tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/precious-metals-9165/articlesprecious metals – The Conversation2023-03-07T03:13:35Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2012882023-03-07T03:13:35Z2023-03-07T03:13:35ZHow can you test if gold is pure? Some methods are more destructive than others<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513871/original/file-20230307-28-yrbjmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C159%2C3841%2C2663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stasis Photo/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to gold, how pure is pure? And how does anybody know?</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-06/perth-mint-gold-doping-china-cover-up-four-corners/102048622">recent revelations</a> about the Perth Mint have shown, gold buyers and sellers take purity very seriously. Questions have been raised over impurities found in some A$9 billion worth of gold sold to the Shanghai Gold Exchange.</p>
<p>While the gold reportedly met the industry standard for 99.99% (or “4N”) purity, it failed to meet extra agreed specifications for the level of silver.</p>
<p>The question of testing the purity of gold has been a live one for thousands of years, with increasingly precise methods being devised. But despite these techniques, most of the time the gold industry still runs on trust and reputation.</p>
<h2>A eureka moment</h2>
<p>The ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes is said to have struck upon one way to test the purity of gold while getting into the bath. </p>
<p>The story goes that the king of Syracuse had asked the mathematician to determine whether a golden crown was made of the pure metal, or whether impurities had been mixed in by a dishonest goldsmith. </p>
<p>After thinking on the problem, Archimedes took a bath, and noticed that the level of the water rose when he stepped in. He leapt out immediately and ran into the street, crying “eureka!” (or “I’ve found it!”).</p>
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<p>He had realised that submerging the crown in water would let him determine its volume, and hence its density. Because gold is denser than most other metals, this can be used to measure the crown’s purity. </p>
<p>There are debates about the historical accuracy of the tale, and the exact mechanism of the test he would have used, but the gist is in keeping with the principles Archimedes laid out in his treatise <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Floating_Bodies">On Floating Bodies</a>.</p>
<h2>Fire and fluorescence</h2>
<p>Despite the ingenuity of Archimedes’ method, it is not in use today. Some of the most common methods used in the modern gold industry are the fire assay, X-ray fluorescence, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (or ICP-MS).</p>
<p>The fire assay is the traditional method used in the hallmarking industry (to certify gold in jewellery as 9 carat or 18 carat, for example), and also often used in gold mines to test the quality of ore.</p>
<p>This is a destructive method, so it wouldn’t have worked for Archimedes. You take a small amount of metal from the item you’re testing, mix it up with various chemicals, and melt it down in a furnace or crucible.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-medicine-to-nanotechnology-how-gold-quietly-shapes-our-world-110515">From medicine to nanotechnology: how gold quietly shapes our world</a>
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<p>The process is designed to remove everything except gold. So if you weigh the sample you put in and the gold you get out, you can figure out how pure the sample was. </p>
<p>However, the fire assay only tests for the amount of gold – it won’t tell you what else is in the sample.</p>
<p>Another common test (this one is non-destructive) involves X-ray fluorescence. You fire X-rays at the item you want to test, which excites the atoms in your sample and makes them spit out X-rays of different wavelengths. Analysing these wavelengths can tell you what’s in the sample. The machine will give you a readout telling you the amount of gold, silver, copper and so on.</p>
<h2>The gold standard</h2>
<p>To get real precision, there are several different, more elaborate tests you could try. In Australia, the “gold standard” would be what’s called inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).</p>
<p>This process effectively vaporises a sample and then weighs the different atoms in it. It can tell you the composition of a sample with an accuracy of parts per billion.</p>
<p>It’s an expensive, bespoke process, though. You wouldn’t use it for jewellery. It’s mainly used by scientists, or mining companies that want to determine the exact composition of a sample. </p>
<p>You would typically only use this kind of testing if you had a great need for exactness, or a reason to be suspicious of a sample.</p>
<h2>The importance of trust</h2>
<p>In practice, these tests are not typically used by people buying gold. The gold industry largely runs on trust.</p>
<p>If a reputable seller tells you they’re giving you gold that is 99.99% pure, you generally believe them. You don’t test every coin or every bar.</p>
<p>For whatever reason (perhaps their extra conditions about silver content), the Shanghai Gold Exchange didn’t take the Perth Mint’s word about the purity of the gold it delivered.</p>
<p>Now the Perth Mint may have a trust problem. And when trust is broken, it’s not easily restored.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201288/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Cortie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From Archimedes’ principle to mass spectrometry, there are plenty of ways to test the purity of gold.Michael Cortie, Professor emeritus, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1585502021-06-14T15:28:26Z2021-06-14T15:28:26ZCOVID-19 made deep-sea mining more tempting for some Pacific islands – this could be a problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406142/original/file-20210614-118145-p25ldq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6555%2C4375&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/deepsea-fish-297407534">Superjoseph/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While most Pacific islands have <a href="https://covid19.who.int/table">escaped the worst of COVID-19</a>, a cornerstone of their economies, tourism, has taken a big hit. By June 2020, visitor arrivals in Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu had completely ceased, as borders were closed and even internal travel <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0036/1197189/Pacific-islands-tourism-during-COVID-19.pdf">restricted</a>. In Fiji, where tourism generated about 40% of GDP before the pandemic, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/03/covid-coronavirus-deserted-islands-pacific-resorts-struggle-to-survive-a-year-without-tourists">economy contracted by 19%</a> in 2020.</p>
<p>One economic alternative lies just offshore. The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is a deep-sea trench spanning 4.5 million square kilometres in the central Pacific Ocean between Hawaii and Mexico. On its seabed are potato-sized rocks called polymetallic nodules which contain <a href="https://res.mdpi.com/d_attachment/minerals-10-00263/article_deploy/minerals-10-00263.pdf">nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese</a>. These formed over centuries through the accumulation of iron and manganese around debris such as shells or sharks’ teeth. </p>
<p>There are estimated to be around <a href="https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-3/mineral-resources/manganese-nodules/">21 billion tonnes</a> of manganese nodules in this trench alone, and demand for these metals is <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/climate-smart-mining-minerals-for-climate-action0">likely to skyrocket</a> as the world ramps up the development of batteries for electric vehicles and renewable power grids.</p>
<p>While much of the CCZ lies beneath the high seas where no single state has control, it’s adjacent to the exclusive economic zones of several Pacific island states, including the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru and Tonga. Lacking the means to search for the metals themselves, these states have <a href="https://www.oceanographicmagazine.com/news/deep-sea-mining-pacific-ocean/">sponsored mining companies</a> to take out licences with the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which is responsible for sustainably managing the seabed in international waters. This would allow these companies to explore the seabed and determine how viable mining is likely to be, and its potential environmental impact. </p>
<p>To date, ISA has <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/polymetallic-nodules">approved 19 exploration contracts</a>, 17 of which are in the CCZ. A Canadian company, <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2021-04-22/the-metals-company-chairman-and-ceo-on-deep-sea-mining-video">The Metals Company</a> (formerly DeepGreen Metals) has <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2020/06/deep-sea-mining-an-environmental-solution-or-impending-catastrophe/">contracts</a> with Tonga, Nauru and Kiribati.</p>
<p>With so little known about the biodiversity of this largely unexplored part of the ocean, it’s difficult to accurately predict how deep-sea mining will <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/117/30/17455">affect</a> species here. Environmental organisations and scientists have <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/ngos-and-scientists-urge-moratorium-on-deep-sea-mining-in-the-pacific/">argued</a> for <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-56607700">a moratorium</a> on mining until more extensive research can be done. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sea-pangolin-the-first-ever-species-endangered-by-potential-deep-sea-mining-120624">Sea Pangolin: the first ever species endangered by potential deep sea mining</a>
