tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/art-crime-10126/articlesArt crime – The Conversation2019-10-21T11:33:03Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1253952019-10-21T11:33:03Z2019-10-21T11:33:03ZThere’s been a spike in fake African art. What’s being done to fight it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A fake Lucky Sibiya investigated by the art school</span> </figcaption></figure><p>The art world has been dealing with fakes for more than 2 000 years, with perhaps the most notorious case being the forgeries of Dutch master Johannes Vermeer’s paintings by artist <a href="http://www.intenttodeceive.org/forger-profiles/han-van-meegeren/">Han van Meegeren</a> during the Second World War. </p>
<p>Now African art is becoming a larger and larger target. Fakes are flooding the South African market and while a range of artists is affected, it’s mostly the <a href="https://www.businesslive.co.za/fm/life/art/2019-04-11-a-black-aesthetic-a-view-of-sa-artists/">black modernists</a> (<a href="http://revisions.co.za/">1960 - 1990</a>) whose <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19301944.2008.10781350?journalCode=rcin20">legacy</a> is suffering.</p>
<p>To illustrate: If you use Google images to search for the work of <a href="https://www.everard-read-capetown.co.za/artist/LUCKY_SIBIYA/biography/">Lucky Sibiya</a>, the artist being used as part of a yet to be published study at the University of Pretoria, you’ll find that 30% of all the works yielded <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=lucky+sibiya&rlz=1C1GCEU_enZA820ZA820&sxsrf=ACYBGNR8E-bYZNxvgFnZzZMOPtTgDhJFhw:1571399857473&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj63rfS4KXlAhVwThUIHXnuDHsQ_AUIEigB&biw=1600&bih=789">in the search</a> are fakes. It’s the same with his contemporaries, among them George Pemba, Welcome Koboka, Nat Mokgosi, Martin Tose, Dumile Feni, Julian Motau and Eli Kobeli. They are just eight of a list of 21 artists identified as being forged. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297509/original/file-20191017-98670-1tsbyrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An original painted wood panel by Lucky Sibiya (1942 - 1999) called Pegasus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Strauss Co</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=963&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=963&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297515/original/file-20191017-98678-noh7n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=963&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fake Lucky Sibiya investigated by the School of Art.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The biggest reason fakers can get away with the deception is because there is not enough published source material on these artists. Six of the eight have no scholarly publications on them at all. So there are no references from the artists’ lifetimes to confirm the authorship of the works, even just stylistically. </p>
<p>An added factor is that their works generally sell for under R50 000. This means that sellers rarely take the time to do proper provenance research or to have the works technically analysed.</p>
<p>The growth in fake reproductions threatens the livelihood and reputation of artists. Once the work of an artist gets tainted as easily faked, demand dwindles. The consequence for those who have invested in art is also devastating. </p>
<p>Scientific research into art fakes is about much more than market value. It is about restoring some of the most important South African artists of past decades to a place of honour. Some seldom appear on auction as the art fraternity is too cautious to buy them. </p>
<p>Globally the faking of art is a very big problem as it is difficult to police and, with the internet, a crime that spans borders. The leading institution in researching fakes in the arts is the London-based <a href="https://courtauld.ac.uk/0">Courtauld Institute of Art</a>. However, a global initiative is lacking and uncovering fakes is mostly driven by auction houses and galleries.</p>
<h2>The African Modernist fake school</h2>
<p>So who is making and selling the fakes in South Africa? </p>
<p>Based on my research, I’m of the opinion that the bulk of the fakes we’ve studied can be traced to a group we call the African Modernist Fake School – a trained artist or group of artists working together to create fakes on demand. The demand is created by an equally well organised group of “galleries” and auction houses. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297502/original/file-20191017-98632-1f26cfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On original drawing by Dumile Feni (1942 - 1991) called Seated Child (1966)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Strauss & Co</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These auction houses hide behind small-print clauses like “signed as” and are mostly located in Johannesburg, Durban and Bloemfontein. For their part, the galleries exist only on the internet and use popular classified advertising and online auction sites to peddle their wares. The sellers often claim to have been friends with the artists and their families and may even have someone with the same surname as the artist on staff. </p>
