tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/animal-human-relations-17087/articlesAnimal-human relations – The Conversation2020-10-21T15:34:39Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1466522020-10-21T15:34:39Z2020-10-21T15:34:39ZA flesh-eating parasite carried by dogs is making its way to North America<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364528/original/file-20201020-17-1iyzztg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4744%2C3151&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Leishmaniosis — a parasitic infection that causes skin sores — has been found in kenneled American foxhounds.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Leishmania</em> is a flesh-eating parasite that affects millions of people each year, in <a href="https://www.who.int/gho/neglected_diseases/leishmaniasis/en/">98 countries and territories</a> — but isn’t native to Canada and the United States. So why are veterinarians starting to report <em>Leishmania</em> here, so far from this parasite’s natural warm climate?</p>
<p><em>Leishmania</em> are microscopic parasites transmitted by sandfly bites, and cause a disease called leishmaniosis. There are several forms of this disease, affecting the skin, mucous membranes and internal organs. Some forms of the disease lead to severe disfigurement, others death. </p>
<p>Leishmaniosis is <a href="https://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/summary/en/">classified as a neglected tropical disease</a> by the World Health Organization, primarily affecting those in tropical and subtropical regions. The disease particularly affects populations <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0035-9203(01)90223-8">lacking access to adequate housing and sanitation services</a>. </p>
<p>Leishmaniosis is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans; dogs are the reservoir for this parasite.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Small flying insect on human skin" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360571/original/file-20200929-24-1xmht7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Infected sandflies transmit Leishmania during a blood meal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(WHO/S. Stammers)</span></span>
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<h2>A Canadian threat?</h2>
<p>Recently, veterinarians in the U.S. and Canada have been detecting <em>Leishmania</em> in imported dogs: the disease has been detected in dogs in 18 states and two provinces. Our laboratory received reports of at least 10 in Québec within the span of a year. Soon after, we were presented with a case ourselves: a dog imported with suspected “fight wounds” <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32879521/">later diagnosed to be <em>Leishmania</em></a>. </p>
<p>More and more, owners are travelling with their pets or importing animals from other countries. The regulations for bringing pets into Canada are lax — generally, the only requirements are <a href="https://travel.gc.ca/travelling/documents/animals-certificate">proof of rabies vaccination and a certificate from a veterinarian declaring the animal to be in apparent good health</a>. Furthermore, since many of the tests and diagnostic treatments for exotic diseases (including leishmaniosis) are unfamiliar or inaccessible in Canada, diagnosis and treatment are complicated. </p>
<p>This puts the health of the patient, and ultimately the public, at risk.</p>
<p>Although the exact species of sandflies that transmit <em>Leishmania</em> are not present in Canada, reports of <em>Leishmania</em> <a href="http://doi.org/10.3201/eid1203.050811">maintaining itself within groups of kennelled foxhounds in 18 states and two provinces</a> strongly suggest that the parasite can be transmitted from dog to dog: through bites, breeding or blood transfusions. In addition, it has recently been demonstrated that <a href="http://doi.org/10.1590/S0036-46652014000400005">ticks can also transmit leishmaniosis</a>. </p>
<p>Therefore, although unfortunate, <em>Leishmania</em> establishment in Canada and the U.S. remains possible.</p>
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<img alt="Striped dog with lesions on face and ears" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361142/original/file-20201001-18-v3tmfe.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Leishmaniosis can cause severe disfigurement and damage to internal organs in dogs and humans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(A. Reis and B. Mendes-Roatt, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil)</span></span>
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<h2><em>Leishmania</em>’s secret weapon</h2>
<p>Treatment of leishmaniosis is currently limited to very few drugs, most of which have been in use for decades. In recent years, there has been an <a href="http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006052">increase in <em>Leishmania</em> drug resistance and treatment failure</a>. Scientists, including us, are searching for clues to better understand how these parasites survive in the presence of anti-leishmanial drugs. A number of experiments have led us (and others) to focus on <em>Leishmania</em>’s release of extracellular vesicles.</p>
<p>Extracellular vesicles are small, round particles with a fatty outer membrane, and they are <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau6977">produced by all living cells</a>, including <em>Leishmania</em> parasites. Although tiny — you need an electron microscope to see them — these particles transport valuable cargo that ranges from DNA to fats and proteins. The contents of these vesicles <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00100">provide a “snapshot” of their cell of origin</a>, and can be “delivered” to nearby cells. </p>
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<img alt="Small vesicles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360393/original/file-20200928-16-1xnwqop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Extracellular vesicles released by Leishmania parasites as seen by electron microscopy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Fernandez-Prada Lab, 2020)</span></span>
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<p>Recent studies have found that not only do the size and shape of these vesicles differ between sensitive and drug-resistant strains of <em>Leishmania</em>, but vesicles produced by drug-resistant parasites contain special <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0008439">drug-resistance molecules</a>.</p>
<p>A better understanding of extracellular vesicles’ function is another step towards understanding how drug resistance spreads among <em>Leishmania</em> populations with the goal of preventing it. Additionally, research has demonstrated that when an infected sandfly bites a human, it’s not just parasites that are injected into the bloodstream: extracellular vesicles come along too, and are <a href="https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb-2019-0087">confronted by our immune system</a>. </p>
<p>Studying extracellular vesicles may provide vital information for the development of new <em>Leishmania</em> therapies or a vaccine.</p>
<h2>Unified approaches</h2>
