tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/artemis-accords-87828/articlesArtemis Accords – The Conversation2024-03-06T17:45:13Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243872024-03-06T17:45:13Z2024-03-06T17:45:13ZSpacesuits need a major upgrade for the next phase of exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579865/original/file-20240305-18-mik4ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3822%2C2160&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans have long dreamed of setting foot on the Moon and other planetary bodies such as Mars. Since the 1960s, space travellers have donned suits designed to protect them from the vacuum of space and stepped out into the unknown.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://spacenews.com/polaris-dawn-private-astronaut-mission-slips-to-mid-2024/">the Polaris Dawn mission</a>, which is to include the first spacewalk organised by a private company, has been delayed. This is due to complications with the design and development of a suitable spacesuit. </p>
<p>Moon suits are also one of the key elements of Nasa’s Artemis lunar programme that have yet to be delivered. A report released in November 2023 said that the contractor making the suits is having <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106256#:%7E:text=To%20develop%20Artemis%20space%20suits,report%20examining%20the%20Artemis%20enterprise.">to revisit aspects of the design provided by Nasa</a>, which could introduce delays.</p>
<p>Yet <a href="https://time.com/5802128/alexei-leonov-spacewalk-obstacles/">the first spacewalk</a>, by the Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, took place in 1965. Later, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/the-apollo-program/">12 Nasa astronauts would walk on the lunar surface</a>, between 1969 and 1972, using technology that would be eclipsed by today’s smartphones. So it’s not unreasonable to ask why it can still be difficult to design and build spacesuits to do the same thing.</p>
<p>Much has changed since the Apollo missions planted flags on the Moon. The <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/video/2024/01/20/us-china-india-japan-and-others-are-rushing-back-to-the-moon.html">geopolitics driving space travel have shifted</a>, and spacesuits are no longer expected to be just a form of protection. Instead, they are a critical way to improve the productivity of astronauts. This involves a rethink of not just the suits themselves, but the technology that supports them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Crew Dragon approaching the ISS" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Polaris Dawn mission uses modified version of the Crew Dragon spacecraft to perform the first commercial spacewalk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/view-of-spacex-crew-dragon-endeavour-approaching-station/">Nasa</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An array of powerful telecommunications technologies to connect astronauts with space stations and ground control sits alongside multisensory cameras, temperature readers and proximity sensors in present-day spacesuits.</p>
<p>Situational awareness – understanding key elements in the environment, such as the health of an astronaut – is a core tenet for modern spacesuit design and critical for the operator’s safety. The ability of a suit to track heart rate and other vital signs is important in a vacuum, where levels of oxygen need constant monitoring. </p>
<p>Expectations around the risks astronauts take have changed for the better. And the level of investment it takes to produce a spacesuit necessitates that it can be used for future tasks that may include lunar settlement in the next few decades.</p>
<p>The trade off that engineers must make when incorporating wearable technology like those already mentioned is weight. Will greater situational awareness result in a spacesuit that is too heavy to move in effectively? </p>
<p>When Elon Musk first hinted at challenges with the extravehicular activity spacesuit for Polaris Dawn <a href="https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1745941814165815717">in a presentation to SpaceX employees in January</a>, it was not difficulties with connected technology that he discussed, but of redesigning “the suit so that you actually move around in it”.</p>
<h2>Situational awareness</h2>
<p>However, when talking about mobility in a spacesuit, you need to consider the tasks that you want that mobility to support. </p>
<p>Before the advent of modern spacesuits, Apollo astronauts struggled to carry out missions. When drilling into the surface of the Moon with a hand drill to collect samples, astronauts found it difficult to provide enough downwards force to counteract the Moon’s weaker gravity. It was not until the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576522002879">invention of a zero-gravity drill</a>, decades later, that this problem would be addressed.</p>
<p>The current exploration of <a href="https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/books/ce/pbce131e">pneumatic exoskeletons</a>, providing the support necessary for movement in low gravity could be part of a solution. However, newer spacesuits may also need to interface with hardware, like robotic drills that exist outside the suit. This will also necessitate more mobility in spacesuits. </p>
<h2>Working with robots</h2>
<p>Offloading tasks, previously carried out by humans, to robots will be part of the future of space exploration. It’s a primary way that engineers will also be able to enhance the mobility of astronauts in spacesuits.</p>
<p>For example, when an astronaut goes on a spacewalk to inspect the condition of part of a space station and make any possible repairs, they are supported by a robotic arm that ensures they don’t float off into space. While jointed, this arm is rigid and can limit an astronaut’s movement.</p>
<p>An approach currently being explored to extend this range of movement is a climbing robot, that is attached to both the astronaut and the space station, that an individual can control through their spacesuit. This would allow the astronaut to move around the space station faster and with a greater range of movement than before, allowing them to reach and repair hard-to-access areas like corners.</p>
<p>While the eventual hope is that robots themselves can assess any damage to the space station and repair it, due to possible disruptions in normal operations, humans must be ready to step in. Possible disruptions could be natural, like a small meteor shower damaging the robot, or human-made, like hacking carried by a hostile group or state.</p>
<p>For the types of activities we want to accomplish in the future, this human-robot collaboration will be instrumental. Building a base on the Moon, as both <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/four-things-weve-learned-about-nasas-planned-base-camp-on-the-moon-180980589/">the US</a> and <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-attracts-moon-base-partners-outlines-project-timelines/">China</a> plan to do, will involve construction work and drilling, which humans will not be able to accomplish alone. Modern spacesuits will need to provide an interface to work with this new technology, and we can expect the suits to evolve in step with robotics.</p>
<p>The relationship between humans and robots is changing. It will go beyond spacewalks and robots’ previous uses as limited tools, to a situation where they are cooperative partners in space. The objectives of ten or 20 years from now, like building lunar settlements, exploring mineral deposits on the Moon and efficiently repairing space station modules can only be achieved using robotics. </p>
<p>Modern spacesuits will be a key foundation of this collaborative relationship, forming the interface where astronauts and robots can work together to achieve shared goals. So when we do once again leave our footprints on other worlds, we will no longer be alone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224387/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yang Gao has received funding from UKRI, UKSA and ESA on conducting space related research. </span></em></p>The next generation of spacesuit needs to do more than simply protect an astronaut from the vacuum of space.Yang Gao, Professor of Robotics, Head of Centre for Robotics Research, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212232024-01-19T01:58:47Z2024-01-19T01:58:47ZJapan is about to land its first lunar probe. As more nations race to the Moon, how will we keep the peace?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570001/original/file-20240118-23-zlvufg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=287%2C109%2C1342%2C968&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Illustration of the Japanese moon
lander separating in orbit.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=99a1760a907a60514deaad8181c9a853">JAXA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early on Saturday, January 20 2024, Japan hopes to become the fifth country to successfully <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240115-1_e.html">land a probe</a> on the Moon. To date, the United States, the Soviet Union, China and India have preceded the East Asian nation.</p>
<p>Launched in September 2023 by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (<a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/">JAXA</a>), the Japanese Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) is set to touch down around 02:20am AEDT. Trialling a novel landing technique with pinpoint accuracy, it is poised to settle on a gently sloped crater rim – a first in lunar exploration. </p>
<p>JAXA celebrates the mission as a technology demonstrator. The agency’s main aim is to practice near-real-time visual precision landing. The newly developed landing technology would allow them to touch down anywhere they want, rather than only where the terrain is favourable. </p>
<p>Plans for a follow-up expedition, the Lunar Polar Exploration probe (<a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/activity/pr/jaxas/no092/02.html">LUPEX</a>), are well advanced. That mission <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isro-working-on-ambitious-lunar-missions-lupex-chandrayaan-4-official/articleshow/105292411.cms">will be developed jointly</a> with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).</p>
<h2>The Moon is a busy target</h2>
<p>In recent years, the Moon has become a key target for exploration missions. For instance, just last year we witnessed Russia’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/russia-has-declared-a-new-space-race-hoping-to-join-forces-with-china-heres-why-thats-unlikely-211993">attempted landing</a> of its Luna 25 probe and the first successful ISRO Moon shot, <a href="https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html">Chandrayaan-3</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the US aims to return humans to the Moon through their <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis</a> programme while also supporting <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-01-lunar-lander-years-rockets-moon.html">commercial companies</a> in their quest to reestablish a viable presence there.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-and-space-agencies-are-shooting-for-the-moon-5-essential-reads-on-modern-lunar-missions-216808">Scientists and space agencies are shooting for the Moon -- 5 essential reads on modern lunar missions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>NASA and its international partners aim to eventually place a crewed space station in lunar orbit, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/reference/nasas-gateway-program/">Gateway Lunar Space Station</a>. </p>
<p>Simultaneously, China continues its successful, carefully planned <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Lunar_Exploration_Program">Chang'e project</a>. The Asian powerhouse is working towards establishing its own <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Lunar_Research_Station">International Lunar Research Station</a>. That Chinese–Russian project is <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-enter-mou-on-international-lunar-research-station/">promoted</a> as “open to all interested countries and international partners”.</p>
<h2>‘Peaceful intentions’</h2>
<p>To date, the leading spacefaring nations have gone to great lengths to publicly assure us that their intentions in space are peaceful. Yet, last year Yury Borisov of Russia’s space agency Roscosmos <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-22/russia-declares-the-race-has-begun-for-moons-resources/102757808">bluntly stated</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>This is not just about the prestige of the country and the achievement of some geopolitical goals. This is about ensuring defensive capabilities and achieving technological sovereignty.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Borisov’s comments should not be read in isolation, however. US officials have made similar assertions. In July last year, the US assistant secretary of defense for space policy, John F. Plumb, was <a href="https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3465982/space-integral-to-the-dod-way-of-war-policy-chief-says/">equally blunt</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Space is in our DNA for the military. It’s absolutely essential to our way of war.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Such official commentary is clearly anathema to the purported peaceful intentions expressed by officials elsewhere in their respective national hierarchies. Similarly, to safeguard its national interests and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3E03H/">encouraged</a> by President Xi Jinping himself, China has been <a href="https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-06_Issue-1/Cheng.pdf">fine-tuning</a> its own military space strategy. </p>
<p>The Moon is a large target, which to date is only accessible to a small number of actors. Yet, ever since <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/inside-and-out/composition/water-and-ices/">evidence of water was found</a> near the Moon’s south pole, much effort has focused on finding ways to land safely in the Moon’s southern hemisphere.</p>
<p>With commercial actors and national interests thrown into the mix, we ought to consider the geopolitical implications of this new space race.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Foreground of a grey surface with a half lit Earth in the distance hanging in a black sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An earthrise seen from the surface of the Moon in July 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-as11-44-6550/">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Who keeps the peace in space?</h2>
<p>The 1967 <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a> remains the defining legal document governing strategic conduct in space.
To date, its has been ratified by 114 countries and 22 other signatories, including all major spacefaring nations.</p>
<p>However, new technological developments and the increasing presence of private space companies have prompted some to suggest that the <a href="https://ace-usa.org/blog/foreign-policy-region/space-oceans-and-polar-regions/failures-and-successes-of-the-outer-space-treaty/">treaty has become outdated</a>.</p>
<p>Therefore, the US has independently developed a new international agreement, which it says is focused on common principles, guidelines and best practices applicable to the safe exploration of the Moon and beyond: the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>.</p>
<p>Thus far, 33 countries have signed the agreement, but neither Russia nor China have acceded. Given the prevailing political differences, there is currently no clear way forward to bring all parties to the same table.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/outer-space-rwanda-and-nigeria-sign-an-accord-for-more-responsible-exploration-why-this-matters-203202">Outer space: Rwanda and Nigeria sign an accord for more responsible exploration – why this matters</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Although the Moon remains uncrowded, sustained exploration, human occupation and commercial exploitation will increase the likelihood of encounters on the lunar surface (or in orbit) between competing parties, or even between nations engaged in major conflict on Earth.</p>
<p>While the Outer Space Treaty envisions peaceful use of the space environment, the proliferation of military hardware in low Earth orbit implies that any such adverse encounter might result in <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BriefingBook47p/OngoingMilitarisationSpace">devastating consequences</a>. </p>
<p>At present, there are few safeguards to prevent wholesale conflict escalating beyond our home planet. Diplomatic efforts have been largely <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-we-prevent-war-in-space/">lacklustre</a>. </p>
<p>Despite <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/about/news/space-force-would-trigger-arms-race">urgent recommendations</a> from across the political spectrum to practice caution and avoid escalation, the world continues on a path towards an increasingly volatile space environment. </p>
<p>Fortunately, in this highly complex environment cool heads have thus far prevailed in resolving potential conflicts in space. As a case in point, we should probably be encouraged by the sustained multilateral collaboration on the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01558-0">International Space Station</a>, despite the parties’ radically opposite stances on Earth.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author gratefully acknowledges constructive criticism on an earlier draft of this article by Dr. Fabio Favata.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221223/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard de Grijs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Japan’s space agency is landing its first lunar probe this week. This makes the Moon an increasingly busy target for spacefaring nations – with conflicting political stances among them.Richard de Grijs, Professor of Astrophysics, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2124212023-08-31T12:23:19Z2023-08-31T12:23:19ZSpace junk in Earth orbit and on the Moon will increase with future missions − but nobody’s in charge of cleaning it up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545374/original/file-20230829-25-ksnt5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4500%2C2627&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An artist's rendering of debris floating through Earth's orbit. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/garbage-royalty-free-image/474381690?phrase=space+junk&adppopup=true">Petrovich9/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s a lot of trash on the Moon right now – including nearly <a href="https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/3/22/18236125/apollo-moon-poop-mars-science">100 bags of human waste</a> – and with countries around the globe traveling <a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">to the Moon</a>, there’s going to be a lot more, both on the lunar surface and in Earth’s orbit.</p>
<p>In August 2023, Russia’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/russia-has-declared-a-new-space-race-hoping-to-join-forces-with-china-heres-why-thats-unlikely-211993">Luna-25</a> probe crashed into the Moon’s surface, while India’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-chandrayaan-3-landed-on-the-south-pole-of-the-moon-a-space-policy-expert-explains-what-this-means-for-india-and-the-global-race-to-the-moon-212171">Chandrayann-3</a> mission successfully landed in the southern polar region, making India the fourth country to land on the Moon.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of cheering, smiling people hold signs depicting the Chandrayaan-3 lander." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545376/original/file-20230829-16-rsr2b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">India’s Chandrayaan-3 lander successfully touched down on the south pole of the Moon, sparking celebrations across the country.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IndiaLunarMission/ac52e7da7b46474a91706ffa43f7c99a/photo?Query=india%20moon%20landing&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=89&currentItemNo=24">AP Photo/Rajanish Kakade</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With more countries landing on the Moon, people back on Earth will have to think about what happens to all the landers, waste and miscellaneous debris left on the lunar surface and in orbit.</p>
<p>I’m a professor of astronomy who has written a book about the <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/Beyond/">future of space travel</a>, articles about <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1477986">our future off-Earth</a>, <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/international/575903-is-conflict-in-space-inevitable">conflict in space</a>, <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/3263430-space-an-increasingly-contested-and-congested-frontier/">space congestion</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2478/sh-2021-0020">ethics of space exploration</a>. Like many other space experts, I’m concerned about the lack of governance around space debris.</p>
<h2>Space is getting crowded</h2>
<p>People think of space as vast and empty, but the near-Earth environment is starting to get crowded. As many as <a href="https://thenationaldigest.com/up-to-100-space-missions-to-the-moon-to-take-place-in-the-next-decade/">100 lunar missions</a> are planned over the next decade by governments and private companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin. </p>
<p>Near-Earth orbit is even more congested than the space between Earth and the Moon. It’s from 100 to 500 miles straight up, compared with 240,000 miles to the Moon. Currently there are nearly <a href="https://orbit.ing-now.com/low-earth-orbit/">7,700 satellites</a> within a few hundred miles of the Earth. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-satellites-are-orbiting-earth-166715">That number</a> could grow to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.4979">several hundred thousand</a> by 2027. Many of these satellites will be used to deliver internet to developing countries or to <a href="https://theconversation.com/landsat-turns-50-how-satellites-revolutionized-the-way-we-see-and-protect-the-natural-world-186986">monitor agriculture</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-free-satellite-data-to-monitor-natural-disasters-and-environmental-changes-198140">climate</a> on Earth. Companies like SpaceX have dramatically <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-spacex-lowered-costs-and-reduced-barriers-to-space-112586">lowered launch costs</a>, driving this wave of activity.</p>
<p>“It’s going to be like an interstate highway, at rush hour in a snowstorm, with everyone driving much too fast,” space launch expert <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OEsqBIsAAAAJ&hl=en">Johnathan McDowell</a> <a href="https://www.space.com/how-many-satellites-fit-safely-earth-orbit">told Space.com</a>. </p>
<h2>The problem of space junk</h2>
<p>All this activity creates hazards and debris. Humans have left a lot of junk on the Moon, including spacecraft remains like rocket boosters from over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00542-4">50 crashed landings</a>, nearly <a href="https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/3/22/18236125/apollo-moon-poop-mars-science">100 bags of human waste</a> and miscellaneous objects like a feather, golf balls and boots. It adds up to around <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/the-trash-weve-left-on-the-moon/266465/">200 tons of our trash</a>. </p>
<p>Since <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-owns-the-moon-a-space-lawyer-answers-99974">no one owns the Moon</a>, no one is responsible for <a href="https://www.vox.com/science/2023/8/24/23844280/india-moon-landing-russia-crash-lunar-south-pole-science-consequences-junk">keeping it clean and tidy</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.space.com/space-junk-growing-problem-complicated-solution">clutter in Earth’s orbit</a> includes defunct spacecraft, spent rocket boosters and items discarded by astronauts such as a glove, a wrench and a toothbrush. It also includes <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html">tiny pieces of debris</a> like paint flecks. </p>
<p>There are around 23,000 <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html">objects</a> larger than 10 cm (4 inches) and about 100 million pieces of debris larger than 1 mm (0.04 inches). Tiny pieces of junk might not seem like a big issue, but that debris is moving at 15,000 mph (24,140 kph), 10 times faster than a bullet. <a href="https://www.space.com/tiny-space-junk-damage">At that speed</a>, even a fleck of paint can puncture a spacesuit or destroy a sensitive piece of electronics.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0Aj2lmQBSAg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The amount of debris in orbit has increased dramatically since the 1960s.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1978, NASA scientist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Donald-Kessler">Donald Kessler</a> described a scenario where collisions between orbiting pieces of debris create more debris, and the amount of debris grows exponentially, potentially rendering near-Earth orbit unusable. Experts call this the “<a href="https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/Kessler-Syndrome">Kessler syndrome</a>.” </p>
<h2>Nobody is in charge up there</h2>
<p>The United Nations <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty of 1967</a> says that no country can “own” the Moon or any part of it, and that celestial bodies should only be used for peaceful purposes. But the treaty is mute about companies and individuals, and it says nothing about how space resources can and can’t be used. </p>