<p>They sell fake works with made-up certificates of authenticity. Sometimes they publish books on the artists where fake works are mixed with originals to create a false provenance for the forgeries. One gallery went as far as donating fake works by black modernist artists to a university in the US.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297503/original/file-20191017-98648-1bm07u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fake Dumile Feni drawing that reached the art market.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But efforts are being made to stop the practice. Some credible auction houses are aware of the practice and call on universities such as ours if they’re suspicious of a work offered for sale.</p>
<p>At the University of Pretoria this year we introduced a Masters programme in <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/yearbooks/2018/programmes/view/01253115">Tangible Heritage Conservation</a>. The purpose of the course is to train a cohort of conservators who are able to preserve and protect South Africa’s cultural heritage. The analytical techniques taught are put into practice by students investigating the materiality of artworks.</p>
<h2>How to test for a fake</h2>
<p>The investigation of an artwork starts with an in-depth documentation of the observed data; the painting’s title, date, signature, description, media, measurements, special physical characteristics and the like. </p>
<p>The investigation then moves into establishing a chain of ownership or possession. A direct line to the artist establishes the artwork’s authorship.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1232&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297663/original/file-20191018-56228-1rzcblp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1232&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An original Julian Motau, The Distressed Family (1967)</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then the signature is analysed, based on concepts of graphology. In Sibiya’s case one of the main differences between an original and a fake signature is the direction of the first “i” in Sibiya which the artist always painted from the base up and the forger from the top down.</p>
<p>The next step is to determine the colour palette. The artwork is then inspected under normal white light – often with the aid of a magnifier – to determine the surface characteristics of the artist’s technique. Substantiating information is obtained by using a <a href="https://ipch.yale.edu/facilities">high-powered USB microscope</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297505/original/file-20191017-98632-1tv5qww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fake Julian Motau.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Next, ultraviolet-induced visible florescence <a href="https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/5136/513651366004.pdf">means examining the work</a> with a black light which makes different elements and materials fluoresce differently. Then an image is made of the artwork using visible light-induced reflected <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1296207401011074">infrared photography</a>. Different wavelengths of infrared help see below the painting’s surface. </p>
<p>The final technique is X-ray Fluorescent Spectroscopy to understand the materials and pigments that <a href="https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/nightwatch">constitute the artwork</a>.</p>
<p>This is still a relatively new field of inquiry in South Africa. As a result more expensive equipment is used on loan from US and German institutions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1078&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1078&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297504/original/file-20191017-98661-i4p9n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1078&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fake Nat Mokgosi (1946 - 2016) artwork.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While fake art is a global problem, the black South African modernists face a double exploitation because their work has not been given the attention it deserves. It should be a national imperative to shine a light on both their work and on those exploiting their legacy for financial gain.</p>