<p>Mandatory reporting of canine leishmaniosis cases by veterinarians, easy access to fast and reliable diagnostic tests and appropriate treatments and an overhaul of animal importation regulations are critical. </p>
<p>A “One Health” approach, requiring <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/basics/index.html">the collaboration of human, animal, and environmental health partners</a>, is key to preventing <em>Leishmania</em> cases in Canada and the U.S.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146652/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Victoria Wagner receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Fernandez-Prada receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Fonds de recherche du Québec – Nature et technologies (FRQNT) and the Fondation J.-Louis Lévesque. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Olivier receives funding from the Canadian Institute of Health Research (CIHR), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), FQRNT and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund since 1993. </span></em></p>Importing dogs into Canada has also introduced a flesh-eating parasite that is transmissible to humans. Veterinarians, researchers and public health officials should work together to curtail the disease.Victoria Wagner, Veterinarian, M.Sc. student in Molecular Parasitology, Université de MontréalChristopher Fernandez-Prada, Assistant professor at Université de Montréal (Faculty of Veterinary Sciences); Head of the animal parasitology diagnostic laboratory of UdeM; Adjunct professor McGill University (Faculty of Medicine), Université de MontréalMartin Olivier, Full Professor at McGill University, Departments of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology; Senior Investigator at the Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre and Chair of the Laboratory for the Study of Host-Parasite Interaction., McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1380742020-05-24T12:22:53Z2020-05-24T12:22:53ZHow the coronavirus pet adoption boom is reducing stress<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335950/original/file-20200519-83367-13qp66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C0%2C5367%2C3597&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research consistently shows the benefits of pet ownership during stressful times.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As has been discussed in so many articles, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-5072-z">sharing our lives with pets is good for our health</a>. Not only do they make us healthier in normal times, in stressful times the benefit of a pandemic puppy (or cat), or other non-human companion, goes even further. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-pets-are-family-the-benefits-extend-into-society-109179">When pets are family, the benefits extend into society</a>
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<p>During a pandemic, people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113003">can be stressed and fearful for their lives and the lives of those they love</a>. Research has shown that where there is a bond between human and animal, the presence of a non-human companion — especially a dog — <a href="https://doi.org/10.2752/175303710X12750451258977">decreases psychological arousal and stress, and creates physiological changes that make us feel better</a>. </p>
<h2>Pandemic pets</h2>
<p>Early in the COVID-19 pandemic there was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa046">pet abandonment in large numbers in Wuhan, China</a>. Fearful that the same would happen locally, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/call-has-been-answered-animal-shelters-across-u-s-are-n1186351">many animal rescue organizations set out to empty their shelters</a>. <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/30/us/dogs-adoption-surge-trnd/index.html">Worldwide there was an unprecedented upsurge in adoptions and fostering</a>. </p>
<p>Although many people did this for the animals, they, perhaps unwittingly, set themselves up for better mental health during the pandemic. Aside from the stress-mitigating impacts of pets mentioned above, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F019394502320555377">having a pet may be a powerful influencer in maintaining health-protective behaviours</a>, such as eating well or going out for a walk. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3233/nre-2010-0592">Dogs and cats can increase physical rehabilitation goals</a> through behaviour such as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/NHH.0000000000000156">bending, reaching, ambulating and using both arms in a functional manner to provide food, water, and grooming</a>.” These basic activities involved in animal care actually provide exercise, which is very important for people who spend the day in a stationary position.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336468/original/file-20200520-152344-1fe8dow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">With stay-at-home orders required in many places, having a pet at home can help reduce feelings of anxiety and frustration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<h2>Human-animal relationships</h2>
<p>When the COVID-19 pandemic began, I had just started a <a href="https://queensu.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_bKrBi1ERiZw56eh">research study asking people about their relationships with their non-human companions</a>. The preliminary results of this online survey include people between their late 30s and early 90s. They live in Canada, the United States, England, Ireland, Wales and Scotland and come from all walks of life. One-third have completed high school or less, 30 per cent completed college and/or an apprenticeship and the rest completed some kind of university degree. At the time of the survey, almost all of them were spending their time at home, some were alone, others with family and for others pets were their only companions.</p>
<p>When asked, in an open-ended question, what it has been like having animal companions with them during the pandemic, their answers included words like “comforting,” “good/great,” “helpful.” Several people said that they work full-time, so they were enjoying the time with their animal and getting to see what their pet does all day. Several people indicated that they would be lost without their pet. </p>
<p>One participant said, “I don’t know what I would do without the company of my dog, she has kept me going.” Another said, “It is the only thing that is keeping me sane.” And others said the presence of a pet was salvation (a life saver) and brought joy. There were also those who said they talk with their pet and that it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020927051">helped stave off loneliness</a>.</p>
<h2>Artificial pets?</h2>
<p>Another question I ask in my research is <a href="https://theconversation.com/robopets-using-technology-to-monitor-older-adults-raises-privacy-concerns-132326">whether robot pets can be used to replace live animals</a>, so it was interesting to see that <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/27/us/therapy-robot-pets-wellness-trnd/index.html">robot pets were being provided to older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/robopets-using-technology-to-monitor-older-adults-raises-privacy-concerns-132326">Robopets: Using technology to monitor older adults raises privacy concerns</a>
