should be decided without the full and direct participation of the affected local people and communities. Relocation programs should be culturally appropriate and align with local needs, and proceed only with the consent of residents. </p>
<p>In places where residents are unwilling to relocate, it is crucial to acknowledge and, where feasible, support their decision to stay. And people require relevant information on the risks and potential consequences of both staying and relocating.</p>
<p>This can help develop more appropriate adaptation strategies for communities in Fiji and beyond as people move home, but also resist relocation, in a warming world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Celia McMichael receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karen E McNamara receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Australian Government, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, and the Vanuatu Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Annah Piggott-McKellar and Merewalesi Yee do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Residents are living with the impacts of climate change and know it’s happening. But leaving their homes would strike at the heart of their identity.Merewalesi Yee, PhD Candidate, School of Earth and Environment Sciences, The University of QueenslandAnnah Piggott-McKellar, Research Fellow, School of Architecture and Built Environment, Queensland University of TechnologyCelia McMichael, Senior Lecturer in Geography, The University of MelbourneKaren E McNamara, Associate Professor, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1955552022-12-06T18:03:01Z2022-12-06T18:03:01ZAs Fiji prepares to vote, democracy could already be the loser<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498851/original/file-20221205-55799-zukul3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C40%2C3853%2C2508&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Fijians <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/478768/fiji-election-2022-342-candidates-to-contest-elections">elect a new parliament</a> on December 14, it’s likely their votes will be counted fairly – yet the country will remain a conditional and fragile democracy.</p>
<p>This will be the third election since the “<a href="https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/state-society-and-governance-melanesia/2006-military-takeover-fiji">coup to end all coups</a>” in 2006, which followed <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/428448/a-legacy-of-coups-hangs-over-fiji">two earlier coups</a> in 1987 and a civilian overthrow of the elected government in 2000.</p>
<p>After the 2006 coup, Fijian military head Frank Bainimarama <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-33585020080515">appointed himself</a> prime minister. In 2013 he <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/fijian-ruler-frank-bainimarama-rejects-new-constitution-ppm8qgwl8d2">rejected a new constitution</a> commissioned to support a democratic state. Instead, he promulgated his own. Section 131(2) of the <a href="http://www.paclii.org/fj/Fiji-Constitution-English-2013.pdf">Constitution of the Republic of Fiji</a> states:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It shall be the overall responsibility of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces to ensure at all times the security, defence and wellbeing of Fiji and all Fijians.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In other words, overall responsibility for the wellbeing of Fiji and its people does not belong to the government or parliament. The <a href="https://www.rfmf.mil.fj/">military interprets</a> this as meaning it is “mandated to be the guardian of Fiji”.</p>
<p>Democracy’s fragility is entrenched. Furthermore, Fiji’s unicameral parliament is not big enough to support robust parliamentary checks on government, even though it will grow from <a href="https://www.fbcnews.com.fj/news/ec-approves-55-seats-in-parliament/">51 to 55 members</a> at this year’s election.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498852/original/file-20221205-55844-6b563c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From self-appointed to elected prime minister: Frank Bainimarama’s FijiFirst party is likely to form a government after December 14.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Freedom and the military</h2>
<p>Bainimarama went from self-appointed to elected prime minister in 2014 when his FijiFirst party <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00358533.2015.1017254">won the first election</a> under the new constitution. It <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/18/fiji-election-bainimarama-returned-as-pm-in-slim-victory">won again in 2018</a> with just over 50% of the vote in the country’s proportional representation system.</p>
<p>International observers found votes were fairly counted, but the campaign was marred by intimidation of opposition candidates.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/democracy-spreads-in-waves-but-shared-cultural-history-might-matter-more-than-geography-189959">Democracy spreads in waves – but shared cultural history might matter more than geography</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Shortly before the 2018 election, opposition leader Sitivini Rabuka was charged with electoral fraud. He was <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/369517/campaign-continues-after-rabuka-found-not-guilty">acquitted</a> just in time to take his place as a candidate.</p>
<p>Rabuka was prime minister between 1992 and 1999, having led the coups in 1987 and having <a href="https://researchoutput.csu.edu.au/ws/portalfiles/portal/8726621/PID11452pre.pdf">described democracy</a> as “a foreign flower unsuited to Fijian soil”. In 2022, however, Rabuka’s <a href="https://www.facebook.com/PeoplesAllianceFiji/">People’s Alliance</a>, in coalition with the <a href="https://www.nfpfiji.org/">National Federation Party</a>, is the most likely alternative government.</p>
<p>Cost of living, poverty and peaceful and orderly government are important election issues. Significantly, though, the People’s Alliance <a href="https://www.fbcnews.com.fj/news/fijian-elections/peoples-alliance-launch-manifesto/">manifesto</a> suggests exploring amendments to the constitution. It also wants to remove measures that suppress human rights, previously <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/fiji/">highlighted</a> by Amnesty International and others.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/behind-the-worlds-friendliest-covid-protocols-fijis-health-system-remains-stretched-and-struggling-190344">Behind the 'world’s friendliest COVID protocols', Fiji's health system remains stretched and struggling</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Land rights and the protection of the indigenous iTaukei culture are also important in this campaign, to the extent they have prompted an outburst typical of Bainimarama’s florid rhetorical style. At a campaign rally last week, <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/Racist-and-inciteful--Prof-Prasad-on-Bainimaramas-comments-84rxf5/">he said</a> of an opponent’s land rights policy: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>This conversation will cause stabbing, murder and blood spilled on our land, and unlawful entering [of property] will happen if that conversation is condoned.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498853/original/file-20221205-73842-d268zz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sitivini Rabuka’s People’s Alliance could form an alternative government in coalition with the National Federation Party.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Fragile free speech</h2>
<p>There are also restrictions on political reporting. As the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/cm/lb/10966852/data/fiji-parliamentary-reporting-handbook-data.pdf">Fiji Parliamentary Reporters’ Handbook</a> (published in 2019) explains: “As in rugby, knowing the rules is the difference between enjoying the game and not being able to follow it.”</p>
<p>Journalists are reminded that the right to free speech does not allow “incitement to violence or insurrection”. The handbook goes on to remind them:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is scope in the Constitution to “limit […] rights and freedoms […] in the interests of national security, public safety, public order, public morality, public health or the orderly conduct of elections”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Interpretations of these limits can be broad. In November, for example, longstanding government critic and election candidate Richard Naidu was <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/Richard-Naidu-found-guilty-f548xr/">convicted</a> of “contempt scandalising the court” following a lighthearted Facebook post in which he pointed out a spelling mistake in a High Court judgment.</p>
<p>The charge – which <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/pacific/programs/pacificbeat/richard-naidu-found-guilty-of-contempt-of-court/101686716">Amnesty International</a> says should be withdrawn – was brought by the attorney-general.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nz-journalists-arrested-in-fiji-have-been-released-but-a-new-era-of-press-freedom-is-yet-to-arrive-115117">NZ journalists arrested in Fiji have been released but a new era of press freedom is yet to arrive</a>
</strong>
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</p>
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<h2>Towards a more stable democracy</h2>
<p>In my 2017 book, <a href="https://policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/indigeneity-a-politics-of-potential">Indigeneity: a politics of potential - Australia, Fiji and New Zealand</a>, I argued that political stability requires ordered and principled measures for protecting iTaukei (ethnic Fijian) rights to land and culture. This is a matter of respecting human dignity, but also to ensure those rights are not used as a pretext for settling wider and sometimes unrelated conflicts. </p>
<p>Stability does not arise only from the freedom to vote and from being confident one’s vote will be fairly counted. It comes also from well-informed expectations of what governments should do and what constitutions should protect, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>a free and diverse media, with a culture of detailed and critical investigation and reporting on public affairs</p></li>
<li><p>a politically independent military, police and judiciary that aren’t called on to intimidate opponents</p></li>
<li><p>a larger parliament that is more representative and allows stronger checks on the executive.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>For now, while the military enjoys considerable credibility and support, its role as defender and arbiter of the public good ensures perpetual instability. </p>
<p>The diplomatic and economic value of its contributions to United Nations peacekeeping missions means it remains an important national institution. And the <a href="https://fj.usembassy.gov/united-states-donates-vehicles-to-support-republic-of-fiji-military-forces-peacekeeping-efforts/">recent gift</a> of military peacekeeping vehicles from the US is an example of the soft diplomacy used by democratic states, including Australia and New Zealand, to influence contemporary Fiji. </p>
<p>The effectiveness of that influence will be tested at some point. In the meantime, the Fijian people are free to change their government on December 14. But the possibility they will not be free to keep that government means, whatever the election outcome, democracy has lost before a vote is cast.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195555/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dominic O'Sullivan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fijians go to the polls next week, but the country’s constitution still entrenches ultimate power and authority in the military.Dominic O'Sullivan, Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology and Professor of Political Science, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1957192022-12-05T19:03:35Z2022-12-05T19:03:35ZCan ‘voluntourism’ outgrow the white saviour stereotype and make a positive change post-pandemic?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498600/original/file-20221202-15-izrewn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5092%2C3809&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the tourism industry emerges from pandemic shutdowns and border closures, so too is “voluntourism”, the sometimes controversial combination of overseas volunteer work and more traditional tourist experiences. </p>
<p>Although hard to measure, pre-pandemic estimates suggest voluntourism was worth <a href="https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mje/2022/01/22/the-paradox-of-voluntourism-how-international-volunteering-impacts-host-communities/">US$2 billion annually</a>, with up to <a href="https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/tourism/save-tourism/market-potential">ten million volunteers</a> globally. While COVID shut the practice down for the duration, it remains a <a href="https://roadbook.com/opinion/negative-effects-of-voluntourism/">multi-billion-dollar industry</a>, now poised to <a href="https://www.sbs.strath.ac.uk/blogs/SBS/post.aspx?id=1420">return and rebuild</a>.</p>
<p>But volunteer tourism has met with considerable criticism. Voluntourists have been accused of putting <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/109983663/nz-school-students-pay-thousands-to-visit-orphanages-and-volunteer-overseas">vulnerable people at risk</a> (<a href="https://drivingchange.org/do-no-harm-the-dark-side-of-voluntourism/">including children</a>), <a href="https://tourismteacher.com/commodification-volunteer-tourism/">commodifying volunteer work</a>, perpetuating <a href="https://darbymatt.medium.com/voluntourism-is-neo-colonialism-56b6a25f6924">neo-colonialism</a> and <a href="https://www.euronews.com/travel/2022/02/21/how-white-saviour-voluntourism-gets-you-famous-on-tiktok">reinforcing</a> a “white saviour” complex. </p>
<p>Voluntourism is also <a href="https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/2021/06/14/travel-opens-again-aid-voluntourism-needs-get-real">largely unregulated</a>, raising important <a href="https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/voluntourism/2019-09">ethical questions</a> about who it really aims to serve – travellers or hosts. These issues are now being felt in the Pacific, where voluntourism is a relatively new but growing industry. As <a href="https://e-tangata.co.nz/reflections/the-problem-with-white-saviours/">Simone Kaho wrote</a> of her experience in Tonga: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In many cases, voluntourism asks the local community to stand back, and allow themselves to be helped. It turns helping into a business model.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://blog.geographydirections.com/2019/09/03/global-encounters-voluntourism-in-fiji/">My research</a> in Fiji has also highlighted the problems associated with the commercialisation and commodification of volunteering. These are real and important issues that need close examination as tourism in general picks up.</p>
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<h2>Behind the ‘bula smile’</h2>
<p>The Fiji case study – conducted with an international, for-profit, specialist voluntourism agency – tells a complex story about the benefits and downsides of voluntourism. </p>