<p><em>The article draws on research being done by Salome le Roux, a masters student at the Univeristy of Pretoria.</em></p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to reflect legal concerns.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125395/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gerard de Kamper is affiliated with the South African Museums Association. </span></em></p>Fake copies of works by legendary black South African modernist artists are flooding the market - and one university is deploying a range of scientific tests to expose them.Gerard de Kamper, Chief Curator Collections, lecturer, PhD candidate, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/574112016-06-20T13:43:34Z2016-06-20T13:43:34ZCultural appropriation: when ‘borrowing’ becomes exploitation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126766/original/image-20160615-14045-1d3gx2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Benin bronzes that were looted by British soldiers.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The idea of “cultural appropriation” has recently entered mainstream debates about the ways in which African cultural creations are used, borrowed and imitated by others. In fashion, art, music and beyond, some people now argue that certain African cultural symbols and products are off-limits to non-Africans.</p>
<p>In March 2016, an African-American woman at San Francisco State University confronted a white student. She said he should cut his hair because dreadlocks belong to black culture. The incident went viral. Within a month, a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDlQ4H0Kdg8">YouTube video</a> of the encounter had been watched more than 3.7 million times. </p>
<p>An <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/trending/white-people-dreadlocks-justin-bieber-cultural-appropriation-1.3522221">online debate</a> also erupted about whether it was appropriate for Canadian singer Justin Bieber to wear dreadlocks. </p>
<p>Debates about appropriation aren’t always limited to cross-racial borrowing. An online discussion about African-American appropriation of African cultural symbols also went viral. It began with journalist Zipporah Gene <a href="https://thsppl.com/black-america-please-stop-appropriating-african-clothing-and-tribal-marks-3210e65843a7#.9jot46lp9">asking black Americans</a> to stop appropriating African clothing and tribal marks. She argued this indicated “ignorance and cultural insensitivity”.</p>
<p>In these debates, the label of cultural appropriation is broadly applied to borrowing that is in some way inappropriate, unauthorised or undesirable. My argument is that borrowing may become appropriation when it reinforces historically exploitative relationships or deprives African countries of opportunities to control or benefit from their cultural material.</p>
<h2>A history of extraction</h2>
<p>During colonialism, colonial powers not only extracted natural resources but also cultural booty.</p>
<p>The contemporary cultural appropriation debate reflects a justified sensitivity about this historical legacy of extraction, evidence of which can be found in various museums outside of Africa.</p>
<p>The theft of the renowned <a href="http://www.beninbronzes.com/">Benin Bronzes</a> is just one example of this cultural looting. These artefacts were seized by the British in 1897 during a punitive military expedition against the Kingdom of Benin. British soldiers invaded, looted, and ransacked Benin, setting buildings on fire and killing many people. They then deposed, shackled and exiled the Oba (king). This ultimately spelled the end of the independent Kingdom of Benin.</p>
<p>The punitive force looted an <a href="http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmcumeds/371/371ap27.htm">estimated 3,000</a> bronzes, ivory-works, carved tusks and oak chests. Benin’s cultural heritage was then sold in the private European art market to offset the cost of the expedition. Today the Benin Bronzes can be found in museums and collections worldwide. And, in 1990, one single Benin head was <a href="http://www.economist.com/node/149208">sold</a> for US$2.3 million by a London-based auction house.</p>
<p>In 2010, a looted Benin mask with an estimated value of £4.5 million was withdrawn from sale by <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/sothebys-cancels-sale-of-looted-benin-mask-2171125.html">Sotheby’s</a> auction house following protests concerning the sale. The mask was due to be sold by descendants of a participant in the punitive expedition. </p>
<p>In contrast, the descendant of one participant in the looting of Benin has returned looted <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-31605284">artwork</a>. </p>
<p>This colonial booty was taken without permission or compensation. Some people argue a similar dynamic exists in contemporary use of African cultural symbols, creations and products.</p>
<h2>Cultural fluidity</h2>
<p>Accusations of cultural appropriation raise important and complex questions about the nature of culture. The reality of human experience is that borrowing and cultural mixture are widespread. This is evident in language, religion, agriculture, folklore, food and other cultural elements. </p>
<p>The fairy tale <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=981423.">Cinderella</a> provides a good example. Versions of the story can be traced back to the Far East, Near East, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe and Northern Europe. By the mid-20th century, the Cinderella story could be found in India, North Africa, North America, the Western Sudan, Madagascar, Mauritius, the Philippines and Indonesia. </p>