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<p>In my survey during the COVID-19 pandemic, respondents were asked whether, given the choice, they would choose a robot pet or a live animal. Out of 102 people who answered this question, not one of them said they would choose a robot pet — even those who currently did not have a pet did not want a robot pet. The vast majority said they would choose a live pet, and a few said that they would rather have no pet at all. </p>
<p>When asked why, they said things like, “It is not about the companionship alone. It is about the emotional connection. To get that from a robotic creation is not love. We need the love that comes with these pets.” It was very clear that the robots were “not the same as a living breathing animal.” That a robot could not take the place of a pet because pets are “unique and make me smile and love them.”</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tLjtOMBWvTo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A <em>Washington Post</em> video comparing Sony’s robot dog Aibo to a live puppy.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The results of this survey are similar to those found during non-pandemic research: pets stave off <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122085">loneliness</a>, and living with pets helps people to be more active, even if it is only the movement associated with basic tasks, such as cleaning the litter box or filling food bowls. Most importantly, we are comforted by these non-human companions. The presence of a dog or a cat in the home may be the only thing between an isolated person and despair.</p>
<p>Given how important dogs, cats and other non-human companions are to our well-being, it is important to remember them when developing programs to support isolated people. When there is not enough money to go around, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/NHH.0000000000000156">it is not unheard of for people to feed their dog before they feed or acquire medications for themselves</a>.” </p>
<p>As the economic reality of sustained unemployment unfolds, it is important for public services to consider not only food security for humans, but also for their non-human companions in order to prevent the possibility of a tsunami of pet abandonment due to an inability to provide care.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>L.F. Carver does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pets can relieve anxiety during the pandemic and reduce the effects of social isolation. However, there have been waves of pet adoptions and abandonment related to the pandemic.L.F. Carver, Assistant Professor & Privacy and Ethics Officer at the Centre for Advanced Computing, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1342262020-05-12T15:29:36Z2020-05-12T15:29:36ZHuman activities are responsible for viruses crossing over from bats and causing pandemics like coronavirus<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332082/original/file-20200502-42923-1jb2q4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5542%2C3700&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Egyptian pipistrelle bat is one of seven bat species associated with spreading the coronavirus Middle East Respiratory Syndrome.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Viruses are naturally occurring entities. <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500527">Viruses have existed on Earth long before humans</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2644">vastly outnumber humans</a>. There are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19094">more viruses on Earth</a> than there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/gen-2013-0152">stars in the universe</a> or <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/03014460.2013.807878">cells in the human body</a>. </p>
<p>As a cellular microbiologist who has studied <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v15i1.707">the origin and development of infectious diseases and their prevention</a>, understanding where infectious agents come from is as important, if not more important, to understanding how to combat the rampant spread of diseases within the human population. </p>
<p>Fortunately, only a small fraction — <a href="http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0354">about 200</a> — of this vast array of viruses can infect humans. Some of the better-known human viral infections include measles, varicella, polio, human papilloma virus, influenza and rhinoviruses, which are typically responsible for the common cold. </p>
<p>An even smaller number of viruses are responsible for the deadliest human infections that we have experienced. In recent decades these include rabies virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Ebola virus and now, infamously, coronaviruses. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C2035%2C2026&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C2035%2C2026&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327416/original/file-20200413-174608-omeq7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A colour-enhanced image of SARS-CoV-2 virus particles, isolated from a patient.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/niaid/49597020648/in/album-72157712914621487/">(National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Integrated Research Facility)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Viruses that circulate in other animals can enter a human population when <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F652860">a variety of human activities</a> allow for consistent and regular interaction with naturally occurring reservoirs. These events involve repeated and routine <a href="http://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1108296">interaction of humans with these animal hosts</a>. </p>
<p>Some of these interactions take place through the following <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/six-nature-facts-related-coronaviruses">human activities</a>: hunting, butchering and farming (husbandry), as well as the global trade of animals and domestication of exotic animals as pets. Population growth, global travel and <a href="https://www.who.int/globalchange/summary/en/index5.html">climate change</a> that cause the disruption of habitats further provide opportunities for cross-species transfer.</p>
<h2>Cross-species transfer</h2>
<p>Many of the viruses that have affected us over the past 20 years have emerged from non-human reservoirs. Reservoirs are the source of viruses and other pathogens and can be located in animal populations or the natural environment. What is of note is that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/cddiscovery.2016.48">the original reservoir for many of these viruses are bats</a>. </p>