<p>Volunteers are hosted by local families and included in household life, attending church or religious functions, learning to cook Fijian food, and spending time with children and other family members. Through this, they gain an understanding of life behind the famous “bula” smile. As one staff member said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The host may get angry with you if you leave the light on, you may feel like you are back living with mum and dad because they may give you a lunch box, things like that. But it’s important that they see the person who is paid to smile at the Hilton, what they are like at home with their kids, how they make ends meet, how they eat.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-has-devastated-the-popular-but-flawed-volunteer-tourism-business-heres-what-needs-to-be-done-141912">COVID-19 has devastated the popular but flawed volunteer tourism business – here's what needs to be done</a>
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<p>Hosts often put considerable energy into sharing their way of life and teaching volunteers Fijian culture. Most hosts and staff took pride in helping travellers find their way around and teaching them Fijian ways. In turn, this helped Fijian staff build knowledge and pride in their own culture.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Also the good thing is that we keep up with our culture. Because if you are talking about it every day and you show them and try to talk about it, then the history remains […] Now when we go to the village we do the <em>sevusevu</em> [kava ceremony] and all those things, and we go with the elders. It was our mothers that did that, but now we are doing it, the next generation.</p>
<p>When we have volunteers in a Fijian village we will go to any lengths to give them what they want, to try and serve them […] But of course then the volunteers change to become more Fijian!</p>
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<h2>A chance to improve voluntourism</h2>
<p>The growth of voluntourism in Fiji follows half a century of <a href="https://medium.com/tourism-geographic/paradise-the-noble-savage-and-the-white-savior-in-fiji-7ac7e302e5ec">mass tourism</a>, in which contact between Fijians and tourists has been largely limited and manufactured. Hosts embrace the opportunity to interact with tourists more directly and to build connections across the globe.</p>
<p>However, the commercial nature of the encounter has the potential to significantly undermine these connections. The large fees paid by voluntourists mean they – like any tourist – are consumers. </p>
<p>Volunteers have certain expectations, ranging from the mundane (internet access, good food and logistical support) to the more profound (a sense of accomplishment, a feeling they’ve made a difference). They will complain if these expectations aren’t met. </p>
<p>The pandemic also raised questions about the sustainability of voluntourism. The organisation I studied cut its global workforce significantly. In Fiji it had provided jobs for about a dozen Fijian staff, as well as home-stay income for many households. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/volunteer-tourism-whats-wrong-with-it-and-how-it-can-be-changed-86701">Volunteer tourism: what's wrong with it and how it can be changed</a>
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<p>While there is evidence that <a href="https://theconversation.com/traditional-skills-help-people-on-the-tourism-deprived-pacific-islands-survive-the-pandemic-148987">reliance on customary knowledge, systems and practices</a> helped tourism workers to survive and even thrive during the pandemic, the future for many is uncertain.</p>
<p>COVID-19 has been something of a wake-up call that we need to move beyond voluntourism as a pseudo-development practice or as a commodified, profit-making experience. This is an opportunity for the industry to take on board the criticisms, examine past practice and reassess the role and impact of volunteering. </p>
<p>Rather than rush back to business as usual, this is the perfect moment to look at
reconfiguring the industry in line with the principles of sustainability and <a href="https://medium.com/activate-the-future/understanding-the-opportunity-of-regenerative-tourism-894136cafd3b">regenerative tourism</a>. In the process, perhaps voluntourism’s strengths – building cross-cultural relationships, learning and solidarity – can contribute more to meaningful social and environmental change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195719/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sharon McLennan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Volunteer tourism, or ‘voluntourism’, is on the way back as borders open. But critics say the largely unregulated industry is overdue for change.Sharon McLennan, Senior Lecturer, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1935402022-11-14T19:00:24Z2022-11-14T19:00:24ZJust like the satire in The White Lotus, tourism campaigns often perpetuate colonial stereotypes about the countries they are selling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494552/original/file-20221110-16-9kt2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C1588%2C598&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The TV series <a href="https://theconversation.com/freud-nietzsche-paglia-fanon-our-expert-guide-to-the-books-of-the-white-lotus-166187">The White Lotus</a> has returned for a second season. Both series of The White Lotus explore the underbelly of resort tourism. </p>
<p>The first series is set in a resort in Hawaii and contains sex, drugs and outrageously selfish behaviour. Through its focus on the interactions between wealthy American guests and local resort staff, it explores complex themes including racial inequality, the ongoing impacts of colonialism, debates about land ownership and identity politics. </p>
<p>The second series is set in Sicily, but the first season gives us an interesting opportunity to reflect on the way tourism destinations are <a href="https://theconversation.com/fiji-is-officially-open-for-happiness-will-that-apply-to-its-tourism-workers-too-181603">marketed to appeal</a> to wealthy tourists. </p>
<p>International tourism campaigns try to market the perceived “essence” of what makes a country special. In the process, they often perpetuate stereotypes. Critical tourism scholars have <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13683500802140364">long argued</a> such branding tends to overemphasise and essentialise cultural difference.</p>
<p>Many of the problems satirised by The White Lotus are perpetuated by a recent advertising campaign by Tourism Fiji. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dAo5EPZhf3k">Bulanaires campaign</a> launched in 2019 encourages international tourists to visit Fiji. The phrase Bulanaires blends the term “billionaires” with the Fijian greeting “bula”, which implies wishes of good health. </p>
<p>A key message in the campaign is that Fijians may not be wealthy yet are “rich in happiness”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fiji-is-officially-open-for-happiness-will-that-apply-to-its-tourism-workers-too-181603">Fiji is officially ‘open for happiness' – will that apply to its tourism workers too?</a>
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<hr>
<p>The Bulanaires campaign is sophisticated, well-produced and full of charm and humour. However, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160738320302590#bb0290">our research</a> into tourism tropes shows the advertising campaign also recycles some troubling stereotypes about Fijian people. </p>
<p>Firstly, like much advertising for the Pacific region and alongside a suite of related colonial stereotypes, the campaign romanticises poverty as a form of wellbeing. Secondly, it uncritically reinforces the colonially entrenched notion of the “happy native”. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dAo5EPZhf3k?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<h2>The ‘happy native’ and the ‘smiling servant’</h2>
<p>As they greet the incoming guests at the beginning of season one, the staff at The White Lotus are encouraged to “wave like they mean it” by their manager and to project “vagueness” to the visitors. This sense of blending into the background and performing the role of the subservient and smiling host is apparent in tourism advertising too. </p>
<p>In one Tourism Fiji advertisement, a smiling resort worker says to the camera “what makes me happy is seeing you happy”. Fijians are cast as the epitome of authentic happiness: pre-existing, pervasive and spontaneously felt and expressed. </p>
<p>The notion that all Fijians are authentically happy despite wealth disparities stems from, and reinforces, longstanding colonial tropes of the “happy native” being somehow free from the stressors of the rat race. Such fantasies are widely applied beyond the Pacific region. As tourism academic Camille O'Reilly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160738306000545">writes</a>, these include “a nostalgic and naïve view of the "traditional” life found outside the West, untouched by modernity but now rapidly disappearing.“ </p>
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</figure>
<p>The question is not whether Fijians feel happy, but rather what the implications are of broadcasting these stereotypes of Fijian wellbeing to tourists. </p>
<p>The irony is that low paid work in the tourism industry often entangles them at the bottom of the capitalist hierarchy they are marketed as being untouched by. </p>
<h2>Poverty and wellbeing</h2>
<p>The awkward juxtapositions of wellbeing and poverty are explored in series one The White Lotus via Jennifer Coolidge’s character Tanya, a wealthy and lonely tourist who tries to forge a relationship with her Hawaiian massage therapist. </p>
<p>The relationship veers further towards exploitation when Tanya hints she could invest in the massage therapist’s business, on the unspoken understanding the therapist pay her additional attention. The pairing – and the ultimately unrealised investment – highlights the uneven economic circumstances between the women. What constitutes "wellbeing” for the tourist can erode the host’s wellbeing. </p>
<p>The relationship between wellbeing and poverty is awkwardly apparent in the Tourism Fiji campaign, which suggests Fijians are happy, despite being far poorer than tourists. It goes even further to suggest poverty even enables happiness. </p>
<p>“We don’t get many billionaires around here” smiles a local in the advertisement, “but we have plenty of BULANAIRES!” </p>
<p>The advertisement exploits the lexicon of wellbeing and mindfulness to reassure tourists the Fijians who bring them their cocktails and look after their children are content with low wages.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/freud-nietzsche-paglia-fanon-our-expert-guide-to-the-books-of-the-white-lotus-166187">Freud, Nietzsche, Paglia, Fanon: our expert guide to the books of The White Lotus</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Selling the connection to nature</h2>
<p>National branding campaigns for Fiji, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands all depict Indigenous peoples as living somehow closer to nature than those who might wish to travel to visit them. </p>
<p>The advertising campaign <a href="https://www.vanuatu.travel/au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=invitation_to_vanuatu&utm_content=search&gclid=Cj0KCQiAmaibBhCAARIsAKUlaKSvFm7V-hv4fW9enDv7qCuc31TNbeRdabSpvpHcc5d9m2-eI3eVwBsaAomaEALw_wcB">Answer The Call To Vanuatu</a> is a good example. </p>
<p>“The call” connects tourists to Vanuatu by evoking a sense of existential loss and longing. It features a conch shell trumpet sounding from an “untouched paradise” across the ocean and the internal voice of a prospective tourist crying out for adventure. It is selling escape from the rigours of everyday life, healing through connection to nature and a sense of human authenticity.</p>
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<p>For locals, however, “answering the call” has nationalist connotations reminiscent of wartime recruitment campaigns. This message was perpetuated during COVID-19 travel bans where tourism campaigns hailed tourists through wistful narratives about future holidays, in which “the time will come to connect again” and, meanwhile, Indigenous people will “keep it beautiful for you”. </p>
<p>The White Lotus is a cleverly-written reminder about the colonial underpinnings of international tourism. It shows the ways in which the tourism industry is often bolstered by problematic cultural stereotypes; often complicit in widening the gap between rich and poor, visitors and hosts.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weve-been-collecting-souvenirs-for-thousands-of-years-they-are-valuable-cultural-artefacts-but-what-does-their-future-hold-189449">We've been collecting souvenirs for thousands of years. They are valuable cultural artefacts – but what does their future hold?</a>
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</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193540/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our research into tourism tropes shows how advertising campaigns in Pacific nations recycle some troubling stereotypes.Philippa Chandler, Research Fellow, The University of MelbourneEdward Narain, PhD Candidate, RMIT UniversityJohn Taylor, Senior Lecturer in Anthropology, La Trobe UniversityTarryn Phillips, Senior Lecturer in Crime, Justice and Legal Studies, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1903442022-09-15T03:54:09Z2022-09-15T03:54:09ZBehind the ‘world’s friendliest COVID protocols’, Fiji’s health system remains stretched and struggling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484739/original/file-20220915-12008-b5qlv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C41%2C3956%2C2928&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With Fiji “<a href="https://theconversation.com/fiji-is-officially-open-for-happiness-will-that-apply-to-its-tourism-workers-too-181603">open for happiness</a>” and a COVID test <a href="https://www.mcttt.gov.fj/media-statement-fiji-drops-in-country-test-and-reduces-isolation-to-5-days/">no longer required</a> on arrival, the temptation to take that long awaited tropical holiday may be stronger than ever.</p>
<p>Fiji is clearly very keen to see tourists, and their money, return, having previously boasted that it provided the <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/destinations/pacific-islands/300667548/worlds-friendliest-covid-test-what-its-like-to-travel-to-fiji-now">world’s friendliest COVID test</a>. COVID restrictions are now minimal.</p>
<p>Despite the optimism, <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/covid-19-fijian-health-ministry-reports-18-new-cases/">COVID continues to circulate</a> in Fiji, and some requirements remain. Holidaymakers are required to have <a href="https://www.fiji.travel/covid-19/travelling-to-fiji?gclid=Cj0KCQjw94WZBhDtARIsAKxWG-9FYfkZR1VnlZGF53VZtQnuJb4Ljr6GIIGUxXIeteXshOKWZR_ZKsMaAn1eEALw_wcB">insurance</a> that covers the costs of testing, treatment, isolation and transport home. Those unlucky enough to get COVID must isolate for five days.</p>
<p>But the current approach by the Fijian government towards COVID-19 highlights the gap between the tourist experience and the lives of ordinary Fijians. Many locals struggle to find and pay for those COVID tests, which cost NZ$8–$20 per kit and are only available from <a href="https://www.health.gov.fj/rapid-antigen-test-import-into-fiji/">approved pharmacies</a>.</p>
<p>Between ongoing issues in the health sector and the effects of the global cost of living crisis, the reality behind Fiji’s marketing images remains challenging for many.</p>
<h2>COVID horror still lingers</h2>
<p>Over the past year, 68,000 Fijians contracted COVID-19 and <a href="https://covid19.who.int/region/wpro/country/fj">878 died</a>. Hospitals have been stretched to <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/south-pacific/300368608/covid19-fiji-health-system-is-collapsing-under-pressure-doctor-warns">breaking point</a> amid shortages of equipment, medicine and space.</p>