<p>Cultural boundaries are fluid and shifting. Cultural systems may be significantly transformed by different forces and influences. This means that incomplete discussions of appropriation may fail to account for borrowing, diffusion, collaboration and other factors that lead to cultural material being shared.</p>
<p>Discussions of appropriation may also take insufficient account of the importance and benefits of borrowing. Borrowing has led to the international spread of <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/10/the-dos-and-donts-of-cultural-appropriation/411292/">denim, mathematics and even democracy</a>. </p>
<h2>When borrowing becomes appropriation</h2>
<p>In some instances, a line is crossed and cultural borrowing can become exploitative. Crossing this line may turn acts of borrowing into cultural appropriation.</p>
<p>Context, particularly as it relates to power relationships, is a key factor in distinguishing borrowing from exploitative cultural appropriation. </p>
<p>For example, cultural borrowing from Africa must be considered in the context of historical power asymmetries between Africa and the rest of the world. This is particularly the case with European powers, which developed trading relationships and spheres of influence in Africa. </p>
<p>These later formed the basis for colonial territories. Relationships between African countries and the colonial powers were often extractive and included varied forms of cultural imperialism.</p>
<p>Examining past instances of borrowing can give guidance for future models. Continuing discussions and a lawsuit about the song The Lion Sleeps Tonight are <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/22/international/africa/22lion.html?_r=0">noteworthy</a>. This discussion draws attention to the Zulu musician Solomon Linda, who received little compensation for his song Mbube, recorded in 1939. Linda’s song became The Lion Sleeps Tonight, a global pop classic that has generated substantial money for others.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OqfMdChj74Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Solomon Linda’s family had to fight for compensation for his composition.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When patterns of borrowing fail to acknowledge their sources and compensate them, they can be categorised as cultural appropriation. This is particularly the case when cultural flows reflect, reinforce or magnify inequalities. Even in instances where sources receive compensation, later compensation does not always redress past inequities.</p>
<p>The Linda family did eventually receive compensation after filing suit. When Linda died in 1962, his widow could not afford to purchase a gravestone. His daughter died of AIDS-related illness in 2001 because she was unable to afford antiretroviral medication.</p>
<h2>How to block exploitative practices</h2>
<p>Understanding the context of borrowing is important for preventing exploitative cultural appropriation. An understanding of both borrowing and appropriation should be incorporated into legal, business and other institutional frameworks. </p>
<p>In fields such as intellectual property law, greater recognition of the power structures underlying borrowing in different contexts is important. </p>
<p>This can be an important starting point for blocking future exploitative cultural flows. And it can help prevent extraction of more cultural booty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57411/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olufunmilayo Arewa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cultural imperialism and looting were part and parcel of the colonial project. Today, some argue this legacy continues. But in a globalised society, where does borrowing end and appropriation begin?Olufunmilayo Arewa, Professor of Law, University of California, IrvineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/543192016-02-10T03:53:32Z2016-02-10T03:53:32ZOutlaw art: the ruling against ‘Brisbane’s Banksy’ needs to start a debate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110699/original/image-20160209-12834-17k8hja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Anthony Lister's street art has been well received internationally, but his home town has found him guilty of vandalism.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anthony Lister/Birdman Photos</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most days, as I travel along Milton Road in my hometown of Brisbane, I pass a mural that catches my eye. It’s only in heavy traffic that you really get to see the detail and the intricate story being told.</p>
<p>There’s a ballerina and a business guy, and colour, and light, and movement, and joy, and sadness. It’s one of my favourite pieces around Brisbane, and until recently I had no idea who had done it. </p>
<p>For many years now, Anthony Lister has been plying his trade in Brisbane, as well as other cities around Australia and the world, painting murals and other works of art like the Milton Road piece (which is now a collaborative piece with artist Sofles).</p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/90279837" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The story of the Milton Road mural.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some residents of Brisbane might recognise the surname; Lister is a tag that is all over this city. And I bet that, upon inspection of his body of work, most Brisbanites will find some piece that they recognise and admire.</p>