<p>Bats have been shown to be the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00017-06">natural reservoir</a> of numerous deadly human viruses. The specialized immune systems of bats allow multiple different types of viruses to persist within these hosts. The coexistence of these <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2012.2753">viruses within the same host</a> in combination with the molecular makeup of viruses further allows for the emergence of deadly human diseases. Bats aren’t all bad though; they have an <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-wrong-to-blame-bats-for-the-coronavirus-epidemic-134300">important role in our ecosystem</a>. </p>
<h2>Current COVID-19 pandemic</h2>
<p>The current <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15329-9">coronavirus pandemic has been traced to a wet market, called the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, in Wuhan, China</a>. Within these wet markets, numerous animals are held together in confined spaces and small cages. This setting is inherently stressful and can allow for the exchange and mixing of multiple different bodily fluids. Human handling of these animals allows for <a href="http://doi.org/10.1097/01.qco.0000244043.08264.fc">the viruses contained within these reservoirs to spill over into the human population</a>. This is further facilitated by the long working hours and stress of the handlers themselves, as well as cuts, scratches, bites or other wounds inflicted by the animals on their handlers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-live-animals-are-stressed-in-wet-markets-and-stressed-animals-are-more-likely-to-carry-diseases-135479">Coronavirus: live animals are stressed in wet markets, and stressed animals are more likely to carry diseases</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A similar confluence of factors was attributed to the 2002 outbreak of SARS, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_13">which has been attributed to the virus crossing over from bats to civets</a>. The related MERS-CoV was <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1911.131172">attributed to a bat reservoir in Saudi Arabia</a>.</p>
<h2>Ebola outbreaks</h2>
<p>Outbreaks of Ebola in West Africa (2014-16 and 2018-present) have been attributed <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F82_2017_11">to human interaction with bats</a>. Three subfamilies of fruit bats — <em>Hypsignathus monstrosus</em>, <em>Epomops franqueti</em> and <em>Myonycteris torquata</em> — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/438575a">have been identified as natural reservoirs for the Ebola virus</a>. </p>
<p>These bats <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/06/hunting-ebola-among-bats-congo">inhabit caves deep within the Ebola River Valley</a>. Cross-species transmission of the Ebola virus from bats to humans can occur either directly or via intermediary hosts such as non-human primates, horses or pigs. </p>
<p>Global travel allowed for the virus to <a href="https://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/en/">spread from Central Africa to West Africa, and subsequently Europe and North America</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332081/original/file-20200502-42908-1oteam2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sign in Makoua, Congo, warns visitors that Ebola is present in the area, and to avoid handling any animals found dead.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Hendra virus</h2>
<p>The Hendra virus (HeV) has been a persistent infection of <a href="https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1995.tb126050.x">horses and humans in Australia since 1994</a>. Transmission into the equine population has been attributed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70158-5">food or water contaminated with bat feces, urine or saliva</a>. HeV originated in black flying foxes, and its transmission to horses and humans results in a severe respiratory disease. </p>
<p>Subsequent transmission from horses to humans involves the close contact of humans with the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/hendra/transmission/index.html">bodily fluids of infected horses</a>. Fortunately, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2016.02.004">horse-to-horse, human-to-horse and bat-to-human transmission of hendra virus (HeV) is currently limited</a>. As a result, <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/hendra-virus-disease">this viral infection has not lead to widespread infections or fatalities</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327418/original/file-20200413-109081-fryzhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black flying foxes (<em>Pteropus alecto</em>) roosting in the Redcliffe Botanical Garden in Brisbane, Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/niaid/49597020648/in/album-72157712914621487/">(gailhampshire/flickr)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Nipah virus</h2>
<p>Nipah virus (NiV) infections have been occurring <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-002-0106-y">in Bangladesh and Malaysia since 1998</a>. This virus causes respiratory disease and swelling of the brain — encephalitis — in pigs. Human contact with infected pigs results in severe encephalitis, fever and eventually death. This virus also emerged from fruit bats through a spill-over event with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-006-0036-2">close proximity of living conditions</a> between humans, domesticated animals and the natural reservoir. </p>
<p>Altogether, it is clear that human activities play a role in the emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases. The role of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cddiscovery.2016.48">bats as natural reservoirs</a> to numerous deadly human diseases is also very clear.</p>
<p>The uncertainty of subsequent outbreaks or pandemics is not related to how or why but rather a question of when.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134226/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Narveen Jandu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Bats have been the reservoir for recent disease outbreaks, including SARS and the current COVID-19 pandemic. But it’s human activity that allows the virus to cross over.Narveen Jandu, School of Public Health & Health Studies, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1039252018-10-02T13:55:28Z2018-10-02T13:55:28ZHow the humanities can equip students for the fourth industrial revolution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238442/original/file-20180928-48653-n3qtif.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A humanities degree can open people's minds in the fourth industrial revolution.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The term “<a href="https://www.weforum.org/about/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-by-klaus-schwab">fourth industrial revolution</a>” is understood in various ways. Some people are excited about it. Others are cautious. Some assume it means that technology and robots will take over every human activity. And still others imagine that this “revolution” will lead only to joblessness and automation.</p>
<p>There are also those who are sceptical and <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/there-s-no-such-thing-as-the-fourth-industrial-revolution-a7441966.html%20and%20insist%20that">insist</a> it’s no revolution at all. They argue that it’s just an improvement and fusion of various technologies – like artificial intelligence and 3D printing – and acceleration in productivity. </p>