<p>The United Nations <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html">Moon Agreement of 1979</a> held that the Moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of humanity. However, the United States, Russia and China never signed it, and in 2016 the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262/text">U.S. Congress created a law</a> that unleashed the American commercial space industry with very few restrictions. </p>
<p>Because of its lack of regulation, space junk is an example of a “<a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/03/09/space-is-great-commons.-it-s-time-to-treat-it-as-such-pub-84018">tragedy of the commons</a>,” where many interests have access to a common resource, and it may become depleted and unusable to everyone, because no interest can stop another from overexploiting the resource.</p>
<p>Scientists argue that to avoid a tragedy of the commons, the orbital space environment should be seen as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01655-6">global commons</a> worthy of protection by the <a href="https://hir.harvard.edu/the-uns-role-in-planetary-protection/">United Nations</a>. The lead author of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01655-6">Nature article</a> arguing for a global commons filed an <a href="https://andyxlastro.me/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Amicus-Brief-Lawrence.pdf">amicus brief</a> – a type of outside comment offering support or expertise – on a case that went to the <a href="https://docs.fcc.gov/public/attachments/DOC-386646A1.pdf">U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> in late 2021.</p>
<p>The author and his research collaborators argued that U.S. environmental regulations should apply to the licensing of space launches. However, the court declined to rule on the environmental issue because it said the group lacked standing.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jSuETYEgY68?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The tragedy of the commons asserts that if everyone has unlimited access to a resource, then in the long run it may become depleted and unusable.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>National geopolitical and commercial interests will likely take precedence over interplanetary conservation efforts unless the United Nations acts. A new treaty may emerge from the work of the U.N. <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/">Office for Outer Space Affairs</a>, which in May 2023 generated a <a href="https://indonesia.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/our-common-agenda-policy-brief-outer-space-en.pdf">policy document</a> to address the sustainable development of activities in space.</p>
<p>The U.N. can regulate the activities of only its member states, but it has a <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/capacitybuilding/advisory-services/index.html">project</a> to help member states craft national-level policies that advance the goals of sustainable development.</p>
<p>NASA has created and signed the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>, broad but nonbinding principles for cooperating peacefully in space. They have been signed by 28 countries, but the list does not include China or Russia. <a href="https://mashable.com/article/who-owns-moon-resources-nasa-artemis">Private companies</a> are not party to the accords either, and some <a href="https://www.axios.com/2021/07/13/branson-bezos-space-travel-billionaires-nasa">space entrepreneurs</a> have deep pockets and big ambitions.</p>
<p>The lack of regulation and the current gold rush approach to space exploration mean that space junk and waste will continue to accumulate, as will the related problems and dangers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212421/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Impey receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>Treaties meant to ensure sustainability in space don’t currently regulate private companies, and not every country has signed on to an agreement for sustainable space exploration.Chris Impey, University Distinguished Professor of Astronomy, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2095812023-08-16T02:20:46Z2023-08-16T02:20:46ZNew data reveal US space economy’s output is shrinking – an economist explains in 3 charts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538756/original/file-20230721-33684-6lsvxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4268%2C2400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The 'space economy' isn't just rockets and space suits – satellite data, radio and TV are all part of a broadly-defined space economy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NewPlanets/55662296e5fe4edca873ea21a256a66a/photo?Query=space&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=291&currentItemNo=3&vs=true">NASA/JPL-Caltech via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The space industry has changed dramatically since the <a href="https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/factsheets/brief-history-apollo-program">Apollo program put men on the moon</a> in the late 1960s.</p>
<p>Today, over 50 years later, private companies are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/jun/29/virgin-galactic-rocket-plane-commercial-space-flight">sending tourists to the edge of space</a> and building <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/">lunar landers</a>. NASA is <a href="https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords/">bringing together 27 countries</a> to peacefully explore the Moon and beyond, and it is using the <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-most-powerful-space-telescope-ever-built-will-look-back-in-time-to-the-dark-ages-of-the-universe-169603">peer back in time</a>. Private companies are playing a much larger role in space than they ever have before, though NASA and other government interests continue to drive scientific advances. </p>
<p>I’m a <a href="http://businessmacroeconomics.com/">macroeconomist</a> <a href="https://www.bu.edu/questrom/profile/jay-zagorsky/">who’s interested in</a> understanding how these space-related innovations and the growing role of private industry have affected the economy. Recently, the U.S. <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">government started tracking the space economy’s size</a>. These data can tell us the size of the space-related industry, whether its outputs come mainly from government or private enterprise, and how they have been growing relative to the economy at large. </p>
<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.spacex.com/">SpaceX</a>, <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a> and <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a> <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/issues/2023/06-june/0623-space-economy.htm">made up over 80%</a> of the U.S. space economy in 2021. The government held a <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/issues/2023/06-june/0623-space-economy.htm">19% share of space spending</a>, up from 16% in 2012 – mostly thanks to an increase in military spending. </p>
<h2>Ways to measure the space economy</h2>
<p>There are many ways to measure economic success in space. </p>
<p>One way is the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-economic-benefit-reaches-all-50-states">economic impact</a>. The U.S. <a href="https://www.bea.gov/">Bureau of Economic Analysis</a>, which tracks the nation’s gross domestic product and other indicators, <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">recently began to monitor the space economy</a> and published figures from 2012 to 2021. The Bureau of Economic Analysis calculated the impact of space using both broad and narrow definitions.</p>
<p>The broad definition <a href="https://www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-handbook-on-measuring-the-space-economy-2nd-edition-8bfef437-en.htm">comprises four parts</a>: things used in space, like rocket ships; items supporting space travel, like launch pads; things getting direct input from space, like cell phone GPS chips; and space education, like planetariums and college astrophysics departments. </p>
<p>In 2021, the broad definition showed that total space-related sales, or what the government calls <a href="https://www.bea.gov/help/faq/1197">gross output</a>, was over US$210 billion, before adjusting for inflation. That number represents about 0.5% of the whole U.S. economy’s total gross output.</p>
<p><iframe id="Fn1Dz" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Fn1Dz/10/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The Bureau of Economic Analysis also has a narrow definition that excludes satellite television, satellite radio and space education. The difference in definitions is important because back in 2012 these three categories represented one-quarter of all space spending. However, by 2021, they only represented one-eighth of spending because many people had <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/dish-pay-tv-subscriber-loss-first-quarter-1235481988/">switched from watching satellite TV to streaming movies</a> and shows over the internet.</p>
<h2>Space’s share of the economy</h2>
<p>A closer look at the data shows that space’s <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">share of the U.S. economy is shrinking</a>. </p>
<p>Using the broad definition and adjusting for inflation, the relative size of the space economy fell by about one-fifth from 2012 to 2021. This is because sales of space-related items – everything from rockets to satellite TV – have barely changed since 2015.</p>
<p>Using the narrow definition also shows the space economy is getting relatively smaller. From 2012 to 2021, the space sector’s inflation-adjusted gross output grew on average 3% a year, compared with 5% for the overall economy. This suggests space is not growing as fast as other economic sectors. </p>
<p><iframe id="xEadx" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/xEadx/10/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Space jobs</h2>
<p>The number of jobs created by the space economy has also declined. In 2021, 360,000 people worked full- or part-time space-related jobs in the private sector, down from 372,000 about a decade earlier, according to the <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">Bureau of Economic Analysis</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="m9h1T" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/m9h1T/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The Bureau of Economic Analysis could not track all space-related government jobs since spy agencies and parts of the military don’t provide much information. Nevertheless, it has <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/issues/2023/06-june/0623-space-economy.htm">tracked some since 2018</a>. The military’s Space Force, which is the smallest branch, <a href="https://aerospace.csis.org/us-space-force-primer/">adds about 9,000 workers</a>. NASA has about <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/about/index.html">18,000 employees</a>, which is half of <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats">its 1960s peak</a>.</p>
<p>Combining these government workers plus all private workers results in just under 400,000 people. To give some perspective, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-employees-number-1-of-153-us-workers-head-count-2021-7">Amazon’s U.S. workforce</a> is over twice as big and <a href="https://corporate.walmart.com/askwalmart/how-many-people-work-at-walmart">Walmart’s</a> is four times bigger than reported U.S. space-related employment.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_1MbC2ASk3g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">On July 14, 2023, India launched a rocket as part of its Chandrayaan-3 mission to put a lander and rover on the south pole of the Moon.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Growing competition in space</h2>
<p>The U.S. has long dominated the space economy, especially in terms of government spending. </p>
<p>The U.S. government spent <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c5996201-en/1/2/1/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/c5996201-en&_csp_=ffe5a6bbc1382ae4f0ead9dd2da73ff4&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book">a little more than $40 billion</a> in 2017, compared with about $3.5 billion spent by Japan and less than $2 billion by Russia. </p>
<p>Moreover, <a href="https://history-computer.com/10-largest-space-and-exploration-companies/">most of the top private space companies</a> are based in the U.S., led by Boeing, SpaceX and Raytheon, which gives the U.S. a leg up in continuing to play a leading role with the rockets, satellites and other stuff needed to operate in space.</p>
<p>The U.S. also published more than <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c5996201-en/1/2/1/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/c5996201-en&_csp_=ffe5a6bbc1382ae4f0ead9dd2da73ff4&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book#fig-1.11">twice the amount of space research</a> in 2017 as its next nearest rival – China. </p>
<p>But China is catching up and has narrowed the gap in recent years as top Chinese officials decided success in space <a href="https://www.diu.mil/latest/state-of-the-space-industrial-base-2022">is a national priority</a>. Their goal is reportedly to surpass the U.S. as the <a href="https://www.diu.mil/latest/state-of-the-space-industrial-base-2022">dominant space power by 2045</a>. China recently put a <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-new-space-station-opens-for-business-in-an-increasingly-competitive-era-of-space-activity-195882">large space station called the Tiangong</a> into orbit and aims to put <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/07/13/china/china-crewed-moon-landing-2030-intl-hnk-scn/index.html">people on the Moon</a>.</p>
<p>China’s not the only one joining the 21st century space race. India is expanding its <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/04/business/india-space-startups.html">space economy rapidly, with 140 space-tech startups</a>. India launched <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/with-more-fuel-fail-safe-measures-chandrayaan-3-to-leap-towards-moon-on-july-14/article67064600.ece">a rocket on July 14, 2023, designed to put a lander and rover on the Moon</a>. And the European Space Agency’s Euclid spacecraft plans to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-euclid-spacecraft-will-transform-how-we-view-the-dark-universe-204245">map parts of the universe</a> to study dark matter. The ESA released the craft’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_test_images_tease_of_riches_to_come">first test images</a> at the end of July 2023.</p>
<p>The U.S. has a strong foothold in space. But whether it can maintain its lead – as the space race moves into a new frontier of <a href="https://www.space.com/space-mining-grinding-into-reality">space mining</a> and missions to Mars – remains to be seen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With commercial space tourism on the rise and NASA planning to return to the Moon, you might think the US space economy is booming – but the data paint a more complex picture.Jay L. Zagorsky, Clinical Associate Professor of Markets, Public Policy and Law, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093002023-07-18T12:27:31Z2023-07-18T12:27:31ZReturning to the Moon can benefit commercial, military and political sectors – a space policy expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536343/original/file-20230707-15-g8cdkp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C1421%2C1012&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Moon marks new territory for commercial, military and geopolitical interests. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia02322-triptych-of-the-moon">NASA/JPL/Cassini Imaging Team/University of Arizona</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a> aims to return humans to the Moon for the first time in more than 50 years, with the first human landing <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii">currently scheduled for 2025</a>. This goal is not just technically ambitious, but it’s also politically challenging. The Artemis program marks the first time since the Apollo program that an effort to send humans to the Moon has been <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/03/02/biden-space-artemis-moon-trump/">supported by two successive U.S. presidents</a>. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aESo-coAAAAJ&hl=en">scholar of international affairs who studies space</a>, I’m interested in understanding what allowed the Artemis program to survive this political transition where others failed. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2023.101548">My research suggests</a> that this program is not just <a href="https://theconversation.com/building-telescopes-on-the-moon-could-transform-astronomy-and-its-becoming-an-achievable-goal-203308">about advancing science</a> and technology or <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">inspiring the public</a>. It also offers practical benefits for the commercial sector and the military and an opportunity to reinforce U.S. global leadership. </p>
<h2>Commercial interest in the Moon</h2>
<p>Several companies around the world, including both startups and established aerospace firms, have begun working on missions to the Moon. Some, like Japan-based <a href="https://ispace-inc.com/">iSpace</a> and U.S.-based <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/">Astrobotic</a>, are developing commercial lunar landers and have plans to eventually collect lunar resources, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/back-to-the-moon-a-space-lawyer-and-planetary-scientist-on-what-it-will-take-to-share-the-benefits-of-new-lunar-exploration-podcast-202415">water</a> or <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations">minerals</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ocDzndmmE8I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA is planning to return to the Moon with Artemis missions. This video describes where on the Moon they may land, and how they’ll decide.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For now, efforts to return to the Moon are largely funded by government space agencies, like NASA or the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Exploration/Astrobotic_team_to_study_delivery_of_lunar_resources_mission">European Space Agency</a>. However, many experts talk about the growth of a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.10.005">cislunar economy</a>,” where companies make money through their activities in and around the Moon.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ida.org/research-and-publications/publications/all/d/de/demand-drivers-of-the-lunar-and-cislunar-economy">Expert studies</a> suggest that it will be decades before many activities – like mining lunar resources or collecting solar energy on the Moon – will generate profits. But in the meantime, government space programs can leverage commercial innovation to cut costs, spur innovation and accelerate their programs. And some commercial activity, such as lunar tourism, <a href="https://www.ida.org/research-and-publications/publications/all/d/de/demand-drivers-of-the-lunar-and-cislunar-economy">may be profitable in the near future</a>. SpaceX has already sold one <a href="https://dearmoon.earth/">trip to the Moon</a>, tentatively scheduled for launch in 2024. </p>
<p>Companies entering the market early may have an advantage. Crowding is unlikely to be an issue in the near term – the Moon has a <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-big-is-the-moon-let-me-compare-118840">surface area</a> roughly equivalent to the entire Asian continent. Even at the poles, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon">multiple sites</a> offer access to both water ice and solar illumination. </p>
<p>However, the first companies on the Moon may set precedents for the extent of lunar mining allowed, as well as the safety and sustainability protocols that others coming later may follow. The United Nations has established a <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html">working group</a> to examine the legal issues related to using space resources, but it won’t finish its first set of proposed principles until 2027. In the meantime, commercial entities are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01441-y">already attempting</a> to land on the Moon.</p>
<h2>Military interest in the Moon</h2>
<p>In 2020, the head of <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-force-sounds-like-a-joke-thanks-to-pop-culture-that-could-be-a-problem-for-an-important-military-branch-155265">the U.S. Space Force</a> referred to the Moon as “<a href="https://www.airandspaceforces.com/raymond-foresees-cislunar-space-as-key-terrain-guardians-going-to-space/">key terrain</a>,” and the Air Force Research Laboratory is funding an experimental satellite called <a href="https://breakingdefense.com/2022/11/oracles-vision-understanding-cislunar-satellite-images-poses-afrls-biggest-challenge/">Oracle</a>, scheduled for launch in 2026. Oracle will monitor the space between the Earth and the Moon. </p>
<p>The U.S. military has decades of experience in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2021.101444">monitoring spacecraft orbiting the Earth</a>. It could use this expertise to <a href="https://breakingdefense.com/2022/11/critically-important-new-white-house-strategy-for-cislunar-research-echoes-space-force/">support safety and security</a> as commercial and civil governmental activity near the Moon increases. They could also provide the United States with better intelligence on the space activities of strategic competitors, like <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/news/chinese-spacecraft-makes-first-landing-moon-s-far-side-ncna954066">China</a>.</p>
<p>Some individuals in the space sector <a href="https://spaceforcejournal.org/3859-2/">go further</a> and suggest that the military should watch for weapons hidden in deep space or on the far side of the moon. However, the physics and economics of space suggest that these uses are costly, with <a href="https://www.uscc.gov/annual-report/2019-annual-report-congress">little practical benefit</a>.</p>
<p>While leveraging U.S. military expertise in space makes sense, there are reasons not to take developments in this area too far. Military advances like these – even if done in support of civil and commercial goals – may <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/03/12/space-force-moon-pentagon-00016818">raise suspicion</a> from other nations, potentially leading to increased military space activity on their part, and ultimately increasing tensions.</p>
<h2>Geopolitical concerns</h2>
<p>The Apollo program is famous for its role in the U.S. and the Soviet Union’s mid-20th century “space race.” The United States’ ability to land humans on the Moon was interpreted by many around the world as evidence of U.S. technological superiority and the <a href="https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/space-race">capabilities of a democratic and capitalist society</a>. Some have suggested that the United States is now in a <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/22/america-is-losing-the-second-space-race-to-china/">new space race</a>, this time with China. China <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/05/29/china-moon-space-astronauts-lunar/">recently accelerated</a> its plans to send humans to the Moon. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-us-in-a-space-race-against-china-203473">not everyone agrees</a> that such a race is taking place, the use of this terminology by U.S. political leaders, including <a href="https://www.space.com/nasa-bill-nelson-china-space-race-moon">current NASA Administrator</a> Bill Nelson, and its ubiquity in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/16/the-space-race-is-back-on-but-who-will-win">global</a> <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3162196/china-us-space-race-heats-chinese-firm-plans-over-40-launches">media</a> <a href="https://japantoday.com/category/world/a-new-space-race-china-adds-urgency-to-us-return-to-moon">coverage</a> suggest that many will view efforts to land humans on the Moon in this way. If China lands humans on the Moon before the United States, people around the world may see this as evidence of <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/technology/440751-returning-to-the-moon-to-gain-soft-political-power/">China’s role as a global leader</a> and the capabilities of its communist government. </p>
<p>The return to the Moon is not just about competition. It also offers nations opportunities to engage in international cooperation. <a href="https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/220215_Johnson_FlyMe_Moon.pdf?VersionId=eBOSyAKB1ite5cort60IluuBQWvYyADa">More than 20 nations</a> have announced plans to undertake missions to the Moon. Just as the United States is leveraging commercial developments, the U.S. is working with international partners, as well. Europe, Japan and Canada have already joined the United States as partners on the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/gateway">Lunar Gateway</a>, a space station that will orbit the Moon, with the first modules expected to launch in 2025.</p>