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<p>Some Pacific islanders, including The Alliance of Solwara Warriors, representing indigenous communities in the Bismark and Solomon Seas of Papua New Guinea, <a href="https://www.civicus.org/index.php/media-resources/news/interviews/4275-papua-new-guinea-if-we-allow-seabed-mining-then-we-may-just-call-for-the-end-of-humanity">have protested</a> the lack of information given to local communities about the <a href="http://www.deepseaminingoutofourdepth.org/solidarity-with-alliance-with-solwara-warriors/">potential impact of mining</a>. In April 2021, Pacific civil society groups wrote to the British government <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/interational/pacific-news/440526/pacific-groups-write-to-uk-for-support-aginst-deep-sea-mining">seeking support for a moratorium</a>. Meanwhile, a former president of Kiribati, Anote Tong, has described deep-sea mining as “<a href="https://devex.com/news/opinion-on-deep-sea-mining-climate-change-and-the-guidelines-needed-to-ensure-ocean-sustianaiblity-985860">inevitable</a>” and urged businesses to figure out how to do it safely.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br><em>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in-depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network</em>.</p>
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<p>But time is running out. Seven exploratory licences are <a href="https://isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/polymettalic-nodules">due to expire in 2021</a>, making it imperative that either a moratorium is adopted internationally, or the ISA adopts a legal framework for determining the conditions under which extractive mining can take place.</p>
<h2>From exploration to extraction</h2>
<p>Work towards this framework has been ongoing since 2014. Despite this, the 168 nations of the ISA assembly have yet to agree a code for regulating extractive mining contracts. The ISA’s ambition to reach an agreement in 2020 was derailed by the pandemic, and it’s unclear whether meetings will go ahead in 2021. It’s likely that exploratory contracts will expire in the meantime, increasing pressure on the ISA from mining companies and those states sponsoring them to <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-rush-is-on-to-mine-the-deep-seabed-with-effects-on-ocean-life-that-arent-well-understood-139833">grant exploitation licences</a>. Exploratory licences are regulated by the ISA. Without an agreed code, extractive ones are not.</p>
<p>Even if a consensus were reached, enforcing environmental safeguards would be difficult. Pinpointing responsibility for the source of any pollution or environmental damage is tricky when mining takes place in such deep water. There are also few, if any, physical boundaries between one mining area and another. The effects of mining on different ecosystems and habitats might take time to manifest.</p>
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<img alt="A dark knobbly hunk of rock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406139/original/file-20210614-77865-hb87mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">What all the fuss is about: a polymetallic nodule taken from the Pacific Ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/polymetallic-nodules-pacific-ocean-on-white-551101003">V.Gordeev/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>International consensus on a moratorium is unlikely too. Mining companies have ploughed a lot of money into developing technology for operating at these depths. They will want to see a return on that, and so will their investors. States which have sponsored mining contracts – including some Pacific islands – will want to reap the royalties they have been <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/232680536.pdf">promised</a>. </p>
<p>Pacific island states find themselves on the horns of a dilemma. They are among the countries most vulnerable to climate change and so support strong action. But unless alternatives are found, the developed world’s green transition will probably accelerate demand for metals resting peacefully in the deepest parts of the ocean surrounding these islands. It will be the people here who will bear the costs of deep-sea mining undertaken without sufficient caution, not the drivers of electric cars in the global north.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158550/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Farran does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Contracts for exploring the deep sea are due to expire before a safe mining code can be agreed.Sue Farran, Reader of Law, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1436542020-08-19T11:35:06Z2020-08-19T11:35:06ZWe’re using microbes to clean up toxic electronic waste – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352251/original/file-20200811-15-8m9k7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4288%2C2848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/electronic-waste-ready-recycling-139234613">Ltummy/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you were to stack up all the electronic waste produced annually around the world it would weigh as much as all the commercial aircrafts ever produced, or 5,000 Eiffel towers. This is a growing “tsunami” <a href="https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/-tsunami-of-e-waste-to-hit-the-world-soon-warns-new-un-report-62958">according to the UN</a>, and it’s fed by all the phones, tablets and other electronic devices that are thrown away each day. </p>
<p>Of the 44.7 million metric tonnes of electronic waste (often shortened to “e-waste”) produced around the world in 2017, 90% was sent to landfill, incinerated, or illegally traded. Europe and the US accounted for almost half of this – the EU is predicted to produce 12 million tonnes in 2020 alone. If nothing is done to combat the problem, the world is expected to produce more than 120 million tonnes annually by 2050.</p>
<p>Rich countries in Europe and North America export much of their e-waste to developing countries in Africa and Asia. A lot of this ends up accumulating in landfills, where toxic metals leach out and enter groundwater and food chains, threatening human health and the environment.</p>
<p>As daunting as this problem seems, we’re working on a solution. Using a process called bioleaching, we’re extracting and recycling these metals from e-waste using non-toxic bacteria.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/global-electronic-waste-up-21-in-five-years-and-recycling-isnt-keeping-up-141997">Global electronic waste up 21% in five years, and recycling isn't keeping up</a>
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<h2>Treasure from waste</h2>
<p>It might surprise you to learn that those toxic metals are actually very valuable. It’s a bitter irony that the e-waste mountains collecting in the world’s poorest places actually contain a fortune. Precious metals are found in your phone and computer, and each year <a href="https://unu.edu/news/news/only-15-of-gold-and-silver-used-in-high-tech-goods-is-recovered.html">US$21 billion worth of gold and silver</a> are used to manufacture new electronic devices. E-waste is thought to contain <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-report-time-seize-opportunity-tackle-challenge-e-waste">7% of the world’s gold</a>, and could be used to manufacture new products if it could be recycled safely.</p>
<p>With an estimated worth of <a href="https://unu.edu/media-relations/releases/un-world-economic-forum-and-partners-come-together-to-address-e-waste-challenges.html#info">US$62.5 billion a year</a>, the economic benefits of recycling e-waste are clear. And it would help meet the shortfall for new natural resources that are needed to manufacture new products. Some of the elements on a printed circuit board – essentially the brain of a computer – are raw materials <a href="http://www.ovam.be/sites/default/files/atoms/files/Study%20on%20Critical%20Raw%20Materials%20at%20EU%20Level.pdf">whose supply is at risk</a>.</p>
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<img alt="A row of computer circuit boards." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Precious metals used in electronics are worth a fortune, but most languish in landfills after the product is discarded.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/printed-circuit-boards-on-shell-fabric-496332808">DMSU/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Other elements found in electronics are considered some of the periodic table’s <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/research-innovation/endangered-elements.html">most endangered</a>. There is a serious threat that they will be depleted within the next century. With today’s <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140314-the-worlds-scarcest-material">trends of natural resource use</a>, natural sources of platinum will be depleted in about 15 years and silver in 20 years.</p>
<p>But recovering these materials is more difficult than you might imagine.</p>
<p>Pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy are the current technologies used for extracting and recycling e-waste metals. They involve high temperatures and toxic chemicals, and so are extremely harmful to the environment. They require lots of energy and produce large volumes of toxic gas too, creating more pollution and leaving a large carbon footprint.</p>
<p>But bioleaching has existed as a solution to these problems as far back as the era of the Roman Empire. The modern mining industry has relied on it for decades, using microbes – mainly bacteria, but also some fungi – to extract metals from ores.</p>
<p>Microorganisms chemically modify the metal, setting it free from the surrounding rock and allowing it to dissolve in a microbial soup, from which the metal can be isolated and purified. Bioleaching requires very little energy and so has a small carbon footprint. No toxic chemicals are used either, making it environmentally friendly and safe.</p>
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<img alt="Blue bacillus bacteria cells floating in a microbial soup." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Certain bacteria have been used for centuries to recover valuable metals from ores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/close-3d-microscopic-blue-bacteria-524613634">Paulista/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite how useful it is, applying bioleaching to e-waste has mostly been an academic pursuit. But our <a href="https://www.coventry.ac.uk/business/our-services/projects/current-projects/bioleaching/">research group</a> is leading the first industrial effort. In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12649-020-01128-9">recent study</a>, we reported how we managed to extract copper from discarded computer circuit boards using this method and recycle it into high-quality foil.</p>
<p>Different metals have different properties, so new methods must be constantly developed. Extracting metals by bioleaching, though pollution-free, is also slower than the traditional methods. Thankfully though, genetic engineering has already shown <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367458/">that we can improve</a> how efficiently these microbes can be used in green recycling. </p>