<p>In all these instances, the interaction of technology with humans and humans with technology is underestimated. The emphasis on interaction is key to understanding the fourth industrial revolution. And this epoch will, like all times of change, require universities to push the boundaries of teaching and learning. </p>
<p>Universities will need to ensure that students are equipped with approaches to learning that involve agility, adaptability and curiosity. It will be a challenge for us all. </p>
<p>The fourth industrial revolution will also raise many questions for universities to consider. What needs to shift in how lecturers teach and how students learn and will be learning? What does the blurring of the lines between the physical, digital and technological mean for social relationships and for student learning? What do these shifts mean for different countries? Is learning in an environment with peers (virtually or in a class) better than learning online?</p>
<p>In seeking answers, societies must create the space to have conversations across social, academic, industry and community boundaries. The purpose of these conversations is to determine priority areas that need to be improved by the rapid technological changes we are currently experiencing as well as thinking about how we redefine the human condition. </p>
<p>Universities have a crucial role to play in these conversations. And a humanities education has a lot to offer when it comes to preparing students for the fourth industrial revolution.</p>
<h2>Harnessing the humanities</h2>
<p>A humanities education inculcates the importance of reflecting on the vast array of methodological and societal issues that arise from any practices. These include the technological and computational practices that underpin the fourth industrial revolution.</p>
<p>Critical thinking, debating and creative problem solving are taught in the humanities. This kind of critical orientation allows students to explore the complex human-to-human relations and the <a href="http://www.wits.ac.za/news/latest-news/research-news/2017/2017-09/human-vs-machine.html">human to robotic relations</a> that we are already encountering and that will become ever more common.</p>
<p>This isn’t to suggest that <em>only</em> the humanities are relevant. Cross-disciplinary communities of researchers and educators matter and will matter now more than ever. </p>
<p>This is particularly true in South Africa where the education system hasn’t provided for the breaking down of boundaries between the sciences, let alone between the disciplines in the humanities. Collectively we will need to do more when it comes to drawing on approaches from various disciplines, which will allow for quantitative reasoning, problem solving and systems thinking that are socially relevant. </p>
<p>Such partnerships are already happening in small pockets, and are yielding promising results.</p>
<h2>Collaborating and mutuality</h2>
<p>For instance, the Faculty of Humanities at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg collaborates with the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment to offer a <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/wsoa/digital-arts/undergraduate/game-design-/">joint undergraduate programme</a> that meshes engineering with arts to make a programme in game design and digital arts. </p>
<p>Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Engineering students work alongside each other in courses that are team-taught to design innovative high tech games. It’s not all fun: games, after all, are a means of challenging ourselves, controlling outcomes, competing, and figuring out successful strategies of doing things. </p>
<p>Students from this programme draw on a variety of skills like problem solving, inferential thinking and visualisation. They have produced games that are frequently downloaded from various app stores.</p>
<p>Similarly, the university’s faculties of science and humanities offer a postgraduate programme on <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/course-finder/postgraduate/humanities/e-science/">e-Science</a> or Data Science. The programme brings together science and humanities students and staff to work on complex, big data problems. They’re also taught to think of ways to visualise and communicate this information and to question the predictive powers of big data. </p>
<p>Students are exposed to various interdisciplinary approaches like statistical computing and modelling, data visualisation, text analysis, and geographical information systems. Master of Arts students take courses in data privacy and ethics alongside MSc students. This course is team-taught and students engage with complex problems from two or more science and humanities disciplines.</p>
<p>These and other examples of innovative teaching and learning help to disrupt the current techno talk that dominates conversations about the fourth industrial revolution. It’s essential that we bring our ideas to the fore and reshape the conversations in ways that resonate with who we are, where we are located and what this means for us and our futures.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103925/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruksana Osman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More innovative teaching and learning is needed to disrupt the current techno talk about the fourth industrial revolution.Ruksana Osman, Professor and Dean of Humanities, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/781232017-06-19T12:30:51Z2017-06-19T12:30:51ZPets can help children accept the challenges of foster care<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170370/original/file-20170522-7384-1ofzkae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Best friend.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/child-dog-by-window-220956421?src=uYsk_ujM6Y1JA5wR2Fea5A-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Stable, loving, secure family relationships are vital for child development and well-being. But many children who enter the foster care system have early experiences of neglect, suffering, hurt, and loss, and been deprived of secure parenting. </p>
<p>A key part of fostering is the idea that warm, nurturing relationships with foster families can help to change the developmental course of children who have suffered inadequate early care.</p>
<p>But by the time they enter foster care, many children have already deeply internalised early experiences of neglect. This frequently means that they bring negative expectations, fear, anxiety, and resistance into potential new relationships, making the development of closeness and security with foster parents <a href="https://www.lambeth.gov.uk/fosteringandadoption/fostering/challenges-fostering">extremely challenging</a>.</p>