<p>The United States is also seeking international support for the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>, a set of principles for responsible lunar exploration and development. As of July 2023, 27 nations had signed the accords. This includes not just close allies like the United Kingdom, Canada and Japan, but also less traditional partners, such as Rwanda, Nigeria and the United Arab Emirates. <a href="https://breakingdefense.com/2023/06/india-signs-artemis-accords-tightening-ties-with-us-in-space-race-with-china-sources/">India’s signing</a> of the accords in June 2023 was seen as a sign of strengthening ties between the U.S. and India.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A suited man stands at a NASA podium, with three panelists seated at a table next to him. In the background a green reads " src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537534/original/file-20230714-27-mvzy1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Twenty-seven countries have signed on to the Artemis Accords, an international collaboration with the goal of encouraging responsible behavior on and around the Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1252567156/photo/in-this-handout-image-provided-by-nasa-nasa-administrator-bill-nelson-delivers-remarks-prior.jpg?s=612x612&w=0&k=20&c=xCp9Lb7jh7zWaj0oMRw9W08h9BjtLyQFl1SWXgceVRs=">Joel Kowsky/NASA via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s worth noting that China’s lunar program also emphasizes international engagement. In 2021, <a href="https://www.space.com/china-russia-moon-base-ilrs">China announced plans</a> to develop the International Lunar Research Station in partnership with Russia, and it has <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/in-china-us-space-race-beijing-uses-space-diplomacy/6284826.html">invited other nations to join</a>, as well. Sweden, France, Italy, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates are all participating in China’s upcoming <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-seeks-new-partners-for-lunar-and-deep-space-exploration/">lunar lander mission</a>. </p>
<p>Ever since humans last left the Moon in 1972, many have dreamed about the days when people would return. But for decades, these efforts have hit political roadblocks. This time, the United States’ plans to return to the Moon are likely to succeed – it has the cross-sector support and the strategic importance to ensure continuity, even during politically challenging times.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209300/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mariel Borowitz receives funding from the the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the U.S. Department of Defense, and the U.S. National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>While a return to the Moon will allow the U.S. to collaborate with other nations interested in space, this endeavor is also complicated by geopolitical tensions.Mariel Borowitz, Associate Professor of International Affairs, Georgia Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2061152023-07-12T14:37:12Z2023-07-12T14:37:12ZCôte d’Ivoire is launching its first satellite for Earth observation – and it’s locally made<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533450/original/file-20230622-19-z1rzbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Illustration of a view of Africa from space. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Côte d’Ivoire has <a href="https://www.ecofinagency.com/telecom/0205-44484-cote-d-ivoire-to-launch-its-first-satellite-in-space-by-august-2024">announced plans</a> to launch its first satellite within the next two years. A team of scientists in the fields of astrophysics and geology tell The Conversation Africa about the potential benefits of this development and how the country plans to realise its space industry ambitions.</em> </p>
<h2>What kind of satellite does Côte d'Ivoire plan to launch?</h2>
<p>YAM-SAT-CI 01 will be a nanosatellite for the observation of the Earth. A nanosatellite is a small satellite, weighing from 1kg to 10kg. It will be equipped with a camera which can provide images of the coast, forests, natural parks and urban areas of the country. </p>
<p>The construction of the satellite is 100% Ivorian. It has been entrusted to <a href="https://www.facebook.com/UNIVERSALKONSTRUCTORSASSOCIATED/?locale=ms_MY">Universal Konstructors Associated</a>, a private Ivorian company promoting scientific and technological development in Côte d'Ivoire, in partnership with the <a href="https://inphb.ci/">Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny</a> of Yamoussoukro.</p>
<p>It’s the first step towards more sophisticated satellites and sensors which have many <a href="https://theconversation.com/nanosatellite-launch-is-a-big-step-forward-for-african-space-science-175069">applications</a>. For example they can detect, monitor and map threats to national security, illegal migration, <a href="https://theconversation.com/technique-developed-in-kenya-offers-a-refined-way-to-map-tree-cover-76709">deforestation</a>, illegal gold mining activities, <a href="https://theconversation.com/dust-in-the-atmosphere-is-a-sign-of-trouble-in-south-africas-maize-fields-147939">soil humidity</a> and water reservoirs. They can help minimise the consequences of floods or droughts. </p>
<p>In Côte d’Ivoire, such a satellite could assist the government’s efforts to regulate artisanal mining and combat illegal activities and destruction of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/eyes-in-the-sky-and-on-the-ground-are-helping-forest-conservation-in-cameroon-73695">environment</a>. </p>
<p>These applications rely on sophisticated image processing algorithms, including the use of artificial intelligence.</p>
<h2>What are the other potential benefits and spinoffs?</h2>
<p>Earth observation provides data for agriculture, disaster management and urban planning. The satellite supports various applications, including monitoring vegetation health, mapping water resources, and analysing urban growth patterns.</p>
<p>Aside from the technology’s direct benefits, it serves the scientific and economic development of the nation.</p>
<p>The project of building and launching a satellite is generally accompanied by capacity building in many sectors related to the space industry. It involves engineers and scientists to develop sensors and the ground segment to track and communicate with the satellite. </p>
<p>Other important benefits of such projects include a wider use of space-science technology. A satellite launch may lead to greater use of Earth observations data and products, provided by numerous satellites orbiting around our planet. </p>
<h2>Who will be involved in this project?</h2>
<p>The academic and private sectors all have a role to play in this scientific, technical and political adventure. </p>
<p>The Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouet-Boigny has already planned to set up new curricula in the domain of space and aeronautics. This will directly benefit a new generation of young engineers. And an <a href="https://lastronomieafrique.com/author/davidbaratoux/">Ivoirian Association for Astronomy</a> has been launched. Its outreach activities to promote astronomy and space science to the wider public will increase the scientific literacy of the population. It may inspire the younger generation towards scientific careers. </p>
<p>Lastly, the University Félix Houphouët-Boigny has a laboratory specialising in the observation of the Earth from space: the <a href="https://www.curat-edu.org/">Centre Universitaire de Recherche et d'Application en Télédétection</a>. Its students may also contribute to the design, mission strategy and applications of Côte d’Ivoire’s satellites.</p>
<h2>What are other African countries doing in space technology?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://spaceinafrica.com/reports/">2022 space industry report</a> of the consulting company Space in Africa says the value of the industry in Africa is expected to reach US$22.64 billion in 2026. That’s up from US$19.49 billion in 2021. The report indicates that African nations allocated US$534.9 million to space programmes in 2022 compared to US$523.2 million in 2021. These investments indicate that African countries are preparing for wider use of space technology in handling <a href="https://theconversation.com/starlink-spacexs-new-internet-service-could-be-a-gamechanger-in-africa-200746">challenges</a> affecting the continent.</p>
<p>For instance, on 23 April 2023 <a href="https://ksa.go.ke/taifa-1-satellite/">Kenya launched its first satellite</a>, called Taifa-1, with the help of SpaceX. The satellite is equipped with an optical camera and is expected to provide agricultural and environmental monitoring data for Kenya. </p>
<p>In 2021, Tunisia <a href="https://www.lepoint.fr/afrique/la-tunisie-lance-son-premier-satellite-23-03-2021-2418938_3826.php#11">launched</a> its first 100% Tunisian-made satellite. <a href="https://www.un-spider.org/news-and-events/news/zimbabwe-and-uganda-launched-their-first-satellites-zimsat-1-and">Zimbabwe, Uganda</a>, <a href="https://www.pixalytics.com/egyptsat-a-launched/">Egypt</a> and Angola have also launched satellites in the last 12 months. In April 2023, President Macky Sall announced <a href="https://africanews.space/president-macky-sall-announces-the-launch-of-the-senegalese-space-study-agency/">the launch of the Senegalese Agency of Space Studies</a>. </p>
<p>Egypt, <a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-a-case-for-nigeria-and-south-africa-to-cooperate-on-outer-space-activities-174635">Nigeria</a> and South Africa are the most advanced African countries on space issues. For instance, ZACube, launched in December 2018, is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/cool-cubes-are-changing-the-way-we-play-in-space-41621">nanosatellite</a> developed by the South African National Space Agency and local universities. It focuses on the safety of maritime traffic in South African coastal waters.</p>
<p>Nigeria’s National Space Research and Development Agency was established in 1999. It has launched five satellites since 2003. In December 2022, Nigeria and Rwanda became the first African countries to sign the <a href="https://theconversation.com/outer-space-rwanda-and-nigeria-sign-an-accord-for-more-responsible-exploration-why-this-matters-203202">Artemis Accords</a>, a NASA-led framework outlining best practices for sustainable space exploration. </p>
<p>It’s clear that more and more African countries are investing in space technologies. </p>
<p>The first step is to educate the population about space and the benefits of investing in space technologies. We need to create space-related training courses and promote space science in African countries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206115/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Baratoux receives funding from French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development and from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aziz Diaby Kassamba is affiliated with Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny and Association Ivoirienne d'Astronomie. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc Harris Yao Fortune, Marie Korsaga, and Pancrace Aka do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Côte d’Ivoire’s nanosatellite is the first step towards applications that monitor environmental harm and illegal activities and assist in planning for development.David Baratoux, Geologist, Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD)Aziz Diaby Kassamba, Enseignant chercheur en physique de l'espace, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Cocody, Côte-d'IvoireMarc Harris Yao Fortune, Enseignant-chercheur, astrophysicien , Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Cocody, Côte-d'IvoireMarie Korsaga, Enseignant-Chercheur en physique chimie, Université Joseph Ki-ZerboPancrace Aka, Épistémologue, Historien des sciences et Logicien, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Cocody, Côte-d'IvoireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2032022023-04-20T15:06:20Z2023-04-20T15:06:20ZOuter space: Rwanda and Nigeria sign an accord for more responsible exploration – why this matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520291/original/file-20230411-22-7wlsxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">NASA’s Artemis I Space Launch System rocket, with the Orion capsule attached, launches at NASA's Kennedy Space Center on November 16, 2022 in Cape Canaveral, Florida. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kevin Dietsch/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In 2020, the United States announced a framework for the private exploitation of space resources. It consists of practical principles to guide exploration, science and commerce in outer space. The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a> are intended to make space activity responsible, transparent, safe, peaceful and sustainable. Nigeria and Rwanda <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-nigeria-rwanda-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatories">signed</a> the accords on 14 December 2022, becoming the 22nd and 23rd countries, respectively, and the first African countries to do so. Nigerian space law and policy scholar, Anne Agi, explains why they signed and what the potential impacts could be.</em></p>
<h2>What are the Artemis Accords?</h2>
<p>The Artemis Accords are principles, guidelines and best practices shared by the US and other governments participating in NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemisprogram">Artemis Program</a>, which aims to explore the Moon and send astronauts to Mars. The accords seek to advance international cooperation and peace in space activities, for the benefit of humanity. </p>
<p>The first countries to sign up were the US, Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Ukraine, the UK and the United Arab Emirates. South Korea was the first to sign during the President Joe Biden administration.</p>
<p>Key principles of the Artemis Accords include respect for the sovereignty of celestial bodies, interoperability of systems, transparency and predictability of space activities. </p>
<p>They also deal with things like cooperation in emergency situations, registration of space objects, managing orbital debris and public release of scientific data. </p>
<p>The principles recognise the right of all countries to explore and use outer space peacefully. They prohibit weapons of mass destruction in outer space, and protect long-term sustainability of outer space activities.</p>
<h2>How does membership benefit countries?</h2>
<p>Signing the Artemis Accords is a precondition to be involved in the Artemis <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">programme</a>. </p>
<p>As signatories, Nigeria and Rwanda are demonstrating their commitment to safe, sustainable use of outer space. This should have multiple benefits.</p>
<p>It boosts their international standing as responsible members of the space-faring community. It makes their space sectors more appealing to international investors and shows they are committed to exploiting space to advance their economies.</p>
<p>Being a signatory can build capacity in the space industry. This is through encouraging African nations to budget appropriately and develop policies and infrastructure for space activity. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/africa-has-ambitious-goals-for-2063-plans-for-outer-space-hold-the-key-to-success-180636">Africa has ambitious goals for 2063: plans for outer space hold the key to success</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The Accords will allow Africa to benefit from shared knowledge and technological resources. Partner nations are required to publicly describe their policies and plans.</p>
<p>Space exploration has numerous <a href="https://theconversation.com/africa-and-space-the-continent-starts-to-look-skyward-41336">applications</a>, from satellite technology to <a href="https://theconversation.com/earth-observation-data-offers-hope-for-africas-wetlands-111123">Earth observation</a>. These can drive innovation and create new industries. For example, in Rwanda, <a href="https://africanews.space/in-conversation-with-clarisse-iribagiza-ceo-of-hehe/">DMM.HeHe</a> is using space technology for logistics and to connect farmers to customers. The company incorporates remote sensing in agriculture to predict yield by monitoring farm operations, educating farmers on their harvest and planning their logistics to increase productivity. And <a href="https://techbuild.africa/xy-analytics-machine-precision-livestock-farming/">XY Analytics</a>, a South African agricultural technology startup, offers satellite-enabled pasture optimisation and herd management to cattle farmers.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/starlink-spacexs-new-internet-service-could-be-a-gamechanger-in-africa-200746">Starlink: SpaceX's new internet service could be a gamechanger in Africa</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Being a signatory also enables a country to participate at events where decisions on outer space are made.</p>
<p>African space nations can use their advantageous position in the Accords to advance national interests in the space industry. They can weigh in on issues like militarisation, spy and reconnaissance satellites, space trash, and the right to use resources. Nigeria and Rwanda could get help from other signatories in the event of space related attacks. Nigeria could join forces with global giants for wider and more effective broadband coverage, and invite experts from Artemis partner nations to collaborate on initiatives like the National Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics. </p>
<p>Nigeria and Rwanda’s accession to the Artemis Accords could have a positive impact on Africa as a whole and address the gap between Africa and other regions in terms of space exploration and use. </p>
<p>The Accords require partners to make their scientific data available to the public. With access to this data, Nigeria and Rwanda will not need to reinvent the wheel when they are ready to launch their satellites or engage in space travel.</p>
<p>The principles result in reduced costs for space activity. </p>
<p>Artemis acknowledges that member states can use space resources, but there is no obligation to do so in a way that benefits all member states. African nations must push for a sharing formula for mined space resources to be shared among signatories to the Accords.</p>
<p>Finally, Nigeria and Rwanda could in due course become partners in the effort to return astronauts to the Moon and eventually to Mars. The African continent has yet to send an astronaut into space. </p>
<h2>Does membership present any challenges?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html">Outer Space Treaty and Liability Convention</a>, a UN backed law, requires a launching state – a country responsible for launching a particular space craft – to be held internationally liable for damage caused by their space objects. </p>
<p>The Artemis Accord allows states to acquire the status of a launching state for any space object launched by other signatory states for the purposes of the Artemis programme. So African states could find themselves liable for damage done by another partner nation. </p>
<p>African countries should also prepare for financial and other consequences in the event of US cancellation or withdrawal from the Accords.</p>
<p>Some nations have <a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134">opposed</a> the Artemis Accords. Russia and China argue that they are overly focused on American and commercial interests and amount to a power grab by the US and its allies. This may affect Nigeria’s and Rwanda’s interests and foreign relationships as they relate to China. </p>
<p>China has made large financial and infrastructural investments in numerous African nations. It has for several years collaborated with Nigeria and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/ethiopia-abiy-ahmed-environment-east-africa-china-37baf3f65b352e8b6480b43246ccbf77">Ethiopia</a> on building practical satellite projects. African nations must be careful not to be perceived as being ungrateful or overly aligned with the US, as they have indeed benefited largely from China.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203202/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Uruegi Agi is affiliated with LEARNSPACE FOUNDATION </span></em></p>As signatories, Nigeria and Rwanda are demonstrating their commitment to safe, sustainable use of outer space. This should have multiple benefits.Anne Uruegi Agi, Law lecturer , University of Calabar Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2034732023-04-12T12:11:31Z2023-04-12T12:11:31ZIs the US in a space race against China?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520344/original/file-20230411-24-ym4ttx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=112%2C90%2C4898%2C2937&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Both the U.S. and China have plans to establish bases on the Moon in the near future.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/two-astronauts-on-the-moon-an-american-flag-in-royalty-free-image/103405591?phrase=two%20flags%20on%20moon&adppopup=true">Caspar Benson/fStop via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Headlines proclaiming the rise of a new “space race” <a href="https://theweek.com/space/1019765/the-new-space-race#:%7E:text=The%20original%20space%20race%20was,with%20a%20new%20competitor%3A%20China.">between the U.S. and China</a> have become common in news coverage following many of the exciting launches in recent years. Experts have pointed to China’s <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/technology/584314-us-china-space-cooperation-is-up-in-the-air-more-than-ever/">rapid advancements</a> in space as evidence of an emerging landscape where China is <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2023/01/01/we-better-watch-out-nasa-boss-sounds-alarm-on-chinese-moon-ambitions-00075803">directly competing</a> with the U.S. for supremacy.</p>
<p>This idea of a space race between China and the U.S. sounds convincing given the broader narrative of China’s rise, but how accurate is it? As a professor who <a href="https://faculty.af.edu/esploro/profile/svetla_benitzhak">studies space and international relations</a>, my research aims to quantify the power and capabilities of different nations in space. When I look at various capacities, the data paints a much more complex picture than a tight space race between the U.S. and China. At least for now, the reality looks more like what I call a complex hegemony – one state, the U.S., is still <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97711-5_14">dominating in key space capabilities</a>, and this lead is further amplified by a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2021.101444">strong network of partners</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A rocket taking off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520346/original/file-20230411-20-tsr0m6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">SpaceX rockets carry hundreds of private satellites into orbit each year from the seven active U.S. spaceports.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/spacex-falcon-9-rocket-carrying-a-batch-of-56-starlink-news-photo/1249311447?adppopup=true">SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A clear leader makes for a boring race</h2>
<p>Calling the current situation a race implies that the U.S. and China have roughly equal capabilities in space. But in several key areas, the U.S. is far ahead not only of China, but of all other spacefaring nations combined.</p>
<p>Starting with spending: In 2021, the U.S. space budget was roughly <a href="https://www.thespacereport.org/resources/government-space-spending-increases-19-from-2020-to-2021/">US$59.8 billion</a>. China has been investing heavily in space and rocket technology over the last decade and has doubled its spending in the last five years. But with an estimated budget of <a href="https://www.thespacereport.org/resources/government-space-spending-increases-19-from-2020-to-2021/">$16.18 billion</a> in 2021, it is still spending less than a third of the U.S. budget.</p>
<p>The U.S. also leads significantly in the number of active satellites. Currently, there are <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database">5,465 total operational satellites</a> in orbit around Earth. The U.S. operates 3,433, or 63% of those. In contrast, China has 541.</p>
<p>Similarly, the U.S. has more <a href="https://aerospace.csis.org/spaceports-of-the-world/">active spaceports</a> than China. With <a href="https://aerospace.csis.org/spaceports-of-the-world/">seven operational launch sites at home and abroad</a> and at least <a href="https://www.faa.gov/space/spaceports_by_state">13 additional</a> spaceports <a href="https://www.visualcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/worlds-rocket-launch-sites-fullsize.html">in development</a>, the U.S. has more options to launch payloads into various orbits. In contrast, China has only <a href="https://aerospace.csis.org/data/spaceports-of-the-world/">four operational spaceports</a> with <a href="https://www.visualcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/worlds-rocket-launch-sites-fullsize.html">two more planned</a>, all located within its own territory.</p>
<h2>Parity with nuance</h2>
<p>While the U.S. may have a clear advantage over China in many areas of space, in some measures, the differences between the two countries are more nuanced.</p>
<p>In 2021, for instance, China attempted <a href="https://www.thespacereport.org/register/the-space-report-2021-quarter-4-pdf-download/">55 orbital launches</a>, four more than the U.S.’s 51. The total numbers may be similar, but the rockets carried very different payloads to orbit. The vast majority – 84% – of Chinese launches had government or military payloads intended mostly for electronic intelligence and optical imaging. Meanwhile, in the U.S., 61% of launches were for nonmilitary, academic or commercial use, predominantly for Earth observation or telecommunications.</p>