<p>After our success recycling metals from discarded computers, scientists are trying other types of e-waste, including electric batteries. But developing better recycling techniques is only one piece of the puzzle. For a completely circular economy, recycling should start with manufacturers and producers. Designing devices that are more easily recycled and tackling the throw-away culture that treats the growing problem with indifference are both equally vital in slowing the oncoming tsunami.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143654/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastien Farnaud receives funding from Innovate UK for a KTP (Knowledge Tranfer Partnership) with Network 2 Supplies Limited </span></em></p>Within the growing mountains of electronic waste, precious metals lie waiting to be recovered.Sebastien Farnaud, Professor of Bio-innovation and Enterprise, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1394952020-05-27T12:50:11Z2020-05-27T12:50:11ZCoronavirus weekly: where next for globalisation after the crisis?<p>As lockdown measures start to be eased in most countries around the world, the experts of The Conversation’s global network have focused this week on the major trends that are reshaping trade and the global economy.</p>
<p>Just before the pandemic struck, the economy was already losing momentum. However, the crisis is unlikely to put a stop to globalisation: rather, coronavirus is the starting point for a reconfiguration of the global system. Value chains are shortening in some sectors, China is seeking to extend government control over its economy, and global consumption has been undermined by the recession in the US. </p>
<p>Academics in our network analyse the impact of the pandemic on globalisation. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320716/original/file-20200316-18073-ruhw8b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong>This is our weekly roundup of expert info about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/covid-19-82431">coronavirus</a>.</strong>
<br><em>The Conversation, a not-for-profit group, works with a wide range of academics across its global network. Together we produce evidence-based analysis and insights. The articles are free to read – there is no paywall – and to <a href="http://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines">republish</a>. Keep up to date with the latest research by <a href="http://theconversation.com/newsletter">reading our free newsletter</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Reshuffling the deck</h2>
<ul>
<li><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-wont-kill-globalisation-but-a-shakeup-is-inevitable-137847">China’s international trade mapped</a>:</strong> In order to understand the magnitude of the economic shock of the Covid-19 pandemic, Jun Du, Agelos Delis, Mustapha Douch and Oleksandr Shepotylo of Aston University mapped China’s recent trade. They showed that worst-affected Chinese imports are machinery and luxury goods. As for exports, goods whose production is labour-intensive, such as furniture, have fallen drastically, as well as capital goods such as nuclear reactors. According to these economists, these trends could be long-lasting, as most countries become aware of the fragility of global value chains – without, however, completely undermining globalisation.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337021/original/file-20200522-124818-zrw86.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<ul>
<li><p><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/vital-signs-australian-barley-growers-are-the-victims-of-weaponised-trade-rules-139037">Tensions between Australia and China:</a></strong> Richard Holden of the Unversity of New South Wales wonders about the new tensions over barley and the impact that the crisis could have on relations between the two countries.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Return of the local economy:</strong> Some countries, faced with the uncertainties of the future, prefer to turn to more local forms of economy. This is the case in Canada, particularly in the area of fisheries. Kristen Lowitt of Brandon University and Charles Z. Levkoe of Lakehead University have looked at <a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-fish-local-can-help-feed-communities-and-support-economies-135613">policies</a> in north-western Ontario trying to help local people to benefit more from the fish caught in the Thunder Bay area, which are generally destined for export.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Golden days are over:</strong> Before the pandemic, the global economy was already showing signs of fragility against the backdrop of trade tensions between China and the US. Countries had been building up their gold reserves, but then just before the COVID-19 pandemic, <a href="https://theconversation.com/countries-went-on-a-gold-buying-spree-before-coronavirus-took-hold-heres-why-138173">demand slowed</a>. “In truth, this was not entirely surprising”, writes Drew Woodhouse (Sheffield Hallam University). “Purchasing bullion at close to a seven-year high, and after a month of prices fluctuating plus or minus about 13%, is no particularly prudent way to consolidate economic and geopolitical power.”</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>China’s recovery</h2>
<ul>
<li><strong>Protection and control:</strong> Chinese Premier Li Keqiang gave a 55-minute speech at China’s National People’s Congress on May 22, which had been postponed for two months due to the pandemic, in which he outlined the government’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-new-coronavirus-recovery-strategy-explained-139178">recovery strategy</a>. He set out a roadmap, deciphered by Jane Duckett, Holly Snape, Hua Wang, Yingru Li (University of Glasgow), with two watchwords: “protection” and “control”. Li stressed that continued vigilance against the coronavirus will be a core thread determining everything from macro-level strategy down to micro-level policy for the foreseeable future in China.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Hard times</h2>
<ul>
<li><strong>On your own:</strong> The economic crisis is hitting the US hard – tens of millions of Americans are now registering for unemployment as companies close and lay off workers. Despite the federal government’s efforts, people are unable to meet their immediate financial needs for food, care and shelter. As Paul Shafer (Boston University) details, the crisis reveals the <a href="https://theconversation.com/4-ways-covid-19-has-exposed-gaps-in-the-us-social-safety-net-138233">major flaws</a> in the American social safety net. </li>
</ul>
<p>Globally, the pandemic has also hit developing countries hard.</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Food insecurity:</strong> Borja Santos Porras (IE University) is concerned about the poverty and food insecurity that the crisis is causing in low-income countries. They believe that these two factors <a href="https://theconversation.com/la-pobreza-que-generara-la-crisis-puede-cobrarse-mas-vidas-que-la-propia-enfermedad-138922">could kill more people than the disease itself</a>.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Pandemic poverty:</strong> In Indonesia, the poorest are also at the mercy of the virus. Fisca Miswari Aulia (BAPPENAS), Maliki (BAPPENAS) and M Niaz Asadullah (University of Malaya) estimate that <a href="https://theconversation.com/without-intervention-model-shows-covid-19-will-drag-at-least-3-6-million-indonesians-into-poverty-138305">an additional 3.6 million people</a> could face poverty as a result of the pandemic.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Refugees struggling:</strong> In East Africa, it is the plight of refugees in Nairobi that interests Naohiko Omata (University of Oxford). He points out that these populations have very low incomes, most often generated by daily street sales, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/many-refugees-living-in-nairobi-struggle-to-survive-because-of-covid-19-138455">are directly affected</a> by the disease. </p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320030/original/file-20200312-116261-a6ugi0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" alt="Sign up to The Conversation" width="100%"></a></p>
<p><em>Get the latest news and advice on <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/covid-19">COVID-19</a>, direct from the experts in your inbox. Join hundreds of thousands who trust experts by <strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter">subscribing to our newsletter</a></strong>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
This week, our experts are looking at the major trends in post-crisis globalisation.Gemma Ware, Head of AudioThibault Lieurade, Chef de rubrique Economie + Entreprise, The Conversation FranceCamille Khodor, Éditrice Économie + Entreprise, The Conversation FranceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1332882020-03-29T17:33:20Z2020-03-29T17:33:20ZNew technologies to recycle electronic waste<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319392/original/file-20200309-118956-1w39ts4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=59%2C5%2C1610%2C859&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pulsed extraction column (normally positioned vertically).</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">JCP Gabriel, CEA Marcoule DES/ISEC/DMRC</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our connected consumer society generates a lot of electronic waste, <a href="http://i.unu.edu/media/unu.edu/news/52624/UNU-1stGlobal-E-Waste-Monitor-2014-small.pdf">around 50 million tonnes per year worldwide</a>. It is even currently the waste that shows the strongest growth from one year to the next. The value of the raw materials included in this waste is estimated at <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Climate-Change/Documents/GEM%202017/Global-E-waste%20Monitor%202017.pdf">50-60 billion euros</a>, depending on materials prices. Legislation and recycling channels for this waste are organised in many countries, thanks to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320077046_Operating_models_and_development_trends_in_the_extended_producer_responsibility_system_for_waste_electrical_and_electronic_equipment">extended producer responsibility systems</a>, but currently only 20% is recycled in a certified process . In addition, of the sixty chemical elements present in electronic waste, only a minority is recycled, ten in number_: gold, silver, platinum, cobalt, tin, copper, iron, aluminium and lead). Everything else ends up _ in fine_ wasted in landfills.</p>
