tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/agriculture-inputs-66364/articlesAgriculture inputs – The Conversation2022-02-08T02:46:55Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1763662022-02-08T02:46:55Z2022-02-08T02:46:55ZHow Australia can boost the production of grains, while lowering its carbon footprint<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444701/original/file-20220207-21-tklo4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3966%2C2220&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The need to feed a rising global population means agriculture is one of the most difficult sectors to decarbonise. This is especially true for growing grains – think wheat, barley, legumes and canola. </p>
<p>Australia is the <a href="https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/TCL">third largest</a> exporter of wheat after Russia and the US, with 11% of the world’s wheat trade shipped from our shores in 2017. Likewise, Australia is responsible for up to 20% of the world’s barley exports. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://doi.org/10.25919/j7tc-kz48">our new report</a>, published today, has found a way to potentially increase grain production by up to 40%, while reducing the carbon footprint per tonne of grain by up to 15%. The key is improving our use of fertiliser. </p>
<p>To produce the world’s grains with as few greenhouse gas emissions as possible, all countries, including Australia, need to play their part. The carbon footprint (greenhouse gas intensity) of Australian grain is lower than elsewhere, so on a global scale we have some room to increase production to help meet the demands of a growing population, ensuring Australian grains remain competitive in <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/abares/products/insights/global-responses-to-climate-change">the global market</a>.</p>
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<span class="caption">Australia is one of the world’s largest exporters of grains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Emissions from the grain sector</h2>
<p>Our initial task was to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions the grains sector released in 2005. This is because 2005 is the standard baseline year we compare Australia’s emissions to today, in line with our obligations under the Paris Agreement.</p>
<p>We found the sector released 13.75 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2005. Grain emissions in 2005 were primarily under two categories: on-farm emissions (61%) and “embedded” emissions (39%). This breakdown is likely to be very similar for today’s grain sector emissions, but this needs to be confirmed with further data collection. </p>
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<p>On-farm emissions are dominated by applying fertiliser, and the breakdown of plant residue, such as stalks, roots and grain that falls to the ground during harvest. On-farm emissions alone are responsible for 1.7% of Australia’s total.</p>
<p>Embedded emissions are associated with the supply chain of a product, such as the manufacturing of fertiliser and chemicals. We found the production of fertiliser was the largest contributor to embedded emissions. </p>
<p>It’s clear how we use and produce fertiliser is greenhouse gas intensive. However, fertilisers – along with the the breakdown of plant residue – are key in improving productivity on farms. </p>
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<span class="caption">Nitrogen fertilisers improve productivity on farms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Grappling with fertiliser</h2>
<p>Nitrogen from fertilisers and carbon from plant residues link two important greenhouse gases: nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide.</p>
<p>The relationship between nitrogen in fertiliser and carbon in plants is tightly interwoven – changing levels of nitrogen inputs will change the levels of carbon in the system, and vice versa. </p>
<p>To unpack this complex system, we ran simulations for different farm management practices. Our findings were surprising. </p>
<p>Counter-intuitively, we found increasing fertiliser (in a way that minimises nitrogen losses) sees almost constant net on-farm emissions, while considerably increasing the production of grains. This translates to a lower greenhouse gas intensity (carbon footprint). Let’s explore why. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/land-of-opportunity-more-sustainable-australian-farming-would-protect-our-lucrative-exports-and-the-planet-166177">Land of opportunity: more sustainable Australian farming would protect our lucrative exports (and the planet)</a>
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<p>Plants need nitrogen to grow. If not enough fertiliser is applied, the plants will take it from the soil. And when the soil loses nitrogen, carbon dioxide is also released into the atmosphere to balance the soil’s nitrogen and carbon levels.</p>
<p>Applying fertiliser in way that results in more efficient use of nitrogen will lead to greater plant growth and avoid depleting the soil. This will, in turn, see more plant residue go into the soil, again increasing the soil’s carbon levels. </p>