<p>In late January Lister was charged, and found guilty, of wilful damage to property because of several counts of graffiti around Brisbane. In the media coverage of this, Lister has been referred to as “<a href="http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/true-stories/anthony-lister-street-art-the-blurred-line-between-crime-and-culture/news-story/9e0d969de632ea1bb74d6493726bcf9b">Brisbane’s Banksy</a>”. </p>
<p>It is a title that I can only assume makes Lister, Banksy, and every other street artist cringe, but the sentiment is well-meaning. At least he’s being painted as an artist, and not just some street thug.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110566/original/image-20160208-5230-h0no0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Anthony Lister in front of his art.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Birdman Photos.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Former deputy mayor Mr David Hinchliffe is one of several figures to come out in support of Lister. In an article for <a href="http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/crime-and-justice/street-artist-lister-in-court-on-wilful-damage-charges/news-story/c4e54060094f99a10495b156601f51de">The Courier Mail</a> last month, Hinchliffe was quoted as saying:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We should be celebrating the fact Brisbane has produced such an internationally-acclaimed artist […] I have nothing but praise and admiration for him […] If Anthony does not get off this charge, Brisbane, as a city, will be humiliated.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The letter of the law was followed, we now know, and Lister was charged with wilful damage to property. But there was no conviction recorded, and the only penalty was a A$440 fine and some five hours community service. According to the Queensland government website under graffiti offences, the maximum penalty for wilful damage is up to five years in prison. </p>
<p>One might comment that it is perfectly reasonable that Lister was found guilty. He broke the law, and many would say he did it intentionally. And to a certain extent, they’re right. Graffiti is often subversive, an engagement with the public against the wishes of whatever establishment is currently in place. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110570/original/image-20160208-5220-hwe2wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fortitude Valley, Brisbane.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">JAM Project.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the thing about street art is, while it’s illegal and frowned upon by officials (at least in Brisbane), it is also a sign of a healthy and vibrant city. It is a sign that the community values art and expression. It is a sign that the community understands and engages with its public spaces. </p>
<p>New York, Paris, London, Moscow, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Melbourne, and so many other cities around the world are seen as cultural hubs, in no small part because of their street-art scene. They also present themselves as strong communities, ones with a sense of their own identity. </p>
<p>Mr Hinchliffe’s sentiments are shared by a great deal of people. Magistrate Barry Cosgrove, who ruled that the graffiti constituted wilful damage, also <a href="http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2016/01/28/brisbanes-banksy-guilty-graffiti">acknowledged Lister’s talent</a>.</p>
<p>This should be an opportunity for the democratic process to work. When the law of the land comes in conflict with a possible good for the community, there should be a vigorous and passionate exchange of ideas. At the end we should all emerge different, but united under our communal strength. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110569/original/image-20160208-5199-p6zgsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Birdman Photos.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a <a href="https://theconversation.com/not-all-graffiti-is-vandalism-lets-rethink-the-public-space-debate-38972">previous Conversation article</a>, I argued that graffiti is about public space and the kinds of engagements our community can have in this space. </p>
<p>The Queensland government <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/law/crime-and-police/types-of-crime/graffiti/">has the power</a> to remove graffiti from private property where it is visible to the public, and where no direct consent has been given by the owner. External parts of private property are included in what is considered public space. </p>
<p>In Lister’s case, the definition of public space has been narrowly defined in accord with a narrow law. That law has very little to do with how Brisbanites – and city dwellers in general – enjoy and use communal spaces. </p>