<p>The ideal, from the point of view of the circular economy, would be on the one hand to prolong as much as possible the lifespan of these electronic devices, in particular by prolonging the first use, and on the other hand to facilitate and favour reuse or repair. The fact remains that these landfills represent real “urban mines”: potential deposits for those who know how to exploit them.</p>
<h2>How do we deal with electronic waste?</h2>
<p>Recycling electronic waste means separating materials, molecules or chemical elements, so that they can be sold as raw materials for the manufacture of new products. First you have to dismantle the devices and components, sort them, grind them, and finally separate the materials, most often by incineration and then by solution based chemical processes.</p>
<p>Getting more chemicals from the urban mine is easier said than done. Electronic waste is very varied in nature and is often mixed with other types of wastes. The composition of the waste to be treated therefore varies from one shovel of waste incinerator’s ash or from one batch of waste to another. This contrasts with the exploitation of a “traditional” mine where the composition of the ore is much simpler and constant, at least in comparison.</p>
<p>The chemist is faced with an extremely complex separation problem. This partly explains why the recycling industry is currently focusing on the most concentrated or economically attractive metals to recover, hence the list above.</p>
<h2>New strategy: dismantle, sort, grind, dissolve</h2>
<p>Sorting aims to minimize the chemical complexity of the mixture to be treated, as well as its variability. It can be done at all scales: that of the device (type, generation), of its modules (printed circuits, batteries, external envelopes, frames, etc.), of their elementary electronic components (cables, resistances, capacities, chips, bare boards etc.), or even at the level of the powder resulting from grinding, which can be carried out on all the scales described.</p>
<p>The complete disassembly of devices is theoretically the most effective approach. But, due to the multiplicity and complexity of equipment, it’s difficult to automate this step: disassembly is still mainly carried out manually, which means that its cost is often too high to allow sorting down to the level of the elementary components.</p>
<p>Consequently, the most common approach among recyclers (<a href="https://www.mtb-recycling.fr/en/weee-recycling.html">MTB</a>, <a href="https://www.paprec.com/en/solutions-and-services/recycling-solutions/batteries-and-weee">Paprec</a>, <a href="https://www.veolia.com/en/solution/recycling-weee-electronic-waste">Véolia</a>), before any chemical treatment, is the grinding at the scale of the device or its modules, followed by steps of separation of the particles by physical methods using the differences in densities or magnetic properties. Depending on the purity of the powders obtained, thermal or chemical treatments are then used to refine the composition of the final products.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318836/original/file-20200305-106589-18yh30a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pulsed extraction column, 5 cm diameter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">JCP Gabriel, CEA Marcoule DES/ISEC/DMRC</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the latter case, the most used process of separation in solution of chemical elements is the so-called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction">liquid-liquid extraction</a>. It usually consists first of dissolving the metals or their oxides in an acid (for example nitric acid), then making an emulsion, that is to say the equivalent of a French vinaigrette. The acid solution (“vinegar”) is vigorously mixed with an organic solvent (such as kerosene, “oil”) in an extraction column and one or more molecules (“mustard”) having the property of promoting the transfer of certain metals (“flavours”) from acid to solvent. As this separation step is rarely perfect, it is repeated in series in order to reach the desired purity levels. Several dozen, even several hundred, successive extractions are sometimes necessary to achieve the desired purity.</p>
<p>Optimising the costs and efficiency of such processes requires the study of the influence of a very large number of parameters (for example, the concentrations of chemical species, acidity, temperature, etc.) in order to define the combination which represents the best compromise.</p>
<h2>New processes to increase the recycling rate</h2>
<p>In the laboratory <a href="https://research.ntu.edu.sg/scarce/Pages/Home.aspx">SCARCE</a>, we are working on new processes which will ultimately allow “ increase the number of chemical elements recycled and increase their recycling rates: on the one hand with mechanical processes (automation of disassembly and sorting), on the other hand with chemical extraction processes in solution.</p>
<p>For example, as we have seen, the chemical composition of electronic waste is very variable. The development of an extraction process, for a specific chemical composition, can easily take five to ten years of research and optimization and the adaptation of an existing process to a new composition (for example a new metal) requires several months to several years. This is hardly compatible with the volumes of waste, the resources and the time available for recycling waste.</p>
<h2>Microscopic piping to optimize the extraction of elements</h2>
<p>To reduce the time and cost of developing new extraction processes, we have miniaturized and integrated in a single device <a href="https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfluidics">microfluidics</a> automated all the equipment necessary for a process study. In a microfluidic device, the piping is smaller than a millimetre (in our case 100 µm thick, the thickness of two hairs or less). This allows very small amounts of material to be used: a few microliters of solvents and acids instead of millilitres, and a few milligrams of chemical compounds instead of grams. With the integration of analysis methods (X-rays, infrared and sensors), we can study the different combinations of parameters continuously, automatically and quickly. This allows us to do a study in a few days which can normally take up to several months.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318837/original/file-20200305-106584-11swhbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elemental component of the 5 cm side extraction microfluidic chip. Fluids flow through the half-pipe in a zigzag pattern and the chemical elements pass through a membrane sandwiched between two such components. The piping, pumps and analysis modules, e.g. infrared, are added.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">A. El Mangaar, JCP Gabriel, CEA</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Additional advantage of microfluidics compared to a conventional device: we better understand the phenomena of transfers of chemical elements at the interface between water and oil. Indeed, we control both the exchange surface between water and oil thanks to the use of a porous membranes, as well as the contact time between the two phases, which are pushed into the microfluidic channels using computer controlled syringe pumps. Material flows can then be calculated precisely.</p>
<h2>Recovery of rare earths: precious and little recycled materials</h2>
<p>This approach recently allowed us to study the <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2020/cp/c9cp06569e">extraction of strategic metals</a> found in mobile phones. These metals, essential in modern technologies, are produced mainly in China and are <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/10882/attachments/1/translations/en/renditions/pdf">little recycled at present</a> – under 5%. This is all the more unfortunate as their production is very expensive and can pose <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/04/radioactive-waste-standoff-could-slash-high-tech-s-supply-rare-earth-elements">societal and environmental problems</a>.</p>
<p>Our results show that the combination of two specific extracting molecules makes it possible to extract rare earths with an efficiency almost 100 times greater than the efficiency of extractions with the molecules used separately. In addition, we have demonstrated efficient extraction at acid concentrations 10 to 100 times lower than those used in industry, which generates less pollution. We have also identified combinations of parameters that make it possible to separate the rare earths much more efficiently from each other, which is conventionally very difficult to achieve in a few steps. We are now studying the transposition of these results, obtained on a very small scale, to that of the industrial production tool.</p>
<p>Finally, our microfluidic approach is modular which means that each of the modules can find its usefulness in other cases, for example, the liquid-liquid extraction module can be useful for the study of processes of extraction of organic molecules (essential oils); or the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04425">infrared spectroscopy module</a> for online monitoring of agrifood or pharmaceutical processes. It allows you to determine the amount of unbound water – it is the water that surrounds the molecules that are dissolved in it, but that do not interact with them, a key parameter to follow in many formulations of these industries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133288/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean-Christophe P. Gabriel receives funding from (i) the European Research Council under the European Union's 7th Framework Program (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant agreement n°320915 "REECYCLE"; (ii) Singapore's National Research Foundation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore, the Ministry of National Development, Singapore, and National Environment Agency, Ministry of the Environment and Water Resource, Singapore under the Closing the Waste Loop R&D Initiative as part of the Urban Solutions & Sustainability – Integration Fund (Award No. USS-IF-2018-4). He is affiliated with CEA, Nanyang Technological University and the Materials Research Society.</span></em></p>Electronic waste is accumulating and is a resource to be exploited. Microfluidic devices allow the development of recycling, including the recycling of rare earths – a precious resource.Jean-Christophe P. Gabriel, Directeur de Recherche au CEA (IRAMIS/NIMBE de Saclay) et Professeur invité à NTU/ERI@N (Singapour), Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/930692018-03-22T19:09:03Z2018-03-22T19:09:03ZSustainable shopping: if you really, truly need a new phone, buy one with replaceable parts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210742/original/file-20180316-104694-3wmnkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3901%2C1553&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Before taking that tempting upgrade, ask yourself if it's really necessary.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Shopping can be confusing at the best of times, and trying to find environmentally friendly options makes it even more difficult. Our <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/sustainable-shopping-38407">Sustainable Shopping</a> series asks experts to provide easy eco-friendly guides to purchases big and small. Send us your suggestions for future articles <a href="mailto:michael.hopkin@theconversation.edu.au">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Almost 90% of Australians own a smartphone, and almost <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/au/mobile-consumer-survey">40% of us are expected to update our phone</a> in the coming year.</p>