<p>But there’s a catch. Because those extra fertilisers must be manufactured, embedded emissions increase. Nevertheless, we found the increase in total emissions to be smaller than the increase in total production. Therefore, the greenhouse gas intensity associated with the production of a tonne of grain decreases.</p>
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<span class="caption">Australia is the third largest exporter of wheat after Russia and the US.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>These findings are a small but important part of the global effort to reduce emissions from the agriculture sector and maintain Australian industry competitiveness.</p>
<p>The next step is to conduct further research and develop technology to put our findings into practice, as well as develop more targeted incentives for customers, investors and other stakeholders. </p>
<p>With the increase in emissions taking place in the manufacture of fertiliser, rather than on the farm itself, it’s important the industry helps drive those embedded emissions down.</p>
<p>Some initiatives are already happening, especially the development <a href="https://www.graincentral.com/cropping/grains/hydrogen-driven-fertiliser-aims-to-boost-profits-agic/">of green hydrogen</a>. Hydrogen is a key ingredient in the manufacture of fertiliser, so using green hydrogen can reduce fertiliser embedded emissions. </p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research described in this article was co-funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Simmons is a Technical Specialist in Climate Change Mitigation with the NSW Department of Primary Industries, and a an adjunct Senior Research Fellow with The University of New England. He receives funding from the Commonwealth government and rural research and development corporations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsay Bell receives funding from the Grains Research and Development Corporation</span></em></p>Australia is one of the world’s top exporters of grain. Producing it at lower emissions is crucial for global climate action.Maartje Sevenster, Research Scientist Climate Smart Agriculture, CSIROAaron Simmons, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow, University of New EnglandLindsay Bell, Research scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1665792021-09-05T08:16:06Z2021-09-05T08:16:06ZHow the South African government can boost its credibility in the agricultural sector<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418864/original/file-20210901-24-1euivqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Creating a set of classification and grading rules for each agricultural product has proved cumbersome and added to costs of production.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Governments can build credibility over time through consistent commitment to implementing policies efficiently and effectively. South Africa <a href="https://www.news24.com/fin24/Economy/South-Africa/mboweni-warns-that-without-big-reforms-its-game-over-for-sa-20200110">hasn’t done well</a> on this score. As a result of the poor record of policy implementation, investors and the general public have become <a href="https://www.blsa.org.za/implementation-is-key-to-economic-recovery-plan-blsa/">sceptical</a> of government policy pronouncements.</p>
<p>Recent examples of this credibility gap include its handling of two major policy initiatives. The first is the <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/ndp-2030-our-future-make-it-workr.pdf">National Development Plan</a> launched in 2012. The second is the National Treasury’s 2019 economic policy paper titled “<a href="http://www.treasury.gov.za/comm_media/press/2019/Towards%20an%20Economic%20Strategy%20for%20SA.pdf">Economic transformation, inclusive growth, and competitiveness: Towards an Economic Strategy for South Africa</a>”. Neither was ever fully implemented.</p>
<p>Once unveiled, it was up to government departments to pull ideas from them to enhance their strategies. But this wasn’t done. </p>
<p>The factors that lie behind poor policy implementation are varied and complex. They range from conflicting ideologies, a lack of capacity within the state and its institutions, corruption, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/small-towns-are-collapsing-across-south-africa-how-its-starting-to-affect-farming-162697">poor governance at local municipalities</a>.</p>
<p>But the government seems to be waking up to the fact that the key to success is public policy implementation. Take the <a href="https://www.gov.za/economy">Economic Reconstruction and Recovery Plan</a> launched in October 2020. The plan is focused on energy security, infrastructure development, green economy, food security, and the tourism sector, among others.</p>
<p>Unlike the slow policy implementation observed over the past decade, government has followed through with <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/mineral-resources-and-energy-amended-schedule-2-electricity-regulation-act-4-2006-13-aug">reforms</a> in the energy sector. It is worth highlighting that this is a sector that was already beset by <a href="https://businesstech.co.za/news/energy/467592/south-africas-power-crisis-is-going-to-get-worse-over-the-next-5-years-but-ramaphosa-says-there-is-a-plan-to-fix-it/">crisis</a>.</p>