<p>In a <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14616734.2017.1280517?needAccess=true">recent study</a>, we explored how relationships with animals can help children navigate the challenges of settling into new long-term foster homes. Animal relationships have been shown to support psychological well-being across a range of social groups, including <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51568567_Not_just_a_dog_An_attachment_perspective_on_relationships_with_assistance_dogs">individuals with disabilities</a>, <a href="http://journals.rcni.com/doi/pdfplus/10.7748/nop2007.02.19.1.21.c4361">older people</a>, and <a href="http://www.healio.com/psychiatry/journals/jpn/2010-11-48-11/%7B3ae0e0b2-e2f7-4e41-a5f1-541cfe401fc5%7D/use-of-animal-assisted-therapy-with-psychiatric-patients-a-literature-review">psychiatric patients</a>. They may be also be particularly helpful to children who have lost faith in adult love. </p>
<p>Our study involved the in-depth investigation of eight neglected, maltreated children (aged ten to 16) in the foster care system, all of whom had recently been placed with families that had pet dogs. The children had histories of severe abuse and neglect. They had been in foster care for between four and seven years, and had moved foster homes between seven and ten times. Childhood histories like theirs severely impede the development of a sense of safety, security, and trust in adult caregivers.</p>
<p>The first thing we noticed was the extent to which children mistrusted and felt suspicious of their foster parents. They felt foster parents were simply colluding with a world that they had come to believe was inherently threatening and painful. Family dogs, however, were frequently identified as a “safer” source of closeness. </p>
<p>One child, Jake, aged ten, said of his relationship with his foster parent, Trudi:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I can still find it hard being really close with Trudi ‘cos everyone in the past has been horrible to me and got rid of me. I guess there’s still a chance Trudi might do that so I don’t feel totally safe with her. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Asked about his feelings towards Trudi’s pet dog, Zak, however, he said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I don’t mind being really close with Zak 'cos he won’t get rid of me, so I feel really safe with him. He’s my friend because he wants to be – and not just because he has to be.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>One of the most significant ways in which the children related to family dogs was to rely upon them in times of emotional distress (when the dogs were often preferred to foster caregivers). This often involved “contact comfort”. Close skin-to-skin contact was a significant part of how animal connections helped to alleviate powerful feelings of fear, sadness, or anger. </p>
<p>Jane, aged 11, told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I felt embarrassed crying in front of [my foster parent] Sheila but I could cry and feel safe with the dog on my bed. When I cry he wriggles into my neck and I rest my face against his belly. Then I cry more, but I feel better after I cry. Like the tears help get the worry out my head. I feel safe with him there beside me. Like he wants to help me and stop my bad thoughts.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170371/original/file-20170522-7351-1ot2vrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Helping paw.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dog-paw-childs-hand-friendship-191933783?src=F9xkpwxzA0oS0kmUrI0WWQ-1-33">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It was also apparent that the animals offered children a bridge through which they could begin to believe in foster parents as trustworthy and loving. If they were kind to their pets, maybe they would be kind to the children too.</p>
<h2>Feeling at home</h2>
<p>Jake, who we heard from before, said later on: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>[Trudi] took real good care of Zak [the dog] all the time, and never got angry or fed up. She was really nice to him and always made sure that he was okay. I like Zak so much. I think I was wrong about Trudi because actually she seems nice too. Zak must love her and I know he wouldn’t do that if Trudi wasn’t really nice.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Pete, ten, also grew to trust his foster mother by observing her relationship with the dog: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>She was always nice to him [the dog], so I knew that she’d be nice to me too. Even when he’s bad, like barking or biting things, she doesn’t hate him, or get rid of him. I liked her because she was dead kind to him all the time.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Pete’s foster mother described how he would constantly scrutinise her interactions with the dog: “I felt judged. He was like a shadow for the dog. When I was with the dog he watched my every move.”</p>
<p>We did not set out in our study to suggest that animals should be a universal part of the fostering process. Clearly, some children are frightened of animals, not all children respond positively to animals, and some children and caregivers have a history of <a href="https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.elsevier-2ff47dae-c5ba-3a1a-818d-18fb23c31113">animal abuse</a>.</p>
<p>However, it is critical that children who have lost faith in adult love find their way back to human relationships that support and nurture them towards psychological health. In order to allow the development of a secure base with children, foster parents must begin to “feel” friendly, caring, and approachable for children, and offer them a safe, non-threatening environment. </p>
<p>Animal relationships aren’t a substitute for parental connection. But they can provide vital, non-threatening emotional comfort. Comfort that “holds” children while they come to terms with the anxieties and anger that can cloud their relationships with adults.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78123/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Carr does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Animals can bring a sense of trust and stability.Sam Carr, Lecturer in Education, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/622062016-07-08T12:06:43Z2016-07-08T12:06:43ZGoats, sheep and cows could challenge dogs for title of ‘man’s best friend’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129851/original/image-20160708-24096-1mslcn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Love me, love my goat.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pixabay</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the evolution of dogs from wolves tens of thousands of years ago, they have been selectively bred for various roles as guards, hunters, workers and companions. But dogs are not the only animal humans have domesticated, which suggests that although dogs get all the attention, there’s reason to argue other species could also deserve the title of “man’s best friend”.</p>
<p>Anthrozoology, the study of human-animal relationships, has established that dogs demonstrate complex communication with humans. Charles Darwin thought that dogs experienced love, but it was only in 2015 that Japanese scientists demonstrated what we all intuitively knew. Miho Nagasawa and colleagues sprayed the “love hormone” oxytocin up dogs’ noses, measured the loving gaze between dog and human, and then measured the oxytocin levels in the humans’ urine, finding them to be higher. Rest assured, dog owners, that <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6232/333.full">science has verified your bond with your faithful hound</a>.</p>