<p>Space stations are another area where there are important differences hiding beneath the surface. Since the 1990s, the U.S. has worked with <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/cooperation/index.html">14 other nations</a>, including Russia, to operate the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures">International Space Station</a>. The ISS is quite large, with 16 modules, and has driven <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/iss-20-years-20-breakthroughs">technological and scientific breakthroughs</a>. But the ISS is now 24 years old, and participating nations are planning to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-provides-updated-international-space-station-transition-plan">retire it in 2030</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram of the Tiangong space station." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520345/original/file-20230411-20-xi403n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Construction of China’s Tiangong space station began in 2021, and the small, three-module station opened for research in December 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tiangong_Space_Station_config_2022_EN.jpg#/media/File:Tiangong_Space_Station_config_2022_EN.jpg">Shujianyang/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Chinese <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/science/tiangong-space-station.html">Tiangong space station</a> is the new kid on the block. Construction was only <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-new-space-station-opens-for-business-in-an-increasingly-competitive-era-of-space-activity-195882">completed in late 2022</a>, and it is much smaller – with only three modules. China has built and launched all of the different parts and remains the sole operator of the station, despite <a href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/29/c_137213186.htm">having invited others to join</a>.</p>
<p>China is undoubtedly expanding its space capabilities, and in a report published in August 2022, the Pentagon <a href="https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2022/08/china-could-overtake-us-space-without-urgent-action-report/376261/">predicted that China would surpass U.S. capabilities</a> in space as early as 2045. However, it is unlikely that the U.S. will remain stagnant, as it continues to increase funding for space.</p>
<h2>Allies as force multipliers</h2>
<p>A major point of difference between the U.S. and China is the nature and number of international collaborations. </p>
<p>For decades, NASA has been fruitfully cultivating <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/oiir/nasa-partners-worldwide">international</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/subject/3124/commercial-partners/">commercial</a> partnerships in everything from developing specific space technologies to flying humans into space. The U.S. government has also <a href="https://breakingdefense.com/2023/02/spacecom-expands-allied-industy-cooperation-gen-dickinson/">signed 169 space data sharing agreements</a> with 33 states and intergovernmental organizations, 129 with commercial partners and seven with academic institutions.</p>
<p>China also has allies that help with space – most notably <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-26/china-russia-alliance-in-space-stumbles-in-bid-to-surpass-the-us">Russia</a> and members of the <a href="http://www.apsco.int/">Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization</a>, including Iran, Pakistan, Thailand and Turkey. China’s collaborators are, however, fewer in number and have far less developed space capabilities. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man signing a document with a Brazilian and American flag on the desk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520347/original/file-20230411-28-nwvax6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In just two years, 24 nations, including Brazil, have joined the U.S.-led Artemis Accords. This international agreement outlines the goals of space exploration in the near future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Assinatura_de_termo_de_coopera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_-_Programa_Artemis_BR_US_(50720570051).jpg#/media/File:Assinatura_de_termo_de_coopera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_-_Programa_Artemis_BR_US_(50720570051).jpg">Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovações/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Efforts to return to the surface of the Moon excellently highlight this difference in ally support and synergy. Both the U.S. and China have plans to send people to the surface of the Moon and to establish lunar bases in the near future. These competing lunar aims are often <a href="https://time.com/longform/race-to-the-moon/">cited as evidence of the space race</a>, but they are very different in terms of partnerships and scope.</p>
<p>In 2019, <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-to-cooperate-on-lunar-orbiter-landing-missions/">Russia and China agreed</a> to jointly go to the Moon by 2028. Russia is contributing its Luna landers and Oryol crewed orbiters, while China is improving its Chang’e robotic spacecraft. Their future International Lunar Research Station is “<a href="https://www.space.com/russia-china-moon-research-station-agreement">open to all interested parties and international partners</a>,” but, to date, no additional countries have committed to the Chinese and Russian effort.</p>
<p>In contrast, since 2020, 24 nations have joined the U.S.-led <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>. This international agreement outlines shared <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">principles of cooperation</a> for future space activity and, through the Artemis Program, specifically aims to return people to the Moon by 2025 and establish a Moon base and lunar space station soon after.</p>
<p>In addition to the broad international participation, the Artemis Program has contracted with a staggering <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping_points/2020_selections">number of private companies</a> to develop a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-partners-to-advance-tipping-point-technologies-for-the-moon-mars">range of technologies</a>, from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-five-us-companies-to-mature-artemis-lander-concepts">lunar landers</a> to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-icon-advance-lunar-construction-technology-for-moon-missions">lunar construction methods</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/nasa-announces-newest-winners-in-break-the-ice-lunar-challenge.html">more</a>.</p>
<h2>China is not the only game in town</h2>
<p>While China may seem like the main competitor of the U.S. in space, other countries have space capabilities and aspirations that rival those of China.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-64002977">India</a> spends billions on space and plans to <a href="https://in.mashable.com/science/44883/india-is-returning-to-the-moon-chandrayaan-3-mission-will-launch-this-year">return to the Moon</a>, possibly <a href="https://www.secretsofuniverse.in/lunar-exploration-mission-isro-jaxa/">with Japan</a>, in the near future. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01252-7">South Korea, Israel, Japan, the United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/turkey-sets-sights-on-moon-mission-in-2023">Turkey</a>, <a href="https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/27263-germany-plans-moon-mission">Germany</a> and <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-told-to-aim-for-a-moon-mission/">the European Union</a> are also planning independent lunar missions. Japan has developed impressive technological space capabilities, including rendezvous proximity technology to send a <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/hayabusa-2/in-depth/">spacecraft to an asteroid and bring samples back to Earth</a>, that rival and even surpass <a href="https://spacenews.com/chinas-shijian-21-spacecraft-docked-with-and-towed-a-dead-satellite/">those of China</a>.</p>
<p>In the past, the space race was about who could reach the stars first and return home. Today, the goal has shifted to surviving and even thriving in the harsh environment of space. I believe it is not surprising that, despite its decisive lead, the U.S. has partnered with others to go to the Moon and beyond. China is doing the same, but on a smaller scale. The picture that emerges is not of a “race” but of complex system with the U.S. as a leader working closely with extensive networks of partners.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203473/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Defense, or of any organization the author is affiliated with, including the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Space Force</span></em></p>China has invested massively in its space capabilities in recent years and is now a major competitor with the US. But according to a space policy expert, the US still dominates space by most measures.Svetla Ben-Itzhak, Assistant Professor of Space and International Relations, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2032142023-04-03T20:37:33Z2023-04-03T20:37:33ZMeet the next four people headed to the Moon – how the diverse crew of Artemis II shows NASA’s plan for the future of space exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519113/original/file-20230403-14-8kpwds.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=80%2C304%2C3950%2C3024&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Artemis II mission will send four astronauts on a flyby of the Moon.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/image/as11-44-6552.jpeg">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On April 3, 2023, <a href="https://spacenews.com/nasa-announces-crew-for-artemis-2-mission/">NASA announced</a> the four astronauts who will make up the crew of Artemis II, which is scheduled to launch in late 2024. The Artemis II mission will send these four astronauts on a 10-day mission that culminates in a flyby of the Moon. While they won’t head to the surface, they will be the first people to leave Earth’s immediate vicinity and be the first near the Moon in more than 50 years. </p>
<p>This mission will test the technology and equipment that’s necessary for future lunar landings and is a significant step on NASA’s planned journey back to the surface of the Moon. As part of this next era in lunar and space exploration, NASA has outlined a few clear goals. The agency is hoping to <a href="https://www.khou.com/article/tech/science/space/artemis-1-scrubbed-launch/285-480cc9b4-ddbd-40f4-a1c1-192c1effe75d">inspire young people</a> to get interested in space, to make the broader Artemis program more economically and politically sustainable and, finally, to continue encouraging international collaboration on future missions. </p>
<p>From my perspective as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en">space policy expert</a>, the four Artemis II astronauts fully embody these goals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four astronauts in orange space suits with their helmets off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crew members of the Artemis II mission are NASA astronauts Christina Hammock Koch, Reid Wiseman and Victor Glover and Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Who are the four astronauts?</h2>
<p>The four members of the Artemis II crew are highly experienced, with three of them having flown in space previously. The one rookie flying onboard is notably representing Canada, making this an international mission, as well.</p>
<p>The commander of the mission will be <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/g-reid-wiseman/biography">Reid Wiseman</a>, a naval aviator and test pilot. On his previous mission to the International Space Station, he spent 165 days in space and completed a record of 82 hours of experiments in just one week. Wiseman was also the chief of the U.S. astronaut office from 2020 to 2023.</p>
<p>Serving as pilot is <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-team/">Victor Glover</a>. After flying more than 3,000 hours in more than 40 different aircraft, Glover was selected for the astronaut corps in 2013. He was the pilot for the Crew-1 mission, the first mission that used a SpaceX rocket and capsule to bring astronauts to the International Space Station, and served as a flight engineer on the ISS.</p>
<p>The lone woman on the crew is mission specialist <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/christina-hammock-koch/biography">Christina Hammock Koch</a>. She has spent 328 days in space, more than any other woman, across the three ISS expeditions. She has also participated in six different spacewalks, including the first three all-women spacewalks. Koch is an engineer by trade, having previously worked at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.</p>
<p>The crew will be <a href="https://theconversation.com/canadian-astronaut-jeremy-hansen-will-be-among-the-next-humans-to-fly-to-the-moon-201633">rounded out by a Canadian</a>, <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp">Jeremy Hansen</a>. Though a spaceflight rookie, he has participated in space simulations like <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NEEMO/index.html">NEEMO 19</a>, in which he lived in a facility on the ocean floor to simulate deep space exploration. Before being selected to Canada’s astronaut corps in 2009, he was an F-18 pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Force.</p>
<p>These four astronauts have followed pretty typical paths to space. Like the Apollo astronauts, three of them began their careers as military pilots. Two, Wiseman and Glover, were trained test pilots, just as most of the Apollo astronauts were. </p>
<p>Mission specialist Koch, with her engineering expertise, is more typical of modern astronauts. The position of <a href="https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/AUPress/Book-Reviews/Display/Article/1869653/come-fly-with-us-nasas-payload-specialist-program/">mission or payload specialist</a> was created for the space shuttle program, making spaceflight possible for those with more scientific backgrounds.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An artist's impression of a spacecraft flying over the surface of the Moon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1200&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1200&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1200&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519116/original/file-20230403-22-qw7kfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The crew will make a single flyby of the Moon in an Orion capsule.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasaorion/32125696615/">NASA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A collaborative, diverse future</h2>
<p>Unlike the Apollo program of the 1960s and 1970s, with Artemis, NASA has placed a heavy emphasis on building a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/16/science/nasa-launch-artemis-1.html">politically sustainable lunar program</a> by fostering the participation of a diverse group of people and countries.</p>
<p>The participation of other countries in NASA missions – Canada in this case – <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2023/03/24/remarks-by-president-biden-and-prime-minister-trudeau-at-gala-dinner/">is particularly important</a> for the Artemis program and the Artemis II crew. International collaboration is beneficial for a number of reasons. First, it allows NASA to lean on the strengths and expertise of engineers, researchers and space agencies of U.S. allies and divide up the production of technologies and costs. It also helps the U.S. continue to provide international leadership in space as <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasas-head-warned-that-china-may-try-to-claim-the-moon-two-space-scholars-explain-why-thats-unlikely-to-happen-186614">competition with other countries</a> – notably China – heats up. </p>
<p>The crew of Artemis II is also quite diverse compared with the Apollo astronauts. NASA has often pointed out that the Artemis program will send the first woman and the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">first person of color to the Moon</a>. With Koch and Glover on board, Artemis II is the first step in fulfilling that promise and moving toward the goal of inspiring future generations of space explorers.</p>
<p>The four astronauts aboard Artemis II will be the first humans to return to the vicinity of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo-17/">the Moon since 1972</a>. The flyby will take the Orion capsule in one pass around the far side of the Moon. During the flight, the crew will monitor the spacecraft and test a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/opticalcommunications/o2o/">new communication system</a> that will allow them to send more data and communicate more easily with Earth than previous systems.</p>
<p>If all goes according to plan, in late 2025 Artemis III will mark humanity’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii/">return to the lunar surface</a>, this time also with a diverse crew. While the Artemis program still has a way to go before humans set foot on the Moon once again, the announcement of the Artemis II crew shows how NASA intends to get there in a diverse and collaborative way.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203214/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense or any of its components.</span></em></p>The Artemis II mission is scheduled for launch in late 2024 and is a critical step towards NASA’s goals of establishing a permanent human presence on and near the Moon.Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2024152023-03-23T14:34:51Z2023-03-23T14:34:51ZBack to the Moon: A space lawyer and planetary scientist on what it will take to share the benefits of new lunar exploration – podcast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517057/original/file-20230322-26-rctkxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C7%2C1205%2C651&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Within the next year or two, people will set foot on the surface of the Moon for the first time in 50 years.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/48/the-moons-surface/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>NASA is planning to put U.S. astronauts back <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii">on the surface of the Moon</a> by the end of 2024. This mission is just the beginning of what is shaping up to be a historic few decades in space exploration, as both <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemisprogram">the U.S.</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasas-head-warned-that-china-may-try-to-claim-the-moon-two-space-scholars-explain-why-thats-unlikely-to-happen-186614">China</a> have plans to establish a permanent human presence on the Moon. </p>
<p>The first question you might have is: Why now? </p>
<p>The short answer is the relatively recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/water-on-the-moon-research-unveils-its-type-and-abundance-boosting-exploration-plans-148669">discovery of water on the Moon</a>. But the deeper and perhaps more important questions have to do with how competing space agencies will pull off this feat given the limited resources on Earth’s satellite.</p>
<p>In this episode of The Conversation Weekly, we speak with two people – a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kffl6L4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">planetary scientist</a> who studies the geology of the Moon, and a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TUy5ls8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">space lawyer</a> who studies space policy and geopolitics – about the challenges facing nations as humanity looks to set up shop on the Moon.</p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/60087127b9687759d637bade/641c1a1f6bbd2300115b95f6" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="190px"></iframe>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-561" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/561/4fbbd099d631750693d02bac632430b71b37cd5f/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>When Apollo astronauts brought back the first lunar rocks in the late 1960s and early 1970s, scientists were disappointed to find no sign of water or anything of much use in the samples. The Moon <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11038-010-9377-9">looked to be a barren place</a>. </p>
<p>Fast forward a few decades and two coinciding events reshaped the future of the Moon – the sudden <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-decade-of-commercial-space-travel-whats-next-103405">boom in the private space sector</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jgre.20156">discovery of water</a> frozen in permanently shadowed craters on the Moon’s surface. All of a sudden, setting up a base on the Moon was not only desirable, but feasible, too. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Images of the north and south poles of the Moon with many blue dots." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517060/original/file-20230322-3114-rpnn4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research has found evidence of water, in the form of ice and shown in blue, frozen in craters around the Moon’s poles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/ice-confirmed-at-the-moon-s-poles">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“If you want to explore space with humans, water becomes one of the most critical commodities,” explains Mahesh Anand, a professor of planetary science and exploration at the Open University in the U.K. “We need water to survive, but water can also be split into its individual components, like oxygen, which we need to breathe.” But there are many other resources on the Moon, and as Anand explains, “Water is where the story begins, but it doesn’t end there. Utilizing resources in situ – where you are – that’s what is actually opening up the field of lunar exploration.”</p>
<p>The U.S. Artemis program, which had its <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasas-artemis-1-mission-to-the-moon-sets-the-stage-for-routine-space-exploration-beyond-earths-orbit-heres-what-to-expect-and-why-its-important-189447">first launch in 2022</a>, is the beginning of a plan to eventually build a base on the surface of the Moon as well as a space station in orbit around it. The U.S. and its collaborators are not alone in these lunar ambitions – China, too, has plans to establish a permanent presence on the Moon before 2030. And both groups explicitly <a href="https://theconversation.com/lunar-mining-and-moon-land-claims-fall-into-a-gray-area-of-international-law-but-negotiations-are-underway-to-avoid-conflict-and-damage-to-spacecraft-188426">plan to use lunar resources</a> to accomplish these goals.</p>
<p>How this all works legally is an open question that is being debated right now in international venues like the United Nations, but there are some agreements on the books already. </p>
<p>“It’s fun to think about space as being the Wild West with no rules. But it’s not. We do have the Outer Space Treaty,” explains Michelle Hanlon, a law professor at the University of Mississippi in the U.S. This treaty has been signed by most countries and lays out an almost utopian framework for how nations are supposed to act in space. “The main provisions of the Outer Space Treaty say that space is for everybody,” Hanlon continues. “Nobody can claim any territory in space, it’s free for exploration and use by all, and the Moon and all of the celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.”</p>
<p>The high-minded ideals of space law are quickly heading toward a collision with the reality of humanity expanding off Earth – and bringing all of our geopolitics and competing interests with us. Listen to the full episode to learn how nations are navigating the big scientific, legal and moral questions of a lunar future.</p>
<hr>
<p>This episode was hosted by Dan Merino, written by Katie Flood and co-produced by Dan Merino and Katie Flood. The executive producer is Mend Mariwany. Eloise Stevens does our sound design, and our theme music is by Neeta Sarl.</p>
<p>You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">theconversationdotcom</a> or <a href="mailto:podcast@theconversation.com">via email</a>. You can also subscribe to The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter">free daily email here</a>. A transcript of this episode will be available soon.</p>
<p>Listen to “The Conversation Weekly” via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a> or find out <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">how else to listen here</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202415/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle L.D. Hanlon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mahesh Anand receives funding from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), UK Space Agency (UKSA), and the European Space Agency (ESA). He is also a member of the ESA’s Prospect Science Team and of the UKSA’s Space Exploration Advisory Committee.</span></em></p>A US-led coalition and China are both planning to establish bases on the Moon. How the two nations will navigate actions on the Moon and how other countries will be involved is still unclear.Daniel Merino, Associate Science Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationNehal El-Hadi, Science + Technology Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1963282022-12-12T17:17:49Z2022-12-12T17:17:49ZCanada’s space technology and innovations are a crucial contribution to the Artemis missions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500329/original/file-20221212-92765-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1080&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An artist's concept of Canadarm3, Canada's smart robotic system, on the exterior of the Lunar Gateway.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/watch/12642">(Canadian Space Agency, NASA)</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/canada-s-space-technology-and-innovations-are-a-crucial-contribution-to-the-artemis-missions" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Fifty years ago this month was the last time humans walked on the surface of the moon, during the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo17.html">Apollo 17 mission</a>. NASA recently took the first major step in returning humans to the moon with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-1">Artemis I mission</a>.</p>