<p>The very possibility of having communal discourse is being threatened. Both sides of this debate are actually not arguing about whether or not we consider Lister an artist; it is a given that he is. What is being argued is about where artists like Lister can engage with their communities, and under whose authority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54319/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liam Miller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Brisbane street artist Anthony Lister has been convicted of ‘wilful damage’ graffiti. Who is being harmed, when our legal system is forced to devalue cultural capital?Liam Miller, Researcher in the Philosophy of Play, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/375042015-02-16T14:21:08Z2015-02-16T14:21:08ZTrial over Picasso’s ‘gift’ to handyman and the murky world of art crime<p>The case of Pablo Picasso’s former electrician Pierre Le Guennec and his wife, Danielle, <a href="http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Prosecutor-asks-for-fiveyear-suspended-prison-sentence-for-Picassos-former-electrician/37060">came to a close</a> on February 12. The pair are accused of handling stolen goods – 271 of Picasso’s works. The French prosecutor seeks a symbolic five-year suspended sentence for the couple. The judge’s verdict and sentence (if found guilty) will be delivered on March 20.</p>
<p>Pierre Le Guennec was Picasso’s handyman at his house in Mougin in the south of France. He claims Picasso’s second wife, Jacqueline, gave him a box of the 271 works (among the pieces were lithographs, drawings, sketches) as a gift. For 40 years, the works of art apparently remained in their garage and the couple didn’t look through them properly until 2009. They only came to light in 2010 when Pierre Le Guennec asked the Picasso Administration to authenticate them. </p>
<p>The charge of handling stolen goods (rather than theft) meant that no proof about who actually committed the alleged theft was introduced. But the lawyer for the Picasso Administration, who brought the case to court, added an extra twist to the trial by accusing the couple of being involved in international artwork laundering and alleging that the art was passed to them on account of their past with Picasso. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72014/original/image-20150213-13219-1d8v700.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pablo Picasso and scene painters in 1917.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Art crime scene</h2>
<p>This case shines another bright light on the fascinating, often violent world of art crime which internationally is often misrepresented by the media and not treated seriously enough by law enforcement agencies. In addition, there are many shades of grey that colour the interface between licit and illicit activities in the art world.</p>
<p>The unregulated art world itself can be strongly accused of not doing enough to prevent art crime. The artist Banksy summed up the challenge when speaking to the Sunday Times in February 2010: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I’ve come into contact with a lot more villains since I moved from vandalism into selling paintings. The art world is full of shady people peddling bright colours. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Driven by the belief that work would keep him alive, Picasso was a famously prolific artist. Owing to his huge output and his art’s value in heritage, artistic and economic terms, it is not a surprise that, according to the Art Loss Register, he is the artist with the most stolen work. To illustrate the scale, before this current case, <a href="http://www.artlyst.com/articles/art-loss-register-lists-most-stolen-artists">more than 1,000</a> of his pieces were known to have been stolen. </p>
<p>There is a long and well-documented history of insider art thefts – the most famous of which is probably the theft of the Mona Lisa from the Louvre by an employee in 1911. Another significant crime, highlighted in a security report in 1954, occurred at London’s V&A Museum, where an attendant called John Nevin stole an incredible <a href="http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/research-journal/issue-02/news-from-the-past-oral-history-at-the-v-and-a/">2,544 items</a> over 20 years. </p>
<h2>Suspicions</h2>
<p>The Le Guennec couple’s story is fascinating and confusing for a number of reasons. Despite the work being done by one of the most influential and famous artists in history, the couple claim never to have looked at the art properly and decided to keep it closed up in their garage for 40 years. </p>
<p>They apparently also had <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/feb/10/trial-picasso-handyman-begins-pierre-le-guennec">different stories</a>. In contrast to Pierre’s claim that they were a gift in a box, Danielle has allegedly stated that Pierre was given the works in a bin bag after Picasso had been cleaning up his studio. </p>
<p>According to the artist’s biographer, John Richardson, Picasso <a href="http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/12/picasso-201012">never gave away work from his early periods</a>, nor did he give anything away without signing the piece. Apparently, only one of the couple’s items is signed. </p>