<p>Horses also show <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/12/2/20150907?etoc">intentional communicative behaviour</a> with humans, and another recent paper published in the Royal Society’s Biology Letters from researchers at Queen Mary University of London has shown that <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/07/06/goats-are-as-loving-and-clever-as-dogs-say-smitten-scientists/">goats also demonstrate an affinity with humans</a>. The experiments tested goats’ intelligence and ability to communicate with humans. What the team found may come as no surprise to anyone who has worked with livestock: goats are highly intelligent, capable of complex communication with humans, and are able to form bonds with us – treating us as potential partners to help in problem-solving situations.</p>
<p>Our attitudes to animals tend to reflect the familiarity we have with them. Dogs score higher in perceived intelligence ratings than cows, for example, yet a study in the 1970s demonstrated that in a test cows could navigate a maze as well as dogs, and only slightly less well than children. The point was made that our perception of an animal’s ability is influenced by how we test them. </p>
<p>A pertinent example is the study by trailblazing tortoise <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21228440-500-cold-blooded-cognition-tortoises-quick-on-the-uptake">Moses</a> and his co-worker (owner) Dr Anna Wilkinson. Tortoises performed poorly in “intelligence” tests in the 1960s, but Wilkinson identified that tortoises do not perform well when cold. The pair subsequently demonstrated advanced inter-species communication in gaze-following tasks, as is documented as a marker of intelligence in primates and also was used as one of the goat intelligence tests. Perhaps tortoises could be man’s BFF – best friend forever. They do live for a long time.</p>
<h2>We love what we know</h2>
<p>As humans are inclined to like animals they know – and believe them to be more intelligent – many farmers speak highly of livestock. In our Newcastle University study, we found that <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/175303708X390473">more than half of dairy farmers surveyed loved their cows</a> – something made apparent by the grief farmers felt when their herds were <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-12483017">culled during the 2001 foot and mouth crisis</a>. But do their cows love them back? </p>
<p>In order for a human-animal relationship to develop, animals must have little fear of humans, and the time they spend with humans must bring a high proportion of positive experiences. Our complementary study investigated the <a href="http://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(07)00398-X/abstract">effect of positive treatment by humans on cow milk yield</a> and behaviour. To validate that the cows felt positively about the experience, we used a standardised stroking test to see if they kept coming back for more. This confirmed most of our <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ufaw/aw/2008/00000017/00000003/art00010">cows enjoyed this human contact</a>. Having worked with cows and lived with dogs, I can confirm that <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IBwoPVB3M7I">cows are much like big dogs with udders</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129853/original/image-20160708-24092-hmcv5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cows love a good brush as much as the next dog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2015, French researchers showed that <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/authors?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0118617">sheep are also fond of positive interaction with humans</a> – just like dogs, their ears go a bit floppy when they’re stroked. </p>
<h2>Beyond domesticity</h2>
<p>We still don’t know the abilities of our potential friends in the animal kingdom beyond those few species we’ve domesticated. Over a hundred diverse species have been found to display intelligence and personalities, from the octopus to the rhinoceros (although a rhinoceros is not recommended as “man’s best friend” on health and safety grounds). Many creatures demonstrate amazing feats of intelligence and communication, if only we can develop the techniques to ask them. </p>
<p>For example, Irene Pepperberg has spent 30 years working with <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cO6XuVlcEO4">Alex, her renowned grey parrot</a>, who was able to communicate to us how much a bird understands. Or the discovery that <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/85711.stm">rats like to be tickled and in fact laugh</a> – only at a frequency inaudible to humans. Sheep can <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/11/1107_TVsheep.html">recognise photos of other sheep and humans</a>, and can use these pictures to interpret their mood, consistently outperforming dogs in this task. Pigeons can <a href="http://www.improbable.com/ig/winners/#ig1995">outclass first-year art degree students</a> in distinguishing between a Manet, a Picasso and a Monet.</p>
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<h2>What have pets ever done for us?</h2>
<p>Researchers from the University of Bristol believe keeping pets is a fundamental human trait, something we benefit from in return. Research compiled in The Dogs Trust’s <a href="https://www.dogstrust.org.uk/help-advice/advice-for-owners/dog-ownership-health-benefits/dog-prescription">Canine Charter for human health</a> reveals the health benefits of pet ownership, including a survey of doctors which found that, if it were possible, an overwhelming number of GPs would prescribe a dog for many medical conditions. Florence Nightingale promoted the healing benefits of pets, and if I recall correctly <a href="http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/athena-florence-nightingales-owl">used to carry an owl around in her pocket</a> (how the owl felt about that is not recorded).</p>
<p>It is reassuring to know that goats are intelligent and can elicit help from humans when needed; to my husband’s shame that puts goats ahead of him on the evolutionary ladder as he is not prepared to ask for directions when lost. Will goats topple dogs for the position of man’s best friend? I think a rerun of my favourite experiment with goats would be the ultimate test: French researchers demonstrated that men out walking their <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228352887_Domestic_Dogs_as_Facilitators_in_Social_Interaction_An_Evaluation_of_Helping_and_Courtship_Behaviors">dogs are more successful at getting women’s phone numbers</a> than those without a dog present – a true best friend.</p>