<p>Elsewhere, the departments of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development, and Trade, Industry and Competition have followed up with sectoral master plans. These include <a href="http://www.thedtic.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/Policy_Statement.pdf">building local industrial capacity</a>, for both domestic and export markets.</p>
<p>These are being drawn up with input drawn from a range of key stakeholders in each sector. This is a break from the past where government drew up plans and sought stakeholder input at the end.</p>
<p>The master plan for agriculture and agribusinesses, for example, has included government, farmer organisations, agribusiness, commodity organisations and labour representatives. This process too could suffer inertia if it only leans on grand ideas which are not implemented. </p>
<p>The department of agriculture and various social partners are nearing completion of the master plan for the sector. The document supports <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/president-cyril-ramaphosa-south-africa%E2%80%99s-economic-reconstruction-and-recovery-plan-15-oct">economic recovery plans set out by president Cyril Ramaphosa a year ago</a>. But what will make this particular plan different is the commitment to implementation and the costing of its activities.</p>
<p>Based on many years of <a href="http://www.thepresidency.gov.za/press-statements/president-appoints-economic-advisory-council">engaging with government</a> on <a href="https://www.agbiz.co.za/content/economic-research?page=economic-intelligence">the agricultural sector</a> policies needed to make it easy to do business in South Africa, I have distilled a few things that government can do to improve its policy credibility in the sector. I have also developed a list of what the private sector’s contribution can be.</p>
<h2>What government can do</h2>
<p>The first useful step government could take would be to implement all the regulatory interventions that require less capital. In the case of agriculture, these would include:</p>
<ul>
<li>the release of land already in government’s book to beneficiaries with tradable land right</li>
<li>improvement in efficiency in various regulations in the livestock industry, and animal hygiene which would assist in boosting exports, </li>
<li>improvements in the efficiency in registering new agro-chemicals that can help in making agriculture more efficient. </li>
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<p>It should also reprioritise the national budget in line with the master plan interventions. This will signal its commitment to ensuring its success.</p>
<p>Another important intervention would be for it to support state entities such as Transnet to improve the efficiency of the ports. This should go in tandem with intensifying efforts to open more export markets for South African agriculture. Then there is the <a href="https://landbank.co.za/About-Us/Pages/Our-Business.aspx">Land and Agricultural Development Bank</a>. Government should speed up the resolution of the bank’s <a href="https://landbank.co.za/Media-Centre/Press%20Releases/2021/Media%20Response%20Statement%20-%20Liability%20Solution%2031%20March%202021.pdf">financial challenges</a>. Resolving these would enable the bank to play an influential role in the rollout of the agricultural master plan.</p>
<p>The government should release land that it owns to new beneficiaries with long term tradable land rights or title deeds.</p>
<p>It also needs to root out corruption at various levels within the department to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of staff.</p>
<p>Finally, the government needs to take action to cut red tape and reduce bureaucracy, and bring legislation up to date.</p>
<p>For example the <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/fertilizers-farm-feeds-seeds-and-remedies-act-28-may-2015-1101">Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Seeds and Remedies Act of 1947</a> which regulates the registration, importation and sale of fertilizers, farm feeds, seeds, and certain remedies dates back to 1947. Naturally, it doesn’t reflect the realities of the 21st century. Agro-chemicals suppliers and seed companies struggle to bring new technologies into the country because they aren’t covered in the law. Yet the technologies are key to <a href="https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/eu-review-policy-on-genetically-engineered-crops-africa-by-wandile-sihlobo-2-2021-05">boosting agricultural productivity</a>. </p>
<p>Then there is the <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/agricultural-product-standards-act-6-mar-2015-1127">Agricultural Product Standards Act</a> which regulates the definition, classification and the grading of most agricultural produce. The problem doesn’t lie with the law itself but how government has chosen to implement it through a set of regulations for each product. These are onerous, and require auditing which adds to costs of production.</p>
<p>The department of agriculture <a href="https://wandilesihlobo.com/2021/05/18/south-africas-regulation-of-agricultural-product-standards-falls-short/">has assigned the enforcement</a> of the act to various entities whose services must be paid for by the private sector. This adds even more to operating costs which in turn are recovered through higher retail prices or lower profits for producers.</p>
