tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/aeroplanes-6425/articles
Aeroplanes – The Conversation
2024-03-14T05:47:43Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/225675
2024-03-14T05:47:43Z
2024-03-14T05:47:43Z
Should you be concerned about flying on Boeing planes?
<p>The American aerospace giant Boeing has been synonymous with safe air travel for decades. Since the 1990s, Boeing and its European competitor Airbus have dominated the market for large passenger jets. </p>
<p>But this year, Boeing has been in the news for all the wrong reasons. In January, an emergency door plug <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/alaska-airlines-let-boeing-max-fly-despite-warning-signals">blew off a Boeing 737 MAX</a> in mid flight, triggering an investigation from United States federal regulators. </p>
<p>More recently, we have seen a Boeing plane lose a tyre while taking off, another flight turned back as the plane was leaking fluid, an apparent engine fire, a landing gear collapse, a stuck rudder pedal, and a plane “dropping” in flight and <a href="https://theconversation.com/latam-flight-800-just-dropped-in-mid-flight-injuring-dozens-an-expert-explores-what-happened-and-how-to-keep-yourself-safe-225554">injuring dozens of passengers</a>. A Boeing engineer who had raised concerns regarding quality control during the manufacturing process on the company’s 787 and 737 MAX planes also <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-68534703">died earlier this week</a>, apparently of a self-inflicted gunshot wound. </p>
<p>As members of the travelling public, should we be concerned? Well, yes and no.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/boeing-door-plug-blowout-highlights-a-possible-crisis-of-competence-an-aircraft-safety-expert-explains-221069">Boeing door plug blowout highlights a possible crisis of competence − an aircraft safety expert explains</a>
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<h2>Many problems, but not all can be blamed on Boeing</h2>
<p>The recent parade of events has certainly been dramatic – but not all of them can be blamed on Boeing. Five incidents occurred on aircraft owned and operated by United Airlines and were related to factors outside the manufacturer’s control, like maintenance issues, potential foreign object debris, and possible human error. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/united-airlines-plane-tire-blowout-boeing-b2509241.html">United Airlines 777</a> flying from San Francisco to Japan lost a tyre on takeoff, a maintenance issue not related to Boeing. The aircraft landed safely in Los Angeles. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1767636549288824990"}"></div></p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2024/03/12/united-airlines-reports-fifth-flight-incident-in-a-week-as-jet-turns-back-due-to-maintenance-issue/">United Airlines flight from Sydney</a> to Los Angeles had to return to Sydney due to a “maintenance issue” after a fluid was seen leaking from the aircraft on departure. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/passenger-video-shows-flames-shoot-united-airlines-engine-midflight-rcna142217">United Airlines 737-900</a> flying from Texas to Florida ended up with some plastic bubble wrap in the engine, causing a suspected <a href="https://skybrary.aero/articles/compressor-stall#:%7E:text=Compressor%20stalls%20cause%20the%20air,dirty%20or%20contaminated%20compressor%20components">compressor stall</a>. This is a disruption of air flow to an operating engine, making it “backfire” and emit flames. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://simpleflying.com/united-boeing-737-max-houston-runway-incident/">United Airlines 737 Max</a> flying from Tennessee to Texas suffered a gear collapse after a normal landing. The pilot continued to the end of the runway before exiting onto a taxiway – possibly at too high a speed – and the aircraft ended up in the grass and the left main landing gear collapsed. </p>
<p>The fifth event occurred on a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/another-boeing-max-mishap-ntsb-probes-stuck-rudder-pedals-united-airli-rcna142286">United Airlines 737-8</a> flight from the Bahamas to New Jersey. The pilots reported that the rudder pedals, which control the left and right movement of the aircraft in flight, were stuck in the neutral position during landing.</p>
<h2>Manufacturing quality concerns</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/alaska-airlines-let-boeing-max-fly-despite-warning-signals">exit door plug failure in January</a> occurred on an Alaska Airlines flight. US regulators are currently investigating Boeing’s <a href="https://www.vox.com/money/24052245/boeing-corporate-culture-737-airplane-safety-door-plug">manufacturing quality assurance</a> as a result. </p>
<p>The door plug was installed by a Boeing subcontractor called Spirit AeroSystem. The door plug bolts were not properly secured and the plug door fell off in flight. The same aircraft had a series of pressurisation alarms on two previous flights, and was scheduled for a maintenance inspection at the completion of the flight. </p>
<p>Spirit got its start after Boeing shut down its own manufacturing operations in Kansas and Oklahoma, and Boeing is now in the process of <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/01/spirit-aerosystems-boeing.html">buying the company</a> to improve quality oversight. Spirit currently works with Airbus, as well, though that may change.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-did-alaska-airlines-flight-1282-have-a-sealed-off-emergency-exit-in-the-first-place-the-answer-comes-down-to-money-221263">Why did Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 have a sealed-off emergency exit in the first place? The answer comes down to money</a>
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<h2>What changed at Boeing</h2>
<p>Critics say the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/03/12/boeing-whistleblower-death-plane-issues/">culture at Boeing has changed</a> since Airbus became a major competitor in the early 2000s. The company has been accused of shifting its focus to profit at the expense of quality engineering. </p>
<p>Former staff have raised concerns over tight production schedules, which increased the pressure on employees to finish the aircraft. This caused many engineers to question the process, and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to fine Boeing for lapses in quality oversight after tools and debris were found on aircraft being inspected. </p>
<p>Several employees have testified before US Congress on the production issues regarding quality control. Based on the congressional findings, the FAA began to inspect Boeing’s processes more closely.</p>
<p>Several Boeing employees noted there was a high staff turnover rate during the COVID pandemic. This is not unique to Boeing, as all manufacturing processes and airline maintenance facilities around the globe were also hit with high turnover. </p>
<p>As a result, there is an acute shortage of qualified maintenance engineers, as well as pilots. These shortages have created several issues with the airline industry successfully returning to the <a href="https://www.aviationbusinessnews.com/mro/critical-shortage-of-engineers-means-looming-crisis-for-aviation-warns-aeroprofessional/">pre-pandemic levels</a> of 2019. Airlines and maintenance training centres around the globe are working hard to train replacements, but this takes time as one cannot become a qualified engineer or airline pilot overnight.</p>
<p>So, is it still safe to fly on Boeing planes? Yes it is. Despite dramatic incidents in the news and social media posts <a href="https://twitter.com/DaveMcNamee3000/status/1767636549288824990">poking fun at the company</a>, air travel is still extremely safe, and that includes Boeing.</p>
<p>We can expect these issues with Boeing planes now will be corrected. The financial impact has been significant – so even a profit-driven company will demand change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225675/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The American aerospace company Boeing has been synonymous with safe air travel for decades, but recent weeks have seen it plagued by a series of issues.
Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/217089
2023-12-27T20:26:40Z
2023-12-27T20:26:40Z
‘You don’t know why they’re filming or what they’ll do with it’: flight attendants on being unwilling stars of viral videos
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558501/original/file-20231108-25-e7lp2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C47%2C7951%2C5249&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cabin-crew-air-hostess-working-airplane-2068194518">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As any frequent social media user knows, airline passengers often record and post in-flight incidents – from frightening turbulence to unruly members of the public.</p>
<p>Often, these viral videos feature flight attendants just trying to do their duties, while being filmed without their consent. </p>
<p>These videos usually portray flight attendants either as heroes effortlessly managing difficult passengers or “villains” accused of being rude and unprofessional. Either way, the trend is emerging as an industrial issue, with unions arcing up about it and airlines bringing in new rules aimed at curbing the practice.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/qantas-wont-like-it-but-australian-travellers-could-be-about-to-get-a-better-deal-on-flights-214718">Qantas won't like it, but Australian travellers could be about to get a better deal on flights</a>
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<h2>Unkind comments about appearance and age</h2>
<p>Going to work knowing that at any moment you may become the unwilling star of a viral video can exact a considerable toll on the wellbeing of flight attendants. </p>
<p>I (Liz Simmons) speak daily with flight attendants in Australia and abroad as part of my PhD research. From these discussions, I’ve heard from attendants who worry often about discovering videos of themselves featuring unkind comments about their appearance, age or employer.</p>
<p>One flight attendant, Kate*, described the disconcerting feeling of someone aiming a smartphone camera at her while she was simply trying to do her job, saying:</p>
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<p>You don’t know why they’re filming or what they’ll do with it. </p>
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<p>Marie spoke of being featured in a TikTok video during a safety demonstration, with viewers making fun of her appearance. </p>
<p>Charlotte, after refusing to serve more alcohol to an intoxicated passenger, had a camera thrust in her face, accompanied by threats to her job. </p>
<p>Mark told of how uncomfortable he felt having to ask a passenger to stop taking photos of the crew during service.</p>
<p>These personal accounts illustrate the <a href="https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/health-safety/flight-attendant-reveals-creepy-passenger-behaviour/news-story/3b2b1ad25f758e24ef37b74794684ea6">distress</a> flight attendants can experience when being filmed or photographed without their knowledge.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A flight attendant directs passengers to the nearest available exits." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558502/original/file-20231108-19-x0238w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Imagine going to work knowing that, at any moment, you may become the unwilling star of a viral video.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plane-worker-conduct-safety-instruction-people-1992757586">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>A broader industrial issue</h2>
<p>This issue is drawing the attention of policymakers, airlines and the unions that represent flight attendants.</p>
<p>Japan recently introduced <a href="https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/crime-courts/20230408-102309/">laws</a> aimed at curbing sneak photography in a range of settings, which may be used to prevent passengers voyeuristically filming flight attendants. <a href="https://mondortiz.com/japan-flight-attendants-call-for-action-versus-stolen-photo-taking/">Research</a> by Japan’s aviation workers union found that about 70% of the 1,573 flight attendants surveyed believed they’d had their pictures taken surreptitiously while they were working.</p>
<p>Passengers have been arrested in <a href="https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/crime-in-israel/article-748799">Turkey</a> and <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article-3554181/IndiGo-passenger-arrested-recording-video-flight-attendants.html">India</a> after unauthorised filming. </p>
<p>And flight attendant unions in <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/03/09/national/crime-legal/flight-attendant-photo/">Japan</a>, <a href="https://www.thestandard.com.hk/breaking-news/section/4/204104/Union-says-flight-attendants-can-ask-passengers-to-delete-photos-and-videos-taken-without-consent">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/300750512/why-you-shouldnt-film-your-cabin-crew">Australia</a> have voiced concerns about the issue.</p>
<p>Of course, videos can occasionally play a crucial role in understanding what transpired during an <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/passenger-assault-attendant-detained-fbi-american-airlines-mexico-cabo-rcna48884">in-flight incident</a>, and flight attendants themselves can also be found on social media sharing their stories, consenting to the video. But many videos still feature airline staff simply going about their job (while being filmed, without their consent).</p>
<h2>Unclear rules</h2>
<p>News <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/reviews-and-advice/why-you-shouldnt-film-your-cabin-crew-20221122-h2813d.html">reports</a> suggest staff aboard Dutch carrier KLM “now commonly make an announcement during the safety briefing asking passengers not to take photos of any crew members.”</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.klm.com.au/information/legal/conditions-carriage">rules</a> on the KLM website are less clear, saying only that </p>
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<p>Recording videos and/or taking photographs other than personal videos and photographs is prohibited on board the aircraft.</p>
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<p>Virgin Australia’s rules state anyone travelling on their planes must</p>
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<p>use cameras or photographic devices (including mobile phones) for personal use only. You must comply with the directions of flight crew when using cameras or photographic devices while on board.</p>
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<p>In November 2023, Qantas introduced new <a href="https://www.qantas.com/au/en/book-a-trip/flights/conditions-of-carriage.html#conduct-during-flight">rules</a> requiring passengers to</p>
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<p>seek consent before filming or photographing Qantas Group staff, contractors or other customers. </p>
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<p>This is a start. For most airlines, however, there is a notable absence of clear guidelines against recording and publishing footage of flight attendants in their workplace. The existing rules are often buried in the fine print of terms and conditions, which few passengers take the time to read. This underscores the necessity for airlines to reconsider how these restrictions are communicated to passengers. </p>
<p>Looking ahead, it may be timely for more airlines to establish clearer rules on filming cabin crew while they work. There should be an acknowledgement that unsolicited filming is frequently unfair, invasive and distressing. Developing a framework to enforce these provisions and enhancing communication about these rules would help inform passengers about how to respect the privacy and comfort of flight attendants in their workplace. </p>
<p><em>* All names have been changed to protect identities.</em></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-air-turbulence-196872">What is air turbulence?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217089/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Simmons is a member of the Griffith Institute For Tourism (GIFT), and a member of the Australian Aviation Psychology Association (AAvPA). She was an Australian-based cabin crew from 2004-2021, and during that time was a financial member of the Flight Attendant's Association of Australia (FAAA).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rawan Nimri is a current member of the Griffith Institute For Tourism (GIFT).
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gui Lohmann does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Unions are arcing up about cabin crew being filmed without consent during flights. Some airlines have brought in new rules aimed at curbing the practice.
Liz Simmons, PhD Candidate, Griffith University
Gui Lohmann, Professor in Air Transport and Tourism Management, Griffith University
Rawan Nimri, Lecturer in Tourism and Hospitality, Griffith University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/207926
2023-06-22T20:06:58Z
2023-06-22T20:06:58Z
Why can’t I use my phone or take photos on the airport tarmac? Is it against the law?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533331/original/file-20230622-27-61n5mz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5392%2C3581&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-may-27-2018-people-by-1111827515">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mobile phones are not allowed to be used while on a plane because they can interfere with the aeroplane’s navigation instruments and <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-real-reason-to-turn-on-aeroplane-mode-when-you-fly-188585">cause various safety and social issues</a>.</p>
<p>As soon as the plane lands, we’re permitted to turn off flight mode, but at some airports we can’t get much of a signal. That’s because airports are known as mobile signal “<a href="https://thepointsguy.com/news/slow-connection-airport-tarmacs/">dead zones</a>” due to a lack of mobile towers – they can’t be placed at the airport itself due to height restrictions.</p>
<p>Any nearby mobile towers would be located away from the airport’s runway systems to avoid interfering with the aeroplane’s flight path, especially take-off and landing direction. Most airports put up indoor repeater antennas within the airport terminal; these help increase the mobile signal strength coming from the nearest mobile tower somewhere near the airport.</p>
<p>But you won’t be allowed to make calls while walking away from the plane, anyway.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-real-reason-to-turn-on-aeroplane-mode-when-you-fly-188585">Here's the real reason to turn on aeroplane mode when you fly</a>
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<h2>Why can’t I use my phone on the tarmac?</h2>
<p>As we are taxiing in, the <a href="https://www.qantas.com/au/en/qantas-experience/onboard/communication.html">cabin crew</a> remind us not to smoke outside of designated areas at the terminal and not to use our mobile phones until we are inside the terminal building.</p>
<p>If you exit the plane down the rear stairs, why aren’t you allowed to use your phone once away from the aeroplane, if you can get a signal? Surely it won’t affect navigation.</p>
<p>The answer is manifold, and regulations aren’t the same across the world.</p>
<p>In Australia, a <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/operations-safety-and-travel/travel-and-passengers/onboard-safety-and-behaviour/using-your-electronic-devices-flights">government regulation</a> prohibits the use of mobile phones on the tarmac – the aeroplane movement and parking area of the airport.</p>
<p>You won’t be fined if you whip your phone out while walking to the terminal, but the airline may admonish you for not following the rules. However, if you decide to (<a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/victoria/woman-arrested-after-running-onto-tarmac-at-melbourne-airport-20151125-gl7bkq.html">run around on the tarmac</a>, you could get arrested by federal police.</p>
<p>The airport tarmac is very busy not just with aircraft, but also baggage carts, catering trucks, aeroplane waste removal trucks, and fuel trucks. Getting passengers off the tarmac and into the terminal building quickly and safely is a priority for the staff.</p>
<p>If you are distracted while walking to the terminal building because you’re talking on your phone, it can be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jan/25/alabama-airport-worker-killed-jet-engine-safety-warnings">highly dangerous and even deadly</a> if you end up too close to an operating plane. An operating jet engine is extremely hot and has a strong exhaust. Additionally, the front of the engine has a low-pressure area called an <a href="https://www.ukfrs.com/guidance/search/aircraft-systems-and-construction">ingestion zone</a> that can suck in a person. Ground staff are trained to stay at least ten metres away from this area. However, this information is not shared with the passengers.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Long view photo of a snowy grey tarmac with an air canada plane and several fuel and other support trucks around it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533338/original/file-20230622-19-4wmz21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The tarmac is busy with crew, various support and fuel vehicles, and airplanes themselves, with plenty of hazards for a passenger who wanders into the wrong area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/OIf5dPuecMg">David Preston/Unsplash</a></span>
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<h2>A myth about fuel</h2>
<p>You may have heard that mobile phones are a fire hazard near fuel, and aeroplanes are, of course, refuelled on the tarmac.</p>
<p>However, the chances of fuel catching fire during this process are extremely low, because the refuelling truck is <a href="https://safetyfirst.airbus.com/safe-aircraft-refuelling/">bonded and “grounded” to the plane</a>: the operator attaches a wire to the aircraft to move built-up static electricity to the ground to prevent any chance of a spark. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sign at a petrol station showing smoking and mobile phones are prohibited" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533350/original/file-20230622-18-ot2mup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Warning about mobile phones at petrol stations are inaccurate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/warning-sign-gas-petroleum-industrial-prevention-2084569294">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There have been stories in the press about mobile phones sparking <a href="https://www.verizon.com/about/news/vzw/2014/12/fact-or-fiction-using-a-cell-phone-at-the-gas-station-can-cause-a-fire">fires at petrol stations in Indonesia and Australia</a>, but these turned out to be inaccurate. There is <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/assets/files/AboutTheCodes/30A/FI%20-%20NFPA%2030A-2015%20Para%208.3.1%20-%20Attachments%2014-19.2017-04-04.pdf">no evidence a phone can spark a fire at a fuel pump</a>, despite the warning labels you might see.</p>
<p>Either way, the chances of a mobile phone causing this on the tarmac with a refuelling truck that is grounded to the aeroplane are extremely low, not least because the passenger permitted areas and refuelling areas are completely separated.</p>
<h2>Why are we told not to take photos on the tarmac?</h2>
<p>This rule varies from airport to airport depending on their <a href="https://www.tsa.gov/travel/frequently-asked-questions/can-i-film-and-take-photos-security-checkpoint">security processes</a>.</p>
<p>Such restrictions are carryovers from the changes to airport security following the <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jlecono50&i=739">September 11 2001 terrorist attacks</a>. The now federalised security teams, TSA (Transportation Security Administration) in the United States and the Department of Home Affairs in Australia, change their processes frequently to prevent having any identifiable patterns that could be used to create a security breach.</p>
<p>The increased security measures also mean new technologies were introduced; airport security sections do not want photos taken of how they operate. </p>
<p>The airport security process is a major choke point in the flow of passenger movement due to the screening process. If a passenger is perceived to be slowing the process down by taking photos or talking on their phone, they will be reminded to turn off their device and/or stop taking photos of security personnel and equipment.</p>
<p>If you refuse to follow the rules of the screening process, you will be <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/about-us/what-we-do/travelsecure/passenger-screening">denied entry</a> into the airport terminal gate area and miss your flight. Can you also get arrested for using your phone? Depends on the airport and country. I, for one, do not want to find out.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Lingering on the tarmac once you get off a plane through the rear door is unadvisable for many reasons – here’s why the staff want your phone in your pocket.
Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201464
2023-05-04T23:57:52Z
2023-05-04T23:57:52Z
Curious Kids: What happens when you flush a toilet on a plane?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514369/original/file-20230309-22-u0roc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C0%2C3387%2C2412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AirP72/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>What happens when you flush a toilet on a plane? –Lily, aged 6, Harcourt</em></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Lily this is a great question! It doesn’t work like your toilet at home, <a href="https://sciencing.com/explain-gravity-child-2100456.html">which uses gravity</a> to remove waste from our toilets into the sewer system. An aeroplane toilet uses a <a href="https://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/bitstream-download/123456789/75317/1/Medvediev_jes_2019_02.pdf;jsessionid=5A638D700F8C1151FA2F0ACA91E8DE1A">vacuum system</a> along with a blue chemical that cleans and removes odours every time you flush.</p>
<h2>A smelly tank</h2>
<p>The waste and blue cleaning fluid ends up in a storage tank under the floor, in the very back of the cargo hold of the aeroplane. With so many people on the plane using the toilets, you can imagine how big the storage tank is!</p>
<p>The system is designed very much like the vacuum cleaners we use around the house to remove dirt and dust from our floors. This dirt and dust ends up in a container that we empty into a garbage bin. Similarly, the aeroplane’s toilets need the vacuum pressure system to move all the waste from the toilet into the plumbing pipe that connects the toilet to the storage tank, and finally into the tank.</p>
<p>There is a valve on the storage tank that opens when a toilet is flushed and closes when the toilet is not in use – to prevent odours from leaving the tank. This helps to keep the smell down from so many people using the toilet during a flight. The blue chemical helps to keep the smell down as well. </p>
<h2>Where does it go once the plane lands?</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/indhealth/48/1/48_1_123/_pdf">special truck</a> comes to the aircraft after it lands and connects a hose to remove the waste and blue cleaning chemical into a storage tank on the truck. The truck plugs a hose into the airplane’s waste tank valve and removes all of the waste into the tank on the back of the truck.</p>
<p>The truck then takes the waste to a special area at the airport reserved for the waste from all aeroplanes, and the toilet waste is emptied into the sewer system for that airport. The training to operate the truck takes three days.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The nose of a parked plane with several vehicles next to it, along with a fuel hose snaking along the ground" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516840/original/file-20230322-135-1qr8v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Various trucks and vehicles will service the plane, load fuel, load cargo and take away waste at the airport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">aappp/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Watch out for blue ice</h2>
<p>It has also been reported that sometimes, particularly on older planes, the valve where the waste truck connects to the aeroplane <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_ice_(aviation)">can leak a small amount</a> of the waste and blue chemical. This turns to ice as the temperature at normal cruising altitude of 30,000 feet is normally around -56°C and the chemical turns to “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-28/facing-our-fears-of-falling-frozen-flight-faeces/9368144">blue ice</a>”. This blue ice remains attached to the plane as long as the temperature remains below freezing.</p>
<p>Once the aeroplane begins to descend to land at the destination airport, the blue ice begins to thaw and may even fall off. There have been several occasions <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/scientist-identifies-plane-which-dropped-blue-ice-on-mp-woman-wants-dgca-to-affirm/articleshow/54962752.cms?from=mdr">reported in the news</a> where people have witnessed this <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/mobile/canada/i-m-covered-in-poo-transport-canada-investigating-feces-falling-from-sky-1.3956501">flying poo</a>!</p>
<p>In case you were wondering, the captain of the plane doesn’t have a button to release the waste from the storage tank while the plane is flying. Any waste that might leak out of the plane would be totally accidental.</p>
<p>Some people do think <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2101611-chemtrails-conspiracy-theory-gets-put-to-the-ultimate-test/">aeroplane contrails</a> (the white lines planes sometimes leave in the sky) are either a special mind-control chemical or toilet waste. This is not true! What you are actually seeing are water vapours coming from the engine becoming <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2018/02/hot-topic-should-i-worry-about-chemtrails">ice crystals</a> – like a thin cloud in the sky.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-where-do-clouds-come-from-and-why-do-they-have-different-shapes-102404">Curious Kids: where do clouds come from and why do they have different shapes?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201464/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Unlike our toilets at home, plane toilets have to ‘suck’ the waste with a vacuum system. But don’t worry, it doesn’t get released into the air.
Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/183034
2023-01-04T19:22:03Z
2023-01-04T19:22:03Z
What happens to your body on a long-haul flight?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466912/original/file-20220603-12-qlkzez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=442%2C0%2C4566%2C2046&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/passengers-wearing-protective-medical-masks-during-1721222605">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If crowded airports are a sign, Australians are keen to get back into the skies. And if you’re flying long haul, in a few years you could have an even longer option.</p>
<p>Qantas <a href="https://australianaviation.com.au/2022/05/video-inside-qantas-project-sunrise-a350-1000s/">has announced</a> from <a href="https://www.qantasnewsroom.com.au/media-releases/qantas-announces-project-sunrise-aircraft-order-for-non-stop-flights-to-australia/">late 2025</a>, it will fly passengers on non-stop flights from Australia’s east coast to London that would see you in the air for more than 19 hours in one stretch. That’s compared with current flights that take the best part of 24 hours but are broken up into shorter legs.</p>
<p>So what will happen to your body during one of these longer flights? Is it any different to what happens when you fly long-haul now?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-for-the-long-haul-the-challenge-to-fly-non-stop-from-australia-to-anywhere-in-the-world-85981">In for the long-haul: the challenge to fly non-stop from Australia to anywhere in the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1. You can become dehydrated</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7551461/">Dehydration</a> is common on long-haul flights. It can explain why your throat, nose and skin can feel dry on an aeroplane. The longer the flight, the greater the risk of dehydration.</p>
<p>That’s because of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207472/">low levels of humidity</a> in the cabin compared with what you’d expect on the ground. This is mostly because a lot of the air circulating through the cabin is drawn from the outside, and there’s not a lot of moisture in the air at high altitudes.</p>
<p>You also risk dehydration by not drinking enough water, or drinking too much alcohol (alcohol is a diuretic, resulting in an increase in fluid lost).</p>
<p>So drink water before you jump on the plane. During the flight, you’ll also need to drink more water than you usually would.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Air steward picking up bottle of water from drinks trolley on plane" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490580/original/file-20221019-15-atspyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Make sure you drink enough water before and during the flight. But avoid drinking too much alcohol.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stewardess-take-water-bottle-trolley-cart-1992757658">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-how-do-i-tell-if-im-dehydrated-107437">Health Check: how do I tell if I'm dehydrated?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. The cabin can play havoc with your ears, sinuses, gut and sleep</h2>
<p>As the cabin pressure changes, the gas in our bodies reacts accordingly. It expands as the aircraft climbs and pressure decreases, and the opposite occurs as we descend. This can lead to common problems such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17929-airplane-ear">earaches</a> – when the air pressure either side of your eardrum is different, placing pressure on the eardrum</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://thejournalofheadacheandpain.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s10194-017-0788-0">headaches</a> – can be caused by expanding air trapped in your sinuses</p></li>
<li><p>gut problems – just accept that you’re going to fart more.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>You can also feel more sleepy than usual. That’s due to the body not being able to absorb as much oxygen from the cabin air at altitude than it would on the ground. Slowing down is the body’s way of protecting itself, and this can make you feel sleepy.</p>
<p>The good news is that most of these problems won’t necessarily be more pronounced on longer flights. They’re mainly an issue as the plane climbs and descends.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-happens-when-you-hold-in-a-fart-98310">Health Check: what happens when you hold in a fart?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. You could develop blood clots</h2>
<p>Blood clots, associated with being immobile for long periods, are usually a big concern for passengers. These include clots that form in the leg (<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-deep-vein-thrombosis-11140">deep vein thrombosis</a> or DVT) that can travel to the lung (where it’s known as a <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-embolism/symptoms-causes/syc-20354647">pulmonary embolism</a>).</p>
<p>If you don’t move around on the plane, and the more of the following <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/epdf/10.3316/informit.666315070819684">risk factors</a> you have, the greater the chance of blood clots developing:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>older age</p></li>
<li><p>obesity </p></li>
<li><p>previous history or a family history of clots </p></li>
<li><p>certain types of clotting disorders</p></li>
<li><p>cancer</p></li>
<li><p>recent immobilisation or surgery</p></li>
<li><p>pregnancy or recently given birth</p></li>
<li><p>hormone replacement therapy or oral contraceptive pill.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>According to a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9149067/">review</a> in 2022, combining data from 18 studies, the longer you travel, the greater the risk of blood clots. The authors calculated there was a 26% higher risk for every two hours of air travel, starting after four hours. </p>
<p>So what about the risk of clots on these longer flights? We won’t know for sure until we start studying passengers on them.</p>
<p>Until that evidence comes in, the current advice still applies. Keep moving, stay hydrated and limit alcohol consumption.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-deep-vein-thrombosis-11140">Explainer: what is deep vein thrombosis?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There’s also <a href="https://www.cochrane.org/CD004002/PVD_compression-stockings-preventing-deep-vein-thrombosis-dvt-airline-passengers">evidence</a> for wearing compression stockings to prevent blood clots. These stockings are said to promote blood flow in the legs and to help blood return to the heart. This would normally happen by muscle contractions from moving or walking.</p>
<p>A 2021 <a href="https://www.cochrane.org/CD004002/PVD_compression-stockings-preventing-deep-vein-thrombosis-dvt-airline-passengers">Cochrane review</a> combined the results of nine trials with 2,637 participants who were randomised to wear compression stockings (or not) on flights lasting more than five hours.</p>
<p>No participants developed symptomatic DVTs. But there was evidence people who wore the stockings considerably reduced their chance of developing clots without symptoms, and we know that any clot can potentially grow, move and subsequently, cause symptoms. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person putting on compression stockings" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490582/original/file-20221019-26-5j0gnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Compression stockings reduce your risk of developing a DVT, according to a review of the evidence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-puts-compression-stocking-on-her-1712032240">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So if you are concerned about your risk of developing blood clots, see your GP before you fly.</p>
<p>Usually if you do develop a blood clot, you won’t know about it until after the flight, as the clot takes time to form and travel. So keep an eye out for symptoms after the flight – pain and swelling in a leg (often just the one), chest pain, coughing and shortness of breath. And seek emergency health care if you do.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/blood-clots-five-reasons-they-may-happen-157197">Blood clots: five reasons they may happen</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Then there’s jet lag, radiation, COVID</h2>
<p>Then there’s <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/jet-lag/symptoms-causes/syc-20374027#:%7E:text=Drink%20plenty%20of%20water%20before,it's%20nighttime%20at%20your%20destination.">jet lag</a>, which is a stranger to few of us. This is a disconnect between the time your body thinks it is and the time by the clock, as you cross time zones.</p>
<p>Longer flights mean you are more likely (but not always) to cross more time zones. Jet lag will usually become more problematic when you cross three or more, especially if you’re travelling east.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/travelling-these-holidays-follow-tips-the-socceroos-use-to-conquer-jet-lag-87582">Travelling these holidays? Follow tips the Socceroos use to conquer jet lag</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And if you take long-haul flights very often, it’s reasonable to assume that the longer you’re in the air, the greater the exposure to <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aircrew/cosmicionizingradiation.html">cosmic radiation</a>. As the name suggests, this is radiation that comes from space, which may increase the risk of cancer and reproductive issues. We don’t know what level of exposure is safe.</p>
<p>However, unless you fly frequently it’s unlikely to be a problem. If you’re pregnant or have other concerns, have a chat to your GP before you fly. </p>
<p>And don’t forget COVID. Take the usual precautions – wash your hands regularly, wear a mask and don’t fly if you’re unwell.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-cut-your-chance-of-catching-covid-on-a-plane-wear-a-mask-and-avoid-business-class-180333">Want to cut your chance of catching COVID on a plane? Wear a mask and avoid business class</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>In a nutshell</h2>
<p>Research into how the body reacts to these longer, non-stop flights between Australia and Europe is in its early stages. <a href="https://www.qantasnewsroom.com.au/media-releases/qantas-to-operate-project-sunrise-research-flights-direct-new-york-london-to-australia/">Teams in Australia</a> are looking at this now.</p>
<p>Until then, if you’re taking a regular long-haul flight, the advice is relatively simple.</p>
<p>Follow the advice the airlines give you, and see your GP before you travel if necessary. During flight, make that extra effort to move about the cabin, drink water, wear a mask and practise good hand hygiene.</p>
<p>And see a doctor immediately for any worrying symptoms after your flight, as blood clots can take hours or even days to form, grow and move along your veins.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/which-medicines-dont-go-well-with-flying-90222">Which medicines don’t go well with flying?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183034/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I am a medical doctor specialising in General Practice and Aerospace Medicine, as well as a professional pilot currently working as a flight instructor and charter pilot across regional Australia. </span></em></p>
No, you’re not imagining it. Your body does some weird things up in the air. Here’s a guide to the common and merely embarrassing to the rare, but serious.
Tony Schiemer, Commercial Pilot | Aerospace Medicine Specialist | Clinical Lecturer, University of Adelaide
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/196872
2022-12-20T04:34:03Z
2022-12-20T04:34:03Z
What is air turbulence?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502061/original/file-20221220-18-124g72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C14%2C4882%2C3254&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/iiqpxCg2GD4">Philip Myrtorp / Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You probably know the feeling: you’re sitting on a plane, happily cruising through the sky, when suddenly the seat-belt light comes on and things get a little bumpy.</p>
<p>Most of the time, turbulence leads to nothing worse than momentary jitters or perhaps a spilled cup of coffee. In rare cases, passengers or flight attendants might end up with some injuries.</p>
<p>What’s going on here? Why are flights usually so stable, but sometimes get so unsteady?</p>
<p>As a meteorologist and atmospheric scientist who studies air turbulence, let me explain.</p>
<h2>What is air turbulence?</h2>
<p>Air turbulence is when the air starts to flow in a chaotic or random way. </p>
<p>At high altitudes the wind usually moves in a smooth, horizontal current called “laminar flow”. This provides ideal conditions for steady flight.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diagram showing laminar flow and turbulent flow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502063/original/file-20221220-20-4bvy8f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In ‘laminar flow’, air moves smoothly in one direction. When turbulence begins, it goes every which way.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Turbulence occurs when something disrupts this smooth flow, and the air starts to move up and down as well as horizontally. When this happens, conditions can change from moment to moment and place to place.</p>
<p>You can think of normal flying conditions as the glassy surface of the ocean on a still day. But when a wind comes up, things get choppy, or waves form and break – that’s turbulence.</p>
<h2>What causes air turbulence?</h2>
<p>The kind of turbulence that affects commercial passenger flights has three main causes.</p>
<p>The first is thunderstorms. Inside a thunderstorm, there is strong up-and-down air movement, which makes a lot of turbulence that can spread out to the surrounding region. Thunderstorms can also create “atmospheric waves”, which travel through the surrounding air and eventually break, causing turbulence. </p>
<p>Fortunately, pilots can usually see thunderstorms ahead (either with the naked eye or on radar) and will make efforts to go around them.</p>
<p>The other common causes of turbulence create what’s typically called “clear-air turbulence”. It comes out of air that looks perfectly clear, with no clouds, so it’s harder to dodge.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diagram showing mountains, air currents and turbulence." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502065/original/file-20221220-16-45aimu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jet streams and mountains are common causes of clear-air turbulence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The second cause of turbulence is jet streams. These are high-speed winds in the upper atmosphere, at the kind of altitudes where passenger jets fly. </p>
<p>While air inside the jet stream moves quite smoothly, there is often turbulence near the top and bottom of the stream. That’s because there is a big difference in air speed (called “wind shear”) between the jet stream and the air outside it. High levels of wind shear create turbulence.</p>
<p>The third thing that makes turbulence is mountains. As air flows over a mountain range, it creates another kind of wave – called, of course, a “mountain wave” – that disrupts air flow and can create turbulence.</p>
<h2>Can air turbulence be avoided?</h2>
<p>Pilots do their best to avoid air turbulence – and they’re pretty good at it!</p>
<p>As mentioned, thunderstorms are the easiest to fly around. For clear-air turbulence, things are a little trickier.</p>
<p>When pilots encounter turbulence, they will change altitude to try to avoid it. They also report the turbulence to air traffic controllers, who pass the information on to other flights in the area so they can try to avoid it. </p>
<p>Weather forecasting centres also provide turbulence forecasts. Based on their models of what’s happening in the atmosphere, they can predict where and when clear-air turbulence is likely to occur.</p>
<h2>Will climate change make turbulence worse?</h2>
<p>As the globe warms and the climate changes in coming decades, we think air turbulence will also be affected.</p>
<p>One reason is that the jet streams which can cause turbulence are shifting and may become more intense. As Earth’s tropical climate zones spread away from the equator, the jet streams are moving with them.</p>
<p>This is likely to increase turbulence on at least some flight routes. Some studies also <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1465-z">suggest</a> the wind shear around jet streams has become more intense.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-climate-change-have-played-a-role-in-the-airasia-crash-36002">Could climate change have played a role in the AirAsia crash?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another reason is that the most severe thunderstorms are also likely to become more intense, partly because a warmer atmosphere can hold more water vapour. This too is likely to generate more intense turbulence.</p>
<p>These predictions are largely based on climate models, because it is difficult to collect the data needed to identify trends in air turbulence. These data largely come from reports by aircraft, the quality and extent of which are changing over time. These measurements are quite different from the long-term, methodically gathered data usually used to detect trends in the weather and climate.</p>
<h2>How dangerous is air turbulence?</h2>
<p>Around the globe, air turbulence causes hundreds of injuries each year among passengers and flight attendants on commercial aircraft. But, given the hundreds of millions of people who fly each year, those are pretty good odds.</p>
<p>Turbulence is usually short-lived. What’s more, modern aircraft are engineered to comfortably withstand all but the most extreme air turbulence. </p>
<p>And among people who are injured, the great majority are those who aren’t strapped in. So if you’re concerned, the easiest way to protect yourself is to wear your seat belt. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-real-reason-to-turn-on-aeroplane-mode-when-you-fly-188585">Here's the real reason to turn on aeroplane mode when you fly</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196872/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Todd Lane receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>
When something disrupts the smooth, laminar flow of high-altitude winds, your flight might get a little bumpy.
Todd Lane, Professor, School of Geography, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, The University of Melbourne, The University of Melbourne
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/188585
2022-09-20T04:19:41Z
2022-09-20T04:19:41Z
Here’s the real reason to turn on aeroplane mode when you fly
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484174/original/file-20220913-2241-id16e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=74%2C216%2C5466%2C3456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/p9vr45T2scg">Blake Guidry/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We all know the routine by heart: “Please ensure your seats are in the upright position, tray tables stowed, window shades are up, laptops are stored in the overhead bins and electronic devices are set to flight mode”.</p>
<p>Now, the first four are reasonable, right? Window shades need to be up so we can see if there’s an emergency, such as fire. Tray tables need to be stowed and seats upright so we can get out of the row quickly. Laptops can become projectiles in an emergency, as the seat back pockets are not strong enough to contain them.</p>
<p>And mobile phones need to be set to flight mode so they can’t <em>cause</em> an emergency for the aeroplane, right? Well, it depends whom you ask.</p>
<h2>Technology has advanced a great deal</h2>
<p>Aviation navigation and communication relies on radio services, which have been coordinated to minimise interference <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20050232846/downloads/20050232846.pdf">since the 1920s</a>.</p>
<p>The digital technology currently in use is much more advanced than some of the older analogue technologies we used even 60 years ago. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352146521008851">Research has shown</a> personal electronic devices can emit a signal within the same frequency band as the aircraft’s communications and navigation systems, creating what is known as electromagnetic interference.</p>
<p>But in 1992, <a href="https://www.livescience.com/5947-real-reason-cell-phone-banned-airlines.html">the US Federal Aviation Authority</a> and Boeing, <a href="https://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_10/interfere_textonly.html">in an independent study</a>, investigated the use of electronic devices on aircraft interference and found no issues with computers or other personal electronic devices during non-critical phases of flight. (Take-offs and landings are considered the critical phases.) </p>
<p>The US Federal Communications Commission also began to create <a href="https://www.livescience.com/5947-real-reason-cell-phone-banned-airlines.html">reserved frequency bandwidths</a> for different uses – such as mobile phones and aircraft navigation and communications – so they do not interfere with one another. Governments around the globe developed the same <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20050232846/downloads/20050232846.pdf">strategies and policies to prevent interference</a> problems with aviation. In the EU, electronic devices have been <a href="https://www.easa.europa.eu/en/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-allows-electronic-devices-remain-and-connected-throughout-flight">allowed to stay on since 2014</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/using-your-phone-on-a-plane-is-safe-but-for-now-you-still-cant-make-calls-98136">Using your phone on a plane is safe – but for now you still can't make calls</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2.2 billion passengers</h2>
<p>Why then, with these global standards in place, has the aviation industry continued to ban the use of mobile phones? One of the problems lies with something you may not expect – <em>ground</em> interference.</p>
<p>Wireless networks are connected by <a href="https://www.livescience.com/5947-real-reason-cell-phone-banned-airlines.html">a series of towers</a>; the networks could become overloaded if passengers flying over these ground networks are all using their phones. <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/564717/airline-industry-passenger-traffic-globally/">The number of passengers that flew in 2021</a> was over 2.2 billion, and that’s half of what the 2019 passenger numbers were. The wireless companies might have a point here. </p>
<p>Of course, when it comes to mobile networks, the biggest change in recent years is the move to a new standard. Current 5G wireless networks – desirable for their higher speed data transfer – have caused concern for many within the aviation industry.</p>
<p>Radio frequency bandwidth is limited, yet we are still trying to add more new devices to it. The aviation industry points out that the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352146521008851">5G wireless network bandwidth spectrum</a> is remarkably close to the reserved aviation bandwidth spectrum, which may cause <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2304975-will-5g-mobile-networks-in-the-us-really-interfere-with-aircraft/">interference with navigation systems near airports</a> that assist with landing the aircraft.</p>
<p>Airport operators <a href="https://www.itnews.com.au/news/australian-airports-fret-over-5g-interference-582222">in Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.faa.gov/5g">the US</a> have voiced aviation safety concerns linked to 5G rollout, however it appears to have rolled out without such problems <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2022/01/19/business/5g-aviation-safety-europe/index.html">in the European Union</a>. Either way, it is prudent to limit mobile phone use on planes while issues around 5G are sorted out.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-5g-really-ground-planes-why-the-us-has-delayed-rolling-out-the-mobile-internet-technology-around-airports-175215">Could 5G really ground planes? Why the US has delayed rolling out the mobile internet technology around airports</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Ultimately, we can’t forget air rage</h2>
<p>Most airlines now provide customers with Wi-Fi services that are either pay-as-you-go or free. With new Wi-Fi technologies, passengers could theoretically use their mobile phones to <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8010762">make video calls with friends</a> or clients in-flight. </p>
<p>On a recent flight, I spoke with a cabin attendant and asked her opinion on phone use during flights. It would be an inconvenience for cabin crew to wait for passengers to finish their call to ask them if they would like any drinks or something to eat, she stated. On an airliner with 200+ passengers, in-flight service would take longer to complete if everyone was making phone calls. </p>
<p>For me, the problem with in-flight use of phones is more about the social experience of having 200+ people on a plane, and all potentially talking at once. In a time when disruptive passenger behaviour, including “air rage”, <a href="http://www.jairm.org/index.php/jairm/article/view/156">is increasingly frequent</a>, phone use in flight might be another trigger that changes the whole flight experience. </p>
<p>Disruptive behaviours take on various forms, from noncompliance to safety requirements such as not wearing seat belts, verbal altercations with fellow passengers and cabin crew, to physical altercations with passengers and cabin crews – typically identified as air rage. </p>
<p>In conclusion – in-flight use of phones does not currently impair the aircraft’s ability to operate. But cabin crews may prefer not to be delayed in providing in-flight service to all of the passengers – it’s a lot of people to serve. </p>
<p>However, 5G technology is encroaching on the radio bandwidth of aircraft navigation systems; we’ll need more research <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-5g-puts-airplanes-at-risk-an-electrical-engineer-explains-175306">to answer the 5G question</a> regarding interference with aircraft navigation during landings. Remember that when we are discussing the two most critical phases of flight, take-offs are optional – but landings are mandatory.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reducing-air-travel-by-small-amounts-each-year-could-level-off-the-climate-impact-171184">Reducing air travel by small amounts each year could level off the climate impact</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188585/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Is it true our phones are dangerous for aircraft navigation? An expert explains.
Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/180333
2022-04-26T19:56:19Z
2022-04-26T19:56:19Z
Want to cut your chance of catching COVID on a plane? Wear a mask and avoid business class
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458758/original/file-20220420-25-4z0ccn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C4%2C994%2C681&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/facemask-on-plane-airport-travel-wearing-1905906799">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A Florida court recently <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-19/florida-judge-voids-us-mask-mandate-for-planes-other-travel/100998116">overturned mask mandates</a> on planes in the United States, saying the directive was unlawful. That decision is now <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/world/covid19-masks-on-us-flights-justice-department-appeals-easing-of-rules/a960d39c-dff4-4198-935c-c5b5c5b40551">under appeal</a>.</p>
<p>Before that, Australian comedian Celeste Barber
<a href="https://twitter.com/djokaymegamixer/status/1514836909620572162">told her social media followers</a> a passenger sitting next to her on a recent flight took off her mask to sneeze.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1514836909620572162"}"></div></p>
<p>So wearing masks on planes to limit the spread of COVID is clearly a hot-button issue.</p>
<p>As we return to the skies more than two years into the pandemic, what is the risk of catching COVID on a plane? And does it really matter where on the plane you are?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-covid-risk-on-a-flight-heres-what-you-can-do-to-protect-yourself-and-how-airlines-can-step-up-150735">Worried about COVID risk on a flight? Here's what you can do to protect yourself — and how airlines can step up</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>So many variables</h2>
<p>It’s impossible to give a precise answer about your risk of catching COVID on a plane as there are so many variables.</p>
<p>For instance, not all countries and <a href="https://twitter.com/British_Airways/status/1503729049050353665">airlines</a> require passengers to wear masks or <a href="https://www.nationalworld.com/lifestyle/travel/where-can-i-travel-without-a-vaccine-countries-that-allow-unvaccinated-passengers-and-entry-requirements-3528913">be vaccinated</a>.</p>
<p>Some countries and airlines require a negative COVID test within a certain timeframe before flying, others have <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/covid19/vaccinated-travellers/temporary-visa-holders/leaving-australia">scrapped that requirement</a> entirely. </p>
<p>Then there are different rules that may apply if you’re flying domestically or internationally, or <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/health-alerts/covid-19/international-travel/proof-of-vaccination">leaving or entering</a> a country.</p>
<p>That’s before we start talking about the virus itself. We know more recent variants have emerged (Omicron and the sub-variant BA.2, for example), that are <a href="https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/covid-19/critical-intelligence-unit/sars-cov-2-variants">much more easily transmitted</a> than the original virus or the Delta variant. We don’t know how transmissible future variants or sub-variants will be.</p>
<p>So we can only talk in general terms about the risk of catching COVID on a plane. All up, your risk <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893921001745">is very low</a>, but the measures airlines put in place help achieve that. You can also reduce your personal risk further in a number of ways.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-next-covid-wave-is-here-why-for-some-of-us-its-omg-and-for-others-its-meh-180338">The next COVID wave is here. Why for some of us it's OMG and for others it's meh</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Air flow and HEPA filters</h2>
<p>Air flow is designed to largely <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893920304117">travel vertically</a>, from the ceiling to the floor, to reduce the potential spread of contaminated air through the plane. </p>
<p>The height of the seats acts as a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8013760/">partial barrier</a> to air movement from rows in front and behind you. </p>
<p>Cabin air is also replaced <a href="https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2443/2020/10/HSPH-APHI-Phase-One-Report.pdf">every two to three minutes</a> with a half-half mix of recycled and fresh air.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Air flows from top to bottom on a plane" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458744/original/file-20220420-24670-q5yz3z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Air largely travels from the ceiling to the floor.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893920304117">Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To see <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7588538/">how this works in real life</a>, researchers looked at how the virus spread on a long-haul flight when an infected person (the index case) sat in business class. </p>
<p>Twelve of 16 people who were infected on the plane sat within a few rows of this person; another was a flight attendant. This suggests limited spread of contaminated air through the rest of the plane.</p>
<p>Recycled air is also filtered through high-efficiency particulate air (or HEPA) filters. These remove <a href="https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2443/2020/10/HSPH-APHI-Phase-One-Report.pdf">more than 99%</a> of viral particles, further reducing the risk of droplet or airborne transmission. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-should-install-air-purifiers-with-hepa-filters-in-every-classroom-it-could-help-with-covid-bushfire-smoke-and-asthma-166332">We should install air purifiers with HEPA filters in every classroom. It could help with COVID, bushfire smoke and asthma</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Masks</h2>
<p>Well fitted masks or respirators (worn properly) can reduce your risk of contracting COVID on a flight. That’s why many airlines say wearing a mask is a condition of flying.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ina.12979">modelling</a> of several known transmission events on planes demonstrates an advantage if both the infected person and others around them wear masks.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1496681764705955845"}"></div></p>
<h2>Vaccination</h2>
<p>Some countries, such as Australia, require entering travellers to be <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/health-alerts/covid-19/international-travel/proof-of-vaccination">fully vaccinated</a>. This <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(21)00648-4/fulltext">lowers the risk</a> of someone becoming sick with COVID.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-unvaccinated-friend-is-roughly-20-times-more-likely-to-give-you-covid-170448">Your unvaccinated friend is roughly 20 times more likely to give you COVID</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Pre-flight COVID testing</h2>
<p>Not all flights require a negative COVID test before boarding. For those that do, the time frame before a flight varies, as does the type of test required. </p>
<p>However, we know tests do not detect every single COVID case. A range of factors can influence test sensitivity (ability to detect COVID). These include the type and <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/covid-19-rapid-antigen-self-tests-are-approved-australia">brand</a> of test you take, whether you have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761676/">symptoms</a>, your <a href="https://ebm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/01/04/bmjebm-2021-111828">age</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761676/">viral variant</a>.</p>
<p>You can also still test negative two days before a flight and catch COVID in the meantime.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/15-things-not-to-do-when-using-a-rapid-antigen-test-from-storing-in-the-freezer-to-sampling-snot-176364">15 things not to do when using a rapid antigen test, from storing in the freezer to sampling snot</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Sanitisation</h2>
<p>Airlines may do additional cleaning of high-touch areas, and overnight disinfection, to reduce the spread of COVID through touching contaminated surfaces. </p>
<p>However, the risk of transmission by this route is <a href="https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2443/2020/10/HSPH-APHI-Phase-One-Report.pdf">low</a> compared to the risk of catching COVID through breathing in infectious droplets and aerosols.</p>
<h2>When and where are you most at risk?</h2>
<p><strong>The closer you are to the infected person</strong></p>
<p>Most transmission occurs within <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893920304117">two to three rows</a> of an infected person. If you sit next to someone who is coughing or has other symptoms you might ask to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7665738/">move seats</a> if spare seats are available. </p>
<p><a href="https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2443/2020/10/HSPH-APHI-Phase-One-Report.pdf">Distance</a> yourself from others if you can, particularly when getting on and off the plane. </p>
<p>You might also avoid sitting close to the toilets as passengers will hang about in the aisles waiting to use them, particularly on long flights.</p>
<p><strong>The longer the flight</strong> </p>
<p>The risk increases with long- versus <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33650201/">short- or medium-haul</a> flights. During long-haul flights passengers are also more likely to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ina.12979">recline their seats</a>. This somewhat reduces the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8013760/">protection upright seats</a> provide in reducing air movement between rows. </p>
<p><strong>If you or others are not wearing a mask or wearing it properly</strong></p>
<p>You can breathe infectious particles in and out via your nose as well as your mouth, so don’t wear your mask under your chin or nose.</p>
<p>The risk also increases when everyone takes off their masks during food service. You might choose not to eat or drink on short flights to avoid this. Alternatively you might bring a snack to eat before food service begins, or <a href="https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2443/2020/10/HSPH-APHI-Phase-One-Report.pdf">eat after</a> those around you. </p>
<p><strong>If you contaminate your food or your face</strong></p>
<p>You can catch COVID through touching your food or face with contaminated fingers. Sanitise your hands regularly and <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9176589">train yourself</a> to not touch your face.</p>
<p><strong>If you are in business class</strong> </p>
<p>Based on limited reports, the transmission risk appears higher in business class. This is possibly because of <a href="https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-021-00749-6">more interruptions to mask wearing</a> due to greater service of food and drinks.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180333/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thea van de Mortel teaches into the Graduate Infection Prevention and Control program at Griffith University. </span></em></p>
All up, your risk of catching COVID on a flight is very low. But there are things you can do to lower that risk even further.
Thea van de Mortel, Professor, Nursing and Deputy Head (Learning & Teaching), School of Nursing and Midwifery, Griffith University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/171940
2021-12-19T19:54:01Z
2021-12-19T19:54:01Z
Blue-sky thinking: net-zero aviation is more than a flight of fantasy
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437680/original/file-20211215-13-1ahyjhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=332%2C1077%2C5658%2C2910&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As international air travel rebounds after COVID-19 restrictions, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation are expected to rise dramatically – and with it, scrutiny of the industry’s environmental credentials. </p>
<p>Aviation emissions have almost <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2253626-aviations-contribution-to-global-warming-has-doubled-since-2000/">doubled since 2000</a> and in 2018 reached <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions-from-aviation">one billion tonnes</a>. Climate Action Tracker rates the industry’s climate performance as <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/sectors/aviation/">critically insufficient</a>.</p>
<p>As the climate change threat rapidly worsens, can aviation make the transition to a low-carbon future – and perhaps even reach net-zero emissions? The significant technological and energy disruption on the horizon for the industry suggests such a future is possible.</p>
<p>But significant challenges remain. Achieving a net-zero aviation sector will require a huge collaborative effort from industry and government – and consumers can also play their part.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nW6J989UBhA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Build back better</h2>
<p>The aviation sector’s progress in cutting emissions has been disappointing to date. For example, in February last year, <a href="https://theconversation.com/major-airlines-say-theyre-acting-on-climate-change-our-research-reveals-how-little-theyve-achieved-127800">research</a> on the world’s largest 58 airlines found even the best-performing ones were not doing anywhere near enough to cut emissions.</p>
<p>Most recently, at the COP26 climate change summit in Glasgow, the industry merely reasserted a commitment to a plan known as the <a href="https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/CORSIA/Pages/default.aspx">Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation</a>.</p>
<p>The scheme relies on carbon offsetting, which essentially pays another actor to reduce emissions on its behalf at lowest cost, and doesn’t lead to absolute emissions reduction in aviation. The scheme also encourages alternative cleaner fuels, but the level of emissions reduction between fuels varies considerably.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/major-airlines-say-theyre-acting-on-climate-change-our-research-reveals-how-little-theyve-achieved-127800">Major airlines say they're acting on climate change. Our research reveals how little they've achieved</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Governments have generally failed to provide strong leadership to help the aviation sector to reduce emissions. This in part is because pollution from international aviation is not counted in the emissions ledger of any country, leaving little incentive for governments to act. Aviation is also a complex policy space to navigate, involving multiple actors around the world. However, COVID-19 has significantly jolted the aviation and travel sector, presenting an opportunity to build back better – and differently.</p>
<p>Griffith University recently held a <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/institute-tourism/our-research/rethinking-aviation/aviation-reimagined-2021?fbclid=IwAR3Hd8xLJkEWMaHae8sho1MiSfV6TzbPbf30vo2fbJ0CHMg-xdvywNCmZbU">webinar series</a> on decarbonising aviation, involving industry, academic and government experts. The sessions explored the most promising policy and practical developments for net-zero aviation, as well as the most significant hurdles.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="passengers queue at airport" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437570/original/file-20211214-25-1rc1cnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">COVID-19 has significantly jolted the aviation sector.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Senne/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Nations soaring ahead</h2>
<p>Some governments are leading the way in driving change in the aviation industry. For example, as a result of <a href="https://www.government.se/495f60/contentassets/883ae8e123bc4e42aa8d59296ebe0478/the-swedish-climate-policy-framework.pdf">government policy</a> to make Sweden climate-neutral by 2045, the Swedish aviation industry developed a <a href="https://fossilfrittsverige.se/en/roadmap/the-aviation-industry/#:%7E:text=The%20strategic%20objective%20for%202030,line%20with%20the%20Government%27s%20goals">roadmap</a> for fossil-free domestic flights by 2030, and for all flights originating from Sweden to be fossil-free by 2045. </p>
<p>Achieving fossil-free flights requires replacing jet fuel with alternatives such as sustainable fuels or electric and hydrogen propulsion.</p>
<p>The European Union plans to <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_21_3662">end current tax exemptions</a> for jet fuel and introduce measures to <a href="https://www.eurocontrol.int/article/eus-fit-55-package-what-does-it-mean-aviation">accelerate</a> the uptake of sustainable fuels.</p>
<p>The United Kingdom is finalising its strategy for <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/achieving-net-zero-aviation-by-2050">net-zero aviation</a> by 2050 and a public body known as UK Research and Innovation is <a href="https://www.ukri.org/our-work/our-main-funds/industrial-strategy-challenge-fund/future-of-mobility/future-flight-challenge/">supporting</a> the development of new aviation technologies, including hybrid-electric regional aircraft.</p>
<p>Australia lacks a strategic framework or emissions reduction targets to help transition the aviation industry. The <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/infrastructure-transport-vehicles/aviation/emerging-aviation-technologies/drones/eatp">Emerging Aviation Technology Program</a> seeks to reduce carbon emissions, among other goals. However, it appears to have a strong focus on freight-carrying drones and <a href="https://www.greenbiz.com/article/7-urban-air-mobility-companies-watch">urban air vehicles</a>, rather than fixed wing aircraft.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-1940s-treaty-set-airlines-on-a-path-to-high-emissions-and-low-regulation-148818">How a 1940s treaty set airlines on a path to high emissions and low regulation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="plane taking off" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437569/original/file-20211214-13-lsswi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some governments are leading the way in driving change in the aviation industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhao Xiaojun/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Building tomorrow’s aircraft</h2>
<p>Low-emissions aircraft technology has developed substantially in the last five years. Advancements include electric and hybrid aircraft (powered by hydrogen or a battery) – such as that being developed by <a href="https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/zero-emission/hydrogen/zeroe">Airbus</a>, <a href="https://www.rolls-royce.com/innovation/accel.aspx">Rolls Royce</a> and <a href="https://www.zeroavia.com/">Zero Avia</a> – as well as <a href="https://boeing.mediaroom.com/2021-07-14-Boeing-and-SkyNRG-Partner-to-Scale-Sustainable-Aviation-Fuels-Globally">sustainable aviation fuels</a>.</p>
<p>Each of these technologies can reduce carbon emissions, but only battery and hydrogen electric options significantly reduce non-CO₂ climate impacts such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), soot particles, oxidised sulphur species, and water vapour.</p>
<p>For electric aircraft to be net-zero emissions, they must be powered by renewable energy sources. As well as being better for the planet, electric and hydrogen aircraft are likely to have <a href="https://www.zeroavia.com/">lower</a> energy and maintenance <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/electric-aviation-could-be-closer-than-you-think/">costs</a> than conventional aircraft.</p>
<p>This decade, we expect a rapid emergence of electric and hybrid aircraft for short-haul, commuter, air taxi, helicopter and general flights. Increased use of sustainable aviation fuel is also likely.</p>
<p>Although electric planes are flying, commercial operations are not expected until at least 2023 as the aircraft must undergo rigorous testing, safety and certification. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A solar powered aircraft prototype flies in mountainous terrain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437571/original/file-20211214-23-1clsep1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Electric planes exist, but the route to commercialisation is long. Pictured: a solar powered aircraft prototype flies near the France-Italy border.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Laurent Gillieron/EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Overcoming turbulence</h2>
<p>Despite real efforts by some industry leaders and governments towards making aviation a net-zero industry, significant strategic and practical challenges remain. Conversion to the commercial mainstream is not happening quickly enough.</p>
<p>To help decarbonise aviation in Australia, industry and government should develop a clear strategy for emissions reduction with interim targets for 2030 and 2040. This would keep the industry competitive and on track for net-zero emissions by 2050. </p>
<p>Strategic attention and action is also needed to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>advance aircraft and fuel innovation and development</p></li>
<li><p>update regulatory and certification processes for new types of aircraft</p></li>
<li><p>enhance production and deployment of new aviation fuels and technologies</p></li>
<li><p>reduce fuel demand through efficiencies in route and air traffic management</p></li>
<li><p>create “greener” airport operations and infrastructure</p></li>
<li><p>build capability with pilots and aerospace engineers. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The emissions created by flights and itineraries can <a href="https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/variation-aviation-emissions-itinerary-jul2021-1.pdf">vary substantially</a>. Consumers can do their part by opting for the lowest-impact option, and offsetting the emissions their flight creates via a <a href="https://theconversation.com/flying-home-for-christmas-carbon-offsets-are-important-but-they-wont-fix-plane-pollution-89148">credible program</a>. Consumers can also choose to fly only with airlines and operators that have committed to net-zero emissions. </p>
<p>Net-zero aviation need not remain a flight of fantasy, but to make it a reality, emissions reduction must be at the heart of aviation’s pandemic bounce-back.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reducing-air-travel-by-small-amounts-each-year-could-level-off-the-climate-impact-171184">Reducing air travel by small amounts each year could level off the climate impact</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Commercial flights could one day be propelled by sustainable fuels, renewable energy or hydrogen propulsion – but big challenges remain.
Emma Rachel Whittlesea, Senior Research Fellow, Griffith University
Tim Ryley, Professor and Head of Griffith Aviation, Griffith University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/171184
2021-11-05T14:12:35Z
2021-11-05T14:12:35Z
Reducing air travel by small amounts each year could level off the climate impact
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430219/original/file-20211104-27-q5x093.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C1%2C1276%2C848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aviation is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/airport-travelers-persons-business-731196/">Free-Photos/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Just before the pandemic, aircraft engines were burning <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/pressroom/fact-sheets/industry-statistics/">one billion litres</a> of fuel a day. But then the number of daily civil aviation flights fell from <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/pressroom/fact-sheets/industry-statistics/">110,000</a> to less than 50,000 during 2020, on average. With the easing of travel restrictions, air traffic is increasing back towards its pre-pandemic peak.</p>
<p>Most world leaders and delegates will have flown to Glasgow to attend COP26 – the 26th annual UN climate change summit – in person. But as they haggle over emissions targets to limit global warming to 1.5°C, and not <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-what-would-the-world-be-like-at-3-c-of-warming-and-how-would-it-be-different-from-1-5-c-171030">3°C or more</a>, aviation is unlikely to be included in them, given the lack of low-carbon alternatives to long-haul flights.</p>
<p>But it should be. <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac286e">In new research</a>, my colleagues and I calculated that if the aviation sector continues to grow on its present trajectory, its jet fuel consumption will have added 0.1˚C to global warming by 2050 – half of it to date, the other half in the next three decades. </p>
<p>Aviation is responsible for 4% of the 1.2°C rise in the global mean temperature we have already experienced since the industrial revolution. Without action to reduce flights, the sector will account for 17% of the remaining 0.3°C left in the 1.5°C temperature target, and 6% of the 0.8°C left to stay within 2°C. Airlines effectively add more to global warming <a href="http://globalcarbonatlas.org/en/CO2-emissions">than most countries.</a></p>
<h2>Warming footprints</h2>
<p>At the current rate, the world will have warmed by 2°C <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf">within three decades</a>. To quantify how different activities contribute to warming, scientists measure carbon emissions. This is because how much the Earth warms is proportional to cumulative carbon emissions in the atmosphere. This is a very good approximation in many cases, but it is inaccurate for emissions caused by aeroplanes travelling at altitudes of up to 12 kilometres.</p>
<p>As well as CO₂, aircraft engines emit nitrogen oxides, water vapour, sulphur and soot, causing <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-04068-0">contrail cirrus clouds</a> and other complicated chemical reactions in the atmosphere. The sum of these so-called non-CO₂ effects adds more warming on top of the CO₂ emissions. So the total warming footprint of aviation is between two and three times higher than a conventional carbon footprint.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aeroplane's trail viewed from between two tall buildings" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430221/original/file-20211104-21-xa7pet.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Condensation trails produced by aircraft engines contribute to global warming.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/architecture-skyscraper-skyline-3984725/">MichaelGaida/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While a large share of a flight’s CO₂ emissions remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years, the non-CO₂ effects diminish over time, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117834">vanishing within about ten years</a>. So any growth in aviation, measured in global jet fuel consumption, has an amplified impact as both CO₂ and non-CO₂ effects add up. </p>
<p>But a decline in aviation can partly reverse some warming, as the non-CO₂ effects disappear over time until only the CO₂ effects remain. Think of the non-CO₂ effects like a bathtub – it fills up when the taps are turned further and further, despite a slow outflow down the plughole. But the same bathtub will eventually empty if the taps are gradually turned down.</p>
<p>The non-CO₂ effects of flights on the atmosphere will slowly disappear if fewer and fewer flights are taken, so that aviation’s contribution to warming eventually levels off. In that situation, the increase from continued CO₂ emissions would balance the fall in non-CO₂ effects, and although aviation would still contribute to climate change, the total warming from both would remain constant over time. How much would aviation need to shrink to level off its influence on global warming? </p>
<p>Our calculations show that flying does not need to stop immediately to prevent aviation’s contribution to global warming expanding. Flying has already caused 0.04°C of warming to date. But with a yearly decrease of 2.5% in jet fuel consumption, currently only achievable with cuts in air traffic, this warming will level off at a constant level over the coming decades.</p>
<h2>When do we really need to fly?</h2>
<p>COVID-19 had a huge impact on the aviation sector. Air traffic is still approximately 10-20% below pre-pandemic levels, but is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac286e">rebounding quickly</a>. Politicians should shift subsidies from flying to more sustainable modes of transport, such as train journeys. And there is much more that can be done.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aeroplane parked at an airport" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430217/original/file-20211104-25-1v0sxdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Forced changes in flying habits due to the pandemic have led some to permanently cut back on flights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/airplane-aircraft-airport-travel-4885803/">Dmncwndrlch/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lockdowns and the shift to remote working made many people rethink the necessity of flying. People resolving to fly less can contribute considerably to reducing the number of unnecessary flights. Combining in-person and virtual attendance in hybrid meetings wherever possible is a great way to support that shift.</p>
<p>Reducing the space that business classes take on aeroplanes is another way to cut the number of flights, as it allows more passengers to travel on one flight. </p>
<p>Not allowing airport expansions could also have a big impact. The UK’s Climate Change Committee, an expert body which advises the UK government, has recommended <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Sector-summary-Aviation.pdf">not expanding airports</a> to align the sector with climate targets. Yet the expansion of Heathrow airport is currently <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/explainers-51646562">planned to go ahead</a>.</p>
<p>Sustainable aviation fuels, and hydrogen or electric planes, are being developed, but none of these technologies are currently available at the necessary scale. At the moment, there is little chance of the aviation industry meeting any climate targets if it aims for a return to its pre-pandemic rate of growth.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="COP26: the world's biggest climate talks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p><strong>This story is part of The Conversation’s coverage on COP26, the Glasgow climate conference, by experts from around the world.</strong>
<br><em>Amid a rising tide of climate news and stories, The Conversation is here to clear the air and make sure you get information you can trust. <a href="https://page.theconversation.com/cop26-glasgow-2021-climate-change-summit/"><strong>More.</strong></a></em> </p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171184/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Milan Klöwer receives funding from the UK's Natural Environmental Research Council, the Copernicus Programme of the European Commission and the European Research Council.</span></em></p>
Reducing jet fuel consumption by 2.5% each year could halt aviation’s growing influence on climate change.