<p>The most sustainable mobile phone is actually the phone you already own! This is because manufacturing a phone has far more environmental impact than using it.</p>
<p>The circuit board, display and battery are primarily responsible for your phone’s environmental impacts. These contain valuable minerals such as cobalt, gold, silver, palladium and tin. Huge amounts of ore, processing and energy are required to yield small amounts of these materials. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-chuck-that-old-mobile-phone-theres-gold-in-there-52074">Don't chuck that old mobile phone, there's gold in there</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.greenpeace.de/sites/www.greenpeace.de/files/publications/20161109_oeko_resource_efficency_final_full-report.pdf">Mining impacts</a>, especially in unregulated areas, can result in land and agricultural degradation, heavy metal pollution of water, soil and air, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/conflict-minerals-3718">human rights and social impacts</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210485/original/file-20180315-104699-1aj3e6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More than 40 refined metals and elements are needed to make a phone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to Apple, manufacturing makes up 77% of the firm’s <a href="https://www.apple.com/au/environment/climate-change/">carbon footprint</a>, with 17% attributed to usage and the remainder to transport, recycling and facilities. This percentage is generally <a href="https://www.greenpeace.de/sites/www.greenpeace.de/files/publications/20161109_oeko_resource_efficency_final_full-report.pdf">consistent</a> with other smartphone manufactures.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211556/original/file-20180322-54881-1s2fp5w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greenhouse emissions breakdown for an iPhone 8.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.apple.com/environment/pdf/products/iphone/iPhone_8_PER_sept2017.pdf">Apple</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is estimated to be more than <a href="http://ewastemonitor.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Global-E-waste-Monitor-2017-electronic-spreads_Executive_Summery_4_7.pdf">one active mobile phone</a> for every person in the world. Cumulatively, this takes up many resources and has serious environmental and social impacts.</p>
<h2>Considering a phone’s lifespan</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20160612-heres-the-truth-about-the-planned-obsolescence-of-tech">Planned obsolescence</a> is a design feature of most smartphones. </p>
<p>This strategy is nothing new. Back in 1954, the American industrial designer <a href="https://mam.org/collection/archives/brooks/bio.php">Brooks Stevens</a> encouraged manufacturers to deliberately design products that would become obsolete long before they broke, as a way to boost sales. He encouraged incremental annual design updates – “a little newer, a little better, and a little sooner than necessary”.</p>
<p>In addition to fashion obsolescence, physical attributes also play a key role. Diminishing battery performance, poor durability, deteriorating appearance, and poor repairability can all persuade us to replace our phones sooner than necessary.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211557/original/file-20180322-54866-1isv4lm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A case in point is the <a href="https://www.apple.com/au/batteries/why-lithium-ion">lithium-ion battery</a> in your phone, which declines in performance as it ages. Lithium-ion batteries are usually only good for a specified number of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Battery_life">charging and discharging cycles</a>, so they typically require replacement after a few years. Yet most phone batteries are designed in a way that prevents user replacement and discourages servicing. </p>
<p>Apple even recently admitted that it has been “throttling” the performance of certain iPhones due to <a href="https://www.apple.com/au/iphone-battery-and-performance">reduced battery performance</a>. In fairness, Apple said that this was done to prevent the phone from unexpected shutdowns, and has now dramatically cut the cost of its battery replacement service for recent iPhone models.</p>
<p>Extending a phone’s lifespan from one to four years can <a href="https://www.ieee.org/about/news/2013/22april_2013.html">decrease its environmental impact by about 40%</a>. Unfortunately, most manufacturers actively discourage users from replacing the battery, or any other internal component, by using tamper-resistant fasteners or strong adhesives. This is rather like fitting a car with a set of tyres that are designed never to be removed and replaced. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ifixit.com">iFixit</a> is a notable source for free smartphone repair manuals, and its organisers have advocated for <a href="https://ifixit.org/blog/category/activism/">right-to-repair legislation</a> that would require manufacturers to give owners and independent repairers access to replacement parts and technical information.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, there are some simple ways you can get around your phone’s inbuilt limitations, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>ensuring you <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958">maximise its battery life</a></p></li>
<li><p>fitting a screen protector, so a smashed or scratched screen doesn’t prematurely end your phone’s career. </p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-extend-your-phones-battery-life-80958">Explainer: how to extend your phone's battery life</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What are the most sustainable phones on the market?</h2>
<p>But say you’ve decided that you genuinely do need a new phone. What next? </p>
<p>You could consider buying a refurbished phone. They are often indistinguishable from an equivalent new phone and will save you money too.</p>
<p>Whether buying new or used, try to choose a model that is easy to repair or upgrade. <a href="https://www.ifixit.com/smartphone-repairability?sort=score">iFixit</a> scores various phones’ repairability, awarding points for upgradability, use of non-proprietary tools for servicing, and replaceability of individual components.</p>
<p>Greenpeace’s annual <a href="http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/greener-electronics-2017">Guide to Greener Electronics</a>, meanwhile, assesses the use of energy, resource and chemicals for different phone models, as well as supply-chain management. </p>
<p>This analysis found that, of the major manufacturers, <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/greener-electronics-2017/#grades">Apple led the field</a> when it comes to environmental performance. </p>
<p>But another, lesser-known brand scored higher still. The standout was the <a href="https://www.fairphone.com/en/">Fairphone 2</a>, made by a small Dutch company which claims to have created the world’s first ethical, modular smartphone. It is currently only available in Europe, although it is reportedly compatible with other countries’ phone networks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210746/original/file-20180316-104663-s3ktar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Fairphone, described by its makers as the world’s first ethical phone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/fairphone/9800393576/in/photolist-fW2zz3-iQHL6c-8Bb3W9-afAVk2-oTWLk1-iQJmmY-iQLopU-8B7SF6-iQHJgk-afDDio-iQJkes-r6MHQ3-kwdgru-jFWx9T-afAR5M-9onDZG-afAYdv-afAZ4z-kwbbtt-afDHY9-kwdgME-afAUkp-9onLcE-oNq2qb-rm3FgN-gji2QX-rocvHV-9onUuJ-dWj3fe-dgv91X-BRDNah-kuLc4j-iQHJ8K-afAU1a-afAUcc-kxPCjg-jFYN4h-gjhR1Q-BRDQuY-afDLmN-afAYhg-Cgtsd5-kuJ8g4-kwbBbT-gkKQKu-afAU8R-zhw1pX-afDFQG-afDEQy-oQbo2x">Fairphone/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What to do with your old phone?</h2>
<p>OK, so you bought a new phone! The next question is what to do with the old one. <a href="https://www.mobilemuster.com.au/media/135343/mob_annualreport-2016-17final.pdf">One in seven of us will keep an old phone</a>, even if it doesn’t work. According to a <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/au/mobile-consumer-survey">survey commissioned by eBay</a> in Australia, that equates to A$8.6billion worth of smartphones gathering dust in drawers. Popular models of smartphones will have resale value even if they are broken.</p>
<p>The final end-of-life option is to recycle your mobile phone through a retailer that offers a <a href="https://www.mobilemuster.com.au/recycling">recycling service</a>. As mobile phones make up one of the largest categories of <a href="http://ewastemonitor.info">e-waste</a>, it is important that you recycle your phone responsibly to ensure that valuable material can be recovered and toxic materials properly managed. Unfortunately, too much of our e-waste is not properly documented and is being exported to emerging economies, where it is recycled in <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-thirst-for-new-gadgets-has-created-a-vast-empire-of-electronic-waste-47678">sometimes appalling conditions</a>.</p>