<p>Heath workers burned out and <a href="https://www.fbcnews.com.fj/news/health/exodus-of-medical-staff-continues-health-ministry/">many left their jobs</a>. <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/4870/2022/en/">Amnesty International has attributed</a> the COVID deaths to an inadequately resourced healthcare system, noting thousands of patients were turned away from hospitals due to bed shortages.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-spanish-holiday-could-be-quite-different-this-year-and-why-that-matters-186073">How your Spanish holiday could be quite different this year -- and why that matters</a>
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<p>To be fair, the Fijian health sector was struggling well before the pandemic. The country already faced a worsening noncommunicable disease (NCD) <a href="https://pina.com.fj/2022/03/09/84-percent-of-fijians-suffer-from-premature-deaths-due-to-non-communicable-diseases-who/">crisis</a> as well as high rates of infectious disease, both of which exacerbated the impacts of COVID. </p>
<p>Outbreaks of <a href="https://fijisun.com.fj/2022/07/16/public-advisory-typhoid-outbreak-north/">typhoid</a>, <a href="https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/wpro---documents/emergency/surveillance/dengue/dengue-20220630.pdf?sfvrsn=5160e027_106">dengue</a> and <a href="https://earthjournalism.net/stories/leptospirosis-in-fiji-a-lethal-bacteria-poorly-understood">leptospirosis</a> have been a particular concern.</p>
<p>Combined with <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/30/patients-turned-away-as-fiji-battles-covid-19-hell">ageing infrastructure</a> and an exhausted workforce, the situation reflects long-term neglect and under-resourcing of Fijian health services. As a consequence, the country has seen an unprecedented <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/nurse-exodus-vudiniabola-state-withholding-info-from-public/">exodus of nurses</a> and other health professionals and the <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/hospitals-operating-theatres-out-of-service/">closure of operating theatres</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Divers going into the water of a boat with Fijian flag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484744/original/file-20220915-9420-5k98zq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fiji is welcoming tourists, an important revenue stream for the country, but visitors should be careful about adding extra strain to the struggling healthcare system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news-photo/diver-ascending-at-liveaboard-fiji-island-dancer-wakaya-news-photo/549406411?adppopup=true">Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Privatisation of health</h2>
<p>The government’s response to these multiple crises has been twofold. Firstly, Fiji’s government promised increased support for health through the budget and a <a href="https://www.health.gov.fj/ps-health-statement-on-ncds/">pivot to focus on NCDs</a>.</p>
<p>At least 70% of the Fijian population who had COVID when they died were also suffering from a chronic disease. In response, health authorities are now focusing on wellness and promoting healthier behaviours to build people’s resilience to the virus. </p>
<p>This shift in strategy also means the <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/460452/fiji-shifts-focus-from-covid-19-to-ncds">government has committed</a> to keeping better track of patients with NCDs and to keep the rest of the population healthy.</p>
<p>But the second response, one that began before the crisis and has expanded over the past three years, is a creeping privatisation of the health system. This has included the introduction of <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/2018821559/new-fiji-health-plans-to-benefit-pasifika-aspen-medical">public-private partnerships</a> (PPPs) (criticised for <a href="https://dawnnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Public-Private-Partnerships_-Are-they-a-healthy-investment-model-Lautoka-and-Ba-Hospitals-Fiji-A-Case-Study_DAWN-discussion-paper22.pdf">lack of adequate consultation</a>), the rise in private laboratory, pharmaceutical and <a href="https://fijitoday.wordpress.com/2012/02/12/our-pathologists-will-now-be-working-under-the-new-company/">mortuary services</a> and the expansion of a <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/state-to-pay-private-doctors-5m-a-g/">private GP scheme</a>. </p>
<p>The potential impact of this is concerning in a country where the minimum wage is below US$2 a day. Without careful regulation and a well-functioning public health system, privatisation could put <a href="https://www.who.int/westernpacific/about/how-we-work/pacific-support/news/detail/07-04-2018-fiji-celebrates-40-years-of-primary-health-care-towards-universal-health-coverage">Fiji’s commitment</a> to universal health care <a href="https://eprints.ncl.ac.uk/244284">at risk</a>. It might also lead to rising costs and a reduced focus on public health and health promotion.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fijian children in traditional dress." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484780/original/file-20220915-7253-wmon.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tourism in Fiji relies on people but the local community is struggling with rising cost of living and a strained health system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news-photo/native-children-of-fiji-makogai-lomaviti-fiji-news-photo/548998187?adppopup=true">Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Be a good tourist</h2>
<p>The rising cost of health care is already a reality for ordinary Fijians. Between 40–50% of the population is <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/2021-2020-Household-Income-and-Expenditure-Survey-Report-r5x4f8/">estimated</a> to live in poverty; putting food on the table is an everyday struggle. </p>
<p>With a national election anticipated soon, how Fiji responds to these challenges and the global <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/05/cost-of-living-crisis-what-governments-around-the-world-are-doing-to-help">cost of living crisis</a> is very much in the spotlight.</p>
<p>For tourists, these structural issues may not be obvious. But by taking precautions that reduce the strain on Fiji’s health services, tourists can show respect and care for the Fijians providing the human and cultural element of their holiday experience. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-changed-travel-writing-maybe-thats-not-a-bad-thing-183814">COVID changed travel writing. Maybe that's not a bad thing</a>
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<p>Behind the famous “bula smile” they or members of their families may be <a href="https://theconversation.com/fiji-is-officially-open-for-happiness-will-that-apply-to-its-tourism-workers-too-181603">struggling with returning to work</a> in the resorts, or to access the health care and wellbeing support they need. </p>
<p>They may still offer the world’s friendliest COVID protocols, but it comes at a cost that cannot always be measured by money.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apisalome Movono receives funding from the Royal Society Te Aparangi</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sharon McLennan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fiji is open for tourists but visitors need to be careful not to add extra strain to the country’s already struggling health system.Sharon McLennan, Senior Lecturer, Massey UniversityApisalome Movono, Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1875222022-08-10T20:59:02Z2022-08-10T20:59:02ZPacific aviation is struggling to take off after the pandemic – how can the ‘blue continent’ stay connected?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478449/original/file-20220810-16-emavvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4826%2C3620&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With Samoa fully reopening its borders on August 1, another Pacific country moved tentatively forwards after two years of border closures and little or no international tourism.</p>
<p>But opening up is not as simple as flipping a switch, given the many challenges facing Pacific aviation. Rising fuel costs, mounting debt, management issues and a <a href="https://www.dailypost.vu/news/extra-pilots-recruited-to-address-shortage/article_03f55433-9b52-5e96-81a1-e450d1f6d4c7.html">shortage of pilots</a> have all plagued the industry in the region. </p>
<p>Climate change adds to these problems. Tourism aside, small island nations with very small economies, spread across a vast expanse of ocean, depend on high <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/climate-change-how-harmful-is-tourism-for-the-environment/a-62597871">carbon-emitting air transport</a> for health, trade and family connections. </p>
<p>These days, most Pacific national airlines are being kept afloat by government loans and guarantees – and in Fiji’s case, workers’ pension funds. With Pacific Forum economic ministers meeting in Vanuatu from today, all these issues should be high on the agenda.</p>
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<h2>Connecting the ‘blue continent’</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, difficult conversations about the management of national airlines were largely absent at the earlier Pacific Forum leaders meeting in Fiji in July. </p>
<p>This was despite the
<a href="https://www.forumsec.org/2050strategy/">2050 Strategy for the Blue Pacific Continent</a> “to protect and secure our Pacific people, place and prospects” laid out at the meeting. And it would have been disappointing to the ordinary taxpayers who have often <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/417610/fiji-airways-gets-govt-support-to-stay-afloat">supported their loss-making</a> national carriers.</p>
<p>In 2021, for example, the Samoan government clipped the wings of Samoan Airways over concerns about its <a href="https://www.samoagovt.ws/2021/11/press-release-from-the-office-of-the-minister-of-works-transport-and-infrastructure/">ongoing viability</a>. The role of maintaining national prestige and pride in the form of an airline is <a href="https://www.samoaobserver.ws/category/editorial/95585">still raised</a> in debates about the nation’s near bankruptcy in the early 1990s.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sun-is-setting-on-unsustainable-long-haul-short-stay-tourism-regional-travel-bubbles-are-the-future-140926">The sun is setting on unsustainable long-haul, short-stay tourism — regional travel bubbles are the future</a>
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<p>Now, with international borders reopening, Samoa Airways has announced it will <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/470000/samoa-airways-no-longer-flying-long-haul">no longer operate</a> long-haul flights to Brisbane, Sydney and Auckland – traditionally its primary sources of passengers and freight. </p>
<p>This may <a href="https://newslinesamoa.com/my-say-a-brewery-with-no-beer-a-national-airline-with-no-aircraft-what-next/?fbclid=IwAR3OmATfBvsEY7hDJsyatIEyaC-UOcEs2FlYValQxsDMzudIbAU2IJHKbtQ">dampen hopes</a> of a rapid resumption of tourism, an industry Samoa depends on for around 25% of its GDP. </p>
<p>With Samoa ending leases on some of its aircraft, its close neighbour Vanuatu is <a href="https://www.ch-aviation.com/portal/news/113547-vanuatu-may-adopt-discarded-samoa-airways-b737#">reportedly</a> considering taking one of those planes as part of its own tourism development plans. </p>
<p>Kiribati, too, has invested in its fleet, <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/378727/kiribati-buys-two-new-jet-planes">acquiring two aircraft</a> as part of an apparent international tourism <a href="https://devpolicy.org/is-tourism-the-answer-for-kiribati-20190805/">growth strategy</a>. Ironically, however, Kiribati <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/10/kiribati-withdraws-from-pacific-islands-forum-pif-micronesia">pulled out</a> of the recent Pacific Forum meeting, joining <a href="https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/micronesias-exit-from-the-pacific-islands-forum/">Micronesian countries</a> that have also left the organisation. </p>
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<h2>Turbulence for Fiji Airways</h2>
<p>Meanwhile, the region’s largest carrier, Fiji Airways (formerly Air Pacific), is caught up in controversy over <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/FNPF-confirms-it-has-invested-931-million-for-a-3002-stake-in-Fiji-Airways-f4r8x5/">changes in its ownership structure</a> that caught many off guard in mid-July. </p>
<p>In particular, the Fiji National Provident Fund’s acquisition of a major share of the airline has been criticised by opposition MPs and union leaders for exposing the retirement fund’s members to a struggling enterprise. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-tourism-is-desperate-for-a-vaccine-and-travel-freedoms-but-the-industry-must-learn-from-this-crisis-150722">Pacific tourism is desperate for a vaccine and travel freedoms, but the industry must learn from this crisis</a>
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<p>In 2020 the airline <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/417706/cabin-crew-seek-legal-action-over-fiji-airways-layoffs">laid off large numbers of staff</a> as it dealt with the fallout from the pandemic. And there have been calls for greater <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/Peoples-Alliance-calls-for-transparency-in-the-sale-of-Fiji-Airways-shares-5rxf48/">transparency</a> in its operations. In 2021, Fiji’s former prime minister Mahendra Chaudhry <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/chaudhry-fiji-airways-has-become-a-noose-around-taxpayers-necks/">called the airline</a> a “noose around the necks of the taxpayers” after it took a FJD$130 million loan from the Asian Development Bank.</p>
<p>In an unprecedented move, Fiji Airways has now also <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/fiji-airways-takes-over-fiji-airports-operations/">taken over management</a> of Airports Fiji, a move the Association of South Pacific Airlines (ASPA) <a href="https://islandsbusiness.com/news-break/regional-airlines-in-the-dark-on-fiji/">described</a> as “very unusual” and a potential <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/2022-23-budget-takeover-a-huge-conflict-of-interest-says-ceo/">conflict of interest</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-islands-are-back-on-the-map-and-climate-action-is-not-negotiable-for-would-be-allies-187086">Pacific Islands are back on the map, and climate action is not negotiable for would-be allies</a>
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<h2>A ‘sense of urgency’</h2>
<p>None of these systemic issues are entirely new. While cooperation has historically brought benefits for Pacific nations, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24644483">tension between regionalism and nationalism</a> has also hampered a coherent aviation strategy.</p>
<p>In July, however, Pacific aviation ministers <a href="https://paso.aero/ramm2-media/">endorsed a new aviation strategy</a> aimed at ensuring “a safe, secure and sustainable aviation system” for the region. It is to be hoped this initiative works, despite
the region’s many competing priorities, political uncertainties and shifting allegiances. </p>
<p>But the current <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/20/marginalising-our-own-brothers-and-sisters-the-disrespect-micronesia-has-been-shown-is-a-tragedy-for-the-pacific">political divisions</a> over Micronesia’s place within the wider Pacific family suggest these challenges will remain for some time.</p>
<p>Pacific Forum economic ministers meeting in Vanuatu today and tomorrow have <a href="https://islandsbusiness.com/news-break/femm-vanuatu/">already said</a> “the sense of urgency is very real”. Their discussions about “resilient economic recovery and stability” should include the role of regional aviation in achieving those goals.</p>