<p>Orion is an exploration spacecraft used in the Artemis I mission and is the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/index.html">most powerful rocket ever built</a>. On Dec. 11, the uncrewed spacecraft returned to Earth <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-63937345">after 25.5 days in space</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xzZPzmMtQA8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA’s live feed from Orion’s splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on Dec. 11.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With this mission, Canada is poised to embark on a new era of lunar exploration.</p>
<p>I am a planetary geologist who studies rocks from the Earth, moon and Mars in the quest to understand the origin and evolution of our solar system and of life itself, and provide <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/snapping-science-male-pregnant-seahorse-placentas-astronauts-in-labrador-and-more-1.6263003/why-an-ancient-crater-in-labrador-is-the-perfect-place-for-astronauts-to-train-for-a-moon-mission-1.6263005">geology training to the Artemis astronauts</a>. I am also the principal investigator for the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">Canadian Lunar Rover Mission</a>.</p>
<h2>From Apollo to Artemis</h2>
<p>While led by NASA, this return to the moon is very much an international endeavour, carrying on the spirit of the International Space Station. Indeed, even on Artemis I, a key contribution was the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Orion/European_Service_Module">European Service Module</a>, which provides power, oxygen and water to the Orion Crew Module.</p>
<p>Artemis I is an entire program <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">dedicated to not only returning to the surface of the moon</a> with humans (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">including landing the first woman and first person of colour astronauts</a>), but to establish the first long-term presence on both the surface of the moon and via <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/gateway">the Lunar Gateway</a>, an outpost orbiting the moon.</p>
<p>With great foresight, Canada was one of the original eight countries to sign the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>, a series of multilateral agreements between the United States and the governments of those countries wishing to participate in the Artemis Program. Since the initial signing in October 2020, a further 13 countries have joined this truly international effort.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="an artist's illustration of a spacecraft in orbit around the moon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500322/original/file-20221212-94733-8f4ak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Lunar Gateway is a planned outpost that orbits the moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/51669809836/in/album-72157716027881092/">(NASA/flickr)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The first Canadian to the moon</h2>
<p>The second scheduled mission, Artemis II, will mark the first time in 50 years that humans will return to the moon with a flyby manoeuvre analogous to what the first Apollo mission, <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/apollo-8/in-depth/">Apollo 8</a>, did in 1968. </p>
<p>Canada has perhaps pulled one of the biggest coups in space exploration history by securing a seat for a Canadian astronaut on <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/artemis-missions.asp">Artemis II, scheduled for 2024</a>.</p>
<p>In addition to travelling farther from our planet than any Canadian has ever been, this mission, which will last up to three weeks, will test all the necessary technologies required for the <a href="https://www.space.com/artemis-3-moon-landing-mission">subsequent Artemis III mission that will land humans on the moon</a>.</p>
<p>This will make Canada only the second country in the world to send a human to deep space. For the first time in history, Canadian eyes will witness the iconic Earthrise as the spacecraft reappears from behind the moon in a lunar flyby.</p>
<h2>Canada’s role in lunar exploration</h2>
<p>As we wait for Artemis II and III to launch, there is an incredible amount of activity in Canada related to lunar exploration. Canada’s moon aspirations received a huge boost in February 2019, when the Canadian government <a href="https://pm.gc.ca/en/news/news-releases/2019/02/28/historic-investments-canadas-space-program-create-jobs-and-new">announced new funding for the Canadian Space Agency (CSA)</a>. This funding supports Canada’s participation in the NASA-led Lunar Gateway and to establish the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/">Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program (LEAP)</a>. </p>
<p>Canada’s main contribution to the Lunar Gateway is <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm3/about.asp">the Canadarm3, a robotic arm</a>. This contribution, <a href="https://mda.space/en/">built by Canadian space technology company MDA</a>, cannot be overemphasized: it is a critical piece of infrastructure, without which NASA and its other international partners would not be able to build or operate the Gateway.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C4000%2C2988&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="photograph of a spacecraft with the moon and the Earth in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C4000%2C2988&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500179/original/file-20221211-65080-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Orion captures a unique view of Earth and the moon, seen from a camera mounted on one of the spacecraft’s solar arrays.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/orion-earth-and-the-moon">(NASA)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Canadian space technology</h2>
<p>On Nov. 14, the Canadian government announced that <a href="https://www.canadensys.com/">Canadensys Aerospace Corporation</a> had been awarded a $43-million contract through the LEAP program to design and build a <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">lunar rover</a>. This will be the first Canadian-led rover mission to the surface of another planetary body.</p>
<p>The rover will study the geology in the south pole region of the moon and explore for water ice. As the principal investigator for this mission, I will be working with five universities and eight Canadian companies.</p>
<p>It’s important to highlight that designing this rover is one of the greatest engineering challenges that Canadians have ever taken on. I am incredibly proud of what our team has accomplished so far, but we have a lot of work to do to get ready for 2026. </p>
<p>In addition to needing to cram everything, including seven science instruments, into a tiny 30-kilogram package, we have to ensure that everything can survive a lunar night. By comparison, the Perseverance rover currently operating on Mars weighs in at a whopping 1,025 kilograms.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-perseverance-rover-is-collecting-rock-samples-from-mars-to-bring-back-to-earth-189922">The Perseverance rover is collecting rock samples from Mars to bring back to Earth</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While this may not sound like much, a lunar night can last up to 14 Earth days and temperatures can plummet down to as low as −200 C. Achieving this could have implications for our long Canadian winters.</p>
<p>Thankfully, we won’t need to wait three years to see Canadian technology reach the surface of the moon. </p>
<p>On the same day the Orion capsule returned to Earth, the <a href="https://www.mbrsc.ae/">Emirates Lunar Mission</a> launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla. This mission is the future of global collaboration: an international micro-rover mission led by the United Arab Emirates, with a lander designed and built by the Japanese company <a href="https://ispace-inc.com/hakuto-r/eng/">ispace</a> and a launch provided by <a href="https://www.spacex.com/">SpaceX</a>.</p>
<p>With funding through the CSA’s LEAP program, Ottawa-based <a href="https://www.missioncontrolspaceservices.com/stories/emirates-lunar-mission-elm/">Mission Control Space Services</a> is developing deep learning software for lunar missions.</p>
<p>Canadensys is also developing an AI-enabled 360-degree camera onboard the lunar rover, and will be testing more technologies on three more lunar missions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="an image of the Earth taken from the surface of the moon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500180/original/file-20221211-64880-ws570q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The iconic Earthrise photograph, captured by astronaut William Anders in 1968.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/apollo-8-earthrise">(NASA)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Renewed perspectives</h2>
<p>As we return to the moon, I hope that all of humanity can relive that moment when Apollo 8 captured the first <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/apollo-8-earthrise">Earthrise image</a> or when Apollo 17 captured the famous <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/blue-marble-image-of-the-earth-from-apollo-17">1972 Blue Marble</a> image.</p>
<p>Space demonstrates what humanity can do when we work together to tackle seemingly insurmountable challenges. The images from Apollo and Artemis remind us that we are all passengers on spaceship Earth, a pale blue dot adrift in the vastness of space, and our only home that we must preserve and protect.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196328/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gordon Osinski receives funding from the Canadian Space Agency Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program and from the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p>Canadian space technologies and innovations play a significant role in the Artemis missions, and our involvement reflects our growing role in this new era of lunar exploration.Gordon Osinski, Professor in Earth and Planetary Science, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1958822022-12-09T13:28:35Z2022-12-09T13:28:35ZChina’s new space station opens for business in an increasingly competitive era of space activity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499869/original/file-20221208-12532-d6cyhl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=865%2C59%2C3539%2C2581&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Three taikonauts rode aboard the Shenzhou 15 mission on their way to China's new Tiangong space station.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-manned-spaceship-shenzhou-15-atop-the-long-march-2f-y15-news-photo/1245233337?phrase=shenzhou%2015&adppopup=true">Xinhua News Agency via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The International Space Station is no longer the only place where humans can live in orbit.</p>
<p>On Nov. 29, 2022, the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/29/world/asia/china-space-launch-astronauts.html">Shenzhou 15 mission launched</a> from China’s Gobi Desert carrying three taikonauts – the Chinese word for astronauts. Six hours later, they reached their destination, China’s recently completed space station, called Tiangong, which means “heavenly palace” in Mandarin. The three taikonauts replaced the existing crew that helped wrap up construction. With this successful mission, China has become just the third nation to operate a permanent space station.</p>
<p>China’s space station is an achievement that solidifies the country’s position alongside the U.S. and Russia as one of the world’s top three space powers. As scholars of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YtgRGx0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">space law</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YnVdvEYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">space policy</a> who lead the Indiana University Ostrom Workshop’s <a href="https://ostromworkshop.indiana.edu/research/space-governance/index.html">Space Governance Program</a>, we have been following the development of the Chinese space station with interest. </p>
<p>Unlike the collaborative, U.S.-led International Space Station, Tiangong is entirely built and run by China. The successful opening of the station is the beginning of some exciting science. But the station also highlights the country’s policy of self-reliance and is an important step for China toward achieving larger space ambitions among a changing landscape of power dynamics in space.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram of the space station." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499872/original/file-20221208-17536-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Tiangong space station is much smaller than the International Space Station and consists of three modules.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tiangong_Space_Station_config_2022_EN.jpg#/media/File:Tiangong_Space_Station_config_2022_EN.jpg">Shujianyang/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Capabilities of a Chinese station</h2>
<p>The Tiangong space station is the culmination of three decades of work on the <a href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/aboutcms/">Chinese manned space program</a>. The station is 180 feet (55 meters) long and is <a href="https://www.engineering.com/story/battle-of-the-space-stations-iss-vs-tiangong">comprised of three modules</a> that were launched separately and connected in space. These include one core module where a maximum of six taikonauts can live and two experiment modules for a total of 3,884 cubic feet (110 cubic meters) of space, about one-fifth the size of the International Space Station. The station also has an <a href="https://academic.hep.com.cn/fem/EN/10.15302/J-FEM-2018202">external robotic arm</a>, which can support activities and <a href="http://www.aerospacechina.org/EN/abstract/abstract421.shtml">experiments outside the station</a>, and three docking ports for resupply vehicles and manned spacecraft. </p>
<p>Like China’s aircraft carriers and other spacecraft, Tiangong is <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/chinese-space-station-news.htm">based on a Soviet-era design</a> – it is pretty much a copy of the Soviet Mir space station from the 1980s. But the Tiangong station has been heavily modernized and improved. </p>
<p>The Chinese space station is slated to stay in orbit for 15 years, with plans to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/29/world/china-space-station-astronauts-launch-scn/index.html">send two six-month crewed missions</a> and two cargo missions to it annually. The science experiments have already begun, with a planned study involving <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3198222/chinese-scientists-plan-monkey-reproduction-experiment-space-station">monkey reproduction</a> commencing in the station’s biological test cabinets. Whether the monkeys will cooperate is an entirely different matter.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person in a space suit outside of a space station." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499875/original/file-20221208-19047-qh64s7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This image, captured from a video feed at the Beijing Aerospace Center on Nov. 17, 2022, shows taikonauts working on the Tiangong station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-screen-image-captured-at-beijing-aerospace-control-news-photo/1244869814?phrase=tiangong&adppopup=true">Xinhua News Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Science and a steppingstone</h2>
<p>The main function of the Tiangong station is to perform <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DAzoVdrppHs">research on life in space</a>. There is a particular focus on learning about the growth and development of different types of plants, animals and microorganisms, and there are more than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-03462-5">1,000 experiments planned for the next 10 years</a>. </p>
<p>Tiangong is strictly Chinese made and managed, but China has an open invitation for other nations to collaborate on experiments aboard Tiangong. So far, <a href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/cooperationexchange/201906/t20190612_44777.html">nine projects from 17 countries have been selected</a>. </p>
<p>Although the new station is small compared to the <a href="https://www.engineering.com/story/battle-of-the-space-stations-iss-vs-tiangong">16 modules of the International Space Station</a>, Tiangong and the science done aboard will help <a href="https://www.space.com/china-five-year-plan-space-exploration-2022">support China’s future space missions</a>. In December 2023, China is planning to launch a new space telescope called Xuntian. This telescope will map stars and supermassive black holes among other projects with a resolution about the same as the Hubble Space Telescope but with a <a href="https://www.space.com/china-space-station-telescope-plans">wider view</a>. The telescope will periodically <a href="https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202207/25/WS62ddd8d3a310fd2b29e6e14a.html">dock with the station</a> for maintenance.</p>
<p>China also has <a href="https://www.space.com/china-five-year-plan-space-exploration-2022">plans to launch multiple missions</a> to Mars and nearby comets and asteroids with the goal of bringing samples back to Earth. And perhaps most notably, China has announced plans to build a <a href="https://www.space.com/china-russia-moon-base-ilrs">joint Moon base</a> with Russia – though no timeline for this mission has been set. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jZ6lAhZnkeM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The three-person crew of taikonauts greets the crew already aboard the Tiangong station in early December 2022.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Astropolitics</h2>
<p>A new era in space is unfolding. The Tiangong station is beginning its life just as the International Space Station, after more than 30 years in orbit, is set to be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/feb/02/international-space-station-will-plummet-to-a-watery-grave-in-2030">decommissioned</a> by 2030. </p>
<p>The International Space Station is the classic example of collaborative ideals in space – even at the height of the Cold War, the U.S. and the Soviet Union came together to develop and launch the beginnings of the space station in the early 1990s. By comparison, China and the U.S. have not been so jovial in their orbital dealings.</p>
<p>In the 1990s, when China was still launching U.S. satellites into orbit, concerns emerged that China was <a href="https://hir.harvard.edu/trouble-in-the-stars-the-importance-of-us-china-bilateral-cooperation-in-space/">accidentally acquiring – or stealing – U.S. technology</a>. These concern in part led to the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/112/plaws/publ10/PLAW-112publ10.htm">Wolf Amendment</a>, passed by Congress in 2011, which prohibits NASA from collaborating with China in any capacity. China’s space program was not mature enough to be part of the construction of the International Space Station in the 1990s and early 2000s. By the time China had the ability to contribute to the International Space Station, the Wolf Amendment prevented it from doing so.</p>
<p>It remains to be seen how the map of space collaboration will change in the coming years. The U.S.-led <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemisprogram/">Artemis Program</a> that aims to build a self-sustaining habitat on the Moon is open to all nations, and <a href="https://www.state.gov/france-becomes-twentieth-nation-to-sign-the-artemis-accords/">19 countries have joined as partners</a> so far. China has also recently opened its joint Moon mission with Russia to other nations. This was partly driven by <a href="https://time.com/6218389/china-russia-moon-missions/">cooling Chinese-Russian relations</a> but also due to the fact that because of the war in Ukraine, Sweden, France and the European Space Agency canceled planned missions with Russia. </p>
<p>As tensions on Earth rise between China, Russia and the West, and some of that jockeying <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-blocs-the-future-of-international-cooperation-in-space-is-splitting-along-lines-of-power-on-earth-180221">spills over into space</a>, it remains to be seen how the decommissioning of the International Space Station and operation of the Tiangong station will influence the China-U.S. relationship.</p>
<p>An event like the famous handshake between U.S. astronauts and Russian cosmonauts while orbiting Earth in 1975 is a long way off, but collaboration between the U.S. and China could do much to cool tensions on and above the Earth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195882/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eytan Tepper owns exchange-traded funds (ETFs) that track the space sector (UFO and ARKX). He is a principal investigator (PI) on grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, receives funding from Micas, and is a co-PI on grants from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. He is affiliated with the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Laval University, and Western University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Shackelford is a principal investigator on grants from the Hewlett Foundation, Carnegie Corporation of New York, National Science Foundation, and the Microsoft Corporation supporting both the Ostrom Workshop and the Indiana University Cybersecurity Clinic.</span></em></p>China has completed construction of the Tiangong space station, and science projects are now underway. The station is an important piece of China’s ambitious plans for space activity in coming years.Eytan Tepper, Visiting Assistant Professor of Space Governance, Indiana UniversityScott Shackelford, Professor of Business Law and Ethics, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1884262022-08-23T12:23:44Z2022-08-23T12:23:44ZLunar mining and Moon land claims fall into a gray area of international law, but negotiations are underway to avoid conflict and damage to spacecraft<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480197/original/file-20220821-2925-9doj10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C176%2C3923%2C3370&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Making territorial claims in space is illegal under international law.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg">NASA/Neil Armstrong</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been 50 years since humans last visited the Moon, and even robotic missions have been few and far between. But the Earth’s only natural satellite is about to get crowded.</p>
<p>At least six countries and a flurry of private companies have publicly announced more than <a href="https://www.nsr.com/nsr-developing-moon-market-propelled-by-250-missions-and-105-billion-in-revenue-through-decade/">250 missions to the Moon</a> to occur within the next decade. Many of these missions include plans for permanent lunar bases and are motivated in large part by ambitions to assess and begin utilizing the Moon’s natural resources. In the short term, resources would be used to support lunar missions, but in the long term, the Moon and its resources will be a critical gateway for missions to the broader riches of the solar system.</p>
<p>But these lofty ambitions collide with a looming legal question. On Earth, possession and ownership of natural resources are based on territorial sovereignty. Conversely, Article II of the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf">Outer Space Treaty</a> – the 60-year-old agreement that guides human activity in space – forbids nations from claiming territory in space. This limitation includes the Moon, planets and asteroids. So how will space resources be managed? </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TUy5ls8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">lawyer who focuses on the peaceful and sustainable use of space</a> to benefit all humanity. I believe the 2020s will be recognized as the decade humans transitioned into a truly space-faring species that utilizes space resources to survive and thrive both in space and on Earth. To support this future, the international community is working through several channels to develop a framework for space resource management, starting with Earth’s closest neighbor, the Moon. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two side-by-side images of the north and south poles of the Moon with splotches of blue." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480133/original/file-20220819-24-e8abwt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water is one of the most valuable resources on the Moon and is mostly located in craters at the south pole, left, and north pole, right. The blue in the images represents areas of surface ice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/ice-confirmed-at-the-moons-poles">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lunar missions for lunar resources</h2>
<p>The U.S.-led <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis Program</a> is a coalition of commercial and international partners whose first goal is to return humans to the Moon by 2024. Ultimately, the plan is to establish a long-term lunar base. Russia and China have also announced plans for a joint <a href="http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6811380/content.html">International Lunar Research Station</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-blocs-the-future-of-international-cooperation-in-space-is-splitting-along-lines-of-power-on-earth-180221">invited international collaboration</a> as well. Multiple private missions are also under development by companies like <a href="https://ispace-inc.com/">iSpace</a>, <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/">Astrobotic</a> and <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-new-private-moon-race-kicks-off-soon/">a handful of others</a>.</p>