<p>Although the Picasso Administration lawyer’s claim of international artwork laundering may seem far-fetched in this case, the art world’s lack of regulation coupled with the lack of law enforcement involvement in many countries makes an array of art crimes attractive for criminal gangs – so the claim should not be simply dismissed. The couple could have been viewed as easy targets by criminals. </p>
<p>The verdict in March could have ramifications much further afield than the south of France. As Degas once said: “Art is not what you see, but what you make others see”. Art theft is often viewed by potential criminals as having a low risk of punishment, something not helped by different media frequently misrepresenting the crime as entertainment. </p>
<p>So the prosecutor’s call for only a “symbolic” sentence could continue to make others, whether they be potential criminals, the media or the public, see art theft as entertainment rather than as a serious crime worthy of more attention. </p>
<p>The criminologist Simon Mackenzie <a href="http://www.sccjr.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/2011-Springer-OC-antiquities-chapter.pdf">has highlighted</a> how the effects of criminal law are negligible for art crimes, especially concerning the problem of illicit antiquities. This case, whatever the outcome, could reinforce his argument.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/37504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Kerr does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The case of Pablo Picasso’s former electrician Pierre Le Guennec and his wife, Danielle, came to a close on February 12. The pair are accused of handling stolen goods – 271 of Picasso’s works. The French…John Kerr, Lecturer in Criminology, University of RoehamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/256372014-05-02T05:09:49Z2014-05-02T05:09:49ZUS bill would allow museums to knowingly exhibit stolen art<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47179/original/skxqky74-1398705438.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Would you like to see a stolen painting, like Schiele's Portrait of Wally?</span> </figcaption></figure><p>As Europe votes on a groundbreaking <a href="http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-430_en.htm?locale=en">directive</a> to help facilitate the return of stolen cultural treasures, the United States moves forward with legislation that would prevent claimants from recovering their rightful property. All in the name of museums.</p>
<p>We Americans enjoy some of the world’s finest museums, showcasing treasures from the ancient to contemporary. But with this privilege comes responsibility. This is owed to the masterpieces themselves, their previous custodians, and the individuals and civilisations that created them. These duties may seem one and the same and indeed they often are. Yet the right of museums to possess and display art, and the public’s to view it, increasingly clashes with the rights of those who may actually be its moral and legal owners.</p>
<p>Like so many conflicts, these rights are not decided by those most affected, whether they are the victims of Nazi looting or the trafficking of stolen antiquities and indigenous sacred artifacts. Instead, the fate of plundered cultural patrimony is now in the hands of US lawyers and lawmakers and the interest groups that control them. </p>
<p>As is often the case, the loudest voices are currently coming from a hardcore minority of people with the most vested interest in the outcome of this debate. Needless to say, this does not represent the larger community of museum professionals and cultural experts, let alone the general public. But if you want to keep American museums free of loot, including that taken from the UK and Europe, this issue concerns you. And you should speak up.</p>
<h2>The bill in question</h2>
<p>On March 25, backed by the art trade lobby, Republican Congressman Steve Chabot reintroduced the <a href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/113/hr4292">Foreign Cultural Exchange Jurisdictional Immunity Clarification Act</a> to the House of Representatives. On its face, HR 4292 asks Congress to “clarify” a small section of the the law. But in truth, the bill goes far beyond mere clarification. </p>
<p>It would instead undo established US law and policy by allowing American cultural institutions to block legal claims to artwork on loan from abroad. Museums would knowingly be able to exhibit stolen and looted art and antiquities. It would leave the rightful owners without any legal recourse to recover their property in US courts.</p>