<h2>What should the private sector do?</h2>
<p>The private sector has a role to play too. The first step should be to build trust among various farmer organisations and agribusiness to have a unanimous private sector voice that speaks to the government.</p>
<p>Private sector players also need to recognise the need for collaborative efforts in rebuilding South Africa and expanding the agriculture and agribusiness sector. One example of this is that they could develop partnerships with new entrant farmers in the development programmes of various commodity organisations.</p>
<p>The private sector also needs to participate in initiatives to help finance the new entrant farmers.</p>
<p>Lastly, it needs to showcase and expand partnership programmes that have proven a success in various commodities and parts of the country.</p>
<h2>Dealing with apartheid’s legacy</h2>
<p>South Africa’s history is unfortunately still mirrored, to an extent, by the farmer associations and commodity groups. There are some that largely represent black farmers, and some largely white farmers. This division contributes to different messages being carried to government. Ideally, farmer organisations and groups should, at least on broad issues, strive for a unanimous voice. But the key thing is building trust so that every participant can gain comfort knowing their views are represented.</p>
<p>Both lists are not exhaustive but the proposed interventions could move the needle in terms of translating the ideas on paper in various plans into tangible projects that could contribute to the growth and job creation in South Africa’s agriculture. Government’s priority should be on building credibility. This could be done by listening to business and social partners and effectively implementing the less financially costly programmes quickly. This will demonstrate the commitment and prove to be an encouragement to all role-players.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166579/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wandile Sihlobo is the Chief Economist of the Agricultural Business Chamber of South Africa (Agbiz), and also a member of the South African President's Economic Advisory Council (PEAC).</span></em></p>To rebuild lost credibility, the South African government can start by listening to social partners and the business sector and implementing less financially costly policiesWandile Sihlobo, Visiting Research Fellow, Wits School of Governance, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1308772020-07-07T02:47:33Z2020-07-07T02:47:33ZIntensive farming is eating up the Australian continent – but there’s another way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344552/original/file-20200629-155353-18mmn1c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3264%2C1886&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sue McIntyre</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/sustainability/nsw-farmers-accelerate-land-clearing-rates-doubling-previous-decade-20200701-p5581j.html">we learned</a> woody vegetation in New South Wales is being cleared at more than double the rate of the previous decade – and agriculture was responsible for more than half the destruction.</p>
<p>Farming <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/insights/snapshot-of-australian-agriculture-2020#agricultural-production-is-growing">now covers</a> 58% of Australia, or 385 million hectares, and accounts for 59% of water extracted.</p>
<p>It’s painfully clear <a href="https://www.wenfo.org/aer/">nature is buckling</a> under the weight of farming’s demands. In the past decade, the federal government has <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publiclookupcommunities.pl">listed</a> ten ecological communities as endangered, or critically endangered, as a result of farming development and practices.</p>
<p>So how can we accommodate the needs of both farming and nature? Research shows us how – but it means accepting land as a finite resource, and operating within its limits. In doing so, farmers will also reap benefits.</p>
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<span class="caption">Grassy eucalypt woodlands used for cattle farming in subtropical Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tara Martin. Author provided.</span></span>
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<h2>Healthy grazing landscapes</h2>
<p>In the 1990s, I worked as a research ecologist in the cattle country of sub-tropical Queensland. The prevailing culture valued agricultural development over conservation. Yet many of these producers lived on viable farms that supported a wealth of native plants and animals.</p>
<p>They made a living from the native grassy eucalypt woodlands, an ecosystem that extends from Cape York to Tasmania. In these healthy landscapes, vigorous pastures of tall perennial grasses protected the soil, enriched it with carbon and fed the cattle.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ipccs-land-report-shows-the-problem-with-farming-based-around-oil-not-soil-121643">IPCC's land report shows the problem with farming based around oil, not soil</a>