<p>A final tip: if you sell or recycle your old phone, ensure that you have removed the old SIM, erased all data, and reset the phone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Miles Park does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The most sustainable phone is the one you already own. But if you’re in the market for a new handset, consider choosing one with replaceable parts to avoid having to replace the whole thing again.Miles Park, Senior Lecturer, Industrial Design, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888802017-12-17T17:24:39Z2017-12-17T17:24:39ZPiercing the mystery of the cosmic origins of gold<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198289/original/file-20171208-11325-yh5lap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Twinkle, twinkle, little star...</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Prawny/Pixabay</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Where does gold, the precious metal coveted by mortals through the ages, come from? How, where and when was it produced? Last August, a single astrophysical observation finally gave us the key to answer these questions. The <a href="http://public.virgo-gw.eu/gw170817_papers/">results of this research</a> were published on October 16, 2017.</p>
<p>Gold pre-exists the formation of Earth: this is what differentiates it from, for example, diamond. However valuable it may be, this precious stone is born out of mere carbon, whose atomic structure is modified by enormous pressure from the earth’s crust. Gold is totally different – the strongest forces in the earth’s mantle are unable to change the composition of its atomic nucleus. Too bad for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy">alchemists</a> who dreamed of transforming lead into gold.</p>
<p>Yet there is gold on Earth, both in its deep core, where it has migrated together with heavy elements such as lead or silver, and in the planet’s crust, which is where we extract this precious metal. While the gold in the core was already there at the formation of our planet, that in the crust is mostly extraterrestrial and arrived after the formation of Earth. It was brought by a gigantic meteor shower that bombarded the Earth (and the Moon) about 3.8 billion years ago.</p>
<h2>Formation of heavy elements</h2>
<p>How gold is produced in the universe? The elements heavier than iron, including gold, are partially produced by the <em>s</em> process during the ultimate evolution phases of the stars. It is a slow process (<em>s</em> stands for slow) that operates in the core of what are referred to as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch">AGB</a> stars – those of low and intermediate mass (less than 10 solar masses) that can produce chemical elements up to polonium. The other half of the heavy elements is produced by the <em>r</em> process (<em>r</em> stands for rapid). But the site where this nucleo-synthesis process takes place has long remained a mystery.</p>
<p>To understand the discovery enabled by the August 17, 2017, observation, we need to understand the scientific <em>status quo</em> that existed beforehand. For about 50 years, the dominant assumption among the scientific community was that the <em>r</em> process took place during the final explosion of massive stars (specialists speak of a core collapse <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova">supernova</a>). Indeed, the formation of light elements (those up to iron) implies nuclear reactions that ensure the stability of the stars by counteracting contraction induced by gravity. For heavier elements – those from iron and beyond – it is necessary to add energy or to take very specific paths, such as the <em>s</em> and <em>r</em> processes. Researchers believed that the <em>r</em> process could occur in ejected matter from the explosion of massive stars, capturing a part of the released energy and participating to the dissemination of material in the interstellar medium. </p>
<p>Despite the simplicity of this explanation, numerical modelling of supernovae has proved extremely complicated. After 50 years of efforts, researchers have just begun to understand its mechanism. Most of these simulations do unfortunately not provide the physical conditions for the <em>r</em> process.</p>
<p>These conditions are however quite simple: you need a lot of neutrons and a really warm environment.</p>
<h2>Fusion of neutron stars</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=726&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=726&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198647/original/file-20171211-9396-1b4j164.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=726&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two ounces of gold … from outer space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2oz_gold_Engelhard.JPG">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the last decade or so, some researchers have begun to seriously investigate an alternative scenario of the heavy-element production site. They focused their attention on neutron stars. As befits their name, they constitute a gigantic reservoir of neutrons, which are released occasionally. The strongest of these releases occurs during their merging, in a binary system, also called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilonova">kilonova</a>. There are several signatures of this phenomenon that luckily were seen on August 17: a gravitational-wave emission culminating a fraction of a second before the final fusion of the stars and a burst of highly energetic light (known as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst">gamma-ray burst</a>) emitted by a jet of matter approaching the speed of light. Although these bursts have been observed regularly for several decades, it is only since 2015 that gravitational waves have been detectable on Earth thanks to the <a href="http://public.virgo-gw.eu">Virgo</a> and <a href="http://ligo.org/">LIGO</a> interferometers.</p>
<p>August 17 will remain a major date for the scientific community. Indeed, it marks the first simultaneous detection of the arrival of gravitational waves – whose origin in the sky was fairly well identified – and a gamma-ray burst, whose origin was also fairly well localized and coincided with the first one. Gamma-ray burst emissions are focused in a narrow cone, and the astronomers’ lucky break was that this one was emitted in the Earth’s direction.</p>
<p>In the following days, telescopes continuously analysed the light from this kilonova and found confirmation of the production of elements heavier than iron. They were also able to estimate the frequency of the phenomenon and the amount of material ejected. These estimates are consistent with the average abundance of the elements observed in our galaxy.</p>
<p>In a single observation, the hypothesis that prevailed until now – of a <em>r</em> process occurring exclusively during supernovae – is now seriously under question and it is now certain that the <em>r</em> process also takes place in kilonovae. The respective contribution of supernovae and kilonovae for the heavy elements’ nucleo-synthesis remains to be determined, and it will be done with the accumulation of datum related to the next observations. The August 17 observation alone has already allowed a great scientific advance for the global understanding of the origin of heavy elements, including gold.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/x_Akn8fUBeQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This NASA animation is an artist’s view and accelerated version of the first nine days of a kilonova (the merging of two neutron stars) similar to that observed on August 17, 2017 (GW170817). In the approach phase of the two stars, the gravitational waves emitted are coloured pale blue, then after the fusion a jet near the speed of light is emitted (in orange) generating itself a gamma burst (in magenta). The material ejected from the kilonova produces an initially ultraviolet light (violet), then white in the optics, and finally infra-red (red). The jet continues its expansion by emitting light in the X-ray range (blue)</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new window on the Universe</h2>
<p>A new window to the universe has just been opened, like the day that Galileo focused the first telescope on the sky. The Virgo and LIGO <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometry">interferometers</a> now make it possible to “hear” the most violent phenomena of the universe, and immense perspectives have opened up for astronomers, astrophysicists, particle physicists and nuclear physicists. This scientific achievement was only possible thanks to the fruitful collaboration between highly supportive nations, in particular the United States, Germany, France and Italy. As an example, there is only one laboratory in the world capable of reaching the required precision for the mirrors reflecting lasers, <a href="http://lma.in2p3.fr/Lmagb.htm">LMA in Lyon, France</a>. New interferometers are under development in Japan and Indian, and this list will surely soon become longer given huge discoveries expected for the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88880/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jérôme Margueron is CNRS researcher and a member of the Société Française de Physique (SFP).</span></em></p>The precious metal is literally extra-terrestrial, produced in the heart of the stars. How and under what conditions? Scientists know more thanks to a double astrophysical observation.Jérôme Margueron, Chercheur en astrophysique nucléaire, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/643922016-09-09T08:59:35Z2016-09-09T08:59:35ZIn the global race for rare metals, Team China wins gold<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135491/original/image-20160825-6595-1byafcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-354032012/stock-photo-a-pouch-with-scattered-gold-nugget-grains-on-cement-background.html?src=RaYq-GWcHM4SqisfjOmCmA-1-7">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Just as oil and gas has raised the stature of countries like Saudi Arabia in the <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-12/saudi-arabia-s-plan-to-extend-the-age-of-oil">age of oil</a>, countries that dominate the production of metals are set to benefit similarly in the rare metal age. </p>