Milan Klöwer, Postdoctoral Researcher in Weather and Climate Modelling, University of Oxford
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/162779
2021-06-18T10:41:46Z
2021-06-18T10:41:46Z
Contrails from aeroplanes warm the planet – here’s how new low-soot fuels can help
<p>While aviation accounts for <a href="https://theicct.org/publications/co2-emissions-commercial-aviation-2018">2.4% of all emissions</a> from fossil fuel use globally, two-thirds of the sector’s warming effect depends on something other than its CO₂ emissions. And one of the most significant ways aviation contributes to global warming is through the clouds aeroplanes create in the upper atmosphere. </p>
<p>But, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-021-00174-y">in a new study</a>, researchers have shown that alternative fuels to the kerosene that aeroplanes typically burn can help.</p>
<p>At cruising altitudes where the atmosphere is cold and humid enough, contrails (short for condensation trails) form in the wake of aircraft. These are clouds made of ice crystals that are initially produced from the plane engine’s soot and water emissions – you’ll probably have seen them as white, puffy streaks in the sky on a clear day. When the atmosphere is especially cold and humid at high altitudes, these line-shaped contrails can last for many hours and spread to form vast webs of cirrus clouds, which look like white wisps of hair.</p>
<p>These clouds reflect the sun’s radiation back to space, cooling the atmosphere, but they can also trap infrared radiation reflected from the Earth. This process ultimately warms the atmosphere, as the warming effect exceeds the cooling. This is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117834">calculated</a> to be aviation’s largest current warming effect – nearly double that from historic CO₂ emissions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A blue sky with a contrail line and wispy cirrus clouds." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407015/original/file-20210617-17-yc3wrn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Contrails track the flight paths of aeroplanes, but can also spread out to form cirrus clouds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/contrail-due-airliner-passing-earlier-diagonally-1532064569">Daniel Albach/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reducing aviation’s climate impacts from contrails will depend on minimising soot particles from aeroplane exhausts. Aircraft exhaust plumes used to be smoky, as they contained a lot of soot. Modern engines are designed to reduce the heaviness of soot emissions, but the size and number of ice crystals that form depends on the large number soot of particles. There’s only so much more that can be achieved by cleaning aeroplane exhausts – future efforts must focus on the fuel itself.</p>
<p>Impurities such as napthalene, which are naturally present in aircraft fossil fuels like kerosene, are called aromatic compounds. These are carbon ring-shaped chemical structures that form the building blocks of soot particles. <a href="https://theconversation.com/flight-to-greener-aviation-fuel-has-hit-turbulence-heres-why-7274">Biofuels</a> made from crops and waste vegetable oils, and synthetic fuels made using renewable electricity, hydrogen and CO₂, are designed to reduce the carbon footprint of flying.</p>
<p>There are no aromatic impurities in these fuels, meaning <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21420">fewer soot particles</a> are generated when they’re burned. In the new study, the researchers found that they also generate fewer (but larger) ice crystals in the atmosphere during flight. This, in turn, makes the contrails and the cirrus clouds they form warm the Earth less.</p>
<h2>The future of flying</h2>
<p>Currently, aeroplanes can only fuel up with kerosene or kerosene-biofuel blends. The authors of the new paper found that blends of fuels with low aromatic impurities cut ice crystal formation by between 50 and 70%. In another paper, researchers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-018-0046-4">predicted</a> that would equate to a reduction in the overall warming effect of contrails by approximately 20%-50%. Flights are likely to be permitted to run on pure biofuels at some point in the future, so the potential reduction in the warming caused by aviation could be even greater.</p>
<p>The new study’s findings suggest that sustainable fuel blends offer a win-win situation for lowering aviation’s CO₂ output and its production of contrail cirrus clouds. </p>
<p>Other solutions, such as electric flight, are only likely to be possible for very short routes. Even hydrogen-fuelled aircraft may only be developed to manage medium distances. Both technologies will take more than a decade to mature before they can be introduced into the global aircraft fleet. Long-haul aviation is likely to depend on liquid kerosene-type fuels for the foreseeable future.</p>
<p>Another option is for pilots to avoid parts of the atmosphere where contrails are more likely to form. On a flight-by-flight basis though, navigating to avoid these regions would almost certainly increase the flight’s CO₂ emissions. Weather models also <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7120169">cannot predict</a> the areas where contrails will form with enough accuracy.</p>
<p>Of course, the financial costs of developing and distributing biofuels and synthetic fuels at sufficient scale will probably be large, and may increase the costs of flying. In all likelihood, governments will need to mandate a phase-out of fossil-based kerosene and provide large incentives for airlines to switch. But time is running short to decarbonise flying, and this is an effective option that airlines can develop straight away to reduce the industry’s overall climate impact.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Simon Lee receives funding from the UK Department for Transport and EU Horizon 2020.</span></em></p>
Soot from aeroplane exhausts can linger in the atmosphere, seeding ice clouds which trap heat.
David Simon Lee, Professor of atmospheric science, Aviation and Climate Research Group Leader, Manchester Metropolitan University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/146314
2020-11-30T19:07:15Z
2020-11-30T19:07:15Z
Hidden women of history: Millicent Bryant, the first Australian woman to get a pilot’s licence
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364194/original/file-20201019-13-1yhdmts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C794%2C835&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Clipping from Woman’s World, January, 1927. Bryant Scrapbook. Courtesy of John R. H. Bryant. </span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/hidden-women-of-history-64072">this series</a>, we look at under-acknowledged women through the ages.</em></p>
<p>Before the glamorous flyers of the 1930s like Amelia Earhart, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/34035692-the-fabulous-flying-mrs-miller">“Chubby” Miller</a> and Nancy Bird Walton, another woman opened the way to the skies — and were it not for a tragic twist of fate, her name might now be just as familiar. </p>
<p>Her name was Millicent Maude Bryant, and in early 1927, she became the <a href="https://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/people/aviation/display/22035-millicent-bryant">first woman to gain a pilot’s licence in Australia</a>. She was also first in the Commonwealth outside Britain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Millicent Bryant c.1919. Portrait by Monte Luke." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=999&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=999&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364184/original/file-20201019-21-1mhw3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=999&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Millicent Bryant c.1919. Portrait by Monte Luke.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hidden-women-of-history-catherine-hay-thomson-the-australian-undercover-journalist-who-went-inside-asylums-and-hospitals-129352">Hidden women of history: Catherine Hay Thomson, the Australian undercover journalist who went inside asylums and hospitals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A boundary-pusher who met an untimely end</h2>
<p>Millicent was born in 1878 at Oberon and grew up near Trangi in western New South Wales. Her family, the Harveys, moved to Manly for a period after a younger brother, George, contracted polio (one of the treatments was “sea-bathing”). She met and <a href="https://collection.maas.museum/object/353609">married</a> a public servant 15 years her senior, Edward Bryant. They had three children but the couple separated not long before Edward died in 1926. </p>
<p>Later that year, Bryant began instruction with the Australian Aero Club at Mascot in Sydney. At the time, the site of the current international airport was just a large, grassy expanse with a few buildings and hangars.</p>
<p>Bryant was accepted by the Aero Club’s chief instructor, <a href="https://collection.maas.museum/object/353609">Captain Edward Leggatt</a> (himself a noted first world war fighter pilot), soon after the club had opened its membership to women. </p>
<p>Even then, though, she was unusual: here was a 49-year-old mother of three taking up the challenge of flying which, in the 1920’s, was still as dangerous as it was exciting and glamorous. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Millicent Bryant with a plane and other aviators." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365329/original/file-20201025-14-1sfkekp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Millicent Bryant (second from left) with other aviators beside her De Havilland Moth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided courtesy of Mary Taguchi.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>She quickly progressed, ahead of two other younger, women students, and made her first solo flight in February, 1927. By this time, newspapers all around Australia were following her story, and in late March she took the test for the “A” licence that would enable her to independently fly De Havilland Moth biplanes. </p>
<p>She passed, and with the issue of her licence by the Ministry of Defence, Bryant was acclaimed as the first woman to gain a pilot’s licence in Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An image of Bryant's Aero Club training certificate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365330/original/file-20201025-13-1f3ebns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Millicent Bryant’s training certificate from the Aero Club of Australia (NSW Section). Her ‘A’ Licence was issued by the Department of Defence in April, 1927.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Why, then, isn’t she better known in our day? While Bryant immediately began training for a licence to carry passengers and flew regularly in the months that followed, it was her particular misfortune to step onto the Sydney ferry <a href="https://www.sea.museum/2017/11/03/90-years-since-the-greycliffe-ferry-disaster">Greycliffe</a> on its regular 4.14pm run to Watson’s Bay on November 3, 1927. </p>
<p>Less than an hour later, she was among 40 dead after the ferry was cut in half off Bradley’s Head by the mail steamer <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/dredging-up-tragic-memories-20031205-gdhx31.html">Tahiti</a>. It was Sydney’s worst peacetime maritime disaster. Bryant was still only 49.</p>
<p>Her funeral two days later was attended by hundreds of people and accorded a remarkable aerial tribute, as the Wellington Times <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/143262879">reported</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Five aeroplanes from the Mascot aerodrome flew over the procession as it wended its way to the cemetery. As the burial service was read by the Rev. A. R. Ebbs, rector of St. Matthew’s, Manly, one of the planes descended to within about 150 feet of the grave, and there was dropped from it a wreath of red carnations and blue delphiniums … Attached to the floral tribute was a card bearing the following inscription:</p>
<p>5th November, 1927. With the deepest sympathy of the committee and members of the Australian Aero Club — N.S.W. section.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="_Greycliffe_, lifting the wreck of the ferry. The heavy lifting gear of the SHT steam sheerlegs is used to bring the hull section to the surface. From the Graeme Andrews ‘Working Harbour’ Collection, courtesy of the City of Sydney Archives." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364185/original/file-20201019-21-1ybmdly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lifting the wreck of the ferry, Greycliffe. The heavy lifting gear of the SHT steam sheerlegs is used to bring the hull section to the surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided. Image from the Graeme Andrews ‘Working Harbour’ Collection, courtesy of the City of Sydney Archives.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A pioneer in life as well as the sky</h2>
<p>Bryant’s story quickly lapsed into obscurity. Fortunately, some 80 years later, the rediscovery in the family of a collection of letters and other writings has enabled Bryant’s life beyond her flying achievement to be rediscovered.</p>
<p>The letters were — and are still until they are added to the collection of Bryant’s papers in the National Library — held by her granddaughter, Millicent Jones of Kendall, NSW, who rediscovered them in storage at her home.</p>
<p>The main correspondence is a conversation with her second son, John, in England. It covers the period she was flying, though it only moderately expands on the flights recorded in her <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1129408">logbook</a>.</p>
<p>However, her letters and writings reveal much more about Bryant herself, her relationships, her feelings and her leisure, business and political activities. And they make it apparent that she was as much a pioneer in life as well as in the sky.</p>
<p>For one, flying was not Bryant’s only unconventional interest. She was also an entrepreneur, registering an importing company in partnership with John, who went on to become a pioneer of the Australian dairy industry.</p>
<p>She opened a men’s clothing business, <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/45934857">Chesterfield Men’s Mercery</a>, in Sydney’s CBD. However, disaster struck when it was inundated with water mere weeks after opening, following a fire in the tea rooms upstairs. </p>
<p>Bryant then became a small-scale property developer, buying and building on land in Vaucluse and Edgecliffe. She’d been well tutored in this by her father, grazier Edmund Harvey (a grandfather of billionaire Gerry Harvey), whose own holdings eventually included a large part of the Kanimbla Valley west of the Blue Mountains. </p>
<p>An excellent horsewoman, Bryant was also an early motorist who had driven over 35,000 miles around NSW and who could fix her own car. She was a keen golfer and reader and even a student of Japanese at the University of Sydney.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A fragment from Bryant's letters" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=781&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=781&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=781&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=982&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=982&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364171/original/file-20201019-13-xwvd4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=982&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A key writing fragment by Millicent Bryant (c.1924).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several fragments of a family saga she planned to write, based on her own life, are among her papers. One sheet, entitled “A Life”, summarises in a series of rough notes rather more than she might have told anyone about her inner world. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Marriage – mistakes – children – despondency. Ill-health. Great desire to “live” and create things…</p>
</blockquote>
<p>She notes that a trip abroad was a complete success but</p>
<blockquote>
<p>it furnished a heart interest which lasted for fourteen years until hope died owing to a marriage. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This fragment provides some background to her taking, in her forties, the unusual step at that time of leaving her marriage and family home to start life afresh with her sons.</p>
<p>This was not long before she took her first flight, probably with <a href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/percival-edgar-wikner-8018">Edgar Percival</a>, a family friend and later a successful aircraft designer whose planes won air races and were noted for their graceful lines.</p>
<h2>Vigour, values and conflicts</h2>
<p>Growing up in the NSW inland late in the 19th century, Bryant would have begun with a fairly traditional view of what it meant to be a wife and mother.</p>
<p>However, her early life was also “free-spirited” (as one newspaper described her upbringing) and her determination to make decisions and shape her own life put her on a collision course with gender role expectations common at the time. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="In 2006 a new memorial to Millicent Bryant was placed in Manly (now Balgowlah) Cemetery. It was dedicated by the late Nancy Bird Walton, pictured with Gaby Kennard (left) the first Australian woman to fly a single-engine plane around the world." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364193/original/file-20201019-19-u52bht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2006 a new memorial to Millicent Bryant was placed in Manly (now Balgowlah) Cemetery. It was dedicated by the late Nancy Bird Walton, pictured with Gaby Kennard (left) the first Australian woman to fly a single-engine plane around the world, and (right) a great-great-granddaughter of Millicent Bryant, Matilda Millicent Power-Jones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Learning to fly, especially in middle age, was a breakthrough she pursued perhaps even more keenly after being denied work with the Sydney Sun newspaper solely because she was married.</p>
<p>Bryant clearly came to hold strong ideas about what a woman could and couldn’t do, and her life shows a determination to make her own path, despite confronting obstacles that are still familiar in our own time. </p>
<p>Bryant is not just a figure in aviation history. Her life — spanning the colonial period, the newly-federated nation and the tragedies of World War I — came to reflect the vigour, values and conflicts of Australia in the early 20th century.</p>
<hr>
<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hidden-women-of-history-wauba-debar-an-indigenous-swimmer-from-tasmania-who-saved-her-captors-126487">Hidden women of history: Wauba Debar, an Indigenous swimmer from Tasmania who saved her captors</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146314/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Vicars is a member of the Australasian Association of Writing Programs, the peak body for the teaching and study of writing in higher education institutions. He is the author of 'Beyond the Sky: the Passions of Millicent Bryant, Aviator', published by Melbourne Books in November 2020.</span></em></p>
Millicent Bryant made her first solo flight at the age of 49 in 1927. The life of this bold, unconventional woman was tragically cut short in a ferry disaster that same year.
James Vicars, Sessional Lecturer, University of New England
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/150688
2020-11-27T18:19:38Z
2020-11-27T18:19:38Z
Boeing 737 Max: why was it grounded, what has been fixed and is it enough?
<p>The Boeing 737 Max began flying commercially in May 2017 but has been grounded for over a year and a half following two crashes within five months. On October 29 2018, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-46014463">Lion Air Flight 610</a> took off from Jakarta. It quickly experienced problems in maintaining altitude, entered into an uncontrollable dive and crashed into the Java Sea about 13 minutes after takeoff. Then on March 10 2019, <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/04/what-passengers-experienced-on-the-ethiopian-airlines-flight.html">Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302</a> from Nairobi suffered similar problems, crashing into the desert around six minutes after leaving the runway.</p>
<p>In total, 346 people lost their lives. After the second crash, US regulator the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) decided to ground all 737 Max planes, of which around 350 had been delivered at the time, while they investigated the causes of the accidents.</p>
<p>Now, 20 months later, the FAA <a href="http://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2020/Return-of-the-Boeing-737-MAX-to-service-OPS-DIS-11/default.aspx#:%7E:text=Today%2C%20the%20Federal%20Aviation%20Administration,its%20grounding%20in%20March%202019.&text=This%20includes%20investing%20in%20extensive,it%20returns%20to%20commercial%20use">has announced</a> that it is rescinding this order and has set out steps for the return of the aircraft to commercial service. Brazil has responded quickly, <a href="https://simpleflying.com/brazil-boeing-737-max-recertification/amp/">also approving</a> the 737 Max. So, what went wrong – and can we be confident that it has been fixed?</p>
<p>The causes of the two accidents were complex, but link mainly to the 737’s <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/times-watchdog/the-inside-story-of-mcas-how-boeings-737-max-system-gained-power-and-lost-safeguards/">manoeuvring characteristics augmentation system</a> (MCAS), which was introduced to the 737 Max to manage changes in behaviour created by the plane having much larger engines than its predecessors.</p>
<p>There are some important points about the MCAS which we must consider when reviewing the “fixes”. The MCAS prevented stall (a sudden loss of lift due to the angle of the wing) by “pushing” the nose down. Stall is indicated through an angle of attack (AoA) sensor – the 737 Max is fitted with two, but MCAS only used one. If that AoA sensor failed, then the MCAS could <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/assuring-autonomy/news/blog/accidental-autonomy/">activate when it shouldn’t</a>, unnecessarily pushing the nose down. The design meant that there was no automatic switch to the other AoA sensor, and MCAS kept working with the erroneous sensor values. This is what happened in both crashes.</p>
<p>The design of the MCAS meant that it was repeatedly activated if it determined that there was a risk of a stall. This meant that the nose was continually pushed down, making it hard for pilots to keep altitude or climb. The system was also hard to override. In both cases, the flight crews were unable to override the MCAS, although other crews had successfully managed to do so in similar situation, and this contributed to the two accidents.</p>
<h2>The fixes</h2>
<p>Have these things been fixed? The FAA has published an <a href="https://www.faa.gov/foia/electronic_reading_room/boeing_reading_room/media/737_RTS_Summary.pdf">extensive summary</a> explaining its decision. The MCAS software has been modified and now uses both AoA sensors, not one. The MCAS also now only activates once, rather than multiple times, when a potential stall is signalled by both the AoA sensors. Pilots are provided with an “AoA disagree warning” which indicates that there might be an erroneous activation of MCAS. This warning was not standard equipment at the time of the two accidents – it had to be purchased by airlines as an option. </p>
<p>Importantly, pilots will now be trained on the operation of the MCAS and management of its problems. Pilots claimed that initially they were <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-48281282">not even told</a> that MCAS existed. This training will have to be approved by the FAA.</p>
<p>So, is all well? Probably. As the 737 Max accidents put Boeing and the FAA under such intense scrutiny, it is likely that the design and safety activities have been carried out and checked to the maximum extent possible. There is no such thing as perfection in such complex engineering processes, but it is clear that this has been an extremely intensive effort and that Boeing found and corrected a few other potential safety problems that were unrelated to the accidents. </p>
<p>Of course, we are not there yet. The more than 300 aircraft already delivered have to be modified, and the 450-or-so built but not delivered also need to be updated and checked by the FAA. Then the pilots need to be trained. And the airlines need passengers – but will they get them? That is an issue of trust.</p>
<h2>Safety culture and trust</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ep7oLR1xCW0">US Congressional Enquiry</a> was scathing about the culture at both Boeing and the FAA and the difficulty of the FAA in overseeing Boeing’s work. <a href="https://fisher.osu.edu/blogs/leadreadtoday/blog/a-textbook-case-for-disaster-psychological-safety-and-the-737-max">Some commentators</a> have also referred to an absence of psychological safety: “The assurance that one can speak up, offer ideas, point out problems, or deliver bad news without fear of retribution.” We have evidence that the engineering problems have been fixed, but safety culture is more nebulous and slow to change. </p>
<p>How would we know if trust has been restored? There are several possible indicators. </p>
<p>Due to the effects of COVID-19, airlines are running a reduced flight schedule, so they may not need to use the 737 Max. If they choose not to do so, despite its reduced operating costs compared to earlier 737 models, that will be telling. Certainly, all eyes will be on the first airline to return the aircraft to the skies. </p>
<p>Some US airlines <a href="https://simpleflying.com/how-to-tell-if-youre-flying-on-the-boeing-737-max/">have said</a> they will advise people which model of aircraft they will be flying. If passengers opt to avoid the 737 Max, that will speak volumes about public trust and confidence. </p>
<p>The FAA <a href="https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=93206">press release</a> also says there has been an “unprecedented level of collaborative and independent reviews by aviation authorities around the world”. But if the international authorities ask for further checks or delay the reintroduction of the aircraft in their jurisdictions, that will be particularly significant as it reflects the view of the FAA’s professional peers. Brazil’s rapid response is a positive sign for this international engagement.</p>
<p>Hopefully, the first few years will prove uneventful and trust can be rebuilt. But only time will tell.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150688/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John McDermid receives, or has received, funding from government research agencies, industry including in the aerospace sector and the Lloyd's Register Foundation, relevant to the safety of aircraft and autonomous systems. He has not received any funding directly relevant to the Boeing 737 Max.</span></em></p>
Almost two years after crashing twice within five months and being pulled out of service, the Boeing 737 Max’s return to the skies has now been approved.