<p>Any realistic strategy for a “blue Pacific continent” must involve the good governance, cooperation and viability of <a href="https://www.sustainableaviation.co.uk/news/uk-aviation-industry-strengthens-commitment-to-achieving-net-zero-and-launches-first-interim-decarbonisation-targets/">sustainable airlines</a> so they can connect nations across that vast expanse of ocean for generations to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apisalome Movono receives funding from a Marsden Fast-Start Grant from the Royal Society Te Aparangi </span></em></p>When Pacific Forum economic ministers meet today in Vanuatu, the region’s troubled airline sector should be high on their agenda.Apisalome Movono, Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1870862022-07-18T03:13:22Z2022-07-18T03:13:22ZPacific Islands are back on the map, and climate action is not negotiable for would-be allies<p>This year’s Pacific Islands Forum marked the beginning of a more dangerous era as Pacific leaders tried to find common responses to both the climate crisis and sharpening geostrategic competition. </p>
<p>There was unprecedented interest in this year’s forum, held in Fiji’s capital Suva. I should know. I lived in Suva for much of my adult life, which included several years teaching at the University of the South Pacific. I was also in town for last week’s summit. </p>
<p>The annual gathering of island leaders and their counterparts from Australia and New Zealand is typically the one time of year when there’s international focus on the region. But this year’s forum was something else. A huge media pack descended, to the bemusement of many Fijians who felt the meeting was divorced from their daily challenges. </p>
<p>Many journalists were there to cover the growing competition between China and the United States, and attempts by Australia’s new government to shore up its influence. Pacific leaders tried to highlight their own priorities, especially climate change. </p>
<p>After the summit, it’s clear these things are connected. Pacific countries know they’re in a fight for survival, and any country that wants their support must show it’s serious about tackling climate change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-australias-new-climate-policy-be-enough-to-reset-relations-with-pacific-nations-184833">Will Australia’s new climate policy be enough to reset relations with Pacific nations?</a>
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<h2>Competition returns to the Pacific</h2>
<p>When the Cold War ended, Pacific island countries “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25434267">fell off the map</a>” of global geopolitics. Concerns the Soviet Union might establish a naval base in the Pacific had prompted the US and its allies to step up aid to the region in the 1980s. Once the Soviet threat receded, the US reduced its presence by closing embassies in the region. </p>
<p>This year, Pacific nations are back on the map. A <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/20/the-deal-that-shocked-the-world-inside-the-china-solomons-security-pact">security deal</a> signed in April between China and Solomon Islands – which could allow for a Chinese military presence and ship resupply – has alarmed security planners in Washington and Canberra.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-the-wake-of-the-china-solomon-islands-pact-australia-needs-to-rethink-its-pacific-relationships-181702">In the wake of the China-Solomon Islands pact, Australia needs to rethink its Pacific relationships</a>
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<p>Island nations nonetheless tried to keep geostrategic competition off the agenda at this year’s forum. They <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-24/pacific-snubs-us-china-for-leaders-meeting/101178970">tried to exclude both China and the US</a> by deferring a dialogue with partner countries that would usually be held the day after the forum leaders’ summit. </p>
<p>Undeterred, Chinese officials <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-27/china-pushes-for-pacific-foreign-ministers-meeting/101186148">pressed to meet with island nations</a> on the day of the leaders’ meeting. Washington trumped Beijing, however, as US Vice President Kamala Harris <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/12/us-to-open-two-new-embassies-in-pacific-as-it-jostles-with-china-for-influence-in-region">beamed in via video link</a> to tell Pacific leaders the US would increase aid to the region and step up its diplomatic presence. The US has plans for two new embassies (in Kiribati and Tonga) and a new US envoy to the Pacific Islands Forum. </p>
<p>As forum chair, Fiji Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama had invited Harris. A week earlier, he had met with US Secretary of State Antony Blinken. After the meeting, Bainimarama <a href="https://twitter.com/FijiPM/status/1545544864640962560">said</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Now that we are on the same page on climate action, the potential of our Pacific partnership is limitless!”</p>
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<h2>Declaring a Pacific climate emergency</h2>
<p>Pacific island countries have been crystal clear for decades that climate change is their greatest security threat. Compared with geostrategic competition, the impacts of a warming planet – stronger cyclones, devastating floods, rising seas and dying reefs – are more immediate threats. </p>
<p>As Fiji’s military commander, Viliame Naupoto, <a href="https://www.australianforeignaffairs.com/articles/extract/2021/08/ripple-effect">told a regional security dialogue</a> in 2019: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I believe there are three major powers in competition in our region. There is the US […] there is China (and) the third competitor is climate change. Of the three, climate change is winning, and climate change exerts the most influence on countries in our part of the world. If there is any competition, it is with climate change.”</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/la-nina-just-raised-sea-levels-in-the-western-pacific-by-up-to-20cm-this-height-will-be-normal-by-2050-173504">La Niña just raised sea levels in the western Pacific by up to 20cm. This height will be normal by 2050</a>
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<p>In recent years failure to do anything meaningful about climate change undermined Australian strategy in the Pacific. At the last in-person Pacific Islands Forum in 2019, the then prime minister, Scott Morrison, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/16/revealed-fierce-pacific-forum-meeting-almost-collapsed-over-climate-crisis">blocked the words “climate crisis”</a> from appearing in the final communique. This move led to island leaders saying they would <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/16/fiji-pm-frank-bainimarama-insulting-scott-morrison-rift-pacific-countries">prefer to work with China</a>.</p>
<p>So it was that new Prime Minister Anthony Albanese hoped to reset Pacific relations with strengthened climate targets – by promising to cut Australia’s emissions by 43% this decade. </p>
<p>In Suva, he joined island leaders in officially <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-15/pacific-leaders-declare-climate-emergency-in-joint-pif-statement/101239362">declaring a Pacific climate emergency</a>. The contrast with Morrison could not have been greater. Solomon Islands Prime Minister Manasseh Sogavare warmly embraced Albanese and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/14/solomon-islands-pm-rules-out-chinese-military-base-china-australia-security-partner-manasseh-sogavare">told him</a> Australia remains his country’s security partner of choice. </p>
<h2>Working together to tackle the region’s key threat?</h2>
<p>Pacific leaders formally welcomed Australia’s new climate targets. But they also told Albanese they expect to see more. Bainimarama <a href="https://twitter.com/FijiPM/status/1547186861453737984">pointedly urged him</a> “to go further for our family’s shared future by aligning Australia’s commitment to the 1.5-degree target”. </p>
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<p>Island nations see limiting global warming to 1.5°C as key to their survival – “1.5 to stay alive” is their slogan. The science is clear: if we are to have a reasonable chance of limiting warming to 1.5°C, <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/CC_MVSA0314-CC-Report-Pacific-Islands-Forum_V6-FA-Low_Res_Single-Screen.pdf">global emissions must halve by 2030</a>. </p>
<p>A wealthy nation such as Australia – with <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/other-renewable-energy-resources/solar-energy">vast untapped renewable energy resources</a> – should <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/aim-high-go-fast-why-emissions-must-plummet-climate-council-report-210421.pdf">aim to cut emissions by 75%</a> this decade. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-could-be-a-superpower-3-ways-australia-can-take-advantage-of-the-changing-geopolitics-of-energy-161343">We could be a superpower: 3 ways Australia can take advantage of the changing geopolitics of energy</a>
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<p>Pacific leaders also welcomed Australia’s proposal to co-host a United Nations climate summit, possibly as soon as 2024. </p>
<p>This could be a way for Australia to work with Pacific countries to shape global efforts to cut emissions. It would require significant diplomatic investment from Canberra. Planning to co-host a major climate summit also means we can expect an ongoing conversation with other nations about Australia’s own climate ambition. </p>
<p>No doubt island leaders will press the Australian government to do more. As the region hots up, we will find out just how serious Australia is about helping Pacific countries to counter their key security threat.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187086/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wesley Morgan is a Senior Researcher with the Climate Council</span></em></p>For Pacific Islands, climate change trumps all other threats to their security. While they welcome Australia’s new emission targets, this is an issue of survival that demands greater ambition.Wesley Morgan, Research Fellow, Griffith Asia Institute, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1848332022-07-08T04:04:26Z2022-07-08T04:04:26ZWill Australia’s new climate policy be enough to reset relations with Pacific nations?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473121/original/file-20220708-25-9ctlj9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C7%2C4824%2C3219&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Prime Minister Anthony Albanese is hoping his government’s more ambitious climate policy will help reset Pacific relations when he meets with island leaders next week. </p>
<p>Hosted by Fiji, this year’s Pacific Islands Forum will be the first in-person leaders summit since the 2019 Pacific Islands Forum in Tuvalu, which saw Albanese’s predecessor Scott Morrison <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/daggers-drawn-as-morrison-fights-to-water-down-climate-pact-20190815-p52ha0">try to water down</a> a Pacific regional climate declaration. In the aftermath of that bruising summit, Fijian Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/16/fiji-pm-frank-bainimarama-insulting-scott-morrison-rift-pacific-countries">told waiting media</a> partnering with China was preferable to working with Morrison. </p>
<p>Since then, geo-strategic competition between China and the United States has intensified. This contest looms over this year’s Pacific Islands Forum. China is seeking new security arrangements with island countries, while the US and its allies are stepping up their engagement with Pacific nations.</p>
<p>But while Australia worries about China, most Pacific nations are more worried about climate change on their doorstep. A <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/a-fight-for-survival-tackling-climate-crisis-key-to-security-in-the-blue-pacific">new Climate Council report</a> endorsed by a group of prominent Pacific leaders says committing to more ambitious climate action is key to Australia’s claim to be the Pacific’s security partner of choice. </p>
<h2>Security will be high on the agenda</h2>
<p>Why is security suddenly important? Because the Pacific has become a region of geo-strategic competition for the first time in decades. </p>
<p>China has become more powerful. That’s seen it invest in an ocean-going navy and seek new security arrangements with Pacific countries. Australian security officials have been particularly worried Beijing could use infrastructure loans to secure a Chinese naval base in the Pacific.</p>
<p>In April, Solomon Islands signed a security deal with China which – if it is anything like the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/20/the-deal-that-shocked-the-world-inside-the-china-solomons-security-pact">draft leaked online</a> – contains provisions that allow for Chinese military presence and ship resupply.</p>
<p>The deal has changed the dynamic of a region long aligned with the West (notwithstanding Pacific concerns about decolonisation and the impact of nuclear testing).</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="solomon islands prime minister china" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473118/original/file-20220708-15-lam5bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Chinese Premier Li Keqiang and Solomon Islands Prime Minister Manasseh Sogavare at a 2019 ceremony in Beijing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas Peter/AP</span></span>
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<p>While Solomon Islands leaders say they have no intention of allowing a Chinese base or an ongoing security presence in the country, concerns remain.</p>
<p>Australia’s Foreign Minister Penny Wong – who meets with Pacific foreign ministers today to iron out the final agenda for the forum meeting – wants leaders to discuss the controversial security deal. She says Pacific security should be a matter for the “<a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/469212/pacific-security-should-be-a-matter-for-pacific-family-australian-foreign-minister-penny-wong">Pacific family</a>”. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/glasgow-showdown-pacific-islands-demand-global-leaders-bring-action-not-excuses-to-un-summit-169649">Glasgow showdown: Pacific Islands demand global leaders bring action, not excuses, to UN summit</a>
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<p>In May, China’s foreign minister Wang Yi toured the Pacific hoping to secure a regional security deal with island countries. The proposal <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-01/china-foreign-minister-pacific-visit-analysis/101116656">was politely declined</a> by island leaders, who explained there was no regional consensus on the deal. Undeterred, Wang Yi <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-27/china-pushes-for-pacific-foreign-ministers-meeting/101186148">proposed</a> a meeting with Pacific foreign ministers next week, on exactly the same day Albanese meets island leaders at the Pacific Islands Forum.</p>
<h2>Tackling the region’s key threat: climate change</h2>
<p>Pacific island leaders argue growing tension between the US and China does little to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/29/climate-crisis-not-china-is-biggest-threat-to-pacific-say-former-leaders">address climate change</a>, which they are adamant is the region’s <a href="https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/climate-change-frontlines">single greatest threat</a>. </p>