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<p>NSW and Victoria have similar eucalypt grassy vegetation, but <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/16380796?q=pasture+improvement+in+australia&c=book&sort=holdings+desc&_=1586924950730&versionId=196760124">farming here has taken a very different path</a>. </p>
<p>Fertilised legumes and grasses grown for livestock fodder have replaced hundreds of native grassland plants. Over time, native trees and shrubs <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/386f395f-b2c6-4e10-8fc3-e937ad277bfe/files/white-and-yellow-box.pdf">stopped regenerating</a> and remaining trees became unhealthy, <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/386f395f-b2c6-4e10-8fc3-e937ad277bfe/files/white-and-yellow-box.pdf">destroying wildlife habitat</a>. The transformation was hastened by <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/16380796?q=pasture+improvement+in+australia&c=book&sort=holdings+desc&_=1586924950730&versionId=196760124">aerial applications of fertiliser and herbicide</a>. </p>
<p>By 2006, 4.5 million hectares of box-gum grassy woodland – or 90% – in temperate Australia had been <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/dcad3aa6-2230-44cb-9a2f-5e1dca33db6b/files/box-gum.pdf">destroyed</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325450/original/file-20200404-74220-lu4kpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Aerial delivery of fertiliser, seed and herbicide transformed grassy woodlands in NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">F. G. Swain. Author provided.</span></span>
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<h2>A template for sustainability</h2>
<p>Back in Queensland in the 1990s, my colleagues and I devised a <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/4749">template</a> for sustainable land use. Funded by the livestock industry and a now-defunct federal corporation, we worked with producers and government agencies to find the right balance between farm production and conserving natural resources. </p>
<p>Our research concluded that for farming to be sustainable, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YG0I8nVXcbg">intensive land uses</a> must be limited. Such intensive uses include crops and non-native pastures. They are “high input”, typically requiring fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides, and some form of cultivation. They return greater yields but kill native plants, and are prone to soil and nutrient runoff into waterways.</p>
<p>But our template was not adopted as conventional farming practice. In the past 20 years, Australia’s cropping area has <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/aclump/land-use-change-overview/national-scale-examples">increased</a> by 18,200 square kilometres.</p>
<p>By 2019, 38,000 square kilometres of poplar box grassy woodland in Australia had been cleared – more than half the size of Tasmania. The ecosystem was listed as <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publiclookupcommunities.pl">endangered in 2019</a>. Until that point, it had been considered <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/communities/pubs/141pb-conservation-advice.pdf">invasive native scrub in NSW</a> – exempting it from clearing regulations – and was systematically cleared for agriculture in Queensland. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345299/original/file-20200702-111353-10i55s3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Farmers should conserve sufficient areas of landscape to support native plants and animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sue McIntyre</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Regenerating the land</h2>
<p>Hearteningly, our research was recently <a href="https://www.vbs.net.au/long-term-research/">revived</a> in a multidisciplinary study of regenerative grazing on the grassy woodlands of NSW. The template was used to assess the ecological condition of participating farms.</p>
<p>The study examined differences in profitability between graziers who had adopted regenerative techniques such as low-input pasture management, and all other sheep, sheep-beef and mixed cropping-grazing farmers in their region. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-ways-farms-of-the-future-can-feed-the-planet-and-heal-it-too-128853">Three ways farms of the future can feed the planet and heal it too</a>
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<p>It found regenerative grazing was often more profitable than other types of farming, especially in dry years. Regenerative farmers also experienced significantly higher than average well-being compared with other NSW farmers.</p>
<p>So what does our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880912000291?via%3Dihub">template involve</a>? First, it identifies four types of land use relevant to farmed grassy woodland regions.</p>
<p>Second, it specifies the proportion of land that should be allocated to each use, in order to achieve landscape health (see pie chart below). The proportions can be applied to single farm, or entire districts or regions.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=737&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=737&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325448/original/file-20200404-74220-ojf0wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=737&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">How to sustain production, natural resources and native flora and fauna on a landscape or farm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sue McIntyre</span></span>