<p>Rare metals, which are <a href="https://theconversation.com/metals-in-your-smartphone-have-no-substitutes-21142">produced in limited amounts</a> and often in just a few countries, play critical roles in the next generation of products: they store power, provide luminescence and make <a href="http://www.cnet.com/uk/news/digging-for-rare-earths-the-mines-where-iphones-are-born/">products more efficient</a>. Tesla vehicles, iPhones, Boeing 787s and even night vision goggles rely on the specific properties of a host of difficult-to-pronounce obscure metals.</p>
<p>Because of the global explosion in high-tech wizardry, people rely on the production of <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2015-10-22/global-economy-relies-on-tenuous-supply-lines-for-rare-metals">more metals on the periodic table than ever before</a>. And because of the high number of rare metals it takes to produce <a href="http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2012/09/19/rare-earth-metals-will-we-have-enough/">green products</a>, it’s no understatement to say that the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/20/opinion/the-next-resource-shortage.html">fate of the planet is tied to these materials</a>.</p>
<p>Over the Olympic season, countries rank their international stature on medal counts achieved during the games as a proxy for a country’s geopolitical stature. But the “real metal count” has a greater impact on the fate of nations.</p>
<p>To give an idea of how countries are doing, we produced two infographics to show the most notable changes in global producers from 1970 and 2015. It tallies the first, second, and third leading producers of all major and minor technology metals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135486/original/image-20160825-6588-1shlzy3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For each major mineral commodity, the world’s leading producer earns a gold medal, second leading producer a silver medal, and third leading producer a bronze medal. (Data source: USGS)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dylan McFarlane, Robert Pell, David Graham</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From the metal tables you can see that no country has succeeded in the real metal race like China. Through geological good fortune, along with a sustained focus on the production of rare metals at lower costs than other countries, China is poised to reap the gains from their production. Their focus on producing these metals is important. Finding secure, stable supplies outside China is a goal of two international research projects, <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/sosRare/home.html">SoS Rare</a> and <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/hiTechAlkCarb/">HiTech AlkCarb</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135487/original/image-20160825-6591-vs9z2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For each major mineral commodity, the world’s leading producer earns a gold medal, second leading producer a silver medal, and third leading producer a bronze medal. (Data source: USGS)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dylan McFarlane, Robert Pell, David Abraham</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike Saudi Arabia, which sought riches from the sale of its resources, China seeks to capitalise on building downstream industries – for example, by making smartphones using home-produced components – through its industrial strategy: <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/made-china-2025">Made in China 2025</a>. These resources are then a great means to continue to expand their manufacturing prowess.</p>
<p><em><a href="http://www.davidsabraham.com/">David Abraham</a>, senior fellow at New America, assisted in the production of the piece.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64392/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dylan McFarlane receives funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement 689909 for the HiTech AlkCarb project, a research project to develop new geomodels and sustainable exploration methods to target critical raw materials within alkaline igneous rocks and carbonatites. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Pell receives funding from NERC and the University of Exeter for the SoSRare project, a research project aiming to understand the mobility and concentration of rare earths in natural systems, and to investigate new processes that will lower the environmental impact of rare earth extraction and recovery.</span></em></p>iPhones, Boeing 787s, Teslas and a whole host of other technologies all rely on rare metals – so much so that a new era beckons.Dylan McFarlane, Research Project Manager in Critical Raw Materials and Responsible Mining, University of ExeterRobert Pell, Doctoral Candidate in Responsible Mining, University of ExeterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/520742016-02-18T23:20:04Z2016-02-18T23:20:04ZDon’t chuck that old mobile phone, there’s gold in there<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111599/original/image-20160216-22563-1y9mtro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It would be a waste, and environmental hazard, to see them thrown in the bin.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adrian Clark/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Australia there are many <a href="http://www.acma.gov.au/theACMA/engage-blogs/engage-blogs/researchacma/Digital-economy-grows-strongly">more mobile services</a> in use than there are <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/1647509ef7e25faaca2568a900154b63?opendocument">people</a>. </p>
<p>The majority of Australians upgrade or exchange their mobile phones every 18 to 24 months, while an increasing number have owned their mobile for <a href="http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/about-us/fast-facts/">more than two years</a>. The upshot is that there is around <a href="http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/about-us/fast-facts/">22.5 million unwanted mobiles</a> cluttering up homes around Australia. </p>
<p>And many of these mobiles incorporate components using elements from <a href="http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/02/19/the-chemical-elements-of-a-smartphone/">across the periodic table</a>, including many rare and valuable ones, such as gold. On average, there will be a total of one gram of gold across <a href="http://urbanmining.org/2014/11/extracting-gold-cell-phones">41 mobile phones</a>. In other words, about 1 metric tonne of smartphone handsets could <a href="http://urbanmining.org/2014/11/extracting-gold-cell-phones">yield 340g of gold</a>, which on current gold prices is more than A$18,000. </p>
<p>So if we’re smart, we should be extracting as much value as possible from these disused smartphones through recycling.</p>
<h2>What goes around…</h2>
<p>There are several services around Australia that can recycle your mobile phone and prevent it going to landfill, including <a href="http://www.cleanup.org.au/au/CleanUpMobilePhone/">Clean Up Australia</a>, <a href="http://youcan.org.au/">Youth Cancer</a>, which is run by Sony, and Aussie Recycling Program (<a href="http://www.arp.net.au/">ARP</a>).</p>
<p>The largest service is <a href="http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/about-us/">MobileMuster</a>, which is a free not-for-profit product stewardship program of the Australian mobile phone industry and has been running since 1998.</p>
<p>MobileMuster uses the recycler <a href="http://www.tes-amm.com.au/">TES-AMM’s</a> process, which includes <a href="http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/learn-about-recycling/">six steps</a>, including separating out various types of batteries, and recovering precious metals from circuit boards.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/about-us/">More than 90%</a> of the materials used in mobile phones are recyclable and can be reused to make things like stainless steel goods, new batteries or plastic fence posts.</p>
<p>New approaches for collecting mobile phones in Australia are now being tested and implemented, such as <a href="https://ecoportal.telstra.com/index.ssp">Telstra’s eCycle program</a>. This program, which is supported by MobileMuster and is free until March 2016, arranges for couriers to collect boxes full of electronic waste (e-waste), including mobile phones, for recycling.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111600/original/image-20160216-22550-1am8r41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How many of us have old smartphones lying around the house?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Intel Free Press/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The mining connection</h2>
<p>Collection and transport logistics are a key part of the mobile phone recycling value chain. But current best practice for the actual process of mobile phone recycling is still a combination of semi-automated and manual extraction processes. The most difficult of these is the separation process. </p>
<p>One idea that we have been exploring is applying the expertise and technologies from the very beginning of the metals value chain right to the end of that chain. </p>
<p>The mining industry has vast expertise in metallurgical, mineral and chemical processing techniques, and use these to extract minerals and metals from ore. The mining industry uses technology that can cost effectively mine large volumes of rock, moving over a million tonnes a day in some large mines.</p>
<p>It can also process high rates of ore at low grades, in some cases, several thousand tonnes per hour, to produce mineral concentrate ready for smelting, and if necessary, further refining to pure metal.</p>
<p>We think these approaches could be modified, adapted or honed to efficiently collect mobile phone from urban areas. They could then use automated techniques to separate the valuable components of mobile phones for metals recovery. </p>
<p>At present, the total amount of metals in old mobile phones is only a fraction of the metals in minerals ore bodies around the world. But the worldwide trend of increasing e-waste is pushing the metals recycling industry from a medium scale scale to one treating a “bulk commodity” e-waste, with similarities to the extraction of metals from mined ore bodies.</p>
<p>For the time being, the best thing to do with your old mobile phone is donate it to a service such as Mobile Muster or Telstra’s eCycle program. That way, toxic materials can be removed and valuable metals might remain in circulation rather than being consigned to the tip.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glen Corder receives funding from CSIRO for Wealth from Waste Cluster project - see <a href="http://wealthfromwaste.net">http://wealthfromwaste.net</a>.