John McDermid, Director, Assuring Autonomy International Programme, University of York
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/134552
2020-05-20T20:02:27Z
2020-05-20T20:02:27Z
Plane cabins are havens for germs. Here’s how they can clean up their act
<p>Qantas has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-19/qantas-social-distancing-coronavirus-covid19-measures/12263242">unveiled a range of precautions</a> to guard passengers against COVID-19. The safety measures expected to be rolled out on June 12 include contactless check-in, hand sanitiser at departure gates, and optional masks and sanitising wipes on board. </p>
<p>Controversially, however, there will be no physical distancing on board, because Qantas claims it is too expensive to run half-empty flights.</p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic is forcing airlines to look closely at their hygiene practices. But aircraft cabins were havens for germs long before the coronavirus came along. The good news is there are some simple ways on-board hygiene can be improved.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sanitising-the-city-does-spraying-the-streets-work-against-coronavirus-136966">Sanitising the city: does spraying the streets work against coronavirus?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Common sense precautions</h2>
<p>As an environmental microbiologist I have observed, in general, a gradual loss of quality in hygiene globally. </p>
<p>Airports and aircrafts have <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/WNN/video/overcrowding-concerns-planes-70616212">crammed ever larger numbers</a> of passengers into <a href="https://time.com/5636154/airplane-legroom-shrinking-asia/">ever smaller economy-class seats</a>.</p>
<p>Although social distancing can’t do much in a confined cabin space – as the virus is reported to be able to travel <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid/advance-article/doi/10.1093/infdis/jiaa189/5820886">eight metres</a> — wearing face masks (viral ones in particular) and practising hand hygiene remain crucial.</p>
<p>Since microorganisms are invisible, it is hard to combat such a powerful enemy. During flights, I have observed a vast array of unwitting mistakes made by flight crew and passengers. </p>
<p>Some crew staff would go to the bathroom to push overflowing paper towels down into the bins, exit without washing their hands and continue to serve food and drinks. </p>
<p>We have the technology for manufacturers to install waste bins where paper towels can be shredded, disinfected and disposed of via suction, as is used in the toilets. Moreover, all aircraft waste bins should operate with pedals to prevent hand contamination.</p>
<p>Also, pilots should not share bathrooms with passengers, as is often the case. Imagine the consequences if pilots became infected and severely ill during a long flight, to the point of not being able to fly. Who would land the plane? </p>
<p>For instance, the highly transmissible <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/norovirus/about/symptoms.html">norovirus</a>, which causes vomiting and diarrhoea, can manifest within 12 hours of exposure. So for everyone’s safety, pilots should have their own bathroom. </p>
<h2>Food and the kitchen</h2>
<p>Aircraft kitchen areas should be as far as possible from toilets. </p>
<p>Male and female toilets should be separated because, due to the way men and women use the bathroom, male bathrooms are more likely to have droplets of urine splash outside the toilet bowl. Child toilets and change rooms should be separate as well. </p>
<p>Food trolleys should be covered with a sterile plastic sheet during service as they come close to seated passengers who could be infected. </p>
<p>And to allow traffic flow in the corridor, trolleys should not be placed near toilets. At times I have seen bread rolls in a basket with a nice white napkin, with the napkin touching the toilet door.</p>
<p>Also, blankets should not be used if the bags have been opened, and pillows should have their own sterile bags.</p>
<h2>Mind your luggage</h2>
<p>In March, luggage handlers <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-31/qantas-baggage-handlers-test-positive-to-coronavirus-in-sa/12107258">were infected</a> with COVID-19 at Adelaide Airport. </p>
<p>As a passenger, you should avoid placing your hand luggage on the seats while reaching into overhead lockers. There’s a chance your luggage was placed on a contaminated surface before you entered the plane, such as on a public bathroom floor.</p>
<p>Be wary of using the seat pocket in front of you. Previous passengers may have placed dirty (or infected) tissues there. So keep this in mind when using one to hold items such as your passport, or glasses, which come close to your eyes (through which SARS-CoV-2 <a href="https://www.health.qld.gov.au/news-events/news/novel-coronavirus-covid-19-how-it-spreads-transmission-infection-prevention-protection">can enter the body</a>).</p>
<p>Also, safety cards in seat pockets should be disposable and should be replaced after each flight.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/air-travel-spreads-infections-globally-but-health-advice-from-inflight-magazines-can-limit-that-120283">Air travel spreads infections globally, but health advice from inflight magazines can limit that</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In facing the COVID-19 crisis, it’s important to remember that unless an antiviral drug or a vaccine is found, this virus could come back every year. </p>
<p>On many occasions, microbiologists have warned of the need for more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30912268/">microbiology literacy</a> among the public. Yet, too often their calls are dismissed as paranoia, or being overly cautious. </p>
<p>But now’s the time to listen, and to start taking precaution. For all we know, there may be even more dangerous <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-pandemic-is-paving-the-way-for-an-increase-in-superbugs-135389">superbugs</a> breeding around us – ones we’ve simply yet to encounter.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134552/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ipek Kurtböke is affiliated with
University of the Sunshine Coast (Senior Lecturer) and
World Federation of Culture Collections (President)</span></em></p>
Aircraft cabins have been germ hotspots since long before this pandemic. More ‘microbiology literacy’ is needed among the general public for this to improve.
Ipek Kurtböke, Senior Lecturer, Environmental Microbiology, University of the Sunshine Coast
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/138067
2020-05-13T09:46:20Z
2020-05-13T09:46:20Z
Grounded aircraft could make weather forecasts less reliable
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334307/original/file-20200512-175219-10h3lol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C561%2C3350%2C927&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plane-cemetery-mojave-desert-47675509">Darren J. Bradley/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Thanks to travel restrictions and plummeting customer demand, the number of flights in the first week of April 2020 was down <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/air-traffic-during-coronavirus-pandemic-changes-effects-around-the-world-2020-4?r=US&IR=T">61%</a> compared with the same period in 2019. The pandemic has emptied the skies of aircraft, but it’s not just the airline industry that’s reeling from the sudden change. </p>
<p>Aircraft possess some of the most advanced electronic equipment available, some of which monitors the atmosphere during flight. You might not realise it during your flight, but aeroplanes automatically feed data to meteorologists who use it to create weather forecasts.</p>
<p>Since 1998, the Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) system has collected data from 43 airlines, using devices on <a href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/GOS/ABO/data/statistics/">thousands of aircraft</a>. These aeroplanes continuously record air temperature and pressure, wind speed, turbulence and water vapour and relay this via radio or satellite. On the ground, meteorologists input this data, along with data from ocean buoys, weather balloons and ground stations, into weather prediction models.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334312/original/file-20200512-175246-xashei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A solar-powered buoy collects weather data in the Gulf of Mexico.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/solar-powered-buoy-gulf-mexico-off-1432924634">EngineerPhotos/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Weather data from aircraft is <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2020/drop-aircraft-observations-could-have-impact-weather-forecasts">considered</a> “second only to satellite data in their impact on forecasts”, according to experts. Aircraft collected more than one million meteorological observations <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/apr/09/decline-aircraft-flights-clips-weather-forecasters-wings-coronavirus">each day in 2019</a> around the world, but aircraft-based observations in 2020 have fallen by up to <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en/media/press-release/covid-19-impacts-observing-system">90%</a> in some regions. How is all this affecting the weather forecast we check each day?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-future-do-airlines-have-three-experts-discuss-135365">What future do airlines have? Three experts discuss</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Filling the gaps</h2>
<p>Mathematical models use current weather conditions and complex atmospheric physics to generate a forecast. Aircraft observations taken during take-off and landing are most useful for surface weather forecasting, whereas those taken in flight are important for forecasting the weather at altitudes where aeroplanes fly. </p>
<p>But even high altitude observations are relevant for surface weather predictions, as water vapour measurements are used for modelling cloud formation. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/16742834.2012.11446995">Research</a> has also shown that aircraft observations help improve the accuracy of hurricane forecasts. Global climate models need global observations and, for many parts of the planet, particularly over the oceans, AMDAR is the only data source.</p>
<p>Studies have demonstrated that aircraft-based observations can reduce errors in forecasts by up to <a href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/GOS/ABO/AMDAR/publications/Benefit_of_AMDAR_Data_to_Meteorology_and_Aviation.pdf">20%</a>. It’s thought that losing all aircraft data would reduce the accuracy of short-term flying level forecasts that are crucial for flight planning by up to <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2020/drop-aircraft-observations-could-have-impact-weather-forecasts">15%</a>. </p>
<p>A similar drop in forecast accuracy was seen in <a href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/GOS/ABO/AMDAR/publications/Benefit_of_AMDAR_Data_to_Meteorology_and_Aviation.pdf">Europe and the North Atlantic</a> in 2010, when the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull erupted and forced the airspace in the region to close. One of the implications of aircraft weather observations being down 90% is that aeroplanes that continue flying have less accurate forecasting to guide them, particularly over parts of the Earth with less regular monitoring.</p>
<p>Organisations such as the European National Meteorological Service are <a href="https://www.eumetnet.eu/working-together-to-minimise-the-impact-of-covid-19/">launching additional weather balloons</a> to try to fill the data gaps left by grounded aeroplanes. <a href="http://flyht.com/flyht-distribute-complimentary-tamdar-data-covid-19-national-emergency/">Efforts are afoot</a> to ensure that any aircraft data that is gathered is made available to members of the World Meteorological Organisation – the UN agency for weather forecasting. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334309/original/file-20200512-175224-10qscu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A meteorologist launches a weather balloon from Australia’s most remote weather station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/giles-western-australia-august-19-2010launching-1226482195">Edward Haylan/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meteorologists can also rely on satellite sensors monitoring cloud cover, rainfall and temperature. With impeccable timing, the new <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Aeolus/Introducing_Aeolus">Aeolus</a> satellite <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2020/ecmwf-starts-assimilating-aeolus-wind-data">started delivering data</a> on wind direction and speed from January 2020. Before, all of these measurements over oceans and remote regions were done by aircraft.</p>
<p>So in spite of COVID-19, weather forecasting will continue but, with fewer observations, forecasts in the short term may become less reliable, particularly in remote regions where less data was collected already. Pilots will only fly if they are content with the quality of forecasts, so there’s unlikely to be any risk to human life. But as we enter the Atlantic hurricane season, which is predicted <a href="https://engr.source.colostate.edu/csu-researchers-predicting-active-2020-atlantic-hurricane-season/">to be more active than usual</a>, the most reliable forecasts may be harder to come by initially. That could make the outcomes of hurricane tracking models less certain.</p>
<p>Flight numbers are expected to <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/pressroom/pr/2020-04-21-01/">recover to normal slowly</a>. Until they do, patchy weather forecasts are another effect of the pandemic that’s going to take some getting used to.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138067/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Blackett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
More than one million weather observations were made by aircraft each day in 2019. Since the pandemic started, these have dropped by 90%.
Matthew Blackett, Reader in Physical Geography and Natural Hazards, Coventry University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/117350
2020-02-14T16:01:45Z
2020-02-14T16:01:45Z
Plane, train, or automobile? The climate impact of transport is surprisingly complicated
<p>The 2020s will have to involve some very big decisions about transport – <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/air-pollution-uk-transport-most-polluting-sector-greenhouse-gas-emissions-drop-carbon-dioxide-a8196866.html">the UK’s most polluting sector</a>. The UK government’s response so far has been erratic, choosing to <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/flybe-set-for-crunch-whitehall-talks-over-bailout-terms-11932524">intervene to prevent the collapse of Flybe</a> (Europe’s biggest regional airline) and give the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/feb/11/hs2-to-go-ahead-boris-johnson-tells-mps">green light for the high-speed rail project, HS2</a>.</p>
<p>Decarbonising transport would eliminate <a href="https://theconversation.com/decarbonising-britains-railways-demands-urgent-action-heres-how-it-could-be-done-124905">26% of UK CO₂ emissions</a> that come from how people get around. But Prime Minister Boris Johnson recently said that doing this poses “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/feb/11/hs2-to-go-ahead-boris-johnson-tells-mps">difficult and complicated</a>” questions. On this, Johnson is almost certainly right.</p>
<p>The <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/gilets-jaunes-62467">gilets jaunes</a></em> protests against fuel duty rises in France show <a href="https://theconversation.com/emmanuel-macrons-carbon-tax-sparked-gilets-jaunes-protests-but-popular-climate-policy-is-possible-108437">the delicate balancing act</a> between decisive climate action and continued economic growth and convenience. But shouldn’t the government allow a regional flight operator to fail and invest in high-speed rail instead? The answer is not so simple.</p>
<h2>Carbon footprints can be misleading</h2>
<p>Aviation is one of the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/grl.50161">fastest growing fossil fuel consumers</a>, with airlines contributing about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231009004956#tbl1">3.5% of all man-made greenhouse gas emissions</a>. This might seem small, but a single transatlantic flight from London to New York can grow your personal <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en">carbon footprint</a> by as much as the entire heating budget of the average European.</p>
<p>At high altitudes, contrails – the white lines we see in the sky – are formed in the wake of aircraft. These high altitude clouds are too thin to reflect much sunlight, but the ice crystals inside them can trap heat. Unlike low-level cloud, which has a net-cooling effect, contrails contribute significantly to global warming, effectively boosting the aviation industry’s share of greenhouse gas emissions to around <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231009004956#tbl1">4.9%</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flights warm the atmosphere by more than the contribution of their CO₂ emissions alone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/airplane-big-four-engines-aviation-airport-597813428">Aapsky/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For the most part, the environmental benefit of high-speed rail is taken for granted. Most, but not all, research suggests that <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-planning-high-speed-rail-could-reduce-flight-demand-21687">high-speed rail can offset emissions from aviation</a> if it can attract enough passengers from alternative air routes. But the relative climate impacts of aviation to other modes of transport depend on more than just engines and altitude.</p>
<p>We can compare the emissions of different forms of transport by calculating the emissions produced by each one when moving <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Passenger-kilometre">one passenger one kilometre</a>. This effectively compares how much CO₂ leaves each vehicle’s exhaust, but it ignores greenhouse gas emissions from the building and maintenance of the vehicles, the infrastructure – such as tracks, runways and airports – and the production of fuel.</p>
<p>The warming effects of different greenhouse gases <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/es9039693">happen over different time periods</a>, from a few days of short intensive warming to centuries of gentle influence. In order to provide a common unit to measure the impact of different gases, warming effects are standardised over a given time period. The time period normally used is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understanding-global-warming-potentials">100 years</a>. </p>
<p>But if it were five years, the effect of contrails would account for more global warming than all the cars in the world. They raise the temperature of the atmosphere in short, intense bursts. On longer timescales, like 20 years, the short term effects are less important and make aviation look considerably better – with flying looking potentially less damaging than some cars over the same distance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most comparisons only consider the emissions that come from vehicles while they’re in use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-car-exhaust-pipe-1144696811">Khunkorn/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is still not the whole story though. The energy inputs for different modes of travel vary. The direct burning of fossil fuels in engines, for example jet kerosene in aircraft, emits greenhouse gases. In electrically powered high-speed rail, operating the train produces no emissions, except from the fossil fuels used to generate that electricity elsewhere. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-cars-wont-save-the-planet-without-a-clean-energy-overhaul-they-could-increase-pollution-118012">Electric cars won't save the planet without a clean energy overhaul – they could increase pollution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Developing HS2 will mean deploying stations, tracks and centres of communication, and they’ll need ongoing maintenance. These all need energy and material investments, which will create further greenhouse gas emissions through manufacture, transport, and use. That could <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/4/2/024008/pdf">increase the carbon footprint of rail by between 1.8 and 2.5 times</a>, over just accounting for the operation of the trains. For aviation, the same infrastructure requirements are relatively small, and are responsible for a 1.2–1.3 increase, with road transport showing a 1.4–1.6 increase.</p>
<h2>Comparing life cycles</h2>
<p>A life cycle approach gives a better understanding of where emissions are occurring and compares transport modes on a much more level playing field. This helps us understand that most greenhouse gas emissions in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/4/2/024008/pdf">air and road travel come from flying and driving</a>, whereas in rail travel, the climate effects are dominated by those emissions produced building the infrastructure itself. Emissions from operating trains are generally lower because of the heavy reliance on electricity. But there are still emissions from the manufacture and maintenance of <a href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/uploadedFiles/org/WNA/Publications/Working_Group_Reports/comparison_of_lifecycle.pdf">renewable energy technologies</a> to consider.</p>
<p>All modes of high-speed travel come with a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920911001155#b0075">cost to the environment</a>. Being able to accurately compare the energy requirements and emissions of different transport options is the first step towards addressing their climate impact.</p>
<p>Governments often try to encourage people to change their behaviour and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652610003549">reduce the number of flights they take</a>. But in the case of HS2, the continued availability of regional flights means that only <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/365065/S_A_1_Economic_case_0.pdf">4% of drivers and only 1% of aeroplane passengers</a> are likely to change their behaviour. </p>
<p>It’s easy to point the finger at aviation and view rail as a low carbon alternative. But governments need to consider and carefully balance the true climate impacts of a transport project, in every phase of its development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Wright is affiliated with the American Center for Life Cycle Assessment (ACLCA) and the Forum for Sustainability through Life Cycle Innovation (FSLCI) . He receives funding from the EU Interreg program.</span></em></p>
All modes of high-speed travel come with a cost to the environment.
Laurie Wright, Senior Lecturer, Warsash School of Maritime Science and Engineering, Solent University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/131613
2020-02-13T15:23:23Z
2020-02-13T15:23:23Z
Climate change means longer take-offs and fewer passengers per aeroplane – new study
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315259/original/file-20200213-11044-e62imy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=308%2C0%2C2660%2C1990&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/airplane-take-off-manchester-airport-england-69698059">Andrew Barker/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The connection between your next flight and climate change is likely clear in your head. More aeroplanes emitting <a href="https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx">greenhouse gases</a> means more global warming. Simple enough, but there’s an opposite side that you probably hadn’t thought of. </p>
<p>As the local climates at airports around the world have changed in the past few decades, the conditions that pilots have relied on in order to take off safely have changed too. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10584-019-02634-z">Our new research</a> suggests that higher temperatures and weaker winds are making take-off more difficult. In the long run, this means that airlines are delivering fewer passengers and cargo for the same amount of fuel.</p>
<p>“Climate” essentially <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-climate-change-58.html">means the average weather conditions</a> at any given place. Scientists know this is changing, but not uniformly. While global temperatures <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/climate-change-explained">have risen by about 1°C on average</a>, some places have warmed by much more already – and others may be getting cooler. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/travel-the-world-without-destroying-it-imagine-newsletter-5-121269">Travel the world without destroying it – Imagine newsletter #5</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>But climate change isn’t just about temperature – <a href="https://www.conservationmagazine.org/2014/09/the-forgotten-part-of-climate-change-slower-winds/">winds are slowing down and changing direction around the world too</a>. This is a problem for airport runways that were built many years ago to align with the prevailing winds at the time. </p>
<p>Research has predicted that take-off distances <a href="http://www.theurbanclimatologist.com/uploads/4/4/2/5/44250401/coffeletal2017aviationtakeoff.pdf">will get longer</a> as the climate warms. This is because higher temperatures reduce air density, which the wings and engines need to get airborne. With reduced headwinds, aeroplanes also need to generate more groundspeed just to get into the air. Once they’re up there, they’re subject to <a href="https://phys.org/news/2019-08-jetstream-aircraft-turbulence-climate.html">in-flight turbulence, which is getting worse</a> due to climate change increasing the energy in jet stream winds. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/07/this-visualization-shows-you-24-hours-of-global-air-traffic-in-just-4-seconds/">More than 100,000 aircraft</a> regularly take off and land around the world each day. The record so far is <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/flights-sky-map-worldwide-air-traffic-aviation-busiest-day-june-a8428451.html">202,157, on June 29 2018</a>. How are all these changes likely to be affecting them? With colleagues in Britain and <a href="https://www.athena-innovation.gr/en/environment_network_technologies_unit_dm">Greece</a>, we decided to look at what has happened so far. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1013088775973556224"}"></div></p>
<h2>Running out of runway</h2>
<p>We have been recording the weather at ten Greek airports since 1955. For each year, we took the average wind and overnight minimum temperatures, and then plugged that into performance graphs. These are used to calculate the safe runway lengths and aeroplane weights that are needed to ensure that airlines can carry their passengers safely.</p>
<p>Temperature changes varied a lot between the airports we studied, between a 2°C and 5°C temperature rise over the 62 years we had data for. So did wind. At one airport, the average speed of wind passing down the runway towards the aeroplane as it took off (known as headwinds) increased by about 25%. At the other extreme, another airport saw average headwinds on the airport’s runway fall by 90% over 43 years. </p>
<p>We found that in every case the conditions had changed over the 62 years to make aeroplane take-off more difficult. Safety regulations ensure that aeroplanes are never allowed to take off without enough runway, but on the longer runways we studied, the take-off distances necessary to get a large jet plane into the air had increased by about 1.5% every decade, and about 1% for a smaller turboprop airliner. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315079/original/file-20200212-61935-1l0sexc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This Boeing 737 is used for research at Cranfield University. Small aircraft like this are the mainstay of smaller airports, and likely to be the most affected by climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Guy Gratton</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In airports with shorter runways, aircraft have to reduce weight. This is all worked out before take-off – cargo, passenger numbers and fuel loads are adjusted accordingly. In the most extreme case we studied this meant that planes were taking off with one passenger fewer (or about 40 kilometres worth of fuel less) each year. These aeroplanes are climbing less steeply after take-off, creating more pollution and noise nuisance on the ground.</p>
<p>We conducted this research in Greece, but other global studies <a href="http://www.theurbanclimatologist.com/uploads/4/4/2/5/44250401/coffeletal2017aviationtakeoff.pdf">have found similar trends</a> elsewhere in the world. Small airports – such as those on <a href="https://www.visitscotland.com/travel/getting-around-scotland/air/">islands off Scotland</a> or in the <a href="https://www.tripsavvy.com/airport-info-every-caribbean-destination-1487877">Caribbean</a> – are likely to suffer the most as the climate continues to change.</p>
<p>That could mean that airlines must reduce the numbers of passengers they carry on flights, or search for ways to lengthen their runways. In some extreme cases, it could become impossible for some aeroplanes to use some airports altogether. This is another reminder of how rapidly and extensively human actions are transforming the world around us, and how ill equipped we are to deal with the consequences.</p>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1131613">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131613/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul D. Williams has received funding from the Royal Society, Natural Environment Research Council, Leverhulme Trust, and Heathrow Airport.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guy Gratton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Weaker winds and higher temperatures are making airlines less efficient.