<p>This bill is just the latest attempt by the less responsible players in the art market to weaken US law. American legal principles have long held that a thief cannot transfer good title. The receipt, possession, and transport of stolen property is a crime. US legislation has carved out a narrow <a href="http://www.state.gov/s/l/c3432.htm">exception</a> to prevent the judicial seizure of art imported for exhibition, but only in very limited circumstances, which it clearly enumerates. HR 4292 would greatly expand this exception by divesting our courts of all jurisdiction over such objects. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47575/original/k3f4mm5f-1398961622.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are many looted sculptures from Cambodia’s Koh Ker region in American museums.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BluesyPete</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The bill’s stated — and it must be said commendable — purpose is to encourage cultural exchange (that its supporters <a href="http://www.artlawreport.com/2014/04/02/foreign-cultural-exchange-jurisdictional-immunity-clarification-act-passes-house-judiciary-committee-on-voice-vote/">hope</a> Russia to be the main partner for such exchange is a story for another day). </p>
<p>But at what cost? Who can enjoy viewing an Egon Schiele on loan to a museum, knowing the Third Reich sent its previous owners to their deaths at concentration camp? Or an ancient Cambodian statue, knowing it was plundered during the country’s bloody civil war, perhaps even to fund the genocidal Khmer Rouge? </p>
<p>Even without HR 4292, claimants already face huge legal hurdles in US courts, despite clear evidence of theft or looting. For example, Cambodia had to fight for three years to recover a 1,000-year-old <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/13/arts/design/disputed-statue-to-be-returned-to-cambodia.html?_r=0">masterpiece</a> from Sotheby’s, even though the feet of the figure were still in situ at an ancient temple complex. The case would have likely gone on much longer had the auction house not settled. </p>
<p>And the legal battle over Schiele’s <a href="http://www.leopoldmuseum.org/en/leopoldcollection/masterpieces/33">Portrait of Wally</a> – seized by a Nazi art collector from a Jewish art dealer fleeing Austria – raged for over a decade. That too ended only because a settlement was made. The vast majority of claims are never decided on their merits, but on procedural issues like statutes of limitations.</p>
<p>At the <a href="http://www.holocausteraassets.eu">Washington Conference on Holocaust-Era Assets</a> in 1998, 44 governments agreed to encourage claims from pre-World War II owners and heirs of Nazi-looted artwork in the interest of justice. The US was party to these principles, and yet, HR 4292 goes against everything they represent. The bill would in effect make American museums a haven for pieces of illicit art. All lenders need to do is jump through a single necessary hoop, undermining our nation’s time honoured tradition of property rights and cultural heritage preservation as they go.</p>
<p>Those who support this bill in the name of “culture” are misrepresenting it and the greater interests of most cultural institutions in the US.</p>
<p>In the absence of a Ministry of Culture, our government has never clearly defined its own cultural policy. But it’s one thing not to have a Ministry of Culture and quite another to let the market run roughshod over established legal principles.</p>
<p>In contrast, just this week the European Parliament approved <a href="http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-430_en.htm">Directive IP/14/430</a>, which makes it much easier for member states to recover “national treasures of artistic, historic or archaeological value” from other countries in the European Union. When compared with <a href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0007:en:HTML">its predecessor</a>, this broadens the range of protected cultural objects and triples the time in which a nation can make a claim. If it passes a few more stages, it could be national law within 18 months. </p>
<p>If only Chabot and HR 4292’s other sponsors would learn from Europe’s example and support victims of plunder in seeking restitution. As it is, instead of promoting cultural exchange, they risk aiding and abetting its very destruction. </p>
<p><em>This piece is written in collaboration with Marc Masurovsky, co-founder of the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/plunderedart">Holocaust Art Restitution Project (HARP)</a>.</em> <em>He has researched the question of assets looted during the Holocaust and World War II since 1980 and is the co-author of the 2006 book <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j_xmAAAAMAAJ&q=Le+Festin+du+Reich&dq=Le+Festin+du+Reich&hl=en&sa=X&ei=y4VjU-vsL6Xs0gXht4CgBg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA">Le Festin du Reich</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/25637/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tess Davis is working with Cambodia to combat the illicit trade in the kingdom’s antiquities, and formerly served as executive director of the Lawyers’ Committee for Cultural Heritage Preservation in Washington, DC.</span></em></p>As Europe votes on a groundbreaking directive to help facilitate the return of stolen cultural treasures, the United States moves forward with legislation that would prevent claimants from recovering their…Tess Davis, Affiliate Researcher in the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.