<p>For decades, Pacific leaders have called for recognition that climate change is a threat to their nations akin to war. During the first UN Security Council debate on climate change in 2007, Pacific Islands Forum countries <a href="https://blogs.griffith.edu.au/asiainsights/the-pacific-small-island-developing-states-psids-early-advocacy-on-climate-and-security-at-the-united-nations/">argued</a> the impacts of a warming planet for island nations were “no less serious than those faced by nations and peoples threatened by guns and bombs”.</p>
<p>In June this year, Fiji’s defence minister Inia Seruiratu <a href="https://au.news.yahoo.com/climate-change-greater-threat-security-134405656.html">told a regional security dialogue</a> that </p>
<blockquote>
<p>machine guns, fighter jets, grey ships and green battalions are not our primary security concern. Waves are crashing at our doorsteps, winds are battering our homes, we are being assaulted by this enemy from many angles.</p>
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<p>Today’s <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/a-fight-for-survival-tackling-climate-crisis-key-to-security-in-the-blue-pacific">report from the Climate Council</a> backs what island leaders are saying: climate change is the single greatest threat to the region. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="low lying village Pacific" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473117/original/file-20220708-16-e2nyl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Climate change is an ever-present threat to Pacific nations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>If the world is to have a reasonable chance of achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement, and ensuring the survival of all Pacific island countries, global greenhouse gas emissions must be halved by 2030. A wealthy country like Australia, with high emissions and vast untapped renewable resource, should be aiming to reduce emissions to 75% below 2005 levels by 2030, according to the report. </p>
<h2>Optimism and wariness</h2>
<p>Australia’s new climate policies have been met by Pacific island countries with a mixture of <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/samoa-welcomes-australias-stronger-stance-on-climate-as-nations-announce-eight-year-partnership/zpho7p5sd">optimism</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/may/22/world-leaders-and-press-respond-to-anthony-albaneses-election-victory">wariness</a>. </p>
<p>Albanese has pledged to cut emissions by 43% by 2030. While this brings Australia closer to the rest of the developed world, this target by no means leads the pack. Most other developed countries have promised to cut emissions by at least 50% this decade. Labor’s 43% cut should be the floor for Australia’s ambition, not a ceiling. </p>
<p>The new Australian government wants to co-host the annual UN climate summit with Pacific island countries, potentially as soon as 2024. While this is a positive sign, Australia cannot assume Pacific leaders will automatically support it. </p>
<p>Pacific island countries want Australia to do more. That includes moving beyond coal and gas and committing new finance to help island countries to deal with the growing impacts of climate change (including unavoidable loss and damage).</p>
<p>Albanese will have the chance to hear Pacific concerns in Suva next week. It will be the start of an ongoing conversation. If the Australian government listens carefully, and takes meaningful action on climate, it will strengthen its claim to be the Pacific’s security partner of choice.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-the-wake-of-the-china-solomon-islands-pact-australia-needs-to-rethink-its-pacific-relationships-181702">In the wake of the China-Solomon Islands pact, Australia needs to rethink its Pacific relationships</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wesley Morgan is a senior researcher with the Climate Council. </span></em></p>While Australia worries about Chinese influence, Pacific nations are more worried about climate change. By boosting climate ambition, Australia could be the region’s security partner of choice.Wesley Morgan, Research Fellow, Griffith Asia Institute, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1841472022-06-03T02:17:38Z2022-06-03T02:17:38ZWhat does China want in the Pacific? Diplomatic allies and strategic footholds<p>By the time Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi’s ten-day tour of the Pacific is over in early June, he will have met with leaders from all ten Pacific island countries that have diplomatic relations with China. </p>
<p>This tour is the second of its kind since 2006 (his predecessor Li Zhaoxing visited the region that year). It follows a meeting of Pacific foreign ministers with China <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/202110/t20211021_9604831.html">last year</a>.</p>
<p>But what does China want from the region and why is it showing such strong interest in the Pacific?</p>
<h2>China wants two main things</h2>
<p>China seeks two main things from the region – one diplomatic and one strategic.</p>
<p>Diplomatically, it needs the voting support of Pacific islands at the United Nations. These countries, most of which are small, have an equal vote at the UN. </p>
<p>Their support – on <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26457717?seq=1%22%22">issues</a> such as Taiwan, Tibet, Xinjiang, Hong Kong, South and East China Seas, and human rights – matters to China. </p>
<p>For example, during Wang’s visit, Pacific leaders pledged to stick to the “One China” policy. This means they will recognise the People’s Republic of China over the Republic of China (Taiwan).</p>
<p>However, the China-Taiwan diplomatic battle is far from over. In the Pacific, Palau, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and Nauru still recognise Taiwan.</p>
<p>Strategically, China sees Pacific islands as a target of what’s known as “<a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/intergovernmental-coordination/south-south-cooperation-2019.html">South-South co-operation</a>” – partnerships between developing countries. </p>
<p>China’s mistrust of developed countries is deep rooted and has persisted since the founding of the communist regime in 1949. To reduce the strategic pressure from developed countries, China strives to forge close ties with the developing world.</p>
<p>In this sense, Wang’s Pacific visit is largely prompted by recent heightened competition between China and the US-led traditional powers. </p>
<p>The Quad countries (Australia, India, Japan, and the United States) recently released a <a href="https://www.pm.gov.au/media/quad-joint-leaders-statement">joint leaders statement</a> promising to increase their support to countries in the Indo-Pacific region.</p>
<p>It is hardly a coincidence that on the same day, China’s ministry of foreign affairs revealed the <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/2511_665403/202205/t20220524_10692075.html">itinerary</a> for Wang’s Pacific visit. Details of concrete <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjbxw/202205/t20220525_10692550.html">achievements</a> arising from the provinces of Chinese Guangdong, Fujian and Shandong’s engagement with Pacific islands were released the following day.</p>
<p>China is signalling it will not recede in its competition with traditional powers. It also wants to send a message that a closer relationship with China will benefit Pacific islands.</p>
<h2>Security significance for China</h2>
<p>In the long run, the Pacific islands have great security significance for China. </p>
<p>China’s People’s Liberation Army, especially the navy, has aimed to break the “<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/abs/barriers-springboards-and-benchmarks-china-conceptualizes-the-pacific-island-chains/B46A212145EB9D920616650669C697F0">island chains</a>” (in particular, there are a series of military bases on islands near China and in the Pacific, which Beijing believes the US and its allies are using to encircle China). </p>
<p>The Pacific islands sit along one of these island chains. Little wonder, then, the Chinese military is keen to gain a foothold in the Pacific in the long run – this would be crucial if competition between China and the US deteriorates into rivalry and even military conflict. </p>
<p>This is why traditional powers are alarmed by the China-Solomon Islands security pact – despite clarification from <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx_662805/202205/t20220526_10693195.html">Beijing</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/solomon-islands-tells-japan-it-will-not-allow-china-military-bases-2022-04-26/">Honiara</a> China will not establish a military base in Solomon Islands.</p>
<p>To achieve these objectives, China has worked hard to foster a closer relationship with Pacific islands. In particular, it has highlighted its respect of Pacific islands as equal partners, economic opportunities for Pacific commodities to enter the massive Chinese market, and the benefits of Chinese aid for the region.</p>
<h2>Proposed agreements</h2>
<p>In this context, China proposed two broad <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-25/china-seeks-pacific-islands-policing-security-cooperation/101099978">agreements</a> to be signed by all its Pacific partner countries during Wang’s visit. </p>
<p>However, this plan was shelved due to the lack of consensus among Pacific leaders on the nature of these agreements and potential negative implications for regional security.</p>
<p>For example, prior to Wang’s visit, President of the Federated States of Micronesia David Panuelo <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/467955/fsm-president-warns-pacific-leaders-over-china-documents">wrote</a> to leaders of all Pacific island countries and territories warning that signing these agreements may drag Pacific islands into conflicts between China and the US in future.</p>
<p>This may have taken China by surprise; President Panuelo paid a successful <a href="https://gov.fm/index.php/component/content/article/35-pio-articles/news-and-updates/229-great-friendship-taken-to-a-new-high-president-panuelo-meets-president-xi-jinping-premier-li-china-state-visit-day-two">state visit</a> to China in 2019 and lauded his country’s relationship with China as “great friendship taken to a new high”.</p>
<p>This was a clear setback for China. As a suboptimal solution, China’s ministry of foreign affairs turned the two agreements into a <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/202205/t20220531_10694923.html">position paper</a> and published it on May 30. </p>
<p>A main difference is that in the position paper, China only briefly states its readiness to co-operate with Pacific islands to promote regional security, combat transnational crimes and tackle non-traditional security threats. </p>
<p>By contrast, the original two agreements had more details on security co-operation such as providing police training for the region and strengthening co-operation on cyber security.</p>
<p>Apparently, China has learnt to downplay its planned co-operation with Pacific islands on security, an increasingly sensitive area amid the competition.</p>
<p>Looking into the near future, it is likely China will be more cautious in expanding its engagement with the Pacific region.</p>
<p>It will likely focus on pragmatic co-operation in less sensitive areas like climate change, poverty reduction, agriculture and disaster relief. </p>
<p>China will lobby for more support from Pacific islands before it is willing to reintroduce the broad agreements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184147/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Denghua Zhang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China seeks two main things from the region – one diplomatic and one strategic.Denghua Zhang, Research fellow, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1828502022-05-26T23:59:45Z2022-05-26T23:59:45ZPlanning a holiday? What’s the COVID situation in Bali, Fiji, NZ and the UK?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463250/original/file-20220516-19-z8marc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5751%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us are considering a long-delayed overseas trip. However, despite what our politicians are telling us, the pandemic is not over yet, and there is always the risk you could catch COVID on holiday or just before you depart. </p>
<p>So, here are a few general tips about what you should do to maximise the chance of a safe and enjoyable holiday, and a quick look at the COVID situation in four popular holiday destinations.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-cut-your-chance-of-catching-covid-on-a-plane-wear-a-mask-and-avoid-business-class-180333">Want to cut your chance of catching COVID on a plane? Wear a mask and avoid business class</a>
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<h2>Vaccination status</h2>
<p>First and foremost, make sure you are fully vaccinated – that’s three doses for most people, and four for the over-65s and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-25/federal-government-expands-covid-fourth-dose-eligibility/101098304">some vulnerable groups</a>. Two doses are better than nothing, but not good enough against the Omicron variant.</p>
<h2>Health insurance</h2>
<p>Several <a href="https://www.smartraveller.gov.au/CHOICE-travel-insurance-guide-COVID-19#:%7E:text=Travel%20insurance%20that%20covers%20cancellation,of%20the%20trip%20with%20you.">insurance companies</a> will cover you against a COVID infection just before you are due to travel, or while you are travelling. Travel insurance is not only advised, it is mandatory in countries such as <a href="https://www.smartraveller.gov.au/destinations/pacific/fiji">Fiji</a> and <a href="https://www.smartraveller.gov.au/destinations/asia/indonesia">Indonesia</a>.</p>
<h2>On the plane</h2>
<p>Planes are <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-cut-your-chance-of-catching-covid-on-a-plane-wear-a-mask-and-avoid-business-class-180333">quite safe</a> since the air gets filtered through HEPA filters. However, you could be very unlucky and have someone sitting close to you who is infectious. So, the best bet is to wear a face mask when not eating and drinking.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Plane with people in PPE" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463251/original/file-20220516-20-9r1id5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Planes are fairly safe environments due to the HEPA filters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Take alcohol wipes with you and give your tray, seat belt, controller for the entertainment and inside of seat pockets a good wipe down.</p>
<p>When thinking about your destination and the COVID cases there, it’s also important to compare this to the situation in Australia. </p>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus/country/australia">current cases</a> (seven-day moving average, per million of population) are 1,684 per day, and deaths (seven-day moving average, per <em>ten</em> million of population) are 19.8 per day. Some <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=AUS%7EFJI%7EIDN%7ENZL%7EGBR">84%</a> of the Australian population have completed the initial vaccination schedule. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-yellow-international-arrival-cards-are-getting-a-covid-era-digital-makeover-here-are-5-key-questions-167898">Australia's yellow international arrival cards are getting a COVID-era digital makeover. Here are 5 key questions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fiji</h2>
<p>In terms of how much COVID is around, Fiji is doing quite well. Average daily case numbers are <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus/country/fiji">13.6</a> per million, tiny compared with the Australian rate. The daily death rate per ten million population is zero. </p>