Guy Gratton, Associate Professor of Aviation and the Environment, Cranfield University
Paul Williams, Professor of Atmospheric Science, University of Reading
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/130334
2020-01-22T15:22:31Z
2020-01-22T15:22:31Z
Could sleeper trains replace international air travel?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311434/original/file-20200122-117927-152ikmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5395%2C3214&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/railway-line-night-train-motion-electric-767205820">Artmans/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dutch airline KLM recently launched a new advertising campaign called “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4htp2xxhto">Fly Responsibly</a>”. Remarkably, it seems to encourage viewers to fly less. “Do you always have to meet face-to-face?”, the advert asks. “Could you take the train instead?”.</p>
<p>The influence of climate campaigner Greta Thunberg likely explains why airlines feel obliged to say these things. <a href="https://theconversation.com/flight-shame-flying-less-plays-a-small-but-positive-part-in-tackling-climate-change-125440">Flight shame</a> – or “<em>flygskam</em>” – has gripped many regular flyers with a sense of unease about the aviation industry, which <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1352231014004889">consumes five million barrels of oil a day</a> and is predicted to account for around <a href="http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/569964/IPOL_STU(2015)569964_EN.pdf">22% of global carbon emissions</a> by 2050.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/travel-the-world-without-destroying-it-imagine-newsletter-5-121269">Travel the world without destroying it – Imagine newsletter #5</a>
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<p>European high-speed rail networks already offer an alternative to air traffic between European countries for distances shorter than 1,000 kilometres. For longer journeys, sleeper trains are becoming increasingly popular. These services run through the night and offer passengers a berth to sleep in. As more and more consumers question the ethics of their next flight, rail companies see an opportunity – and competition with airlines is heating up. </p>
<p>But can night trains help offset the international journeys that most people currently make by aeroplane?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311384/original/file-20200122-117938-1gi386a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Because of the altitude at which aeroplanes fly, their carbon emissions have more of an immediate warming effect than ground transport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/large-four-engine-plane-cruising-altitude-740298673">Peter Gudella/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>The renaissance of European night trains</h2>
<p>From 2009 until 2018, the European night train network shrank steadily. The same is true for conventional intercity train networks, especially in southern and western Europe. This made air travel the only alternative on many routes. But that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/20/brussels-vienna-night-train-returns-as-europe-eyes-flying-alternatives">appears to be changing</a>.</p>
<p>When German Rail decided to withdraw its network of overnight passenger trains in 2015, Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB) decided to take over some of its services. In 2017, ÖBB’s Nightjet services carried around <a href="https://www.railjournal.com/in_depth/obb-expands-abroad">1.4 million passengers</a>, more than doubling its total passengers from the previous year. </p>
<p>In 2018, ÖBB achieved another 10% increase in passenger numbers. ÖBB CEO, Andreas Matthä, said that “<a href="https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/main-line/nightjet-passenger-traffic-up-10-says-obbs-ceo/">overnight services are a viable alternative to short-haul flights</a>” and committed to continue investing in new services. As a result, ÖBB is expanding its routes on the <a href="https://www.nightjet.com/en/">NightJet network</a> of sleeper trains. From January 2020, night trains will once again run between Vienna and Brussels, 16 years after the service closed.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1219198861618696197"}"></div></p>
<p>In the UK, <a href="https://www.nationalrail.co.uk/tocs_maps/tocs/GW.aspx">Great Western Railway</a> plans to <a href="https://www.gwr.com/travel-updates/planned-engineering/west-cornwall">renovate</a> the sleeper trains it runs to Cornwall. <a href="https://www.scotrail.co.uk/plan-your-journey/travel-connections/caledonian-sleeper">The Caledonian Sleeper</a>, which runs between London, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen has been revamped with a £150 million investment in new trains. </p>
<p>In response to a public petition, the Swedish government plans to <a href="https://back-on-track.eu/swedish-draft-night-train-report-will-set-night-trains-on-the-tracks-from-scandinavia-in-2022/">reintroduce night train services</a> to other European countries. A sleeper train service <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/sweden-london-train-sleeper-malmo-amsterdam-cologne-munich-rail-a9288206.html?fbclid=IwAR3hXu2UX4z0wRqFiuCr1yTIfXJLlDM5sq0ExrgVxmxTlqRpXaEVzu0sMrI">from Malmö in southern Sweden to London</a> has been planned for 2022 at the earliest. The service could set off in the evening and arrive in the English capital at lunchtime the next day. At almost 1,300 kilometres, the trip is typical of the many rail journeys that could offset those currently taken between European countries by aeroplane.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/transport-emissions-have-doubled-in-40-years-expand-railways-to-get-them-on-track-122794">Transport emissions have doubled in 40 years – expand railways to get them on track</a>
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<h2>An alternative to air travel?</h2>
<p>Aviation industry CEOs are worried that flight shame could <a href="https://aviationanalyst.co.uk/2019/08/02/exclusive-domestic-air-travel-could-shrink-because-of-flight-shaming-lufthansa-munich-ceo/">threaten passenger traffic</a> and in some countries this already seems to be happening. Swedavia, an airline which operates ten of Sweden’s busiest airports, <a href="https://www.swedavia.com/about-swedavia/swedavias-newsroom/#gref">reported a 4% fall</a> in passengers in 2019 compared with the previous year. The decrease was primarily in domestic travel, while the number of international passengers fell to a lesser extent. Despite this, European air traffic still <a href="https://go.updates.iata.org/l/123902/2019-07-11/83d46z?utm_source=IATA.org&utm_medium=product-page&utm_campaign=BIS007-MonthlyStats-2019">grew by 4.2% in 2019</a>. </p>
<p>It’s too soon to say whether the night train revival is a permanent trend prompted by <em>flygskam</em>. Nevertheless, environmental awareness still motivates the choices of travellers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311435/original/file-20200122-117954-1x4tcrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sleeper train operators promise comfort to entice would-be flyers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-tired-girl-sleeps-her-sleeper-1510918502">Flystock/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p><a href="https://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/groups-and-centres/transport-studies-research-group">Researchers</a> who study consumer profiles in different markets recently identified a new one: the “<a href="https://dataset2050.eu/">environmental traveller</a>”. People who fall into this market segment try to maintain a lifestyle that is as environmentally friendly as possible – and that includes reducing the number of flights they take. </p>
<p>But the researchers found that awareness of the environmental crisis doesn’t automatically translate into behaviour changes, such as choosing other transport modes over air travel. Most often, distance or cost are more powerful motivations, particularly for short and medium-haul routes.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%3A21e9731a-6ec3-4230-847f-38ffa364ba8a">recent study</a> from the Netherlands found that passengers who travel for leisure purposes seem to be most attracted to the option of night trains. It’s possible that night train services could simply generate new demand from these customers instead of substituting existing airline passengers. The researchers found that 40% of business travellers still opted to fly the day before and stay in a hotel instead, though many thought the relative comfort of sleeper trains was appealing. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311380/original/file-20200122-117954-1mlw0vj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sleeper trains might appeal to backpackers, but can they offer an alternative to frequent flying businesspeople?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-female-backpackers-resting-while-travelling-1238782927">Flystock/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=IPOL_STU(2017)601977">Research</a> conducted on behalf of the European parliament is much more pessimistic, concluding that there are more challenges than opportunities for night trains to grow in Europe. Chief among them is the continued growth of low-cost airlines. <a href="http://www.nachtzug-retten.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/2013-04-30_uic_study_night_trains_2.02.pdf">Infrastructure costs</a> currently prohibit long-distance night trains which might be able to tempt more passengers out of these aeroplanes. Subsidy and investment to expand rail networks may be necessary for the sector to compete with aviation. <a href="https://www.aef.org.uk/issues/economics/taxation/">Making airlines pay fuel duty</a> could also help.</p>
<p>In the meantime, <em>flygskam</em> could still be effective if it means people keep the pressure on the aviation industry to reform and reduce its growing carbon footprint.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1130334">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130334/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enrica Papa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Since 2019, night train networks have seen a remarkable revival across Europe.
Enrica Papa, Reader in Transport Planning, University of Westminster
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/125900
2019-11-05T14:45:10Z
2019-11-05T14:45:10Z
Electric planes are here – but they won’t solve flying’s CO₂ problem
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300272/original/file-20191105-88372-17iwrfo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eviation's Alice prototype.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Langsdon/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK government plans to ban the sale of new conventional petrol and diesel cars <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-40726868">by 2040</a>. Clearly the plan is for all citizens to be driving electric or hybrid-electric cars, or – better still – riding bicycles. But can electrification help cut emissions from that other carbon-intensive form of passenger transport, flying? </p>
<p>This is a complex question and one where size matters. It is possible for small aircraft to be powered by electricity. In fact several companies are already developing small electric aircraft and they could come on the market within <a href="https://theconversation.com/get-set-for-take-off-in-electric-aircraft-the-next-transport-disruption-114178">the next few years</a>.</p>
<p>But for the large aircraft we all use more frequently it is unlikely to happen anytime soon. The problem isn’t the propulsion technology but the energy storage. Jet fuel contains around 30 times more energy per kilogram than the most advanced lithium-ion battery currently available.</p>
<p>The world’s largest passenger plane, the Airbus A380, can fly 600 passengers 15,000 kilometres in a single flight. But, according to my calculations, with batteries it could only fly a little over 1,000 kilometres. Even if all the passengers and cargo were replaced with batteries, the range would still be less then 2,000 kilometres. To keep its current range, the plane would need batteries weighing 30 times more than its current fuel intake, meaning it would never get off the ground.</p>
<p>This trade-off is particularly bad for long-haul flights because the fuel makes up half of the aircraft’s weight at take-off. What’s more, a conventional plane gets lighter as the fuel is consumed, but an electric aircraft would have to carry the same battery weight for the entire flight. As I said, size matters. </p>
<p>For a five- to ten-seat light aircraft, fuel is likely to make up 10% to 20% of the aircraft’s weight. Simply swapping the fuel for batteries might still reduce the distance the plane can fly by an impractical amount. But replacing two or three passengers with additional batteries would give a range of 500 kilometres to 750 kilometres, compared to a fuel-powered range of over 1,000km.</p>
<h2>First commercial model</h2>
<p>However, there could be another option. Israeli firm <a href="https://www.eviation.co/alice/">Eviation</a> recently revealed a prototype version of what it claims will be the world’s first commercial all-electric passenger aircraft. The aircraft, named Alice, doesn’t just swap jet fuel for batteries but is a whole new design concept that improves the way the propulsion system is integrated into the airframe. Carrying nine passengers with a range of 1,000km, Alice is expected to enter service in 2022. </p>
<p>Alice may be a practical alternative for small, regional journeys but not for most scheduled passenger flights, even short-haul ones. So how can electrification help here? Improving battery technology is one option. A new technology known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/lithium-air-a-battery-breakthrough-explained-50027">lithium-air batteries</a> can theoretically reach the same energy density as jet fuel. However, they are still at the laboratory stage. Given the extremely safety conscious nature of the aviation industry, it is unlikely to plan future aircraft on unproven technology. </p>
<p>What we are more likely to see for short-haul flights in the next 20 to 30 years is hybrid aircraft that combine current turbofan engines with new electric propulsor systems. This more flexible hybrid system could be optimised to provide the high thrust required for take-off and the energy density needed for a long cruise.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300276/original/file-20191105-88409-1pdtrul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The hybrid E-Fan X.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Airbus</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is an area being actively pursued in the <a href="https://www.airbus.com/innovation/future-technology/electric-flight/e-fan-x.html">E-FanX</a> project, which involves Airbus, Rolls-Royce and Siemens teaming up to develop a hybrid-electric propulsion flight demonstrator. Using a BAe 146 aircraft, which usually carries around 100 passengers, they plan to replace one of the aircraft’s four Honeywell turbofan engines with a propulsor fan driven by a two-megawatt electric motor. </p>
<p>In the project’s initial phases, the electricity will actually be supplied by a Rolls-Royce AE2100 gas turbine housed in the aircraft’s fuselage (main body). But the E-FanX will still be an important step in the evolution of hybrid electric technology. <a href="https://www.airbus.com/innovation/future-technology/electric-flight.html">Airbus says</a> it wants to make this technology available for 100-seat aircraft by the 2030s. </p>
<p>It’s also possible to equip a plane with multiple small electric propulsors in a so-called distributed propulsion system that is more efficient than traditional designs that use two large turbofans. This idea can be taken further by combining the separate fuselage and wings into a single “<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/FS-2003-11-81-LaRC.html">blended-wing-body</a>”, more efficiently integrating the propulsors with the airframe in a more aerodynamic design. This could reduce the amount of energy the aircraft would need by 20%. </p>
<p>But neither of the world’s two main aircraft manufactures, Boeing and Airbus, are actively pursuing blended wing technology. Such a major design shift has too many technical challenges <a href="https://leehamnews.com/2018/04/03/dont-look-for-commercial-bwb-airplane-any-time-soon-says-boeings-future-airplanes-head/">to make it commercially viable</a> right now. For example, most airports wouldn’t be able to accommodate a blended-wing aircraft.</p>
<h2>No alternative</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, for the type of flights most of us make there is currently no practical alternative to jet-fuelled turbofans. For this reason, the main aircraft engine manufacturers are investing heavily in improving their current engine technology. The International Air Transport Association <a href="http://www.iata.org/policy/environment">estimates that</a> each new generation of aircraft is on average 20% more fuel-efficient than the model it replaces, and that airlines will invest US$1.3 trillion in new planes over the next decade. </p>
<p>For example, Rolls-Royce’s most recent engine, the <a href="https://www.rolls-royce.com/products-and-services/civil-aerospace/airlines/trent-xwb.aspx#section-overview">Trent XWB</a> that powers the new <a href="https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/passenger-aircraft/a350xwb-family.html">Airbus A350</a>, is marketed as “the world’s most efficient large aero-engine”. Airbus claims the engine will help the A350 to achieve “25% lower operating costs, fuel burn and CO₂ emissions when compared with previous-generation aircraft”.</p>
<p>The next generation of Rolls-Royce engine, the <a href="https://www.rolls-royce.com/products-and-services/civil-aerospace/future-products.aspx#/">UltraFanTM</a>, will offer a further 20% to 25% reduction in fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions and is due to enter into service in 2025.</p>
<p>But it’s worth remembering that aviation currently contributes only 2% to 3% of global CO₂ emissions. This compares to about 30% to 35% for the whole transport sector, and another 30% to 35% for electricity generation.</p>
<p>The number of air passengers is <a href="https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2018-10-24-02.aspx">expected to double</a> over the next two decades but so are total emissions so this is unlikely to make aviation a bigger part of the problem. Reducing aviation emissions by 20% per generation of aircraft probably might not a sustainable improvement. But if hybrid aircraft are made a reality then flying really could become even less of a contributor to total emissions than it is today.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1125900">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125900/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr A D Walker BEng, PhD, CEng, MRAeS, FHEA receives funding from Aerospace Technology Institute, Innovate UK, EPSRC, EU Clean Sky 2, Rolls-Royce plc </span></em></p>
Small regional flights will soon start going electric but batteries are unlikely to ever fully power large airliners.
Duncan Walker, Senior Lecturer in Applied Aerodynamics, Loughborough University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/123886
2019-10-22T10:21:03Z
2019-10-22T10:21:03Z
These celebrities cause 10,000 times more carbon emissions from flying than the average person
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294523/original/file-20190927-185379-8ibymn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/single-aircraft-flying-among-clouds-blue-781176490">Mental_Visual/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The jet-setting habits of Bill Gates and Paris Hilton mean that they produce an astonishing 10,000 times more carbon emissions from flying than the average person. This was the conclusion of <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1ZwGl_3fvx2jaK">my research</a> mining their social media accounts (tweets, Instagram and Facebook posts) as well as those of a number of other celebrities for clues as to where they were in the world over the course of 2017 and how they got there. As such, this estimate is conservative – they may well have taken more flights and not volunteered the information to their millions of followers.</p>
<p>This highlights the insane disparity in carbon emissions between the rich and the poor. In 2018, an average human emitted less than <a href="https://www.iea.org/geco/emissions/">five tonnes</a> of CO₂ overall. But this hides vast differences in individual contributions. In the case of air travel – the most energy-intensive human activity, no other human activity consumes as much energy in such a short time – the global average is 115kg CO₂ per person per year. Yet the vast majority of humanity never fly. This average is created by the staggering emissions of the richest proportion of humanity. I calculated that Bill Gates, for example, causes at least 1,600 tonnes of CO₂ to be emitted into the atmosphere – and this is from flying alone.</p>
<p>Of course, it’s not only celebrities who are the problem. Recently published <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/25/1-of-english-residents-take-one-fifth-of-overseas-flights-survey-shows">figures</a> reveal that 1% of English residents are responsible for nearly one-fifth of all flights abroad. Nearly half (48%) of the population, meanwhile, did not take a single overseas flight in 2018.</p>
<h2>Carbon inequality</h2>
<p>Calling out the extent of this disparity is key given that humanity has agreed to stabilise global warming at 2°C. To achieve this goal, emissions of greenhouse gases have to be reduced drastically. The Paris Agreement accepts that the burden should be better shared around: countries that emit a lot per citizen should make greater contributions to decarbonisation.</p>
<p>Of course, there will also be disparity within each country: some high emitters as well as some who hardly contribute to global warming at all. I wanted to find out just how central the highest emitters might be to this question – just how much of the burden we should expect them to take on. Celebrities, by definition, are influential and often wealthy. While anecdotal evidence suggests that they are also frequent fliers, it has been difficult to determine their contributions to global warming. Very wealthy people are rarely represented in household surveys. To find out, I tracked the jet-set lifestyles of <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1ZwGl_3fvx2jaK">ten celebrities</a> by analysing their ample social media presence.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Bx_xf88B3Bf/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>I analysed Twitter, Facebook and Instagram accounts for travel information volunteered. To narrow down the research, only air travel was recorded, though of course celebrities also cover (additional) distances by car. Social media posts were evaluated for journey start and end points, the type of aircraft used and the distances travelled. This information was used to calculate likely fuel use and associated emissions.</p>
<p>The vast emissions caused by these individuals suggest that a very small share of humanity has a very significant role in global warming. This likely equally true for a much wider range of economic, cultural and political elites. </p>
<h2>Flight shame</h2>
<p>We have known for a while that the world’s richest 10% produce <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/02/worlds-richest-10-produce-half-of-global-carbon-emissions-says-oxfam">half of global carbon emissions</a>. But climate policies have so far tended to omit this issue of carbon inequality. </p>
<p>Worldwide, nations have focused on the decarbonisation of production within states, ignoring wild differences in consumption habits. And it’s increasingly looking like the climate crisis can’t be addressed while a small but growing group of super-emitters continue to increase their energy consumption and portray such lifestyles as desirable through their social media channels. Due to their wealth, these elites also <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/bill-gates/#6a72810d689f">exist outside</a> the market-based frameworks implemented to reduce emissions, such as carbon taxes, air passenger duties or carbon allowances for companies.</p>
<p>This is also the main issue highlighted by the growing youth movement demanding personal carbon accountability. As Greta Thunberg affirmed early on, “the bigger your carbon footprint, the bigger your moral duty”. And flying, as a very energy-intensive activity, has been identified as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/apr/26/greta-thunberg-train-journey-through-europe-flygskam-no-fly">particularly harmful</a> and socially undesirable. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294524/original/file-20190927-185383-w843pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For the moment, aeroplanes are only ever green when they’re grounded.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Meyers/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This has resulted in a major clash about the social and moral norms surrounding air travel. For decades, frequent fliers have been seen as living desirable lifestyles. To be a global traveller automatically infers a high social standing. Celebrities in particular have fostered this perspective through their communication of glamorous, globetrotting lifestyles. The ten celebrities studied in this research, for example, collectively reach out to 170m followers on Instagram alone.</p>
<p>But more and more people are beginning to question what is desirable, justifiable and indeed “normal” to consume. In the case of flying, this has come to be known as “flight shame”. In some circles, air travel is beginning to be framed as a destructive human activity. This is a major shift from the dominating production-oriented approach to climate change mitigation. The new focus on consumption challenges every individual to live within a sustainable personal carbon budget – and argues that this can be the most powerful way of forcing policy and industry change.</p>
<p>The implications of the flying habits of global superemitters are therefore far reaching. It is clear that governments need to follow the public and pay more attention to consumption in order to stem the growing class of very affluent people who contribute very significantly to emissions and encourage everyone else to aspire to such damaging lifestyles.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1123886">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefan Gössling does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The vast emissions caused by these individuals suggest that a very small share of humanity has a very significant role in global warming.