<p>Sadly, anthrozoology is not a well-funded field of inquiry, and this and many other interesting questions posed by such research will likely go unanswered.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62206/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Douglas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We assume that dogs are smarter than other domesticated animals, but science says otherwise.Catherine Douglas, Lecturer in Animal Science, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/419682015-05-19T04:18:19Z2015-05-19T04:18:19ZJohnny Depp’s dogs show evolving ideas of animal ‘citizenship’<p>The media storm created by Johnny Depp’s <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/may/17/barnaby-joyce-defends-threat-to-put-down-johnny-depps-dogs">ultimately unsuccessful attempt</a> to sneak his dogs into Australia took some air from other political stories, like the federal budget wash-up. It was, however, a member of Tony Abbott’s government who was responsible for the outcry. Barnaby Joyce <a href="http://www.skynews.com.au/news/top-stories/2015/05/14/depp-s-dogs-on-puppy-death-row.html">warned</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If we start letting movie stars even though they’ve been the ‘sexiest man alive’ twice to come into our nation, then why don’t we just break the laws for everybody? It’s time that Pistol and Boo buggered off back to the United States. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Rejecting suggestions that the dogs be quarantined, the agriculture minister threatened to have Depp’s dogs killed – unless they were removed from the country within days. </p>
<p>For many in the media, animal stories like this are <a href="http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2015/05/16/five-things-more-outrageous-what-might-have-happened-johnny-depps-dogs">rather trivial</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">John Oliver was among many in the media who lampooned the story of Johnny Depp’s dogs.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Of course, the media take seriously the fact that our country has <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/quarantine-law-more-like-guidelines-for-johnny-depp/story-fn59niix-1227355670180">strict quarantine policies</a>, which protect us from diseases like rabies. No-one doubted that Depp had acted irresponsibly. </p>
<p>Yet few people seriously believed, especially once the dogs were located and confined, that Australia was at any real risk from Depp’s deception, notwithstanding Joyce’s bluster. </p>
<p>Although many people still regard animal stories as trivial – and certainly the media often renders them trivial - there is an emerging ethic that treats our relations with animals with more seriousness. Within 24 hours, thousands had signed the <a href="https://www.change.org/p/save-johnny-depp-s-dogs-agriculture-minister-don-t-seize-and-destroy-boo-pistol?just_created=true">change.org petition</a> to protest Joyce’s threat.</p>
<h2>Animals are important in our lives</h2>
<p>Over recent decades there has also been a move, albeit an often resisted move, to treat our relations with animals as worthy of sustained attention. We can see evidence of this on both the “science” side and the “humanities” side of academia and in certain professions.</p>
<p>For example, the veterinary profession has come to regard as highly important research into what has been called the “human-animal bond”. <a href="http://www.ava.com.au/policy/61-benefits-pets-and-human%E2%80%93animal-bond">According to the Australian Veterinary Association</a>, the benefits of this bond include “companionship, health and social improvements and assistance for people with special needs”.</p>
<p>The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention names <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/health-benefits/">lowered blood pressure and reduction in loneliness</a> as just two possible benefits. </p>
<p>It is true, as some <a href="http://theconversation.com/why-science-cant-really-tell-us-whether-pets-are-good-for-health-9043">have claimed</a>, that this research is inconclusive. However, scientists are now effectively treating our close, emotional relationships with animals not as aberrant or foolishly sentimental behaviour, but as an important part of our lives.</p>
<p>For example, the media have reported on studies into the way that people <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/the-death-of-pet-can-hurt-as-much-as-the-loss-of-a-relative/2012/02/21/gIQALXTXcS_story.html">grieve for their animal companions</a>. Many people regard them as family members and actually feel closer to them than to some of their human relatives. </p>
<h2>Language and law mark shift in relations</h2>
<p>Traditionally, we have referred to animal “owners”. One effect of the way we now take human-animal relations more seriously is that this kind of language is <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201105/journal-animal-ethics-banning-common-words-describe-pets-and-other-animals">being questioned</a>. Some have argued that we should speak of animal “guardianship” rather than “ownership”.</p>
<p>Even more radically, some lawyers are pushing to re-define animals from property to legal persons. The most recent case <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-05-01/lawyer-steve-wise-pushes-for-chimps-to-be-granted-personhood/6435984">involves two chimpanzees</a> being used for biomedical experimentation in New York.</p>
<p>Our relations with animals are being re-imagined in various humanities disciplines. A dramatic example comes from Canadian political philosopher Will Kymlicka, who has written influentially on liberalism and multiculturalism. In the book <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Zoopolis-Political-Theory-Animal-Rights/dp/0199599661">Zoopolis: A Political Theory of Animal Rights</a>, Kymlicka (with writer Sue Donaldson) argues that the time has come for recognising certain animals as genuine members of society. </p>
<p>He argues that animals with whom we can live in co-operative, sociable, complex relationships – namely, the domesticated animals as opposed, say, to wild animals – should be recognised as fellow citizens. </p>
<p>This does not mean that they should be granted the rights to vote or run for parliament, any more than young children should have those rights. But it does mean that certain animals should be granted some of the rights that go with citizenship. </p>
<p>For example, we may have strong obligations to teach our dogs to be sociable and well-adjusted, and to allow them more access to parks and other life-enriching community amenities. They would possess these rights insofar as they can respond with appropriate co-operation. Citizenship in the “Zoopolis” would certainly mean that politicians do not threaten dogs, even visiting dogs who are citizens of other countries, with being killed just because it suits their political purposes. </p>
<p>Of course, the “Zoopolis” is an idea that is presently far ahead of community opinion. Nevertheless, it is a product and a dimension of our changing ethic towards human-animal relations. </p>
<p>Barnaby Joyce failed spectacularly to understand the modern change in human-animal relations, which is why he attracted the opprobrium of many people in Australia and around the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41968/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Coghlan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Behind the uproar over Johnny Depp’s dogs lies a serious and evolving idea: our animal companions have an important place in our lives that entitles them to rights akin to a sort of citizenship.Simon Coghlan, Lecturer in Philosophy, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.