<p>These missions aim to determine what resources are actually available on the Moon, where they are located and <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/new-space-race-moon/">how difficult it will be to extract them</a>. Currently, the most precious of these resources is water. Water can be found primarily in the form of <a href="https://www.space.com/15094-moon-water-ice-space-fuel.html">ice in shadowed craters in the polar regions</a>. It is necessary for drinking and growing food, but when split into hydrogen and oxygen, <a href="https://www.space.com/15094-moon-water-ice-space-fuel.html">it can also be used as fuel to power rockets</a> either returning to Earth or traveling beyond the Moon. </p>
<p>Other valuable resources on the Moon include rare Earth metals like neodymium – used in magnets – and <a href="https://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/what-is-helium-3.html">helium-3</a>, which can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.add5489">used to produce energy</a>.</p>
<p>Current research suggests that there are only a few small areas of the Moon that contain <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-11-moon-resources-tension-scientists.html">both water and rare Earth elements</a>. This concentration of resources could pose a problem, as many of the planned missions will likely be headed to prospect the same areas of the Moon.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A boot print in the dusty surface of the Moon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480135/original/file-20220819-26-g5k28o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A layer of fine dust and sharp rock shards covers the surface of the Moon, as shown in this photo taken by Buzz Aldrin in 1969.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/search-results?q=AS11-40-5877">NASA/Buzz Aldrin</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A dusty issue</h2>
<p>The last human on the Moon, Apollo 17 astronaut Eugene Cernan, called lunar dust “<a href="https://an.rsl.wustl.edu/apollo/data/A17/resources/a17-techdebrief.pdf">one of the most aggravating restricting facets of the lunar surface</a>.” The Moon is covered by a layer of fine dust and small, sharp rock fragments called regolith. Since there is virtually no atmosphere on the Moon, regolith is <a href="https://sciences.ucf.edu/class/landing-team/the-science-of-plume-effects/">easily blown around when spacecraft</a> land or drive on the lunar surface. </p>
<p>A part of the 1969 Apollo 12 mission was to bring pieces of Surveyor 3 – a U.S. spacecraft that landed on the Moon in 1967 to study its surface – back to Earth. The Apollo 12 lunar module landed 535 feet away from Surveyor 3, but upon inspection, engineers found that particles blown by Apollo 12 exhaust punctured the surface of Surveyor 3, <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/strategies/Cour-PalaisEtAl_NASA-SP-284E_Surveyor_3_Particulate_Impacts.pdf">literally embedding regolith into the hardware</a>.</p>
<p>It’s not hard to imagine a lander or even a surface rover of one country passing too close to another country’s spacecraft and causing significant damage.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person in a spacesuit standing next to a surveying craft on the surface of the moon with a lander in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=660&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=660&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480134/original/file-20220819-3033-za6ht2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=660&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dust from the landing of Apollo 12, seen in the background in this image, punctured metal on the Surveyor 3, front, from more than 500 feet away.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/GPN-2000-001316.html">NASA/Alan L. Bean</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A need for rules</h2>
<p>As efforts to return to the Moon began ramping up in the 2000s, NASA was so concerned by the destructive potential of lunar dust that in 2011 it issued a set of recommendations to all space-faring entities. The goal was to protect Apollo and other U.S. objects on the lunar surface that are of historical and scientific value. The recommendations implement “<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/617743main_NASA-USG_LUNAR_HISTORIC_SITES_RevA-508.pdf">exclusion zones</a>,” defined by NASA as “boundary areas into which visiting spacecraft should not enter.” These suggestions are not enforceable against any entity or nation unless they are contracting directly with NASA.</p>
<p>The very concept of these zones violates the plain meaning and intent of <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Article II</a> of the Outer Space Treaty. The article states that no area of space is subject to “national appropriation” by “means of use or occupation.” Creating an exclusion zone around a landing or mining site certainly could be considered an occupation.</p>
<p>However, the Outer Space Treaty does offer a potential solution. </p>
<h2>International actions</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Article IX</a> of the Outer Space Treaty requires that all activities in space be conducted “with due regard to the corresponding interests of others.” Under this philosophy, many nations are currently working toward collaborative use of space resources.</p>
<p>To date, 21 nations have agreed to the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf">Artemis Accords</a>, which use the due regard provision of the Outer Space Treaty to support the development of “notification and coordination” zones, also called “safety zones.” While 21 nations is not an insignificant number, the accords do not at this time include the major space-faring nations of China, Russia or India. </p>
<p>In June 2022, the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html">United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a> formed the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/space-resources/index.html">Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities</a>. This group’s mandate is to develop and recommend principles concerning the “exploration, exploitation and utilization of space resources.” While the group has yet to address substantive matters, at least one country not in the Artemis Accords, Luxembourg, has already expressed an interest in promoting safety zones. </p>
<p>This working group is a perfect avenue through which safety zones like those outlined in the Artemis Accords could get unanimous international support. <a href="https://www.forallmoonkind.org/">For All Moonkind</a>, a nonprofit organization I founded that is composed of space experts and NASA veterans, has a mission to support the establishment of protective zones around <a href="https://theconversation.com/apollo-landers-neil-armstrongs-bootprint-and-other-human-artifacts-on-moon-officially-protected-by-new-us-law-152661">sites of historic significance in space</a> as a first version of safety zones. While initially driven by the aggravating lunar dust, safety zones could be a starting point for the development of a functional system of resource and territory management in space. Such an action would protect <a href="https://theconversation.com/protecting-human-heritage-on-the-moon-dont-let-one-small-step-become-one-giant-mistake-111020">important historical sites</a>. It could also have the added benefit of framing resource management as a tool of conservation rather than exploitation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188426/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle L.D. Hanlon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The era of lunar resource use is quickly approaching. But with legal and practical issues still looming, nations are starting to think about sustainable ways to mine and protect the Moon.Michelle L.D. Hanlon, Professor of Air and Space Law, University of MississippiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1866142022-07-08T12:19:01Z2022-07-08T12:19:01ZNASA’s head warned that China may try to claim the Moon – two space scholars explain why that’s unlikely to happen<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473092/original/file-20220707-20-99hlqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C177%2C6560%2C3942&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">China and the U.S. both have big plans for the Moon, but there are a number of reasons why no country could actually claim ownership of any land there.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/astronauts-set-an-chinese-flag-on-the-moon-royalty-free-image/1060095534?adppopup=true">3dScultor/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>NASA Administrator Bill Nelson recently expressed concerns over China’s aims in space, and in particular, that China would, in some way, claim ownership over the Moon and stop other countries from exploring it. In an <a href="https://www.bild.de/politik/inland/politik-inland/nasa-chef-schlaegt-alarm-chinesen-wollen-den-mond-besetzen-80490242.bild.html">interview with a German newspaper</a>, Nelson cautioned, “We must be very concerned that China is landing on the Moon and saying: ‘It’s ours now and you stay out.‘” China <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-07-05/china-slams-nasa-administrator-bill-nelson-as-race-to-the-moon-gets-heated">immediately denounced the claims as a “lie”</a>. </p>
<p>This spat between the administrator of NASA and Chinese government officials comes at a time when both nations are <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/china-confirms-its-joining-russia-to-build-a-moon-base-by-2035/ar-AATfsk4">actively working</a> on <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">missions to the Moon</a> – and China has not been shy about its lunar aspirations. </p>
<p>In 2019, China became the first country <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/01/03/china-lands-spacecraft-far-side-moon-historic-first/">to land a spacecraft</a> on the far side of the Moon. That same year, China and Russia announced <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-to-cooperate-on-lunar-orbiter-landing-missions/">joint plans</a> to reach the South Pole of the Moon by 2026. And some Chinese officials and <a href="http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/whitepaper/202201/28/content_WS61f35b3dc6d09c94e48a467a.html">government documents</a> have expressed intentions <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-enter-mou-on-international-lunar-research-station/#:%7E:text=China%20and%20Russia%20have%20previously%20signed%20agreements%20for,signed%20an%20MoU%20with%20NASA%20on%20the%20Gateway">to build</a> a permanent, crewed International Lunar Research Station <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3161324/china-speeds-moon-base-plan-space-race-against-us">by 2027</a>.</p>
<p>There is big difference between China – or any state for that matter – setting up a lunar base and actually “taking over” the Moon. As two scholars who study space security and China’s space program, we believe that neither China nor any other nation is likely to take over the Moon in the near future. It is not only illegal, it is also technologically daunting – the costs of such an endeavor would be extremely high, while the potential payoffs would be uncertain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large room with many seats and a large dais." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473091/original/file-20220707-22-1o5luf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 1967 Outer Space Treaty, signed into law by the United Nations, seen here, says that the Moon cannot be claimed by any nation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/19473388@N00/336920038">Patrick Gruban/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>China is limited by international space law</h2>
<p>Legally, China cannot take over the Moon because it is against current international space law. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-law-hasnt-been-changed-since-1967-but-the-un-aims-to-update-laws-and-keep-space-peaceful-171351">Outer Space Treaty</a>, adopted in 1967 and signed by 134 countries, including China, <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf">explicitly states</a> that “Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means” (<a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Article II</a>). Legal scholars have <a href="https://iislweb.space/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/The-NonAppropriation-Principle-A-Roman-Interpretation.pdf">debated the exact meaning of “appropriation”</a>, but under a literal interpretation, the treaty indicates that no country can take possession of the Moon and declare it an extension of its national aspirations and prerogatives. If China tried to do this, it would risk international condemnation and a potential international retaliatory response.</p>
<p>While no country can claim ownership of the Moon, <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Article I</a> of the Outer Space Treaty allows any state to explore and use outer space and celestial bodies. China will <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-blocs-the-future-of-international-cooperation-in-space-is-splitting-along-lines-of-power-on-earth-180221">not be the only visitor</a> to the South Pole of the Moon in the near future. The U.S.-led <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a> is a group of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/france-signs-artemis-accords-as-french-space-agency-marks-milestone">20 countries</a> that has plans to return humans to the Moon by 2025, which will include the establishment of a research station on the lunar surface and a supporting space station in orbit called the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/gateway/overview">Gateway</a> with a planned launch in <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-northrop-grumman-finalize-moon-outpost-living-quarters-contract">November 2024</a>.</p>
<p>Even if no country can legally claim sovereignty over the Moon, it is possible that China, or any other country, would attempt to gradually establish de facto control over strategically important areas through a strategy known as “<a href="https://warontherocks.com/2014/02/america-has-no-answer-to-chinas-salami-slicing/">salami slicing</a>.” This practice involves taking small, incremental steps to achieve a big change: Individually, those steps do not warrant a strong response, but their cumulative effect adds up to significant developments and increased control. China has recently been using this strategy <a href="https://warontherocks.com/2014/02/america-has-no-answer-to-chinas-salami-slicing/">in the South and East China seas</a>. Still, such a strategy takes time and can be addressed.</p>
<h2>Controlling the Moon is difficult</h2>
<p>With a surface area of nearly 14.6 million square miles (39 million square kilometers) – or <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-big-is-the-moon-let-me-compare-118840">almost five times the area of Australia</a> – any control of the Moon would be temporary and localized. </p>
<p>More plausibly, China could attempt to secure control of specific lunar areas that are strategically valuable, such as lunar craters with higher concentrations of <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1802345115">water ice</a>. <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ice/ice_moon.html">Ice on the Moon</a> is important because it will provide water to humans that wouldn’t need to be shipped from Earth. Ice can also serve as a vital source of oxygen and hydrogen, which could be used as rocket fuel. In short, water ice is essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability and survivability of any mission to the Moon or beyond. </p>
<p>Securing and enforcing control of strategic lunar areas would require substantial financial investments and long-term efforts. And no country could do this without everyone noticing.</p>
<p><iframe id="5Cg1k" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/5Cg1k/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Does China have the resources and capabilities?</h2>
<p>China is investing heavily in space. In 2021, it led in number of orbital launches with <a href="https://www.thespacereport.org/register/the-space-report-2021-quarter-4-pdf-download/">a total of 55</a> compared to the U.S.’s 51. China is also in the <a href="https://www.thespacereport.org/register/the-space-report-2021-quarter-4-pdf-download/">top three</a> in spacecraft deployment for 2021. China’s state-owned StarNet space company is planning a <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/space/spacex-amazon-oneweb-starlink-collision-chicken-b1850644.html">megaconstellation</a> of <a href="https://www.newspace.im/constellations/gw">12,992 satellites</a>, and the country has nearly <a href="https://www.space.com/china-big-plans-tiangong-space-station">finished building the Tiangong space station</a>. </p>
<p>Going to the Moon is <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nasa-artemis-moon-program-biden-budget-2023/">expensive</a>; “taking over” the Moon would be much more so. China’s space budget – an <a href="https://landingpage.spacefoundation.org/the-space-report-q2-se-es">estimated US$13 billion in 2020</a> – is only around half that of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nasa_fy2020_afr_508_compliance_v4.pdf">NASA’s</a>. Both the U.S. and China increased their space budgets in 2020, the U.S. by 5.6% and China by 17.1% compared to the previous year. But even with the increased spending, China does not seem to be investing the money needed to carry out the expensive, daring and uncertain mission of “taking over” the Moon. </p>
<p>If China assumes control over some part of the moon, it would be a risky, expensive and extremely provocative action. China would risk further tarnishing its international image by breaking international law, and it may invite retaliation. All this for uncertain payoffs that remain to be determined.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186614/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The views expressed are those of the authors and do not reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Defense, or of any organization the authors are affiliated with, including the Air University, Air War College, the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Space Force. </span></em></p>A comment by Bill Nelson, the NASA administrator, sparked a strong public response from the Chinese government. But due to legal and practical reasons, no country could take over the Moon anytime soon.Svetla Ben-Itzhak, Assistant Professor of Space and International Relations, Air UniversityR. Lincoln Hines, Assistant Professor, West Space Seminar, Air University, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1802212022-04-21T18:38:29Z2022-04-21T18:38:29ZSpace Blocs: The future of international cooperation in space is splitting along lines of power on Earth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458928/original/file-20220420-20-i1aamw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=305%2C224%2C5604%2C3440&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In the next decade, both a U.S.-led group and a collaboration between Russia and China aim to set up bases on the Moon.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/russia-and-china-chess-standoff-royalty-free-image/934301722?adppopup=true">Theasis/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz190">during times of conflict</a> on the ground, space has historically been an arena of collaboration among nations. But trends in the past decade suggest that the nature of cooperation in space is shifting, and fallout from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has highlighted these changes. </p>
<p><a href="https://svetlabenitzhak.com/">I’m an international relations scholar</a> who studies power distributions in space – who the main players are, what capabilities they possess and whom they decide to cooperate with. Some scholars predict a future in which <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-International-Politics-of-Space/Sheehan/p/book/9780415399173?source=igodigital">single states</a> pursue various levels of <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Astropolitik-Classical-Geopolitics-in-the-Space-Age/Dolman/p/book/9780714681979">dominance</a>, while others foresee a scenario in which <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Security-and-Stability-in-the-New-Space-Age-The-Orbital-Security-Dilemma/Townsend/p/book/9780367432072?source=igodigital">commercial entities bring nations together</a>.</p>
<p>But I believe that the future may be different. In the past few years, groups of nations with similar strategic interests on Earth have come together to further their interests in space, forming what I call “space blocs.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A logo of the ISS surrounded by the flags of all the countries that support it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458934/original/file-20220420-24727-sjkw6x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The International Space Station is the quintessential example of international collaboration in space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISS_emblem.png#/media/File:ISS_emblem.png">NASA via WikimediaCommons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From state-led space efforts to collaboration</h2>
<p>The U.S. and the Soviet Union dominated space activities during the Cold War. Despite tensions on the ground, both <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=31357">acted carefully to avoid causing crises</a> and even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz190">cooperated on a number of projects</a> in space. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://space.oscar.wmo.int/spaceagencies">more countries</a> developed their own space agencies, several international collaborative groups emerged. These include the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/index.html">United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs</a>, the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html">United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a> and the <a href="https://public.ccsds.org/default.aspx">Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems</a>. </p>
<p>In 1975, 10 European nations founded the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a>. In 1998 the U.S. and Russia joined efforts to build the International Space Station, which is now <a href="https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/blog/the-20-most-frequently-asked-questions-about-the-international-space-station">supported by 15 countries</a>. </p>
<p>These multinational ventures were primarily focused on scientific collaboration and data exchange.</p>
<h2>The emergence of space blocs</h2>
<p>The European Space Agency, which now includes 22 nations, could be considered among the first space blocs. But a more pronounced shift toward this type of power structure can be seen after the end of the Cold War. Countries that shared interests on the ground began coming together to pursue specific mission objectives in space, forming space blocs.</p>
<p>In the past five years, several new space blocs have emerged with various levels of space capabilities. These include the <a href="https://au.int/en/treaties/statute-african-space-agency">African Space Agency</a>, with 55 member states; the <a href="https://www.gob.mx/sre/en/articulos/signing-of-the-convention-establishing-alce-the-latin-american-and-caribbean-space-agency-283235?idiom=en">Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency</a>, with seven member states; and the <a href="https://trends.aeroexpo.online/project-75745.html">Arab Space Coordination Group</a>, with 12 Middle Eastern member states. </p>
<p>These groups allow for nations to collaborate closely with others in their blocs, but the blocs also compete with one another. Two recent space blocs – the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a> and the <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-to-cooperate-on-lunar-orbiter-landing-missions/">Sino-Russian lunar agreement</a> – are an example of such competition.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Buzz Aldrin in a spacesuit on the surface of the Moon next to the U.S. flag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458935/original/file-20220420-22-vcz8q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">No human has been on the Moon in 50 years, but in the next decade, both the U.S.-led Artemis Accords and a Chinese-Russian mission aim to establish Moon bases.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg">NASA/Neil Armstrong via WikimediaCommons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Race to the Moon</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a> were launched in October 2020. They are led by the U.S. and currently include 18 country members. The group’s goal is to return people to the Moon by 2025 and establish a governing framework for exploring and mining on the Moon, Mars and beyond. The mission aims to build a research station on the south pole of the Moon with a supporting lunar space station called <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/gateway/overview">the Gateway</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, in 2019, Russia and China agreed to collaborate on a <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-to-cooperate-on-lunar-orbiter-landing-missions/">mission to send people</a> to the south pole of the Moon by 2026. This joint Sino-Russian mission also aims to eventually build a <a href="https://www.space.com/russia-china-moon-research-station-agreement">Moon base and place a space station</a> in lunar orbit. </p>