Stefan Gössling, Professor in Service Management and Service Studies, Lund University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/121269
2019-08-22T16:16:35Z
2019-08-22T16:16:35Z
Travel the world without destroying it – Imagine newsletter #5
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288037/original/file-20190814-136208-a2lnow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6067%2C2623&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/ecofriendly-air-transport-concept-plane-flies-1275591949?src=MS5FJiNyNhUukN0_4xGTgw-1-4">Sergey Tinyakov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Look with your eyes, not your hands. You were probably told that at some point growing up, as your eagerness to see and experience something new was checked by a wary adult. Humans now handle the Earth in a similarly precarious manner. Our desire to explore the world is increasingly plagued by an awareness that international travel harms the very places we spend so much to visit.</p>
<p>There are more commercial flights taking off today than at any other time in history. Many of them will take tourists to see the world’s most striking natural beauty. <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-tourism-and-the-great-barrier-reef-what-we-know-60108">Snorkelling on the Great Barrier Reef</a>, <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/9kxe43/climate-change-tourism-stride-is-cashing-in-on-environmental-devastation">trekking in the Amazon</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/13/polar-cruise-increase-harming-the-arctic-explorer-arved-fuchs-warns">boat tours in the Arctic</a> – cheap air travel has opened more of the world to tourism and ensured more people can afford to see it. </p>
<p>But it has come at a heavy cost to the planet. <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en">Aviation currently accounts for 2-3%</a> of all annual carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. That may not sound a lot, but aeroplanes heat the atmosphere by <a href="https://www.transportenvironment.org/news/aviation-2-3-times-more-damaging-climate-industry-claims">up to three times more</a> than their CO₂ emissions alone because they release nitrogen oxides – powerful greenhouse gases – and create <a href="https://theconversation.com/two-crucial-omissions-that-could-jeopardise-paris-climate-deal-52341">contrails</a> in their wake which trap even more heat in the atmosphere.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1013088775973556224"}"></div></p>
<p>A single flight from London to New York is estimated to melt about <a href="https://shameplane.com/?fromCity=London&fromCode=LHR&toCity=New%20York&toCode=JFK&roundtrip=false&typeofseat=3">3.3 square metres</a> of Arctic ice. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/greta-thunberg-65412">Greta Thunberg</a> – the campaigner who started the <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/climate-strikes-66457">youth climate strikes</a> – is making that journey to attend the UN annual climate summit in September. Rather than take a transatlantic flight and contribute to yet more ice melting, she’s sailing from Plymouth on <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/14/greta-thunberg-sets-sail-plymouth-climate-us-trump">a zero-carbon yacht</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the aviation industry is <a href="https://leehamnews.com/2017/01/17/aircraft-market-will-double-20-years/">predicted to double by 2040</a> – doubling the number of flights and the number of people taking them. Earth has warmed by 1°C since pre-industrial times and already many <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-barrier-reef-has-been-bleaching-for-at-least-400-years-but-its-getting-worse-101691">coral reefs are struggling</a> beyond their thermal limits, while <a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-rainforests-that-were-once-fire-proof-have-become-flammable-91775">rainforests are drying out</a>. Without drastic action, there may be little cause for exploring the world’s natural beauty in future, as there’ll be much less of it to see.</p>
<p>In this fifth issue of Imagine, we asked researchers to scan the horizon of air travel. Does the climate crisis demand we turn our backs on the skies and remain permanently grounded? Or could a technological breakthrough keep our travel obsessions afloat?</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>What is Imagine?</strong></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1114168">Imagine</a> is a newsletter from The Conversation that presents a vision of a world acting on climate change. Drawing on the collective wisdom of academics in fields from anthropology and zoology to technology and psychology, it investigates the many ways life on Earth could be made fairer and more fulfilling by taking radical action on climate change.</em></p>
<p><em>You are currently reading the web version of the newsletter. Here’s <a href="http://theconversation.createsend.com/t/ViewEmail/r/3B198A7EB72026A72540EF23F30FEDED/C67FD2F38AC4859C">the more elegant email-optimised version</a> subscribers receive. To get Imagine delivered straight to your inbox, <a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1116320">subscribe now</a>.</em></p>
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<hr>
<h2>We’re flying towards the climate emergency</h2>
<p>“<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/25/our-house-is-on-fire-greta-thunberg16-urges-leaders-to-act-on-climate">Our house is on fire</a>”, Thunberg said, as she addressed the World Economic Forum in January 2019. Few analogies capture the urgency of the climate crisis so succinctly. Political recognition of the crisis has been sluggish, but at the time of writing four countries have declared a <a href="https://www.climatechangenews.com/2019/06/24/four-countries-declared-climate-emergencies-give-billions-fossil-fuels/">climate emergency</a>: the UK, France, Canada and Ireland. Worldwide, <a href="https://climateemergencydeclaration.org/climate-emergency-declarations-cover-15-million-citizens/">935 local government bodies</a>, which cover 206m people in 18 countries, have done the same.</p>
<p>In the UK, parliament voted to declare a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-48126677">climate emergency</a> on May 1 2019. But less than a year before that, MPs <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-44609898">voted by 415 votes to 119</a> to build a third runway at London’s Heathrow airport – already the <a href="https://www.aef.org.uk/2019/05/02/ccc-net-zero-report-well-still-be-flying-in-2050-but-government-can-no-longer-ignore-aviation-emissions-in-its-climate-policies/">largest single source of CO₂ in the UK</a>. Had Britain’s parliamentarians suddenly realised their error a year on? More likely, they are like most of us who recognise the threat of the climate crisis but aren’t aware of – or would rather not think about – the scale of the change that’s needed to avert it.</p>
<p>That’s a problem that undermines many pledges to reduce emissions – and not just those made on the international stage. Within the towns and cities we live, councils commit to radical action in one breath while approving plans that will ramp up emissions in the next. The city council of Leeds recently <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-becomes-first-country-to-declare-a-climate-emergency-116428">declared a climate emergency</a> and signed off on a strict carbon budget which commits the city to emitting no more than 42 megatonnes of CO₂ between 2018 and 2050. At the same time, the council has <a href="http://www.leedsgrowthstrategy.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Leeds-Inclusive-Growth-Strategy-FINAL.pdf">endorsed</a> the expansion of <a href="https://www.leeds-live.co.uk/news/leeds-news/climate-emergency-declaration-slammed-leeds-16106116">Leeds Bradford Airport</a> – promising new transport links and a commercial centre nearby.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-expand-airports-after-declaring-a-climate-emergency-lets-shift-to-low-carbon-transport-instead-120740">We can't expand airports after declaring a climate emergency – let's shift to low-carbon transport instead</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Airport expansion</strong> – In 2018, four million passengers used Leeds Bradford Airport. With the expansion of the main terminal, the number is predicted to double to eight millioin by 2030.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Climate impact</strong> – All those additional flights would amount to more than double the 2030 target emissions for the entire city of Leeds.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Up and up from 2030?</strong> – If passenger numbers continue growing after 2030, even at a slower rate, emissions from Leeds Bradford Airport would overshoot the city’s carbon budget by a factor of nine by 2040.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285285/original/file-20190723-110170-i5v7lp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate impact of all flights through Leeds Bradford Airport if passengers increase to 8m (red), remain at 2018 level of 4m (yellow) or fall to 1m by 2030 (green), compared to the target emissions for Leeds as a whole (black dashed curve).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jefim Vogel</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But even if the airport doesn’t expand and the number of passengers using Leeds Bradford remains at today’s levels, all flights between 2018 and 2050 would still consume the city’s entire carbon budget.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285286/original/file-20190723-110170-1lhpc5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Even if passenger numbers remain at 2018 levels, air traffic at Leeds Bradford would overshoot the city’s carbon budget.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jefim Vogel</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Only rapidly reducing the number of flights that take off from the world’s airports each year will lower emissions sharply enough to meet carbon budgets like that of Leeds, which are intended to limit global warming to 1.5°C at best. That could be done, say Jefim Vogel, Joel Millward-Hopkins and Yannick Oswald – researchers in sustainability and ecological economics at the University of Leeds – but we have to start right now. They said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If cut in half by 2022 and 75% by 2030, the flights of Leeds residents alone would use up 8% of the city’s carbon budget. This might be just low enough to squeeze all other activities in Leeds into the remaining carbon budget – if these are also radically decarbonised.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>How did we get here?</h2>
<p>Airlines have proved wily in avoiding regulation. They are often totally omitted from emission accounting and <a href="http://www.emissions.leeds.ac.uk/">aren’t subject to fuel taxes</a>. But even when measures have been taken to rein in their emissions, they’ve often failed.</p>
<p>In Australia, a carbon price of A$23-$24 (roughly £13) per tonne of CO₂ was levied on flights between July 2012 and July 2014. This measure proved <a href="https://crawford.anu.edu.au/publication/crawford-school-working-papers/9816/impact-carbon-price-australias-electricity-demand">very effective at reducing emissions in the energy sector</a>, but it had no detectable effect on the number of kilometres flown – and therefore CO₂ emitted – from Australian airports. Why?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-our-carbon-emission-policies-dont-work-on-air-travel-99019">Why our carbon emission policies don't work on air travel</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>An investigation led by Francis Markham – a research fellow in human geography at Australian National University – and Arianne C. Reis – a senior lecturer in leisure studies at Western Sydney University – found that a fall in ticket prices of 55% between 1992 and 2018 had eclipsed any cost increase from the carbon levy. Even when the cost was passed on to customers in full, the carbon price was too small to reduce demand as intended.</p>
<p><iframe id="CJiPw" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/CJiPw/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-fuel-hedging-and-its-impact-on-airlines-and-airfares-36773">Airlines spend between 30 and 40%</a> of all their expenses on fuel, and the cost of jet fuel has fluctuated wildly since 2005. When the carbon price came into effect in 2014, oil cost as much as USD$100 per barrel, but it fell to <a href="https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=RCLC4&f=M">half that just a year later</a>. </p>
<p>“Compared to the volatility in the cost of fuel, the carbon price was negligible”, Markham said.</p>
<p><iframe id="QssWQ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/QssWQ/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Carbon prices work to decarbonise the energy sector because electricity generators can switch to solar or wind power which aren’t subject to the levy. But currently, cleaner fuels and technology to which the airlines might switch don’t exist on the same scale.</p>
<p>Instead, passengers might be dissuaded from flying with a frequent flyer levy which increases taxes in line with the number of flights a person takes. But this would be <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-will-we-travel-the-world-in-2050-121713">inherently unfair</a>, argues Keith Baker, a research associate in sustainable urban environments at Glasgow Caledonian University.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Most plane passengers are already relatively wealthy. <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/to-fly-or-not-to-fly-the-environmental-cost-of-air-travel/a-42090155">Only 18% of the world’s population</a> have ever flown and in any given year, an elite 3% of the world flies. That’s about 230m people, but flights carried four billion passengers in 2017. So the average flyer takes eight return flights and aeroplanes rack up <a href="http://www.darrinqualman.com/global-air-travel-climate-change/">seven trillion air miles each year</a>.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Frequent flyer taxes could price poorer people out of air travel while ensuring the richest can still afford flying to excess. Rationing the number of flights a person can take each year meanwhile would be much fairer, Baker says. This could work by setting an allowance of 500km for everyone to use in the first year of the scheme. If someone didn’t use it, their allowance would double to 1,000km the year after – and would continue doubling while it’s unspent.</p>
<p>People could bank their flight kilometre credits for a big trip, or trade them in for cash. If anyone exceeded their allowance, they could be fined or have their right to travel revoked for a period of time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288029/original/file-20190814-136213-oahfzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Passports could be linked to a credit system which would prevent people from flying if they had exceeded their allowance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/businessman-taking-back-his-passport-ticket-1038207094?src=0-_1V-AkSVsZQij2ZtUxKA-1-47">Pressmaster/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rail against climate change</h2>
<p>By restricting how much people can fly, the intention is to encourage them to use trains instead. Rail travel is a lower-carbon alternative to flying, but understandably, it’s not as practical for long distances. That didn’t stop Roger Tyers though, a research fellow in environmental sociology at the University of Southampton.</p>
<p>After pledging to go “flight-free” in 2019 and 2020, he won a fellowship to study Chinese attitudes to sustainability. That, unfortunately, involved field work in China, but rather than break his commitment, Tyers resolved to get the train from Southampton to Shanghai instead. He said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The cost of the trains was over £2,000, dwarfing the £700 I could pay for a London to Beijing return flight. Time-wise, the train trip took just under two weeks each way. But in terms of carbon emissions my trip was a steal, contributing <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/greenhouse-gas-reporting-conversion-factors-2019">just 10%</a> of the emissions of the equivalent flights.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/southampton-to-shanghai-by-train-one-climate-change-researchers-quest-to-avoid-flying-120015">Southampton to Shanghai by train – one climate change researcher's quest to avoid flying</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1003%2C1003&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285302/original/file-20190723-110154-qqgn2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The track stretches for miles across the Mongolian plains on the first leg of Tyers’ trip to China.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roger Tyers</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Greta Thunberg’s decision to abstain from flying is perhaps the most high-profile of such commitments. In her native Sweden, her example has helped cultivate a nascent taboo around air travel. <em>Flygskam</em> – or “flight shame” – was coined to describe the feeling that you’re pushing the world a little deeper into the climate crisis every time you book a plane journey. Already, it’s reported to have helped <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/49032117">cut the number of passengers</a> at Sweden’s ten busiest airports by 8% from January to April 2019.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1161639849012559874"}"></div></p>
<p>Individual actions, though laudable, won’t drive a sufficiently large shift from air travel to trains on their own, particular <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-49331238">when rail journeys are more expensive</a>. Huge infrastructure changes and massive investment are needed to expand and improve mass public transport. With proper planning, Holly Edwards – a PhD researcher in low-carbon technologies at the University of Leeds – believes that high speed rail could replace many flights.</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Planes versus trains</strong> – Out of the world’s <a href="https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2014/08/15/top-flights">top ten busiest air routes</a>, all but one are domestic flights that could be replaced by rail journeys.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Faster by train</strong> – For many of these flight routes, such as São Paulo to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, high-speed rail would be faster and emit between <a href="https://environment.leeds.ac.uk/transport">75 and 97% less CO₂</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Global potential</strong> – There’s about <a href="https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/20181001-high-speed-lines-in-the-world.pdf">43,000km of high-speed rail</a> currently operating worldwide and a further 55,000km planned for the near future.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-planning-high-speed-rail-could-reduce-flight-demand-21687">With planning, high speed rail could reduce flight demand</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288336/original/file-20190816-192250-77y17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">China has more high speed rail than the rest of the world combined.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/highspeed-trains-shanghai-lujiazui-city-background-89928202?src=L5q0B1EzGkiDGF15pFmQEw-1-5">ArtisticPhoto/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Flights of the future?</h2>
<p>It’s now well over a century since humans first took to the skies in aeroplanes – a feat <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13556-10-impossibilities-conquered-by-science/">thought impossible by many</a> right up until it happened. Are we due another revolution in human flight, one which powers air travel with zero-carbon technology? The great hope is that electric aeroplanes could oust the current fleet of commercial airliners which rely on fossil fuels.</p>
<p>Electric batteries are replacing combustion engines in road vehicles at such a rate that by 2030, electric cars are expected to make up <a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-vehicles-are-changing-the-world-and-theyre-only-just-getting-started-90402">one-third of the car market</a>. Meanwhile, most electric aeroplane prototypes are grounded on the drawing board. Venkat Viswanathan, Shashank Sripad and William Leif Fredericks – all experts in mechanical engineering at Carnegie Mellon University in the US – believe it’s because batteries can’t store as much energy per weight as liquid fuels. This, they say makes batteries relatively heavy for aviation. As they explain:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Although the best batteries store about 40 times less energy per unit of weight than jet fuel, a greater share of their energy is available to drive motion. Ultimately, for a given weight, jet fuel contains about <a href="https://www.wired.com/2017/05/electric-airplanes-2/">14 times more usable energy</a> than a state-of-the-art lithium-ion battery. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-arent-there-electric-airplanes-yet-103955">Why aren't there electric airplanes yet?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But a breakthrough could come sooner than expected. Alice, the world’s first all-electric commercial airliner was unveiled in Paris in June 2019. It carries nine passengers for up to 650 miles (1,040km) at 10,000ft (3,000 metres) at 276mph (440km/h) on a single charged battery. It’s expected to enter service in 2022.</p>
<p>Alice is still too small to <a href="https://www.ponderweasel.com/how-many-people-can-fit-on-a-plane/">carry the hundreds of people</a> that most commercial flights manage today, but flying it is surprisingly cheap, according to John Grant, a senior lecturer in natural and built environments at Sheffield Hallam University.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The fossil fuel costs of small aircraft are about <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-48630656">US$400 per 100 miles</a>. For Alice, the costs are projected to be as little as US$8 for the same distance, and if the electricity is from renewable energy – perhaps generated by solar panels at the airport – then the plane could be zero-carbon.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Instead of waiting for mass electric air travel, Grant believes there are alternatives that could be built right now. Orbital rings sound like something straight out of science fiction, but Grant insists that the technology needed to build them already exists – all that’s missing is the ambition to do it.</p>
<p>An orbital ring is a steel cable that would surround Earth 80km above its surface. Connected to the ground by steel cables, which would also host passenger elevators, the ring could support two train tracks – one on its underside and the other on the outside – which would <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-magnetically-levitating-trains-run-at-3-000km-h-27615">use magnets to propel trains without friction</a> at great speeds above the Earth. Spun at the correct speed, the combined forces of gravity – pulling the ring towards Earth – and velocity would hold the ring in place, allowing passengers to reach the other side of the world in perhaps as little as 45 minutes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288035/original/file-20190814-136230-pfx520.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Once installed, the orbital ring could transport people across the world in under an hour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-rendering-space-elevators-pointing-giant-1142335202?src=H_Wqy3wbnkVSHFDjv86ISw-1-0">3000ad/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sound far fetched? Well it’s no more crazy than letting the world descend into catastrophic climate change by not changing how we travel, Grant argues. He says we could actually return to a tried and tested method of flight that predates aeroplanes.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>For as long as humans have <a href="http://www.historyofballoons.com/balloon-history/montgolfier-brothers/">taken to the skies</a> we’ve had a low-carbon alternative to burning vast amounts of fossil fuels to keep us up there – balloons. <a href="https://www.airships.net/hindenburg/disaster/">The Hindenburg disaster</a> may have condemned the industry to relative obscurity for almost a century, but it has never really gone away.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288023/original/file-20190814-136199-ymprvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Airships travel slowly, but they could allow holidaymakers a beautiful view.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/airship-over-island-sea-3d-render-421798390?src=MOugPfN8hKjH2Eqmtkx3Zg-1-14">Iurii/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Safer fuels</strong> – the Hindenburg ignited due to its explosive hydrogen fuel, but modern airships use sacs of helium or safer forms of hydrogen which are cheap and relatively abundant.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Low energy costs</strong> – unlike jet aircraft, airships don’t need lots of energy to stay aloft. At that point, energy costs become <a href="https://www.withouthotair.com/cC/page_281.shtml">comparable with rail travel</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Air cruises</strong> – airships are relatively slow, but they afford passengers stunning views of the world below. These “<a href="https://medium.com/predict/flying-hotels-the-romantic-age-of-air-travel-blimps-zeppelins-dirigibles-63346f507bc7">flying hotels</a>” were originally designed to accommodate dining rooms and ballrooms.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288334/original/file-20190816-192210-11goyfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dining room aboard the Hindenburg airship.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZ_129_Hindenburg#/media/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_147-0640,_Luftschiff_Hindenburg_(LZ-129),_Speisesaal.jpg">Bundesarchiv, Bild/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Thunberg’s transatlantic crossing is expected to take two weeks, while the record from Frankfurt to New York <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/20/hindenburg-zeppelin-new-york-frankfurt-archive-1936">by Zeppelin was 44 hours</a>. Today people prize speed and convenience above all else, but the ongoing political awakening to the <a href="https://www.clubofrome.org/project/the-club-of-rome-climate-emergency-plan/">global climate emergency</a> might finally herald a new age.</p>
<p>There are, after all, benefits to not being squashed into a metal tube and hurled across the world at high speed. For all those seeking a slower and less frantic pace of life, the retirement of hydrocarbon-powered aeroplanes could finally make the journey as satisfying as the destination.</p>
<h2>Further reading</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-and-air-travel-why-we-have-a-responsibility-to-countries-dependent-on-tourism-120462">Climate change and air travel: why we have a responsibility to countries dependent on tourism</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/researchers-set-an-example-fly-less-111046">Researchers, set an example: fly less</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-strikes-greta-thunberg-calls-for-system-change-not-climate-change-heres-what-that-could-look-like-112891">Climate strikes: Greta Thunberg calls for ‘system change not climate change’ – here’s what that could look like</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-to-wake-up-to-the-devastating-impact-flying-has-on-the-environment-70953">It’s time to wake up to the devastating impact flying has on the environment</a></p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader121269">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Your next flight could be the single biggest contribution to global warming you make all year. Experts imagine how we might travel in future, without the ‘flygskam’.
Jack Marley, Environment + Energy Editor, UK edition
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/120283
2019-07-17T19:46:32Z
2019-07-17T19:46:32Z
Air travel spreads infections globally, but health advice from inflight magazines can limit that
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284420/original/file-20190717-173370-3btbfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our research showed that inflight magazines offered travellers health advice on everything from dehydration to swollen ankles, but hardly anything on avoiding catching and spreading infectious diseases.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-passenger-reading-magazine-menue-catalog-1155462985?src=vUDfEziJwFDV7GZr5OYMRA-1-0&studio=1">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Travel safe, travel far, travel wide, and travel often,” <a href="https://thoughtcatalog.com/matthew-kepnes/2014/01/53-travel-quotes-to-inspire-you-to-see-the-world/">says</a> <a href="https://www.nomadicmatt.com/">Nomadic Matt</a>, the American who quit his job to travel the world, write about it and coach others to do the same.</p>
<p>But there’s a downside to all this travel, with its unprecedented volume of passengers moving from one side of the world to the other, largely by plane.</p>
<p>There’s the risk of those passengers spreading infectious diseases and microorganisms resistant to multiple drugs (superbugs) around the world.</p>
<p>Yet, our recently published <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893919301218">research</a> into health advice provided by inflight magazines shows plane passengers are given practically no advice on how to limit the spread of infectious diseases.</p>
<p>Should we be worried about the part air travel plays in spreading infectious diseases? And what can we do about it?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/remote-village-to-metropolis-how-globalisation-spreads-infectious-diseases-92216">Remote village to metropolis: how globalisation spreads infectious diseases</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How big is the risk?</h2>
<p>Low airfares and a series of social and economic factors have made global air travel more common than ever. According to the Australian government department of infrastructure, transport, cities and regional development the <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing/files/International_airline_activity_CY2018.pdf">number of passengers taking international scheduled flights in 2018 was 41.575 million</a>. But the International Air Transport Association projects passenger demand will <a href="https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2019-02-27-02.aspx">reach 8.2 billion by 2037</a>.</p>
<p>There are many examples of infectious diseases spread via international flying. The World Health Organization documented <a href="https://www.who.int/ith/mode_of_travel/tcd_aircraft/en/">transmission of tuberculosis</a> (TB) on board commercial aircraft during long-haul flights during the 1980s. </p>
<p>Research published in 2011 documents the <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/7/10-1135_article">transmission of influenza</a> on two transcontinental international flights in May 2009.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-are-you-up-to-date-with-your-vaccinations-116510">Health Check: are you up to date with your vaccinations?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>More recently, the current <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-people-born-between-1966-and-1994-are-at-greater-risk-of-measles-and-what-to-do-about-it-110167">global outbreak of measles</a> in many countries, including the Philippines and the United States, gave rise to the risk of transmission during international travel. In a recent case a <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/alerts/Pages/measles-alert-january.aspx">baby</a> too young to be vaccinated who had <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/measles-alert-after-infectious-baby-flew-from-manila-went-to-central-coast-20190603-p51tzs.html">measles</a> returned from Manilla in the Philippines to Sydney, exposing travellers on that flight to infection. </p>
<p>Then there is the risk of transmitting antimicrobial-resistant organisms that cause disease, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-tb-and-am-i-at-risk-of-getting-it-in-australia-75290">multi-drug resistant TB</a>.</p>
<p>Recently, patients in Victoria and New South Wales were identified as carrying the drug-resistant fungus <a href="https://www2.health.vic.gov.au/about/news-and-events/healthalerts/candida-auris-case-detected-in-victoria"><em>Candida auris</em></a>, which they acquired overseas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-candida-auris-and-who-is-at-risk-115293">Explainer: what is Candida auris and who is at risk?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27890665">One study</a> estimates that over 300 million travellers visit high-risk areas, such as the western Pacific, Southeast Asia and Eastern Mediterranean, each year worldwide, and more than 20% return as new carriers of resistant organisms.</p>
<p>These popular destinations, as well as the Middle East, have high rates of drug resistant organisms.</p>
<h2>How is this happening?</h2>
<p>Aircraft move large volumes of people around the world swiftly. But what sets them apart from buses and trains is that passengers are close together, in confined spaces, for a long time. This increases the risk of transmitting infections.</p>
<p>Passengers interact with high-touch surfaces, such as tray tables, headsets, seats and handles. We cough, sneeze and touch multiple surfaces multiple times during a flight, with limited opportunities to clean our hands with soap and water. </p>
<p>Many infections, such as gastroenteritis and diarrhoea, are spread and contracted by touch and contact.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flu-lasts-for-more-than-an-hour-in-air-and-on-surfaces-why-cleaning-can-really-help-97823">Flu lasts for more than an hour in air and on surfaces – why cleaning can really help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can we do about it?</h2>
<p>Providing plane travellers with relevant health advice is one way to limit the spread of infectious diseases via air travel.</p>
<p>This would include information and advice on routine hand washing with soap and water, or using alcohol-based hand rubs, and other basic measures including cough etiquette, such as coughing into your elbow and covering your nose and face.</p>
<p><a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/4/2/102/1847252">Researchers</a> have looked at the role commercial websites and travel agencies might play in providing that advice. And since the 1990s, airline magazines have been <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/4/2/102/1847252">highlighted</a> as an underused source of traveller health advice. More than 20 years on, we discovered little has changed.</p>
<p>In our recent study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893919301218">Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease</a>, we looked at the content of inflight magazines from 103 airlines issued during January 2019. </p>
<p>Of the 47 available online, only a quarter (11) included an official section on passengers’ general health and well-being, of which only two contained information related to infection control and the preventing infectious diseases.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284424/original/file-20190717-173366-w48bmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Inflight magazines have a potential audience of billions. So why not include advice on hand hygiene and coughing etiquette?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/1424594042?src=vUDfEziJwFDV7GZr5OYMRA-1-2&studio=1&size=medium_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>The first magazine, from a UAE-based airline, had an official section on passenger health and well-being that included very limited relevant content. It advised passengers “with blood diseases or ear, nose and sinus infections should seek medical advice before flying”.</p>
<p>There was no further explanation or information, nor were there any strategies to prevent these or other infections.</p>
<p>The second magazine, from a USA-based airline, contained general travel health advice, but none specifically about infectious diseases. </p>
<p>However there was a full-page, colour advertisement next to the health section. This contained images of many disease causing microorganisms on passengers’ tray tables and advocated the use of a disinfectant wipe for hands and other inflight surfaces. </p>
<p>The slogan “because germs are frequent fliers” was displayed across the tray table. This was accompanied by information about the use and effectiveness of disinfectant wipes for hand hygiene and disinfecting surfaces during air travel, public transport use, and in hotels and restaurants.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/going-travelling-dont-forget-insurance-and-to-read-the-fine-print-107961">Going travelling? Don't forget insurance (and to read the fine print)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Inflight magazines are valuable assets for airlines and are the source of considerable advertising revenue. They are read by potentially billions of passengers every year. The results of this study show that they are a greatly underused source of information about infection control and measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. </p>
<p>Airlines should also provide health advice to passengers in other media, in particular video screens, about infection prevention and basic control measures such as hand hygiene, cough etiquette and personal hygiene. </p>
<p>Such advice should be provided before, during and after the flight. It could also include destination-related advice for particularly risky travel routes and destinations.</p>
<h2>More information for passengers</h2>
<p>Airlines providing health advice to passengers is just one way to limit the spread of infectious diseases and antimicrobial-resistant organisms around the world via air travel.</p>
<p>This would need to sit alongside other measures, such as <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/travel-industry-information-center">information and guidelines</a> provided to those who travel via the sea.</p>
<p>The simple, low-cost measures highlighted in our research could go a long way to help passengers stay healthy and avoid illness from infectious diseases. At the same time, these measures could reduce the impact of outbreaks of infectious diseases for airlines and society as a whole.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-the-drugs-dont-work-how-we-can-turn-the-tide-of-antimicrobial-resistance-71711">When the drugs don’t work: how we can turn the tide of antimicrobial resistance</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120283/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ramon Z. Shaban receives funding from New South Wales Health Pathology and GAMA Healthcare. Ramon Z. Shaban is affiliated with the Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity and Susan Wakil School of Nursing and Midwifery within the Faculty of Medicine and Health of the University of Sydney and the Western Sydney Local Health District. He is also Immediate Past President of the Australasian College for Infection Prevention and Control.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cristina Sotomayor-Castillo is affiliated with Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease and Biosecurity and Susan Wakil School of Nursng and Midwifery within the Faculty of Medicine and Health of the University of Sydney and the Western Sydney Local Health District (WSLHD). </span></em></p>
Washing hands and coughing into your elbow can help limit the spread of infectious diseases on planes and around the globe. So why don’t passengers read about this in their inflight magazines?