<p>Current <a href="https://covid19.trackvaccines.org/trials-vaccines-by-country/">vaccines available</a> are AstraZeneca and Moderna, and <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=AUS%7EFJI%7EIDN%7ENZL%7EGBR">70%</a> of Fijians have completed the initial vaccination schedule. There appear to be few current public health <a href="https://www.smartraveller.gov.au/destinations/pacific/fiji">regulations</a>. Face masks are optional, and social distancing requirements aren’t being enforced. </p>
<p>Given the very low case numbers at the moment, I don’t think this is a major issue. But if you are older or at risk because of health problems, I would still wear a face mask indoors. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.countryreports.org/country/Fiji/health.htm">Health care</a> in Fiji is not up to Australian standards, especially in government-run hospitals. Private hospitals are better, but if you get seriously ill, you’d be better off being medivaced to Australia or New Zealand. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Woman on bridge in rainforest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463252/original/file-20220516-22-smtegj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Case numbers in Fiji are quite low.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bali</h2>
<p>Indonesia is also doing quite well with <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus/country/indonesia">daily cases</a> at 0.98 per million and a death rate of 0.3 per ten million population. However, these data might be <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-reasons-why-covid-19-data-in-indonesia-are-unreliable-and-how-to-fix-them-157056">under-reported</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://covid19.trackvaccines.org/trials-vaccines-by-country/">Current vaccines available</a> are Zifivax, Covovax, Moderna, Pfizer, Convidecia, Sputnik V, Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca, KCONVAC, Covilo, and CoronaVac. Covovax is from India, Sputnik V from Russia, and the remaining ones you may not have heard of are from China. There have been some queries about the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02796-w">effectiveness</a> of some Chinese vaccines. </p>
<p>Some <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=AUS%7EFJI%7EIDN%7ENZL%7EGBR">60%</a> of Indonesians have completed the initial vaccination schedule, however, this is likely to be higher in Bali.</p>
<p>Wearing a face mask indoors (for example, in shops) <a href="https://www.smartraveller.gov.au/destinations/asia/indonesia">is mandatory</a>, and some social distancing and mandatory QR code scanning are in force. Face masks are not required while sitting in a restaurant.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-covid-19-means-the-era-of-ever-cheaper-air-travel-could-be-over-172149">Why COVID-19 means the era of ever cheaper air travel could be over</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Like Fiji, <a href="https://www.countryreports.org/country/Indonesia/health.htm">hospitals</a> in Bali are generally not up to Western standards, although private ones are better than public hospitals. If you get seriously ill, getting medivaced to Australia is probably the best way to go. </p>
<h2>New Zealand</h2>
<p>Across the ditch, the COVID situation is similar to Australia, with <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/new-zealand">1,399</a> cases per day per million population, and 23.4 deaths per ten million population. </p>
<p><a href="https://covid19.trackvaccines.org/trials-vaccines-by-country/">Vaccines authorised</a> are AstraZeneca, Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson and Novavax. The <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=AUS%7EFJI%7EIDN%7ENZL%7EGBR">rate of vaccination</a> is also very similar to Australia with 80% having completed the initial vaccination schedule. </p>
<p>New Zealand is a bit more <a href="https://covid19.govt.nz/prepare-and-stay-safe/keep-up-healthy-habits/wear-a-face-mask/">sensible</a> than Australia, retaining face mask mandates in retail settings and public spaces such as museums. </p>
<p>The New Zealand health-care system is not <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/best-healthcare-in-the-world">quite</a> up to Australia’s level, but good enough that you don’t have to worry if you have to be hospitalised. The good news is Australia has a reciprocal <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/reciprocal-health-care-agreement-visiting-new-zealand?context=22481">arrangement</a> with New Zealand so there are no costs if you are admitted to a public hospital. </p>
<h2>The United Kingdom</h2>
<p>All public health measures have been removed in the UK. </p>
<p>Reported case numbers are not as dire as Australia and New Zealand, with average daily case numbers at <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus/country/united-kingdom">120 per million</a> population. However, COVID tests are no longer free for most people. While people can buy their own rapid antigen tests, these <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/health-51943612">can’t be logged</a> on the government website. Only those with underlying health conditions can get a free test and must report the results. This means the reported case numbers are likely a big underestimate. This would, in part, explain the UK’s current daily death rate of 12.4 per ten million population. </p>
<p>Interestingly, just about everyone in the UK has <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/articles/coronaviruscovid19latestinsights/antibodies">antibodies</a> against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID. Some <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=AUS%7EFJI%7EIDN%7ENZL%7EGBR">73% of the UK population</a> has completed the initial vaccination schedule, considerably lower than Australia. </p>
<p>In terms of quality, the UK health system is <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/best-healthcare-in-the-world">somewhere between</a> Australia and New Zealand. Like New Zealand, Australia has a <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/reciprocal-health-care-agreement-visiting-united-kingdom?context=22481">reciprocal</a> health-care arrangement with free treatment in UK public hospitals.</p>
<h2>In a nutshell</h2>
<p>While Bali and Fiji don’t have much COVID around, their health systems are not as good if you are unlucky enough to get very sick. You’ll be more likely to catch COVID in the UK or New Zealand, but they have good health services if you do.</p>
<p>As for me, I’m masking up and staying in Australia for the next few months!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Esterman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Knowing whether it’s safe to travel is harder in the age of COVID. This travel guide may help.Adrian Esterman, Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1816032022-04-28T01:25:06Z2022-04-28T01:25:06ZFiji is officially ‘open for happiness’ – will that apply to its tourism workers too?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459956/original/file-20220427-20-rcdt3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3988%2C2622&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As daylight hours shorten and temperatures drop, and with borders reopening across the Pacific, many will be tempted to escape pandemic fatigue by flying somewhere warm and welcoming. </p>
<p>Fiji, in particular, has wasted no time mounting a <a href="https://corporate.fiji.travel/news/tourism-fiji-shares-its-open-happiness-campaign-video-starring-actress-rebel-wilson">major campaign</a> targeting New Zealand and Australian tourists. Fronted by celebrity Rebel Wilson, the ads promise the island nation is “open for happiness”.</p>
<p>Fiji is now averaging around 1,200 tourist arrivals each day. With quarantine requirements and other COVID restrictions <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/Wearing-of-masks-is-now-optional-and-social-distancing-requirements-no-longer-apply--AG-485rfx/">recently removed</a>, tourist numbers are expected to <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/Fiji-estimated-to-receive-more-than-440000-tourists-this-year-8r45fx/">exceed 400,000</a> by the end of this year. </p>
<p>This will bring millions of much-needed dollars into a tourist economy hit hard by the pandemic. Many resorts have now re-opened, with <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/50-of-about-120000-Fijians-in-the-tourism-sector-have-gone-back-to-work-as-hotels-and-resorts-are-reopening-4f5xr8/">around 50%</a> of Fiji’s 120,000-strong tourism workforce having returned to work so far. </p>
<p>But behind the smiles and sunny marketing hype, how is Fiji really coping after such a challenging COVID experience? </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2vZNLPTXg8Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Behind the smiles</h2>
<p>When Pope John Paul II dubbed Fiji “the way the world should be” in 1986, he coined a tourist slogan that would last for years. But it hid some of the harsher realities of the country, including the ethnic and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/04/fijis-political-turmoil-everything-you-need-to-know">political fractures</a> that led to a succession of coups.</p>
<p>These days, it’s estimated around 30% of the population <a href="https://devpolicy.org/no-poverty-reduction-in-fiji-over-the-last-six-years-2020210216-2/">lives in poverty</a>. Crime has been increasing and there are ongoing concerns over the <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/south-pacific/300368608/covid19-fiji-health-system-is-collapsing-under-pressure-doctor-warns">fragility of the health system</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/without-stricter-conditions-nz-should-be-in-no-hurry-to-reopen-its-border-to-cruise-ships-181607">Without stricter conditions, NZ should be in no hurry to reopen its border to cruise ships</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As tourism resumes, COVID is <a href="https://www.fijivillage.com/news/-Fiji-records-11-new-cases-of-COVID-f45rx8/">still lingering</a>, and there have been <a href="https://fijisun.com.fj/2022/04/06/surge-in-leptospirosis-denguetyphoid-cases/">outbreaks</a> of leptospirosis, typhoid and dengue fever, contributing to around <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/fiji-reports-five-leptospirosis-deaths-high-hospital-admissions-and-deaths-in-the-west/">60 deaths</a> since the start of the year. </p>
<p>Despite a strong vaccination drive that reached 90% of the eligible population, COVID took a high toll. Unlike Vanuatu and Samoa, whose borders are still closed to tourism, Fiji’s relatively relaxed approach had <a href="https://www.rise-program.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/2278913/RISE-Fiji-COVID-19-survey-report_anonymised.pdf">serious consequences</a>. Medical experts suspect the official estimate of 862 deaths from the coronavirus is vastly <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radio-australia/programs/pacificbeat/fiji-covid-numbers/13473382">under-reported</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-borders-reopen-can-new-zealand-reset-from-high-volume-to-high-values-tourism-180298">As borders reopen, can New Zealand reset from high volume to ‘high values’ tourism?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Well-being during the pandemic</h2>
<p>Given the hardships of the past two years, then, one might think that Fiji being “open for happiness” might apply to Fijians as well as tourists. But some <a href="https://mro.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/17019">recent research</a> showed surprising results (see graph below). </p>
<p>The survey of people living in tourism-reliant communities, conducted just before the border opened in December 2021, found most people felt their mental, social, physical, spiritual and environmental well-being had actually improved during the pandemic when there were no international tourists. For many people, these things had “strongly improved”.</p>
<p>In the absence of tourism jobs, people had gone back to the land and sea to source food, and reconnected with their culture and kin. As two former tourism workers said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I am now very close with my cousins and family because we spent time together catching food and planting. That is what life is about […] the pandemic gave me this time to be close with my community on a deeper level. </p>
<p>Things have been very positive for our village. We are now closer as clans… Especially for us youth to learn and know what we are supposed to do to care for each other – that’s the Fijian way! </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Respondents also talked about improvements in the natural environment:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>With no tourists around the lagoon, the reef and land has had time to relax and recover so that has been positive – to see fish come back. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><strong>Survey: well-being improved during the pandemic – agree or disagree?</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459181/original/file-20220421-26-k3zijp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Respondents were asked to gauge various forms of well-being in the absence of tourism due to COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mro.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/17019">Scheyvens et al. (2022)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<h2>Tourism that benefits hosts and guests?</h2>
<p>Everyone enjoys a holiday, being pampered, enjoying new experiences and returning home relaxed. But can this be achieved in ways that benefit the Fijian economy while also supporting the well-being of the hosts? </p>
<p>Many New Zealand and Australian tourists report their interactions with the local people and culture were the most enjoyable aspect of their Fijian holidays. The <a href="https://www.mcttt.gov.fj/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/FIJI-2019-International-Visitor-Survey-1.pdf">2019 visitor survey</a> showed a key reason for choosing Fiji was that “the local people are friendly” – a close second to being a “family-friendly” destination. </p>
<p>Those qualities in the people and their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669582.2017.1359280">culture</a> were also the foundation of the adaptation and <a href="https://theconversation.com/traditional-skills-help-people-on-the-tourism-deprived-pacific-islands-survive-the-pandemic-148987">resilience</a> that got them through the toughest times of the pandemic.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-tourism-is-desperate-for-a-vaccine-and-travel-freedoms-but-the-industry-must-learn-from-this-crisis-150722">Pacific tourism is desperate for a vaccine and travel freedoms, but the industry must learn from this crisis</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And while many businesses are eager to get back to the way things were, not all workers are sure they want to return to tourism jobs. Those who experienced greater well-being in the absence of tourists are looking for a more balanced approach that recognises the importance of health, family, culture and environment. </p>
<p>Tourists themselves can help, firstly by listening to the Fijian people’s own ideas about how best to reconfigure tourism to improve well-being, including a fairer deal for those working in resorts: a Fiji Trade Union Congress <a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-suva/documents/publication/wcms_754703.pdf">assessment</a> of 2,132 workers during the pandemic found 99% wanted the government to do more to support labour rights and protect their jobs. </p>
<p>Tourists, too, can support local movements for better wages and conditions, job security, stronger unions and social insurance schemes. Ultimately, putting host well-being on the same page as guest well-being will give “open for happiness” a deeper meaning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181603/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apisalome Movono receives funding from Royal Society Te Apārangi under a Marsden Fast-Start Grant. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Regina Scheyvens receives funding from Royal Society Te Apārangi under a James Cook fellowship