<p>That these blocs do not collaborate to accomplish similar missions on the Moon indicates that strategic interests and rivalries on the ground have been transposed to space.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Any nation can join the Artemis Accords</a>. But Russia and China – along with a number of their allies on Earth – have not done so because some perceive the accords as an effort <a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134">to expand the U.S.-dominated international order</a> to outer space.</p>
<p>Similarly, Russia and China plan to open their future lunar research station <a href="https://www.space.com/russia-china-moon-research-station-agreement">to all interested parties</a>, but no Artemis country has expressed interest. The European Space Agency has even <a href="https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press_Releases/Redirecting_ESA_programmes_in_response_to_geopolitical_crisis">discontinued several joint projects</a> it had planned with Russia and is instead expanding its partnerships with the U.S. and Japan.</p>
<h2>The impact of space blocs on the ground</h2>
<p>In addition to seeking power in space, countries are also using space blocs to strengthen their spheres of influence on the ground.</p>
<p>One example is the <a href="http://www.apsco.int/">Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization</a>, which was formed in 2005. Led by China, it <a href="https://spacewatch.global/2018/11/asia-pacific-space-cooperation-organisation-members-celebrate-tenth-anniversary/">includes</a> Bangladesh, Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan, Peru, Thailand and Turkey. </p>
<p>While its broad goal is the development and launch of satellites, the organization’s <a href="https://trends.aeroexpo.online/project-75745.html">major aim</a> is to expand and normalize the use of the Chinese BeiDou navigation system – the Chinese version of GPS. Countries that use the system could become dependent on China, as is the <a href="https://spacewatch.global/2016/11/irans-growing-dependency-on-chinas-beidou-satellite-navigation/">case of Iran</a>. </p>
<h2>The role of private space companies</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A Falcon9 rocket launching off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458936/original/file-20220420-17-5lvolu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Private companies are now major players in space, but launches – like SpaceX’s many missions – are still under the jurisdiction of the companies’ home nations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/49420609803/in/photostream/">NASA/Tony Green</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There has been tremendous <a href="https://www.morganstanley.com/ideas/investing-in-space">growth of commercial activities in space</a> in the past decade. As a result, some scholars see a future of space cooperation defined by <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Security-and-Stability-in-the-New-Space-Age-The-Orbital-Security-Dilemma/Townsend/p/book/9780367432072">shared commercial interests</a>. In this scenario, commercial entities act as intermediaries between states, uniting them behind specific commercial projects in space.</p>
<p>[<em><a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters?nl=science&source=inline-science-corona-important">Get The Conversation’s most important coronavirus headlines, weekly in a science newsletter</a></em>]</p>
<p>However, commercial enterprises are <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/01/11/companies-are-commercializing-outer-space-do-government-programs-still-matter/">unlikely to dictate future international cooperation in space</a>. According to current international space law, any company that operates in space does so <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html#:%7E:text=Article%20VIII,or%20on%20a%20celestial%20body">as an extension of</a> – and under the jurisdiction of – its home nation’s government.</p>
<p>The dominance of states over companies in space affairs has been starkly exemplified through the Ukraine crisis. As a result of state-imposed sanctions, many commercial space companies have <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/uk-satellite-company-oneweb-suspends-baikonur-launches-2022-03-03/">stopped collaborating</a> with Russia.</p>
<p>Given the current legal framework, it seems most likely that states – not commercial entities – will continue to dictate the rules in space. </p>
<h2>Space blocs for collaboration or conflict</h2>
<p>I believe that going forward, state formations – such as space blocs – will serve as the major means through which states further their national interests in space and on the ground. There are many benefits when nations come together and form space blocs. Space is hard, so pooling resources, manpower and know-how makes sense. However, such a system also comes with inherent dangers.</p>
<p>History offers many examples showing that the more rigid alliances become, <a href="https://wcfia.harvard.edu/publications/understanding-global-conflict-and-cooperation-introduction-theory-and-history">the more likely</a> conflict is to ensue. The growing rigidity of two alliances – the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance – at the end of 19th century is often cited as the <a href="https://wcfia.harvard.edu/publications/understanding-global-conflict-and-cooperation-introduction-theory-and-history">key trigger</a> of World War I.</p>
<p>A key lesson therein is that as long as existing space blocs remain flexible and open to all, cooperation will flourish and the world may yet avoid an open conflict in space. Maintaining the focus on scientific goals and exchanges between and within space blocs – while keeping political rivalries at bay – will help to ensure the future of international cooperation in space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180221/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Svetla Ben-Itzhak does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the past 10 years, international alliances on Earth have begun to expand into space. Nations with similar interests collaborate with one another while competing with other space blocs.Svetla Ben-Itzhak, Assistant Professor of Space and International Relations, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1558552021-04-04T12:00:48Z2021-04-04T12:00:48ZSpace mining is not science fiction, and Canada could figure prominently<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391728/original/file-20210325-13-cxwhu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2880%2C1677&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cliffs in ancient ice on Mars.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/image/pia24147.jpg">(NASA)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In this era of <a href="https://www.un.org/en/un75/climate-crisis-race-we-can-win">climate crisis</a>, space mining is a topic of increasing relevance. The need for a <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/net-zero-emissions-2050.html">net-zero carbon economy</a> requires a surge in the supply of non-renewable natural resources such as <a href="https://www.mining.com/accelerating-cross-border-north-american-integration-of-battery-ev-and-critical-mineral-supply-chains/">battery metals</a>. This forms the background to a new space race involving nations and the private sector.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-business-is-taking-the-space-race-to-new-frontiers-51376">How business is taking the space race to new frontiers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Canada is a <a href="https://financialpost.com/technology/canadas-space-industry-set-for-relaunch-decades-after-its-last-big-achievement">space-faring</a> nation, a <a href="https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-natural-resources/minerals-mining/minerals-metals-facts/minerals-and-the-economy/20529">world leader in mining</a> and a major player in the <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/the-carbon-brief-profile-canada">global carbon economy</a>. It’s therefore well-positioned <a href="https://financialpost.com/technology/canadas-space-industry-set-for-relaunch-decades-after-its-last-big-achievement">to actively participate</a> in the emerging space resources domain. </p>
<p>But the issues arising in this sphere are bigger than Canada, since they involve the future of mankind — on Earth and in space.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A rocket ship lifts off with clouds of smoke in the foreground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392379/original/file-20210329-21-1muls3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket lifts off at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in July in Cape Canaveral, Fla. The mission sent a Mars rover to the Red Planet to search for signs of life and explore the planet’s geology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/John Raoux)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Battery metals in hot demand</h2>
<p>On Earth, attempts to address global warming include switching to a <a href="https://eciu.net/analysis/briefings/net-zero/net-zero-why">net-zero carbon economy</a> through mass rollouts of electric vehicle fleets and investments in large-scale renewable generation infrastructure. Doing this successfully would require vast quantities of <a href="https://www.mining.com/nickel-cobalt-price-10-charts-show-chinas-grip-on-battery-supply-chain-to-last-decades">battery metals</a> (lithium, cobalt, nickel), <a href="https://www.mining.com/ontario-to-develop-first-critical-minerals-strategy">critical minerals</a> (copper) and <a href="https://www.mining.com/china-continues-dominance-of-rare-earths-markets-to-2030-says-roskill">rare Earth elements</a> — so much so that market analysts have warned of a potential <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-26/when-does-a-commodities-boom-turn-into-a-supercycle-quicktake">metals supercycle</a>. <a href="https://fortune.com/2021/02/27/what-is-a-supercycle-investing-commodities-wall-street-copper-crude-rally/">In a supercycle</a>, demand wildly outstrips supply, relentlessly driving up prices.</p>
<p>For this reason, the mining industry is actively looking towards <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/rare-metal-mining-goes-to-new-heights-and-depths/">new frontiers in mining</a>. These include the <a href="https://www.mining.com/circular-economics-reprocessing-waste-and-mining/">circular economy</a> (recycling and enhanced mine waste management), <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/deep-sea-mining-could-destroy-undiscovered-species-says-ocean-panel/">deep sea mining</a> and space mining. Space mining holds the potential for rich rewards, but also comes with robust challenges. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Yellowish orange sandy surface of Mars." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392381/original/file-20210329-23-vljp49.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A photo from the surface of Mars from the Perseverance rover mission on Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(NASA)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the most serious challenges is the lack of a cohesive regulatory framework for governing mining in outer space. While the 1967 <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a> has been signed by all space-faring nations and is widely considered to be the constitutional document of outer space law, it has interpretation gaps. </p>
<p>Importantly, it determines that no nation can claim any celestial body (such as the moon) for itself — but it’s silent on whether derivative resources can be owned.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.mining.com/how-earth-bound-mining-lawyers-think-about-space-mining/">Earth lawyers contemplating space-mining projects</a> are likely to look at four aspects: security of tenure, the fiscal regime, the bankability of the project and the project’s feasibility. Let’s break them down.</p>
<h2>1. Security of tenure</h2>
<p>In mining terms, <a href="https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/20801">security of tenure</a> means having secure and stable rights throughout the mining cycle. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty is unclear on who would own any extracted resources, and interpretations vary. </p>
<p>So far, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-luxembourg-is-positioning-itself-to-be-the-centre-of-space-business-120436">Luxembourg</a> and the <a href="https://www.mining.com/obama-boosts-asteroid-mining-signs-law-granting-rights-to-own-space-riches/">United States</a> have enacted domestic legislation that favours the possibility of claiming extracted resources, thereby bringing security of tenure to <a href="https://www.mining.com/luxembourg-to-create-space-resources-centre/">space mining companies located in those jurisdictions</a>.</p>
<h2>2. The fiscal regime</h2>
<p>This issue refers to the payment of taxes, royalties or the like. Here, the 1979 <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_34_68E.pdf">Moon Agreement</a> comes into play. Only two space-faring countries are party to it: India and Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-long-valued-an-outer-space-shared-by-all-mining-profits-could-change-this-137405">Australia has long valued an outer space shared by all. Mining profits could change this</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There’s disagreement on the role that the Moon Agreement should play in outer space law. <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-owns-space-us-asteroid-mining-act-is-dangerous-and-potentially-illegal-51073">Some argue that it’s not pertinent</a> to non-party countries; others point to its language and <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-owns-space-33222">suggest parallels</a> with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Both instruments refer to the “common heritage of mankind.”</p>
<p>UNCLOS has set up an international regulatory body, the <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm">International Seabed Authority</a>, to licence mining in the deep sea on a royalty payment basis. Royalties are then to be distributed equitably among all nations on Earth. Some argue for <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-of-humanity-should-share-in-the-space-mining-boom-57740">a similar system</a> to apply to outer space.</p>
<h2>3. Bankability of the project</h2>
<p>The third issue, project bankability, concerns the capacity of the project to attract funding. </p>
<p>To a large degree this will be determined by the prior two issues: security of tenure and the applicable fiscal regime. This again demonstrates <a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-always-wondered-could-someone-take-ownership-of-a-planet-or-a-moon-101464">the need for agreement on a clear legal framework</a> before rushing into action.</p>
<h2>4. Project feasibility</h2>
<p>The last issue, has several facets. Technical feasibility is currently enjoying <a href="https://www.mining.com/luxembourg-to-create-space-resources-centre/">a lot of attention</a>, with much <a href="https://www.mining.com/canadian-space-mining-developer-inks-deal-us-based-moon-express/">research and development</a> going into the advanced robotics and automated systems that would be needed for space mining operations.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/made-in-space-tangible-reality-or-daydreaming-99384">‘Made in space’: tangible reality or daydreaming?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Technological breakthroughs to date include <a href="https://www.mining.com/water-from-near-earth-asteroids-could-fuel-space-mining/">the discovery of water crystals on the moon</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/ice-mined-on-mars-could-provide-water-for-humans-exploring-space-83728">on Mars</a>, and the harnessing of <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-build-a-moon-base-easy-just-print-it-59070">3D printing technology in space</a> for manufacturing purposes. These make space mining more viable. </p>
<p>With the world’s two wealthiest people now both engaged in the space race — <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/14/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-aims-to-fly-people-on-new-shepard-by-april.html">Jeff Bezos with Blue Origin</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-spacex-idUSKBN2BF0YL">Elon Musk with SpaceX</a> — we can expect rapid technological acceleration. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Jeff Bezos stands in front of a starlight backdrop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392384/original/file-20210329-23-wou37g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bezos speaks at an event to unveil Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lunar lander in May 2019 in Washington.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Patrick Semansky)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/space-mining-is-closer-than-you-think-and-the-prospects-are-great-45707">Economic feasibility</a> means that space mining would have to make financial sense. The looming shortage in non-renewable natural resources coupled with technological advances and the <a href="https://www.mining.com/infographic-the-facts-and-figures-that-make-space-mining-real/">mind-boggling mineral wealth</a> present <a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-asteroids-could-unlock-untold-wealth-heres-how-to-get-started-95675">in even a single asteroid</a> may well make it so. </p>
<h2>Peaceful use of outer space</h2>
<p>There’s an additional reason why <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-the-moon-and-beyond-4-whats-the-point-of-going-back-to-the-moon-120791">international agreement and co-operation</a> in the outer space domain is crucial: the peaceful use of outer space, as required by the Outer Space Treaty. </p>
<p>In October 2020, eight countries signed a <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/nasa-seeks-to-set-law-for-space-mining/">NASA-led initiative</a> called the <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-corporations-control-territory-in-space-under-new-us-rules-it-might-be-possible-138939">Artemis Accords</a>. These included the United States, Canada, Australia and Luxembourg. Notably absent were <a href="https://www.mining.com/experts-warn-of-brewing-space-mining-war-among-us-china-and-russia/">Russia and China</a>, who have since agreed to collaborate with each other on space initiatives.</p>
<p>Legal issues about the ownership of space resources must <a href="https://theconversation.com/lunar-gold-rush-could-create-conflict-on-the-ground-if-we-dont-act-now-new-research-151645">urgently be addressed to avoid space wars</a> over natural resources between superpowers like the U.S., Russia and China. This includes the <a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134">legal status of the Artemis Accords</a>. Ideally, it should be done before space mining starts.</p>
<p>Finally, space mining raises certain ethical questions, such as whether the moon could be <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-the-moon-be-a-person-as-lunar-mining-looms-a-change-of-perspective-could-protect-earths-ancient-companion-144848">considered a legal person</a>, if space mining would entail a new form of <a href="https://theconversation.com/elon-musk-releases-details-of-plan-to-colonise-mars-heres-what-a-planetary-expert-thinks-79733">colonization</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/lunar-gold-rush-is-about-to-start-and-we-could-exhaust-the-solar-system-in-fewer-than-500-years-117450">how the common good of mankind could best be served</a> through mining in space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155855/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Steyn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Space mining might be closer than you think. But legal issues about the ownership of space resources must be urgently addressed to avoid space wars over natural resources.Elizabeth Steyn, Cassels Brock Fellow and Assistant Professor of Mining and Finance Law (Western Law); Faculty Member of the Institute for Earth and Space Exploration (Western Space), Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1516452020-12-09T14:45:09Z2020-12-09T14:45:09ZLunar gold rush could create conflict on the ground if we don’t act now – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373584/original/file-20201208-17-pi81i3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C15%2C1113%2C870&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The only six sites on the farside of the Moon suitable for telescope arrays of around 200km across. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to the Moon, everyone wants the same things. Not in the sense of having shared goals, but in the sense that all players target the same strategic sites – state agencies and the private sector alike. That’s because, whether you want to do science or make money, you will need things such as water and light. </p>
<p>Many countries and private companies have ambitious plans to explore or mine the Moon. This won’t be at some remote point in time but soon – <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-the-moon-and-beyond-3-the-new-space-race-and-what-winning-it-looks-like-120372">even in this decade</a>. As <a href="http://hea-www.harvard.edu/%7Eelvis/">Martin Elvis</a>, <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/alannak/home">Alanna Krolikowski</a> and I set out in a recent paper, <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsta.2019.0563">published in the Transactions of the Royal Society</a>, this will spark tension on the ground unless we find ways to manage the situation imminently. </p>
<p>So far, much of the debate around exploring and mining the Moon has focused on tensions in space <a href="https://theconversation.com/private-companies-are-launching-a-new-space-race-heres-what-to-expect-80697">between state agencies and the private sector</a>. But as we see it, the pressing challenge arises from limited strategic resources.</p>
<p>Important sites for science are also important for infrastructure construction by state agencies or commercial users. Such sites include “peaks of eternal light” (where there is almost constant sunlight, and hence access to power), and continually shaded craters at the polar regions, where there’s water ice. Each is rare, and the combination of the two – ice on the crater floor and a narrow peak of eternal light on the crater rim – is a prized target for different players. But they occur only in polar regions, rather than at the equatorial sites <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-the-moon-and-beyond-1-what-we-learned-from-landing-on-the-moon-and-why-we-stopped-going-119701">targeted by the Apollo programme</a> in the 1960s and 1970s. </p>
<p>The recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/change-5-china-launches-sample-return-mission-to-the-moon-is-it-winning-the-new-space-race-150665">successful landing of Chang’e 5</a> by China targeted a relatively smooth landing site on the lunar nearside, but it is part of a larger, phased programme due to take China’s space agency down to the lunar south pole by 2024. </p>
<p>India tried a more direct polar route, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-49875897">with its failed Chandrayaan-2 lander</a> crashing in the same region in 2019. The Russian Roscosmos, collaborating with the European Space Agency, is also targeting the south polar region <a href="https://www.space.com/russia-moon-mission-luna-25.html">for landings late in 2021</a> and, in 2023, at Boguslavsky crater, as a test mission. Next, Roscosmos will <a href="http://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2017/10/Luna-27">aim for the Aitken Basin</a> in the same region in 2022 on the to prospect for water in permanently shadowed areas. A number of private companies <a href="https://www.space.com/39398-moon-rush-private-lunar-landings-future.html">also have ambitious</a> plans for mining the Moon for resources.</p>
<p>Strategic resources that aren’t in the polar regions tend to be concentrated rather than evenly distributed. Thorium and uranium, which could be used for radioactive fuel, are found together in 34 regions that are areas of less than 80km wide. Iron resulting from asteroid impacts can be found within broader territories, ranging from 30-300km across, but there are only around 20 such areas. </p>
<p>And then there is the poster boy of lunar resources, mined in dozens of science fiction films: <a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Preparing_for_the_Future/Space_for_Earth/Energy/Helium-3_mining_on_the_lunar_surface">Helium-3</a>, for nuclear fusion. Seeded by the Sun in the powdery crushed rock of the lunar surface, it is present in wide areas across the Moon, but the highest concentrations are found in only about eight regions, all relatively small (less than 50km across). </p>
<p>These materials will be of interest both to those trying to establish infrastructure on the Moon and are later targeting Mars as well as commercial exploitation (mining), or science – for example creating telescopic arrays on the lunar far side, away from the growing noise of human communications.</p>
<p>How then do we deal with the problem? <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-outer-space-treaty-has-been-remarkably-successful-but-is-it-fit-for-the-modern-age-71381">The Outer Space Treaty</a> (1967) holds that “the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind.” States do not get to claim parts of the Moon as property, but they can still use them. Where this leaves disputes and extraction by private companies is unclear. </p>