Ramon Zenel Shaban, Clinical Chair and Professor of Infection Prevention and Disease Control at the University of Sydney, University of Sydney
Cristina Sotomayor-Castillo, Senior Research Officer, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/112261
2019-02-22T17:22:37Z
2019-02-22T17:22:37Z
Airlines are going bust in droves, so why do so many people try to launch them?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260422/original/file-20190222-195886-unvj85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Taxi for Flybmi.' </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/jet-airliners-lined-dusk-on-runway-198700100">G Tipene</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Yet another airline has collapsed – <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/feb/18/flybmi-appoints-bdo-as-administrators-after-ceasing-operations">this time</a> British operation Flybmi, costing almost 400 jobs as hundreds of flights were cancelled at short notice. It is the latest in a <a href="https://www.aerotime.aero/gediminas.ziemelis/21832-at-least-5-medium-size-eu-airlines-to-go-bankrupt-in-2018-2019">string of</a> recent European airline failures, including <a href="https://skift.com/2017/08/16/air-berlins-slow-collapse-into-bankruptcy-explained/">Air Berlin</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/may/02/italy-alitalia-administration-airline-flights">Alitalia</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/topics/c8z26xm204yt/monarch-airlines-collapse">Monarch</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-45712063">Primera</a>, <a href="https://www.fvw.de/international/travel-news/leisure-airlines-azur-air-ends-flights-as-tour-operators-support-insolvent-small-planet-airlines-192325">Azur</a> and <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/cobalt-air-collapse-cyprus-budget-airline-failure-holidays-latest-london-gatwick-heathrow-manchester-a8589381.html">Cobalt</a>. This is despite years of <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/193533/growth-of-global-air-traffic-passenger-demand/">good growth</a> in worldwide air passenger demand, <a href="https://www.iata.org/publications/economics/Reports/pax-monthly-analysis/passenger-analysis-may-2018.pdf">including</a> in Europe. So why are so many airlines going out of business? </p>
<p>Aviation is an unattractive industry from an investor point of view at the best of times, notwithstanding the passenger growth. Aeroplanes are expensive assets with few alternative uses, which limits the ability of airlines to reduce their capacity during lean periods – compared to, say, a manufacturing business that can close a plant and lay off workers. Airlines also have to deal with fluctuating expenses like fuel, which accounts for around a third of total costs. There is also extensive regulation, combative unions, relatively low barriers to entry and the fact that travellers can so easily shop around. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YfwDkaHE2Ss?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>The sector did become more profitable in the early years of this decade, but this was <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-transport-and-logistics/our-insights/winter-is-coming-the-future-of-european-aviation-and-how-to-survive-it">due to</a> lower fuel prices rather than any underlying improvements. When fuel prices began climbing again in 2016, airlines <a href="https://money.cnn.com/2018/06/04/investing/iata-airline-profits-oil/index.html">were</a> hit. This is particularly true of those like Flybmi and Monarch which were buying fuel in pounds sterling, since the currency has <a href="https://fullfact.org/economy/pound-fallen-since-brexit/">weakened</a> in the wake of the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu_referendum/results">2016 Brexit vote</a>. The political uncertainty has not helped British airlines either – though equally we must generally beware of companies using this as a scapegoat for bad performance.</p>
<h2>The future’s not bright</h2>
<p>The net result is that it is very difficult for airlines to consistently turn a profit. Business failings are particularly likely to be punished – in the case of Flybmi, for instance, neither the company’s costs nor its fares were low enough to compete effectively. It didn’t have enough passengers for the number of routes it was offering, and could not change capacity without incurring more costs. </p>
<p>It seems extremely likely that there will be more collapses in the sector, and more consolidation as weaker players get weeded out – Ryanair’s <a href="http://www.travelweekly.co.uk/articles/310670/ryanair-completes-takeover-of-laudamotion">takeover</a> of the Austrian airline Laudamotion is one recent example; another is the Virgin Atlantic <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-46834827">tie-up</a> with Flybe. The attractions of growing through acquisition are much the same as in many sectors: it gives you greater control of purchasing costs by boosting your negotiating power, while also potentially reducing the downward pressure on ticket prices by taking competitors out of the market. </p>
<p>Takeovers are not a panacea, however, since fuel prices will still fluctuate and underlying negatives like high sunk costs into aeroplanes don’t go away. At the same time, there is no shortage of competition from new entrants who are seemingly oblivious to the challenges in the industry. </p>
<p>In 2017, <a href="https://www.anna.aero/2017/10/18/78-new-airlines-begin-life-2017-25-go-out-business/">for example</a>, 79 new airlines launched around the world at the same time as 25 went bust. In Europe, it was 29 entrants and 14 collapses. This rate of market entry is surely unsustainable, particularly in a mature market. It’s also financially irrational when you reflect that the airlines sector <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-transport-and-logistics/our-insights/between-roic-and-a-hard-place-the-puzzle-of-airline-economics">produces</a> among the poorest returns on investment. Yet even during recessions, the rate of airline launches <a href="https://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/Documents/vision-2050.pdf">sometimes increases</a> – see the graphic below. </p>
<p>Your chances of launching a successful airline nowadays are far lower than, say, in the 1970s, when far fewer went under: there is overcapacity across the industry now, with one in five passenger seats empty across the world. Today’s competition rules also make it much harder for nations to prop up failed airlines. The trouble is that this is a sexy industry; who wants to make widgets when you can pose in front of a plane? There is also a lot of hubris – driven by the handful of airlines that <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-transport-and-logistics/our-insights/between-roic-and-a-hard-place-the-puzzle-of-airline-economics">do make</a> good returns, even as most do not. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260399/original/file-20190222-195853-drs9ql.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/Documents/vision-2050.pdf">IATA</a></span>
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<p>This brings me to Ryanair, the <a href="https://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/274109/europes-aviation-industry-by-numbers-latest-update/">biggest</a> carrier in Europe, which has itself issued several profit warnings – the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-46916389">most recent</a> in January. The Irish airline, which boasts a 15% market share and 142m passengers, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-46916389">blamed</a> the warning on reduced ticket prices in response to cutthroat competition. </p>
<p>But don’t look to Ryanair to become another of the casualties: chief executive Michael O'Leary <a href="https://investor.ryanair.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Ryanair-Q3-FY19-Results.pdf">still expects</a> the company to make profits after tax of around €1 billion to €1.1 billion (£871m to £958m) for the financial year 2019. Ryanair is in line to make a net profit margin in the region of the 20% it <a href="https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/RYAAY/ryanair-holdings/profit-margins">has achieved</a> in recent years, <a href="https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/europes-airline-margin-ranking-2017-ryanair-and-wizz-air-stay-ahead-420039">higher than</a> any European competitor. </p>
<p>As the airline with the highest internal efficiency by some distance, the lowest customer fares, an ambitious expansion plan and the greatest geographical coverage in Europe, Ryanair retains its fundamental competitive advantages. Softer fares might have hurt the company, but they will have hurt other European airlines much more. Besides all the other factors that make life so difficult for the likes of Flybmi, getting thumped by Ryanair is another almost inevitable pitfall of being in the airline business.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Loizos Heracleous does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Flybmi’s unravelling is the latest in a long line of airlines that have got stuck on the runway.
Loizos Heracleous, Professor of Strategy, Warwick Business School, University of Warwick
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/110664
2019-01-29T10:14:21Z
2019-01-29T10:14:21Z
MH370: New underwater sound wave analysis suggests alternative travel route and new impact locations
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/255961/original/file-20190128-108348-ythlpc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/kuala-lumpur-malaysia-circa-2017-inflight-604236992?src=RWPG0diNk8LwsmIJQmIlwA-2-2">NextNewMedia/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Motivated by a desire to help find Malaysia Airlines flight MH370, which is believed to have <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-26716572">crashed into the southern Indian Ocean</a> in March 2014, we proposed a way of working out where objects hit the surface of the ocean <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-tool-to-track-underwater-acoustic-waves-could-find-mh370-86002">using underwater acoustic waves</a>. Unfortunately this didn’t lead to finding the plane. However, our research into these waves has moved on since we first proposed the idea in 2017, and we have now been able to identify two locations where the aeroplane could have impacted with the ocean, as well as an alternative route that the plane may have taken.</p>
<p>When you drop a pebble in a lake, water waves are generated from the location of the impact, while sound waves create the splashing noise you hear. Another type of wave is generated inside the water too: hydroacoustic. Similar to a sound wave, hydroacoustic waves move much faster through the denser water than they would through air – 1,500 metres per second (m/s) compared to 340m/s.</p>
<p>Similarly, when a large object, such as a meteorite or aeroplane, impacts violently at the surface of an ocean, it generates large surface waves, and a family of sound waves that come from a sudden change in pressure known as acoustic-gravity waves. These can travel thousands of kilometres through the water, carrying vital information on the source of the impact, before dissipating. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-14177-3">our last study</a> we looked at acoustic-gravity waves picked up by hydrophone (underwater microphone) stations in the Indian Ocean, to narrow down where flight MH370 may have impacted the ocean to two points. But now <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37626-z">we have found another factor</a> that may prove crucial for pinning down the location of the impact: sea floor elasticity (flexibility). </p>
<p>When acoustic-gravity waves start travelling through the the sea floor their propagation speed boosts to over 3,500 m/s, from the 1,500m/s they would have been travelling at through the water. Previous analysis considered the sea floor to be rigid, which would not allow the radiating waves to move through it. However, if the elasticity of the sea floor is taken into account then the waves will travel at this enhanced speed.</p>
<h2>Rethinking impact</h2>
<p>The acoustic-gravity waves that we analysed for both this and our previous study came from <a href="https://www.ctbto.org/verification-regime/monitoring-technologies-how-they-work/hydroacoustic-monitoring/">two hydroacoustic stations</a> (each of which has three underwater microphones called hydrophones), which were active at the time when MH370 went missing, on March 7-8, 2014. The first, HA01, is off Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, while the second, known as HA08s, is at Diego Garcia, which is part of the Chagos Archipelago.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256064/original/file-20190129-108355-1rtdb1g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map of hydrophone signals recorded on March 7 and 8 2014 between 23:00 and 04:00 UTC, with possible new source locations and two possible MH370 routes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO; © 2018 Basarsoft; US Dept of State Geographer;
© 2018 Google.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-14177-3">Previous studies</a> have <a href="http://www.mh370.gov.my/en/2-uncategorised/69-the-7th-arc">mostly looked at</a> the signals collected by station HA01 between 00:00-02:00 UTC on March 8 2014, as well as signals that related to the last satellite data transmission from MH370 at 00:19 UTC (<a href="http://www.mh370.gov.my/en/2-uncategorised/69-the-7th-arc">known as the 7th arc</a>. However, with our new understanding of acoustic-gravity waves we decided to look at hydroacoustic data from HA01 that was recorded during a wider timeframe – between 23:00 and 04:00 (+1 UTC) on March 7 and 8 – and analysed data from the further away HA08s station too.</p>
<p>Allowing for the effects of sea floor elasticity, the signal locations that we had previously identified using data from HA01 were now different. If the signal travels, say, at twice the speed for a given distance, it should have gone twice the originally calculated distance (without elasticity), so the impact location would be further away relative to the hydrophone station. This is shown on Figure 1 above as signal marks on the purple bearings (the direction of the signals relative to the hydrophones). </p>
<h2>HA08s signals</h2>
<p>Looking at HA08s, the signals were more challenging to analyse. They were distorted by noise which is believed to have been caused by a military exercise in that side of the ocean (depicted as red lines on the map above). However, although the proposed route and point of impact is distant from the 7th arc, we still recommend further studying a number of signals from HA08s. The bearings of some of these signals fall within the area where signals from the military action were picked up, so it is possible that the signals are associated with the military action. But if the signals are related to MH370, this would suggest a new possible impact location in the northern part of the Indian Ocean (as depicted in the top left of the map above).</p>
<p>The locations of signals found using HA08s data do come with high uncertainty but still require further detailed and careful analysis. Unfortunately, on top of the noisy recorded signals, 25 minutes of data from HA08s is missing. The signals we have analysed indicate that the there was a 25-minute shutdown that has gone unexplained by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation, which is responsible for the hydrophone stations.</p>
<p>In light of this research, we recommended that signals recorded at all times between 23:00 (March 7) and 04:00 (March 8) UTC, at both stations HA01 and HA08s are analysed with no exception. And that this is done independently from other sources (such as satellite data), to minimise inclusion of uncertainties related to them. These recommendations have been communicated to the MH370 Safety Investigation Team in Malaysia, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, and other relevant authorities with the hope that the search will be resumed to find the missing aircraft.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Usama Kadri does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Data from hydrophones in the Indian ocean has raised new questions about what happened to MH370.
Usama Kadri, Lecturer of Applied Mathematics, Cardiff University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/103102
2018-10-03T20:04:52Z
2018-10-03T20:04:52Z
Curious Kids: what’s the history of aircraft squawk codes and how do they work?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239061/original/file-20181003-101558-cgjvt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Perth air traffic control tower. As a pilot flies towards the destination, the air traffic control tower sends an interrogation signal. The aircraft automatically responds with a series of short pulses that let air traffic control know the identity of the plane and its altitude.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://newsroom.airservicesaustralia.com/galleries">© Copyright Airservices Australia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is an article from <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, a series for children. The Conversation is asking kids to send in questions they’d like an expert to answer. All questions are welcome – serious, weird or wacky! You might also like the podcast <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/kidslisten/imagine-this/">Imagine This</a>, a co-production between ABC KIDS listen and The Conversation, based on Curious Kids.</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Hi, I’m Daniel, 12, and I would like to know the history behind squawk codes on aircraft and how they work. Thanks! – Daniel, age 12, Perth.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Thank you, Daniel, for this question. As you have guessed there is a very interesting back story to “squawk codes”. These codes have been used in radio signalling systems for more than 75 years to identify and determine the location of aircraft in flight.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-glow-in-the-dark-paint-work-92438">Curious Kids: How does glow in the dark paint work?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239060/original/file-20181003-101558-na7wph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Nazi plane flies over South London in 1940. Germany used bomber aircraft to attack the UK in the Battle of Britain. The British won, thanks partly to their early radar systems – but these systems initially had a limitation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Code name: Parrot</h2>
<p>Early radar systems used in the second world war were critical to allied success in the Battle of Britain in 1940, when Britain’s Royal Air Force (RAF) defended the United Kingdom against a huge air attack campaign by Nazi Germany’s air force, the Luftwaffe.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239057/original/file-20181003-101573-11owyaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nazi Germany used aircraft like these Heinkel He 111 to attack the UK in the Battle of Britain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But these early radar systems had a major limitation. They could detect aircraft by radio signals being reflected by moving objects, but the reflected signal could not tell you whether an aircraft was friendly or hostile.</p>
<p>This led to the rapid development of secondary surveillance radars, which required an active and cooperative response from aircraft. In other words, the aircraft had to answer back. This would help to identify the “friendlies” in the skies.</p>
<p>The secondary radar system would send a transmission of radio frequency pulses directed at the aircraft. Friendly aircraft were fitted with equipment that would respond with an identification code. If no response was received, radar operators would presume the aircraft was an enemy plane.</p>
<p>This innovation meant that radar operators could now use the main radars (known as “primary radars”) in combination with the secondary radars to detect the presence of aircraft and to distinguish between friends and foes. </p>
<p>This system was known as Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) and the concept remains important to military forces even today. </p>
<p>The aircraft transponder, which received and transmitted signals, was initially code-named Parrot. Soon, airmen started using the nickname “squawk codes”.</p>
<p>While the name Parrot didn’t last, the term “squawk” continues to be used today to describe the activity of the transponder.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-gravity-pull-things-down-to-earth-101545">Curious Kids: how does gravity pull things down to Earth?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How it works</h2>
<p>After the war, the concept was adapted for civil aircraft – the kinds of plane we fly on when we go on holiday.</p>
<p>The system identifies an aircraft through a four-digit octal number (each digit from 0 to 7), which provides for up to 4,096 possible codes. These codes can also be used to alert controllers of an aircraft emergency. Subsequently, another mode was added to inform radar controllers of an aircraft’s height, using data from the plane’s altimeter (the instrument that tells you how high a plane is flying).</p>
<p>For those of you who are technically minded, the frequencies used in secondary surveillance radar are 1030 Megahertz for the interrogation (the “hello, who are you?” signal) and 1090 Megahertz for the response (the answer you get back). The response is a sequence of pulses spaced 1.45 microseconds apart – that’s very fast!</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239053/original/file-20181003-101555-1l2qa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A temporary en route or secondary radar at Melbourne Airport. Airservices uses en route radar to assist with separation of aircraft in controlled airspace.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://newsroom.airservicesaustralia.com/images/ml-apt-mar-lines-install-04-2015-87">© Copyright Airservices Australia 2015</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Air traffic control towers</h2>
<p>Imagine a pilot is flying a plane full of passengers on holiday to Sydney. As she or he flies towards the destination, the air traffic control tower at Sydney airport sends an interrogation signal. The aircraft automatically responds with a series of short pulses that let air traffic control know the identity of the plane and its altitude. Then air traffic control can compare the identity code to flight plans to identify the aircraft. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239056/original/file-20181003-101558-xvh59c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Airservices control tower at Sydney Airport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://newsroom.airservicesaustralia.com/images/sydney_tower-2">© Copyright Airservices Australia 2014</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The time taken between the interrogation transmission and the received code lets us know the distance between the radar and the aircraft. Air traffic control computer systems use this information, the direction of the interrogation signal, and the altitude to determine exactly where the aircraft is.</p>
<p>Other navigation and airspace management systems have been developed over the years. The most recent is the Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) system, which incorporates Global Positioning System (GPS) data into the responses from aircraft. </p>
<p>Secondary surveillance radar was an important development in the safety of aviation and remains a key element of airspace management today.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-whats-it-like-to-be-a-fighter-pilot-100563">Curious Kids: what's it like to be a fighter pilot?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to us. They can:</em></p>
<p><em>* Email your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">Twitter</a></em></p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Please tell us your name, age and which city you live in. You can send an audio recording of your question too, if you want. Send as many questions as you like! We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103102/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Dowse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Secondary radar is an important tool in the control of aircraft traffic, and helps make air travel safe. It was developed during dangerous times.
Andrew Dowse, Director, Defence Research and Engagement, Edith Cowan University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.