</span></em></p>Despite losing jobs, many Fijians in tourism-dependent areas reported greater well-being during the pandemic. As tourists return, what are the lessons?Apisalome Movono, Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, Massey UniversityRegina Scheyvens, Professor of Development Studies, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1756112022-02-04T01:58:21Z2022-02-04T01:58:21ZRebuilding post-eruption Tonga: 4 key lessons from Fiji after the devastation of Cyclone Winston<p>While news from Tonga is still disrupted following the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60106981">massive undersea eruption</a> and tsunami on January 15, it’s clear the island nation has suffered significant damage to housing stock and infrastructure.</p>
<p>Once initial clean-up work is done, the focus then turns to rebuilding – specifically, how to rebuild in a way that makes that housing and infrastructure stronger, safer and more resilient than before the disaster.</p>
<p>This is where the United Nations’ <a href="https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework">Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction</a> comes into the picture. It advocates for:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Beyond the framework, however, we have the lessons learned from previous disasters and recovery efforts in the same region – notably what happened in Fiji after <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/tropical-cyclone-winston-causes-devastation-fiji-tropical-paradise">Cyclone Winston</a> in 2016. These lessons can be applied to the Tonga rebuild.</p>
<h2>Lessons from Cyclone Winston</h2>
<p>Winston was a category 5 cyclone, one of the most powerful storms ever recorded in the South Pacfic. When it approached Fiji’s largest and most populated island, Viti Levu, winds reached 230 kilometres per hour, with gusts peaking at 325km/h.</p>
<p>Over 60% of the Fijian population was affected, with around 131,000 people left homeless. The cyclone destroyed, significantly damaged or partially damaged around 30,000 homes, or 22% of households, representing the greatest loss to Fiji’s housing stock from a single event. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rebuilding-after-disasters-5-essential-reads-84107">Rebuilding after disasters: 5 essential reads</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Notably, some models of the traditional Fijian bure survived the cyclone with minor or no damage. </p>
<p>Our research team from New Zealand followed and recorded the housing recovery. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212420918307660">What we found</a> could benefit Tonga as it faces reconstruction of so much housing stock.</p>
<p>As in Tonga, power, infrastructure and communication systems in Fiji were extensively damaged. Given that “<a href="https://buildbackbetter.co.nz/">building back better</a>” involves applying higher structural standards than existed previously, we looked for evidence that Fiji was rebuilding in a more resilient and sustainable way.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-volcanic-eruption-in-tonga-was-so-violent-and-what-to-expect-next-175035">Why the volcanic eruption in Tonga was so violent, and what to expect next</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Fiji carefully recorded and analysed data, employing systematic reconnaissance surveys and damage assessments to identify building performance, structural vulnerabilities and failure mechanisms, as well as community needs. These assessments were done well, to international standards.</p>
<p>Understandably, Fijians were also aware of the need to reduce risks to housing from future cyclones. After the immediate post-cyclone humanitarian response, housing was their main concern. This became a key focus for government agencies as a way of demonstrating the recovery was under way and that communities were at the heart of the process.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fijian bure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444459/original/file-20220203-21-1hsnu30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A traditional bure in Navala village, Viti Levu – some survived the cyclone well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problems with rebuilding</h2>
<p>We studied two main initiatives: a government-funded rebuilding program for houses (the “<a href="https://www.fiji.gov.fj/Media-Centre/News/HELP-FOR-HOMES-INITIATIVE">Help For Homes Initiative</a>”) and the rebuilding programs led by various international and local NGOs.</p>
<p>Help For Homes provided credit for construction materials to people who had lost homes, assuming recipients met certain criteria related to household income, damage and location.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-cyclone-forecasts-why-impacts-should-be-the-focus-of-hazardous-weather-warnings-149358">New cyclone forecasts: why impacts should be the focus of hazardous weather warnings</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Communities were free to choose the basic type of dwelling, its interior design, external features and materials. Information and instructions about building best practices and standards were provided, but technical or practical support was limited. </p>
<p>Overall, the initiative had mixed reviews. On the one hand, people had autonomy over their future homes; if things went to plan, they liked the outcome. On the other, lack of building skills led to some poor-quality construction, and limited resources (mainly materials) pushed costs up. </p>
<p>A lack of suitable alternative building material also created problems. Material choice, material substitution, resource costs, low community technical expertise and low building standard knowledge are all issues Tonga might also face.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/laws-governing-undersea-cables-have-hardly-changed-since-1884-tonga-is-a-reminder-they-need-modernising-175312">Laws governing undersea cables have hardly changed since 1884 – Tonga is a reminder they need modernising</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Some homeowners were left without the material they needed, and in some cases with only a partially rebuilt home.</p>
<p>The NGO rebuilding programs, by contrast, usually employed their skilled workers to build and supervise construction activities, often with the help of community labour. But again, reviews were mixed, especially when the communities didn’t have sufficient input into the rebuilding process.</p>
<p>While housing design was largely standardised for quick construction, the NGO houses tended to be technically strong and more resilient to future hazard events.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="house on elevated foundations" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444460/original/file-20220204-25-2hpb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A timber house on elevated foundations, built to the owner’s design without technical support.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The best of both worlds</h2>
<p>The main lesson was that high levels of community involvement and strong technical support were key to building resilient, future-proofed houses. For Tonga, the Fijian experience offers the opportunity to apply that lesson in four principal ways:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>ensure the initial assessment process is thorough and up to international standards</p></li>
<li><p>recognise that housing stock overall needs to improve, and commit to higher construction standards</p></li>
<li><p>analyse local architecture and building practices for disaster-resistant features </p></li>
<li><p>combine the best of government-led and NGO building systems to maximise community involvement while ensuring good technical support and building expertise.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Overall, to have the best chance of rebuilding with the resilience to withstand future shocks, Tonga will benefit greatly from a three-way partnership between the government, NGOs and local communities. </p>
<p>As advocated by the authors in their book <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Resilient-Post-Disaster-Recovery-through-Building-Back-Better-1st-Edition/Mannakkara-Wilkinson-Potangaroa/p/book/9781138297531">Resilient Post-Disaster Recovery through Building Back Better</a>, co-ordination of such partnerships should be government-led and include trusted local community leaders and a consortium of NGOs.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors acknowledge the collaboration of Diocel Harold Aquino (Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines) and
Sateesh Kumar Pisini (Principal Lecturer in Civil Engineering, Fiji National University) in the preparation of this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175611/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne Wilkinson receives funding from the New Zealand National Science Challenge: Resilience to Nature's Challenges to research post-disaster recovery.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Regan Potangaroa receives funding from the New Zealand National Science Challenge: Resilience to Nature's Challenges to research post-disaster recovery. He is a shelter delegate with the NZ Red Cross and an Associate Trainer with the International humanitarian training group RedR Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohamed Elkharboutly does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As Fiji did after 2016’s catastrophic cyclone, Tonga will likely face challenges with building materials and costs, and low levels of technical expertise. But these can be overcome.Suzanne Wilkinson, Professor of Construction Management, Massey UniversityMohamed Elkharboutly, Lecturer in Built Environment, Massey UniversityRegan Potangaroa, Professor of Resilient and Sustainable Buildings (Maori Engagement), Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1693562021-10-10T19:09:31Z2021-10-10T19:09:31ZPNG and Fiji were both facing COVID catastrophes. Why has one vaccine rollout surged and the other stalled?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425385/original/file-20211008-21-o2n29p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C41%2C4497%2C3049&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hannah Peters/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Things were looking very bad three months ago for both Papua New Guinea and Fiji. The two Pacific countries were each looking very vulnerable to the COVID Delta variant, albeit in different ways. </p>
<p>On July 10, PNG recorded its first official Delta case, and the nation’s health professionals were soon warning the combination of very low testing rates, high percentage of positive tests and an extremely slow vaccine rollout provided a “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/19/png-authorities-order-corpses-to-be-swabbed-amid-fear-of-undetected-delta-outbreak">recipe for a major spread</a>”. </p>
<p>Fiji was already in the thick of it at the time. After the deadly Delta strain entered the country via a quarantine breach in April, per capita infection rates became the <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2021/07/fiji-in-crisis-as-country-hits-record-covid-19-cases-and-deaths/">highest in the world</a> in the middle of the year. </p>
<p>Daily infections <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/datablog/2021/sep/30/how-are-australias-neighbours-faring-in-the-covid-pandemic">reached more than 1,800</a> in mid-July – a huge number for a country of only 900,000 people. The crisis caused 647 deaths. </p>
<p>Fast forward several months and PNG and Fiji are heading in opposite directions. More than <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-top-doctor-who-s-seen-95-per-cent-of-adults-in-his-country-vaccinated-on-what-he-s-learnt/842f024e-2f21-446c-b4e6-e7c180d8aee0">95% of eligible Fijians</a> over the age of 18 have now received their first jab, and <a href="https://twitter.com/FijianGovt/status/1446704512773722114">80% are now fully vaccinated</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1446704512773722114"}"></div></p>
<p>By contrast, PNG is in the grips of a major wave, with <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=OWID_WRL">less than 1%</a> of the total population fully vaccinated. PNG is trailing much of the world.</p>
<p>Why have two Pacific countries, which share Melanesian cultural connections, handled their vaccine rollouts so differently?</p>
<h2>Not a matter of geography or vaccine supply</h2>
<p>Fiji’s daily infection rate today is <a href="https://graphics.reuters.com/world-coronavirus-tracker-and-maps/countries-and-territories/fiji/">4% of what it was at the peak</a>, and it’s falling. Less than 50 new cases are currently being reported on average each day. </p>
<p>In PNG, the official infection rate is now <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus/country/papua-new-guinea">averaging just under 300 new cases</a> per day, but this drastically understates the reality of what is happening in the country. </p>
<p>Extremely low testing rates simply cannot be relied upon. The country’s own health data reportedly <a href="https://devpolicy.org/covid-19-in-png-the-silent-dead-20211006/">shows 2.6 million cases of flu- and pneumonia-like symptoms over the last year</a>, and Port Moresby General Hospital is now reporting positive COVID <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/world/png-crippled-by-covid19-delta-variant-and-social-media-misinformation/news-story/6ccf98a2c939a5e6d1979643fbccc7cf">testing rates of 60%</a>. Like other hospitals across the country, it risks being overwhelmed by the virus.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pacific-went-a-year-without-covid-now-its-all-under-threat-158963">The Pacific went a year without COVID. Now, it's all under threat</a>
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<p>It’s not simply a vaccine supply issue. At this stage of the global crisis, PNG, like Fiji, has received substantial vaccine deliveries - principally from Australia, New Zealand and the <a href="https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/covax-explained">COVAX vaccine delivery initiative</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, thousands of PNG’s early deliveries went to waste because the health authorities were unable to use them. The PNG government has recently made the best of a bad situation by <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/wellington/126518205/papua-new-guinea-forced-to-transfer-vaccines-donated-by-new-zealand">re-gifting 30,000 vials donated by New Zealand to Vietnam</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1443470695611211779"}"></div></p>
<p>We can also set aside any suggestion Australia, as the major regional donor, is somehow favouring one country over the other. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/pacific/australia-stepping-up-to-address-covid-19-in-the-pacific">The Australian government</a> has put a high priority on providing vaccines to both countries in recent months. Its assistance has also extended to education and logistical efforts, along with targeted medical emergency teams and support for <a href="https://www.internationalsos.com/news-releases/international-sos-supporting-png-and-australia-governments-in-png-vaccination-programme-delivery-mar-30-2021">those with expertise and capacity on the ground</a>. </p>
<p>Nor is it really a matter of distribution. </p>