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<p>Intensive land use involves activities that replace nearly all native species. If these activities occupy more than 30% of the landscape, there’s insufficient habitat to maintain many native species, especially plants. </p>
<p>At least 10% of land must be devoted to nature conservation. The remaining 60% of the land should involve low-intensity activity such as grazed native pasture and timber production. If managed well, these land uses can support human livelihoods and a diversity of native species.</p>
<p>Within that split of land use, total native woodland should be no less than 30%. This guarantees connected habitats for native plants and animals, enabling movement and breeding opportunities.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345522/original/file-20200703-33913-149u3o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Retaining grassy woodland ensures habitat for native animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Duncan McCaskill/Flickr</span></span>
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<h2>Respect the land’s limits</h2>
<p>Australians ask a lot of our land. It must make space for our houses, businesses, and roads. It should support all species to prevent extinctions. And it must produce our food and fibre.</p>
<p>Global population growth demands a rapid rise in <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/12/how-sustainably-feed-10-billion-people-2050-21-charts">food production</a>. But relying on intensive agriculture to achieve this is unsustainable. Aside from damaging the land, it increases greenhouse gas emissions though mechanisation, fertilisation, chemical use and tree clearing. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-farmers-are-adapting-to-climate-change-76939">Australian farmers are adapting to climate change</a>
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<p>To meet the challenges of the future we must ensure farmed landscapes retain their <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.12689">ecological functions</a>. In particular, maintaining biodiversity is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.12689">key to climate adaptation</a>. And as many of Australia’s plants and animals march towards extinction, the need to reverse biodiversity loss has never been greater.</p>
<p>Farmers can be profitable while maintaining and improving the ecological health of their land. It’s time to look harder at farming models that respect the limits of nature, and recognise that less can be more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130877/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue McIntyre is a member of Bush Heritage Australia and volunteers for Landcare Australia. </span></em></p>It’s painfully clear nature is buckling under the weight of farming’s demands. There’s another way – but it involves accepting nature’s limits.Sue McIntyre, Honorary Professor, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1110062019-02-14T14:06:01Z2019-02-14T14:06:01ZWhy poor storage and handling are to blame for Uganda’s poor quality seed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258703/original/file-20190213-181619-1phbih5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Ugandan family works on their farm near the capital Kampala. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Khaled Elfiqi</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The quality of purchased seeds, such as maize, groundnuts and others, is a major concern in Uganda. </p>
<p>Evidence from recent studies indicates that farmers all over the country have been <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/taf/jdevst/v44y2008i4p586-612.html">slow to adopt</a> improved seeds, such as those that protect against drought. Farmers prefer to use seeds they’ve saved from the last season; these are generally of poor quality and don’t protect against weather problems. This suggests that, for Uganda’s farmers, the cost of improved seeds – which are more expensive than home-saved seeds – outweighs any of the benefits. </p>
<p>Farmers are also concerned about the quality of agricultural inputs like fertiliser, seeds and pesticides. They worry about the potential for these to be adulterated and contaminated. For example, a recent study <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/132/3/1055/3064350?redirectedFrom=fulltext">found</a> that a bag of fertiliser picked at random had only half of the nitrogen content it should. This meant there was little value to using it. The authors also looked at yields from improved maize seeds and discovered a similar situation.</p>
<p>One reason that’s widely cited for low yields is deliberate adulteration of seeds by sellers along the supply chain. The assumption is that sellers deliberately introduce grains or even stones into bags of seed to increase the weight. When the farmer uses these seeds, most don’t germinate. However, no one has ever identified adulteration – it’s simply assumed this is what is causing the problem. </p>