MobileMuster (Rose Reed) are part of the project International Reference Panel and provide advice and guidance.</span></em></p>There are precious, and toxic, minerals in our old mobile phones. Far better to recycle them than dump them in the trash.Glen Corder, Principal Research Fellow - Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/397012015-04-08T17:17:14Z2015-04-08T17:17:14ZSystem to rate the scarcity of important metals aims to keep shortage at bay<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76967/original/image-20150402-9345-1tmjobb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rare earth elements, the unusual spices of the industrial world.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rareearthoxides.jpg">Peggy Greb/USDA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Store cupboards usually contain the basics – canned tomatoes, soup, dry goods – but rarely the more exotic additions required in small amounts to make a dish sing. In the same way, a growing shortage of some of the rare elements needed for high-tech electronics and environmental technologies is causing manufacturers and governments to panic, with sporadic shortages leading to price spikes in some metals over the last decade.</p>
<p>Miners, manufacturers and governments are keen to assess the overall risk, or “criticality”, associated with different metals in order to ensure that replenishment efforts are prioritised and business can continue as usual. Of course different firms or governments will have different views, so may come up with widely varying – and hence unhelpful – estimates of criticality for the same element. But <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/03/20/1500415112.abstract">a recent study by researchers at Yale University</a> has provided a tool based on three factors that can offer a more reliable approach to estimating metal shortfalls.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77196/original/image-20150407-26502-1yjaz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Graedel et al/PNAS</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You may need only a small amount of exotic spice for your dish, but if it’s not stocked at the corner shop, it wouldn’t matter if you needed the whole jar. Similarly we can be sure that some metals – iron, aluminium – will be found in deposits suitable for mining across the world, with huge reserves that we know about – so we don’t need to worry about these dry goods equivalents. But it’s the more exotic elements such as indium and selenium, the truffle oil of our analogy, that due to geology and economics are harder to find. These are high supply risk elements, yet are essential for uses in electronics and solar cells. </p>
<p>Production of some metals is highly concentrated in only a few countries, leading to geopolitical risks to supply – China’s moves to <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18778728">restrict rare earth element exports</a>, or <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/25/us-safrica-mining-idUSKBN0F00DC20140625">strikes in South African platinum mines</a> are recent examples.</p>
<p>Just like that bagged, mixed salad that’s so convenient, but wastefully irrigated and flown to Britain from Kenya at great cost, mining is a energy-hungry business. Rarer metals, such as gold and platinum, occur in concentrations as low as 1g per tonne of ore. The additional energy needed to extract and process this ore means mining these metals has a much greater environmental footprint compared to more concentrated metals, such as iron, which is the major constituent of iron ore. </p>
<p>The energy and environmental costs of mining rare metals are no different to the air miles for flying in out-of-season fruit from the other side of the world – and they leave these metals vulnerable to cost spikes due to rising energy costs or environmental legislation.</p>
<h2>Vulnerability of supply</h2>
<p>It’s possible to substitute fancier ingredients with something more common – student pasta is generally dressed with industrial cheddar rather than parmesan. Manufacturers will similarly find ways to adapt to what’s available in the face of supply restrictions, just as miners will look for fresh deposits in order to take advantage of spiking prices. </p>
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<span class="caption">Risks to global supply and environmental consequences for 15 rare earth elements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Graedel et al/PNAS</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example the rarer metal cobalt can be substituted by the more common nickel for many uses. But other metals, such as thallium and lead, are chemically very difficult to substitute and possible substitutes are equally rare.</p>
<p>Another consideration is how key the ingredient is to the recipe; it might be possible to leave out a bay leaf, but there’s no <em>coq au vin</em> without the wine. Some metals such as gold and silver are central to world and national economies, whereas others are insignificant.</p>
<h2>Where criticality falls down</h2>
<p>A systematic approach such as this loses sight of details. For example, the Yale researchers’ criticality system flags gold as vulnerable to supply restriction because of its wide use and lack of available substitutes. But only 10% of gold has practical uses in electronics or dentistry, so the remaining 90% largely in bank vaults or jewellery boxes could be put to use if necessary. </p>
<p>Also gold is the most highly recycled metal; nearly all the gold ever mined – <a href="https://forms.thomsonreuters.com/gfms/">an estimated 176,000 tonnes</a> – remains in use. Any shortfall from restricting gold supply can easily be made up from domestic gold sales (“Your gold for cash!”).</p>
<p>Another issue with criticality figures is that they are a snapshot. Due to the delays in reporting figures, the study is based on 2008 statistics that are already out of date. Nor do they anticipate changes in demand – tellurium is determined to be unremarkable, yet it is essential for solar panels and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927024812001298">demand is expected to outstrip supply by 2020</a>, potentially bringing an abrupt halt to the roll out of sustainable solar power.</p>
<p>Despite these issues this study presents the most consistent picture we have of threats to metal supply, one that will be of use to industry and governments alike. More vulnerable metals can be the target of measures to reduce use, increase recycling or locate more environmentally friendly or geopolitically benign sources – such as stocking up from the local farm shop.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39701/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gawen Jenkin receives funding from the NERC Security of Supply Mineral Resources programme (NE/M010848/1) for TeaSe, an academic-industry-end user consortium investigating tellurium and selenium geology and supply. The views expressed here are the author's and not those of NERC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dan Smith receives funding from the NERC Security of Supply Mineral Resources programme (NE/M010848/1) for TeaSe, an academic-industry-end user consortium investigating tellurium and selenium geology and supply. The views expressed here are the author's and not those of NERC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Holwell receives funding from the NERC Security of Supply Mineral Resources programme (NE/M010848/1) for TeaSe, an academic-industry-end user consortium investigating tellurium and selenium geology and supply. The views expressed here are the author's and not those of NERC.</span></em></p>Metals are generally abundant throughout the Earth’s crust, but not always at the right cost in the right place at the right time.Gawen Jenkin, Senior Lecturer in Applied Geology, University of LeicesterDan Smith, Lecturer in Applied and Environmental Geology, University of LeicesterDave Holwell, Lecturer in Applied and Environmental Geology, University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/236812014-02-27T09:41:24Z2014-02-27T09:41:24ZGold always glitters but better bargains lie beneath<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42583/original/yf8gdg3c-1393434980.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C243%2C2800%2C1898&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bitter pill.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/8011986@N02/3022614905/sizes/o/">Bill David Brooks</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fears over China’s ability to cope with its debt crisis and renewed doubts over recovery in the US have sent investors running back to old faithful: gold. But markets look as if they are favouring tradition over common sense. There are far better boltholes for their money, even among fellow metals.</p>
<p>The gold price has hit a <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-02-25/gold-near-16-week-high-as-rally-seen-overdone-on-taper-outlook.html">four-month high</a> as doubts crept in about America’s consumer-led recovery and markets pondered the possibility that <a href="http://www.cnbc.com/id/101438195">Ukraine might default on its debt</a>. A few days ago it was <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/china/fears-of-looming-china-credit-crunch-spark-new-gold-rush-20140217-32wce.html">China’s debt burden that grabbed the attention and drove gold demand</a>. </p>
<p>It’s a familiar story. Gold shares this safe haven appeal with only a handful of other asset types and its value peaks and troughs with the macroeconomic winds. But does it actually make sense for investors to rely on it to protect their capital in fragile times – when countries face the risk of being unable to pay their debts? This question prompted a group of us to explore whether there are some better places for investors’ money, among fellow precious metals as silver, platinum and palladium – the rare metal used in catalytic converters – as well as industrial metals like lead, nickel and zinc. </p>
<p><a href="http://orca.cf.ac.uk/56686/">Our study</a> showed that gold is a strong hedge for sovereign bonds of countries with serious debt issues (for example Greece, Italy and Portugal) and that its safe haven status depends on the magnitude of the extreme negative movement in a country’s bond price. </p>
<p>But more importantly, we found that gold is not the most useful metal for seeking safety in turbulent times. Financial institutions – and individuals blessed with means enough to care – should be considering other precious and industrial metals when things start to get ugly. We even found that industrial metals offered a stronger hedge against adverse movements in sovereign debt prices than gold or any other precious metal.</p>
<p>It’s not too hard to see why; the outperformance of industrial metals in managing the risk associated with with the government bond market can be attributed to their increasing global demand as they chart the upswing in the global economic recovery.</p>
<h2>My precious …</h2>
<p>But it’s not a simple calculation. The safe haven properties of precious metals vary over time. From 1993–2001, our safe haven test indicated that gold is largely a weak safe haven in all markets except Greece. In the period 2001–2006, gold was a strong safe haven for bonds in Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Netherlands, Portugal and the EMU benchmark bond for negative shocks.</p>
<p>Strong, but not the best. A typical portfolio of industrial metals outperforms a portfolio of precious metals and that of all other metals as a hedging instrument against the adverse movement in sovereign bonds. </p>
<p>The simple conclusion is this: all precious metals and many of their more prosaic cousins outperform gold in protecting investors against losses in the sovereign debt market. There is also strong evidence that non-precious metals provide a better compensation for investor losses, particularly in periods of high bond market turmoil. We found that palladium, copper and lead all serve as a strong safe haven as they are able to hedge against a deterioration in credit quality such as that seen during recent financial crises.</p>
<p>So we can still say that gold is a good investment choice during financial crises, but it is evident that there are better alternatives. And more than that, we can say that although all the metals we studied offered protection, investors are actually better off holding industrial rather than precious metals in periods of stormy weather. Maybe it’s not so much a case of following tradition over common sense, but rather a case of sticking with what you know over exploring less popular investment ideas.</p>
<p>Of course, there is some sage investment wisdom about eggs and baskets. And we would say that as the hedging and safe haven performance of gold and other metals vary across bonds, a diversified allocation strategy that manages the bond-metal mix may be necessary to protect investors’ wealth against extreme losses in government bond markets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/23681/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dimitrios Gounopoulos does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fears over China’s ability to cope with its debt crisis and renewed doubts over recovery in the US have sent investors running back to old faithful: gold. But markets look as if they are favouring tradition…Dimitrios Gounopoulos, Reader in Accounting and Finance, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.