<p>PNG’s geography does present some challenging physical barriers to distributing vaccines - its legendary mountainous terrain and the remoteness of many of its inhabitants are well known. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-wants-to-send-1-million-vaccine-doses-to-png-but-without-reliable-electricity-how-will-they-be-kept-cold-156798">Australia wants to send 1 million vaccine doses to PNG – but without reliable electricity, how will they be kept cold?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But companies from Digicel to South Pacific Brewery manage to penetrate the most inaccessible areas with their products despite these difficulties. And the authorities manage to deliver the vote across the nation every five years in what is one of the world’s most extraordinary democratic exercises. </p>
<p>With its own rugged terrain and dispersed populations across multiple islands, Fiji has also faced <a href="https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/pacific-step-needs-covid-era-reboot">major physical impediments</a> to its vaccine rollout.</p>
<h2>The major difference: leadership and belief</h2>
<p>We get closer to the problem when we think in terms of trust, understanding and belief. </p>
<p>Fijians have embraced the vaccination rollout almost as one, following the guidance of their <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-top-doctor-who-s-seen-95-per-cent-of-adults-in-his-country-vaccinated-on-what-he-s-learnt/842f024e-2f21-446c-b4e6-e7c180d8aee0">medical authorities</a> and falling in line with the firm “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-09/fiji-to-make-vaccine-compulsory/100281540">no jabs, no job</a>” policy of its prime minister, former military commander Frank Bainimarama. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1445705941647720448"}"></div></p>
<p>In PNG, the term “vaccine hesitancy” understates the problem. One <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5fb4723e225bcb20d28f0f76/t/60c13e58a5f6235154c9ff56/1623277161226/Vaccine_Survey_Report_Final.pdf">survey earlier this year</a> showed worrying low willingness to take the vaccine, and another <a href="https://devpolicy.org/vaccine-hesitancy-in-png-results-from-a-survey-20210624/">survey of university students</a> showed a mere 6% wanted it. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-10/png-vaccine-hesitancy-papua-new-guinea-covid-19/100444380">Vaccine patrols have received death threats in some areas</a>, and any politician who speaks out in favour of vaccination risks a political backlash. Strong efforts are now being made to overcome this problem, with the health authorities preparing a fresh approach and iconic figures such as rugby star <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=807067373528477">Mal Meninga supporting the publicity effort.</a></p>
<p>These dramatically contrasting pictures cannot be explained fully through differences in education standards, or the quality of medical advice and attention.<br>
To be sure, Fiji leads PNG in these respects – Fiji has 99% literacy compared to just over 63% in PNG, according to the latest available figures. And while Fiji’s medical system has its challenges, <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/09/papua-new-guineas-health-system-unprepared-covid-19">the decline in PNG’s health services</a> due to chronic lack of investment puts it in a very different category. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-nations-grapple-with-covids-terrible-toll-and-the-desperate-need-for-vaccines-164769">Pacific nations grapple with COVID's terrible toll and the desperate need for vaccines</a>
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<p>In PNG, trust in leadership has flagged following decades of frustration with growing wealth inequality and concerns over governance and transparency. </p>
<p>Rather than trust official sources, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-papua-idUSKBN2BO46Y">people often look to Facebook and other social media for their information</a>, and are thus vulnerable to the dangerous nonsense peddled by the anti-vaccination movement in the west. </p>
<p>I know how quickly Papua New Guineans tap into what’s happening in neighbouring Australia, too. They will have seen how the public debate here has dented confidence in the AstraZeneca brand – the mainstay of their own vaccine supply. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1374966466626297864"}"></div></p>
<p>But perhaps most troubling of all is the sense that many Papua New Guineans have developed a fatalistic belief that COVID is <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/world/png-crippled-by-covid19-delta-variant-and-social-media-misinformation/news-story/6ccf98a2c939a5e6d1979643fbccc7cf">just another health challenge</a> to add to the litany of other serious problems facing the country, among them maternal mortality, malaria and tuberculosis. </p>
<p>It’s almost as if they believe this is all somehow PNG’s lot. But it doesn’t need to be.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169356/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Kemish is a former Australian diplomat, serving as high commissioner to PNG from 2010 to 2013. He currently chairs the Kokoda Track Foundation, which receives some funding from the Australian Government for its work to combat Covid-19 in PNG, and is Pacific representative for the World Bank's Global Partnership for Education. He is a nonresident fellow with the Lowy Institute's Pacific program.</span></em></p>In Fiji, 95% of adults have received one jab and 80% are fully vaccinated. In PNG, however, less than 1% of the population is fully vaccinated – and the country is giving away its vaccines.Ian Kemish AM, Former Ambassador and Adjunct Professor, School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1683802021-09-28T18:11:04Z2021-09-28T18:11:04ZVax and vacation? Why that Pacific island holiday will still mean ‘traveller beware’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423443/original/file-20210927-19-17mik7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4493%2C2991&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pacific Island countries are betting big on vaccination as a strategy for <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/447544/samoa-readies-for-new-zealand-travel-bubble">resuming tourism</a> by Christmas and bringing much needed relief for their struggling economies.</p>
<p>For much of the Pacific, tourism has long been the goose that laid the golden egg. But the pandemic has underlined how fragile and temperamental tourism can be. It relies on stable social and economic conditions at both destination and source — the opposite of what has happened since early 2020.</p>
<p>While border openings dependent on vaccination rates might seem hasty, some Pacific leaders see it as the only <a href="https://www.sibconline.com.sb/solair-losses-sbd-11m-due-to-covid-19/?fbclid=IwAR0fomkKaeEXTQI1l0y83rJtYnmUP3GFM1hQeT6kxoo6MnqT9jYFm-c_MPo">viable path</a> forward for economies that have <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2021-01-28/pandemic-wiped-out-tourism-pacific-island-nations-can-they-stay-afloat">nosedived</a> because of COVID.</p>
<p>As the South Pacific’s second pandemic summer approaches, the question is how to balance the risk of further outbreaks with a return to tourism and some kind of economic normality.</p>
<h2>Race to vaccinate</h2>
<p>Against a backdrop of hesitancy and misinformation, vaccination rates in some parts of the Pacific are now breaking world records. <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/125748735/covid19-niue-reaches-herd-immunity-with-97pc-of-eligible-population-vaccinated">Niue</a> and the <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/300390545/cook-islands-vaccinates-96-per-cent-of-eligible-adults">Cook Islands</a> have almost fully vaccinated all eligible citizens this year.</p>
<p>Samoa is also <a href="https://samoaglobalnews.com/samoa-to-lockdown-fr-8am-6pm-for-two-days/?fbclid=IwAR0wJxbEo1nXjoUXYMjLWzJeJJNK9IQrTys4YCkYGZjNmg07C7JRuMrU5G8">ramping up</a> its vaccination programme in the hope of joining the Cooks and Nuie if and when travel resumes within a contained New Zealand-Pacific bubble. </p>
<p>With vaccination also gaining traction in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji, tourism officials are <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/416595/solomons-looks-to-limited-border-reopening">hopeful</a> a fully vaccinated population will allow them to reopen borders while protecting the health and safety of citizens.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cuban-medical-training-has-helped-pacific-nations-face-the-pandemic-challenge-167631">How Cuban medical training has helped Pacific nations face the pandemic challenge</a>
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<p>But some tourism-dependent states that opened earlier are now struggling. Guam had to <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210903-guam-halts-vacation-and-vax-tours-as-virus-cases-rise">suspend</a> a “vacation and vax” programme – which allowed international visitors to receive a bonus COVID shot in an effort to jump-start tourism – after a Delta surge caused deaths and mass hospitalisations.</p>
<p>With some 278,000 residents, French Polynesia has recorded more than 40,000 COVID cases and over 600 deaths. With just 54% of the population having received their first vaccine dose, tourism is now largely quarantine-free for fully vaccinated visitors. </p>
<p>In Fiji, despite the virus having spread to tourism spots such as the Yasawa islands, Beqa and Kadavu, tourism stakeholders are <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/do-what-you-can/">optimistic</a> the country (which has begun to ease local restricitions) will re-open its international borders on November 1.</p>
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<h2>Caution versus desperation</h2>
<p>The other side of the coin, of course, is how prepared and willing tourists will be to plan a Pacific holiday — and what conditions are placed on their travel (such as New Zealand’s current quarantine requirement for re-entry).</p>
<p>After opening to quarantine-free travel with New Zealand in May this year, then closing the borders again due to a largely Auckland-based COVID outbreak in August, the Cook Islands has chosen to adopt a <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/126363357/covid19-no-cook-islands-travel-without-vaccine-zero-covid-cases-in-nz-for-14-days">cautious approach</a>.</p>
<p>In future, it will allow inbound travel only for fully vaccinated people and only when there has been zero community transmission in New Zealand. Given the stubbornly long tail of Auckland’s current Delta outbreak, this could mean longer delays.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-nations-grapple-with-covids-terrible-toll-and-the-desperate-need-for-vaccines-164769">Pacific nations grapple with COVID's terrible toll and the desperate need for vaccines</a>
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<p>Similarly, New Zealand has taken a <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/covid-19-coronavirus-nz-takes-cautious-approach-to-fijis-plan-to-reopen-border-amid-outbreak-crisis/W7SWIZ4NBKIPT5E4R4SQRGXYJI/">cautious approach</a> with Fiji after <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/448946/covid-19-indonesia-and-fiji-designated-as-very-high-risk-govt">declaring</a> it a high-risk country and limiting travel for the foreseeable future. For its part, Fiji is relying on <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=FJI">mass vaccination</a> and compliance with COVID guidelines, including stringent <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/south-pacific/300353118/covid19-no-jab-no-job-fiji-requires-all-civil-servants-and-private-sector-employers-and-employees-to-get-vaccine-or-dont-turn-up-to-work">enforcement</a> of vaccination for certain workers.</p>
<p>And despite its devastating recent outbreak, Fiji’s government <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/checkpoint/audio/2018811895/fiji-prepares-to-reopen-borders-amid-covid-19-pandemic">has claimed</a> it is showing regional leadership in managing tourism recovery. The aim is to offer quarantine-free travel to visitors from “green list” countries (Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, Korea, Singapore and parts of the US), with visitors needing to be fully vaccinated and testing negative for COVID before departure. </p>
<p>But the eagerness to re-open isn’t shared by all, including the country’s opposition leader, Bill Gavoka, who <a href="https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-leisure/article/3149422/fiji-reopen-borders-tourists-rescue-its-coronavirus-hit">has said</a>: </p>
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<p>We have got to have our priorities right — health first over the economy. I don’t believe Fiji is ready.</p>
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<h2>Who wants to travel?</h2>
<p>Ultimately, given these many uncertainties, the fate of tourism-dependent Pacific nations will hinge less on government proclamations than on the risk calculations of tourists themselves.</p>
<p>Elsewhere in the world, tourism destinations have tried to reassure travellers while also protecting their own populations. Greece, for example, enacted <a href="https://www.cityam.com/operation-blue-freedom-greece-races-to-vaccinate-islanders-in-bid-to-go-covid-free/">Operation Blue Freedom</a> with the aim of vaccinating all resident adults on specific islands such as Corfu and Crete by the end of July. Subsequent Delta surges have <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/greek-tourism-faces-tense-summer-patience-2021-07-26/">disrupted</a> re-opening plans, however.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fijis-other-crisis-away-from-the-covid-emergency-political-dissent-can-still-get-you-arrested-165238">Fiji’s other crisis: away from the COVID emergency, political dissent can still get you arrested</a>
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<p>Pacific nations could potentially implement similar policies in selected locations. But it remains to be seen how much vaccine “passports”, currently being touted as a <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/covid-19-delta-outbreak-the-90-project-behaviour-change-experts-21-tips-to-help-nz-get-vaccinated/SKZ2KBPVFMF6LPFPWC5XBOBH7M/">prerequisite</a> for international travel, will be the crucial circuit breaker.</p>
<p>The ability to track and trace visitors is also important, with some countries wanting tight oversight of tourist itineraries, while others hope voluntary use of tracer apps will be enough. </p>
<p>However there are <a href="https://www.fijitimes.com/apps-traces-moves-technology-to-combat-covid-19/">limitations</a> on using such technologies in the Pacific because they rely on people owning and carrying a mobile phone, having sufficient data and GPS permanently enabled. Network coverage is very poor in some places, and phones often cannot provide sufficiently detailed location information to determine virus exposure.</p>
<p>Whatever the measures, Pacific governments have a major challenge on their hands, especially given their weak public health systems. Having gambled hard on tourism being a mainstay of their economies, they must now live in hope that the tourism goose can get back to laying its golden eggs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168380/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Regina Scheyvens receives funding from the Royal Society Te Apārangi under a James Cook fellowship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apisalome Movono does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Desperate for visitors to return, tourism-reliant Pacific nations are racing to re-open borders before Christmas. But will tourists feel safe enough to travel?Apisalome Movono, Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, Massey UniversityRegina Scheyvens, Professor of Development Studies, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.