<p>This means that agricultural policy has tended to focus on certification of seeds, including labelling at the source, <a href="https://www.theigc.org/blog/the-supply-chain-for-seed-in-uganda-where-does-it-all-go-wrong/#_ftn2">e-verification</a> and requiring bags that are not easy to open until the farmer has them. But little effort has been made to improve the quality control of the seed supply chain as a whole, including transportation networks and storage at the end seller. </p>
<p>Uganda’s certification and oversight of seeds has proven inadequate for ensuring that farmers obtain good quality inputs. Neither seed companies nor input shops are well regulated and market failures have emerged, meaning that the access to optimal quality seeds is still very limited.</p>
<p>Our project expands on the recent work of researchers looking at the quality of agricultural inputs in Africa. To diagnose where quality issues crop up in Uganda, we explored 21 varieties of maize across the supply chain. What we <a href="https://www.theigc.org/blog/the-supply-chain-for-seed-in-uganda-where-does-it-all-go-wrong/#_ftn1">found</a> is that quality, rather than genetic purity, appears to be the main problem. The results are consistent with mishandling and poor storage of seeds.</p>
<h2>What our tests found</h2>
<p>To collect a representative sample of seeds – as if an actual farmer would have purchased those seeds – we employed a mystery shopper approach. A well-trained team of enumerators self-identified as farmers and purchased seeds from a census of companies at all levels of the supply chain, across three districts in northern Uganda and the capital, Kampala.</p>
<p>The seed samples were then sent to testing facilities in Uganda for purity and performance examination. To identify how genetically similar the seeds were to each other (or in other words, to screen if any seed was adulterated or contaminated) the sample of seeds was shipped to a laboratory in Australia to test for <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ac44/802bf3331da102872cf851ea1f879b32bfe4.pdf">genetic purity</a>. </p>
<p>Seeds were tested on three main indicators. First were DNA tests for genetic purity. Second was a physical test for the percentage of the seed containing stones, dirt, or sand. Last came germination tests – defined as the percentage of seeds that can germinate normally under standard conditions. Vigour tests determined the percentage of seeds able to germinate under suboptimal conditions and after storage while moisture tests determine how much water has gotten into the seeds, which leads to lower quality germination.</p>
<p>We did not find evidence of serious seed adulteration by sellers. Instead, we find high levels of seed genetic and physical purity across all levels of the supply chain. Seed samples collected are genetically very similar to each other and on average presented good physical purity (above 99%), or good content of pure seeds (and absence of inert matter or dirt, sand, stones, sticks, and stems.</p>
<h2>Poor handling</h2>
<p>Results from tests of vigour and moisture content, combined with high levels of DNA similarity, lead us to believe that the causes of low quality are most likely due to poor management in the downstream levels of the supply chain (wholesalers and retailers) that create poor storage conditions.</p>
<p>Monitoring mechanisms, collective action by stakeholders, and further exploration on seeds during storage and transportation are key for better seeds. Although rules are in place, few resources are available for regulators, meaning that currently seed monitoring is almost non-existent. </p>
<p>On top of seed certification, implementing complementary mechanisms, such as regular quality control inspections, is key.</p>
<h2>Future evidence is needed</h2>
<p>A note of caution is needed for these results. We were only able to trace the supply chain of maize in one year, and across three districts (plus Kampala). The results are potentially limited in their application to other crops, years and districts. We are also limited in our sample size as we were only able to collect 120 samples in total. </p>
<p>A replication of this proof of concept is needed in different regions, seasons, and years to confirm the absence of counterfeit seeds more broadly. We also recommend further studies on the practices and conditions during seed storage and transportation. Future evidence is needed to determine conclusively what is driving low quality seeds in Uganda.</p>
<p>If the results we obtained can be generalised, it is possible they could significantly change the way policy makers approach the issue of low quality seeds in Uganda. If adulteration is not the problem, but instead storage and transportation are the major constraints to quality, money currently being spent on certification processes could be better spent. Future work will need to confirm this interpretation is in fact true.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors received funding from the International Growth Centre (IGC) and the Northern Uganda-Transforming the Economy through Climate-Smart Agribusiness Development Market Development (NU-TEC MD) to run this study. </span></em></p>Little effort has been made to improve the quality control of the seed supply chain as a whole in Uganda.Nathan Fiala, Assistant Professor, Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.