<p>Proposed successors to the treatment, such as the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html">Moon Agreement (1979)</a>, are seen as too restrictive, requiring a formal framework of laws and an ambitious international regulatory regime. The agreement has failed to gain support among key players, including the US, Russia and China. More recent steps, such as the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a> – a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the Moon – <a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134">are perceived as</a> heavily tied to the US programme. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284741/original/file-20190718-116586-1rueioz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist’s impression of a Moon base.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ESA/Foster + Partners</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the worst case, this lack of framework could lead to heightened tensions on Earth. But it could also create unnecessary duplication of infrastructure, with everyone building their own stuff. That would drive up costs for individual organisations, which they would then have reasons to try to recoup in ways that could compromise opportunities for science and the legacy we leave for future generations. </p>
<h2>Ways forward</h2>
<p>Our best initial response may be modest, taking its cue from overlooked sites on Earth. Small terrestrial resource pools, such as lakes bordered by several villages, or fish stocks are often managed through approaches <a href="https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/cms/farnet2/on-the-ground/good-practice/projects/co-management-fish-resources-lake-vattern_en">developed locally</a> by the key players involved. </p>
<p>These suggest that a first step toward lunar-resource governance will be creating agreement among users. This should focus on the nature of the resources at stake, how their benefits should be distributed, and, crucially, the worst-case scenarios they seek to avoid. For example, actors will likely need to decide whether the peaks of eternal light should be managed as a patch of high-value real estate or as a volume of energy output to be shared. It may also be worth deciding on a case-by-case basis. </p>
<p>Another challenge will be fostering compliance with the governance arrangements that are devised. To that end, lunar users would be well advised to build shared installations, such as landing and supply facilities, to function as carrots that can be withheld from misbehaving actors. Such partial solutions will be difficult to add after a country or company has made irreversible investments in mission designs. Clearly, the time to devise these approaches is now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tony Milligan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Companies and space agencies alike will have to compete for very few useful sites on the Moon.Tony Milligan, Senior Researcher in Ethics with the Cosmological Visionaries project, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1509472020-11-30T05:00:06Z2020-11-30T05:00:06Z‘War in space’ would be a catastrophe. A return to rules-based cooperation is the only way to keep space peaceful<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371883/original/file-20201130-13-v8yqye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2044%2C1361&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">SpaceX</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2019, US President Donald Trump <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/dec/21/donald-trump-officially-launches-us-space-force">declared</a> “space is the new war-fighting domain”. This followed the creation of the US Space Force and a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-meeting-national-space-council-signing-space-policy-directive-3/">commitment</a> to “American dominance” in outer space.</p>
<p>Other space-faring nations, and those who fear the <a href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/06/22/how-trumps-space-force-could-set-off-a-dangerous-arms-race-218888">acceleration of an arms race</a> in space, were greatly concerned. At the latest meeting of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, states <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2019/a/a7420_0_html/V1906077.pdf">noted with alarm</a> that “preventing conflicts in outer space and preserving outer space for peaceful purposes” is more necessary than ever.</p>
<p>The election of Joe Biden as the next US president and Kamala Harris as vice-president suggests there is cause for hope. The future of space may look more like the recent launch of NASA’s SpaceX Crew-1 <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-spacex-crew-1-astronauts-headed-to-international-space-station/">mission to the International Space Station</a>. </p>
<p>Onboard were US and Japanese astronauts, who joined Russian and US crew already living aboard the ISS. As the Falcon 9 rocket soared into space, the collaborative, cooperative and commercial nature of space was once again clear for all to see.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-us-russian-space-station-mission-is-a-study-in-cooperation-41077">The US-Russian Space Station mission is a study in cooperation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Cooperation, not confrontation</h2>
<p>The incoming Biden-Harris administration appears more interested in international cooperation, and much more cognisant of the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2020/11/11/biden-climate-change/">challenges of climate change</a>, pandemics and other global issues. A carefully calibrated space policy can do much to address “terrestrial” challenges, while still allowing for many positive space activities.</p>
<p>Since 1967, human activity in space has been guided by the universally accepted principles embedded in the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a>. This has ensured we have had no military conflict in space, and required the exploration and use of space “for the benefit and in the interests of all countries”.</p>
<p>Any alternative vision of the future of space is dreadful to consider. Rhetoric about the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/apr/15/its-going-to-happen-is-world-ready-for-war-in-space">inevitability</a> of “war in space” makes such conflict <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-us-plan-for-a-space-force-risks-escalating-a-space-arms-race-101368">more likely</a> and risks a “<a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243">tragedy of the commons</a>” in space.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-us-plan-for-a-space-force-risks-escalating-a-space-arms-race-101368">The US plan for a Space Force risks escalating a 'space arms race'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Any space war would have no clear winner. In a complex, globally shared arena such as space, it is important that states abide by accepted rules and established practices. </p>
<p>The US has great scientific and technological advantages and a robust and competitive commercial space sector. Instead of seeking dominance, it can better serve the world (and itself) by focusing its leadership on harnessing space for the benefit of all humankind.</p>
<p>In a promising sign, Biden and Harris’s <a href="https://www.space.com/president-elect-biden-nasa-transition-team">NASA review team</a> is composed of an outstanding group of space scientists as well as a former astronaut.</p>
<p>The current administration re-established the National Space Council, which is chaired by the vice president, and this has reinvigorated American investment and <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-vice-president-meeting-national-space-council/">leadership in space exploration</a>. This includes an ambitious plan to return to the Moon under the terms of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371902/original/file-20201130-13-fkxwvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astronaut Soichi Noguchi is greeted by astronaut Kate Rubins as he enters the International Space Station from the vestibule between the SpaceX Dragon capsule and the ISS.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Respect the rules</h2>
<p>To ensure the fragile and shared domain of outer space does not become an arena for conflict, the <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/milamos/">rules that apply to any military uses of space</a> need to be understood, respected and further developed. Failure to do so could lead to devastation, disruption and impact on civilian lives, particularly in the largest and most powerful countries like the US, whose economies and societies are heavily dependent on space infrastructure. Their access to space has given them the greatest competitive advantage, but they are therefore the most vulnerable if that access is compromised. </p>
<p>Space is a “<a href="https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=10828">congested, contested and competitive</a>” area where scientific, commercial and economic interests converge, as well as military and national security concerns. In this sense space is like the radio frequency spectrum, which has been successfully regulated and managed for decades under international rules adopted through the <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/Pages/default.aspx">International Telecommunication Union</a>.</p>
<p>But space is also much more. As the recent Crew-1 mission demonstrated, there are significant benefits when nations come together and cooperate. Enlightened leadership, guided by commonly agreed laws and practices and a recognition that we share outer space as custodians for future generations, is the only realistic way forward.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Freeland is a Director of the International Institute of Space Law </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kuan-Wei Chen and Ram S. Jakhu do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A change of government in the USA means less risk of ‘space war’ and more hope for peaceful cooperation.Steven Freeland, Professor of International Law, Western Sydney UniversityKuan-Wei Chen, Executive Director, Centre for Research in Air and Space Law, McGill UniversityRam S. Jakhu, Director, Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1493632020-11-04T20:51:53Z2020-11-04T20:51:53ZThe International Space Station at 20 offers hope and a template for future cooperation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367378/original/file-20201104-23-1nl5uqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C6%2C1030%2C682&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour took this photo of the ISS after the station and shuttle began their separation.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/international-space-station">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Nov. 2, 2020, the International Space Station celebrated its 20th anniversary of continuous human occupation. With astronauts and cosmonauts from around the world working together, the ISS has demonstrated humankind’s ability to not only live and work in space but cooperate with one another. This remarkable achievement is significant as countries and companies around the world look to expand space exploration beyond Earth orbit.</p>
<p>The path to this anniversary was not easy; like most things done in space, the cost and the difficulty were high. Supported by the Reagan administration as part of the Cold War competition with the Soviet Union, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2018.07.003">ISS began its life in the 1980s</a>. Following the Challenger disaster in 1986, planning fell by the wayside as costs increased. Facing delays and cost overruns, the space station – then known as Freedom – was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/24/us/house-retains-space-station-in-a-close-vote.html">nearly canceled by the House of Representatives</a> in the early 1990s. While already bringing international partners aboard to lower costs, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160791X98000268">the Clinton administration invited Russia</a> to participate, leveraging the station as a tool of foreign policy between former adversaries.</p>
<p>What began as competition has turned into fruitful cooperation not just between Russia and the United States but Canada, Japan, Italy, the European Space Agency and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/02/world/space-station-20th-anniversary-continuous-human-presence-scn-trnd/index.html">over 100 other countries</a>. As a space policy expert, I argue that the achievements of the ISS to date are indeed significant, but they also point the way ahead for cooperation and commercialization in space.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367379/original/file-20201104-17-1ff5lpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The official portrait of the Expedition 1 crew (from left to right, Sergei K. Krikalev, William M. Shepherd and Yuri Pavlovich), the first humans to live aboard the International Space Station. Arriving on station on Nov. 2, 2000, they were the first of 64 crews to live and work aboard the orbital laboratory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/celebrating-20-years-on-station-expedition-1">NASA/JHUAPL/SwRI</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Accomplishments and significance</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures">By the numbers</a>, the International Space Station is indeed impressive. At 357 feet in length, it is just one yard shy of an American football field. More than 241 individuals from 19 countries have visited, and at least 3,000 research projects have taken place on the ISS. The ISS is <a href="https://spotthestation.nasa.gov/">the third brightest object</a> in the night sky and can often be spotted worldwide. Even <a href="https://www.lego.com/en-us/product/international-space-station-21321">Lego has immortalized</a> the station with its own building set.</p>
<p>The ISS has proven that humans can live and work in space. These experiences are key as countries look to longer term exploration. The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/benefits-for-humanity_third.pdf">ISS has led to advances</a> in understanding how the human body reacts to sustained microgravity and increased exposure to radiation. <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/02/world/space-station-20th-anniversary-continuous-human-presence-scn-trnd/index.html">Other experiments</a> have allowed researchers to study materials and chemicals in a microgravity environment. Astronauts have also learned how to grow food on the station, leading to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/benefits-for-humanity_third.pdf">insights on how plants grow on Earth</a>.</p>
<p>These accomplishments have not come without criticism. It cost more than US$100 billion to construct; <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2012-may-10-la-na-space-station-20120510-story.html">some have questioned</a> the amount and value of the science that has been conducted. More recently, limits on the the number of crew residing on the station <a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/11/after-20-years-of-service-the-space-station-flies-into-an-uncertain-future/">have reduced the amount of time available</a> for scientific experiments. </p>
<p>However, perhaps one of the most significant legacies of the ISS is the long-term cooperation that has enabled it. While the U.S. and Russia are the countries most closely identified with the program, Canada, Japan and the European Space Agency also take part. <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/amuilr18&div=19&id=&page=">While not always easy</a>, sustained cooperation in a place where operations are difficult and costly is impressive.</p>
<p>For the U.S. and Russia in particular, this achievement is unique. While there was <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/apollo-soyuz/overview">some cooperation between the two</a> during the Cold War, the ISS is the first major space program in which the two have worked together. Even as relations between Russia and the U.S. have deteriorated over the past several years, the partnership on the ISS has continued. While scientific and space cooperation does not solve all terrestrial issues, <a href="https://thespacereview.com/article/3376/1">it can strengthen other diplomatic relationships</a>.</p>
<h2>The future of the ISS</h2>
<p>Though turning 20 may not seem like a milestone, for a complicated piece of machinery operating in the dangerous environment of space, the ISS is approaching old age. In recent years, it has suffered several problems, most recently <a href="https://www.space.com/international-space-station-air-leak-russian-module">an air leak in the Russian module</a>, Zvezda. However, recent assessments <a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/11/after-20-years-of-service-the-space-station-flies-into-an-uncertain-future/">support continued operation</a> of the ISS for at least another 10 years.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367392/original/file-20201104-21-2spqix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The world’s first female space tourist, Anousheh Ansari, on Sept. 29, 2006 after she and the two crew members of the 13th International Space Station mission landed in the steppes of Kazakhstan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-worlds-first-female-space-tourist-anousheh-ansari-news-photo/1157674008?adppopup=true">AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In that time, the ISS will likely see an increase in commercial activity. Recently, cosmetics company <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/10/11/922329036/influencers-in-space-astronauts-prepare-to-receive-cosmetics-and-a-new-toilet">Estee Lauder launched</a> one of its products to the station to be featured in a commercial filmed there. <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/5/21166657/spacex-tourists-iss-international-space-station-orbit-falcon-9-dragon">SpaceX is looking to make</a> the ISS a tourist destination following <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-opens-international-space-station-to-new-commercial-opportunities-private">NASA’s 2019 decision</a> making it easier for space tourists to visit. Another space company, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/02/science/international-space-station-20-anniversary.html">Axiom, recently received</a> a contract to build a commercial module to be added to the ISS in 2024. The module <a href="https://www.space.com/international-space-station-future-off-earth-outposts">would give additional living and working space</a> to astronauts aboard the station as well as serve as the starting point for a future commercial space station.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Thinking beyond Earth orbit, international cooperation in the ISS provides a solid example for future cooperation in space. As NASA seeks to return to the Moon, international cooperation will be a way of reducing costs, normalizing behavior in space and increasing national prestige. NASA has made efforts in these areas through the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>, an agreement outlining norms and behaviors for lunar exploration. Additionally, NASA <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-european-space-agency-formalize-artemis-gateway-partnership">is partnering with the European Space Agency</a> and others on its plans for the Gateway, a mini-space station in lunar orbit. The ISS experience has been fundamental to all of these developments as it continues to launch the next generation of space endeavors.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149363/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense or any of its components..</span></em></p>Humans have been living on the International Space Station for two full decades. So what comes next for this ailing technology, and what does it mean for future International ventures in space?Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1486392020-10-26T18:47:02Z2020-10-26T18:47:02ZCool discovery: new studies confirm Moon has icy poles<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365451/original/file-20201026-21-1gwjnyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C68%2C4146%2C3363&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/2337/apollo-11-view-of-moon-limb-with-earth-on-the-horizon/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Water is more abundant on the Moon than we might have suspected, according to two papers published today in Nature Astronomy that confirm the presence of ice on and near the lunar surface.</p>
<p>It’s a boost for the prospect of extracting water from the Moon, which can help support humans, or be converted to rocket fuel, although the situation is far from simple.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-01222-x">first paper</a>, led by Casey Honniball of the University of Hawai'i, offers confirmation of the suspected discovery of water on the Moon. In previous studies, researchers had examined frequencies of absorbed radiation and identified the presence of chemicals called hydroxyl ions on the Moon. </p>
<p>Hydroxyl ions (OH-) are part of the water molecule H₂0, meaning water ice was a likely, but not definite, source of the hydroxyls detected. But as hydroxyl ions are found in many other compounds too, it was impossible to be sure. </p>
<p>The new research used a new technique and has shown that a significant proportion of those hydroxyls are indeed found within water ice molecules, possibly bound or suspended in the Moon’s surface rocks. More research is needed to deduce the precise details, but the presence of molecular water is big news.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-1198-9">second paper</a>, led by Paul Hayne of the University of Colorado, notes there are likely to be more “cold traps” containing water ice than previously estimated. </p>
<p>A “cold trap” is a place in permanent shadow, where ice can survive because it never receives direct sunlight, and where the temperature stays sufficiently low. Elsewhere, sunlight warms the ice, causing it to “sublime”: the Moon’s low atmospheric pressure means solid ice directly transforms into water vapour, which may refreeze somewhere else. </p>
<p>The study showed that at high latitudes, there were potentially very high numbers of these cold traps (possibly billions), some as small as 1cm across.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Images of locations of water on the Moon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=181&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=181&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=181&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365448/original/file-20201026-19-d20ibe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Images revealing shadows on the lunar surface, at a range of different scales.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hayne et al./Nature Astronomy</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/blowin-in-the-solar-wind-how-the-moon-got-its-water-10160">Blowin' in the (solar) wind: how the moon got its water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>How much water is on the Moon? Current estimates, based on the previous detection of hydroxyls, range from <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-019-0405-8">100 million tonnes</a> to the more recent <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0309133314567585">2.9 billion tonnes</a>. According to the new estimate, up to 30% of some areas of the lunar surface could be ice in cold traps. </p>
<p>Even using the conservative price for water offered by launch company ELA of <a href="https://www.space.com/33297-satellite-refueling-business-proposal-ula.html">$US3,000 per kg</a> for delivery to low Earth orbit, the water on the Moon could be worth billions of dollars a year, because water can be split into hydrogen and oxygen and used as rocket fuel. Some of our research shows how <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063319301138">a business case can be made</a> at low Earth orbit. </p>
<p>The importance of the new findings is there is now far more certainty that the water is there, and there are more widespread opportunities to find it.</p>
<h2>Good news for ice miners?</h2>
<p>It’s a timely discovery, because there has been a lot of activity recently, including in Australia, developing projects to extract water on the Moon. In the past two weeks alone, NASA has <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-to-land-water-measuring-payload-on-the-moon/">let a contract</a> for an ice-mining drill, and <a href="https://www.space.com/cubesats-moon-water-ice-exploration">announced</a> the launch aboard NASA’s Space launch System (SLS), designed for deep space missions, of three small satellites looking for water. Meanwhile, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/oct/10/european-space-agency-finalises-plans-to-explore-the-moon-properly">European</a> and <a href="https://www.space.com/china-planning-future-moon-missions-change-7">Chinese</a> space agencies have announced missions to explore the lunar south pole for water.</p>
<p>Australia is in this game because of the Australian Space Agency’s A$150 million commitment to the <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/funding-and-incentives/moon-to-mars-opportunities-for-australian-businesses">Moon to Mars</a> program. Australia also this month <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/news-media/australian-space-agency-news/australia-signs-nasas-artemis-accords">signed</a> the Artemis Accords, a series of bilateral agreements between the United States and other partners to develop a legal framework for space resources. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134">Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon exploration agreement</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>That may sound like great news but Australia is also a signatory of the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html">Moon Agreement</a>, the UN’s approach to peaceful uses of the Moon and other bodies. Some say this is inconsistent with the Artemis Accords. We have <a href="https://twitter.com/ACSERUNSW/status/1316133982514282496">called</a> for the Australian Space Agency to provide clarity on this issue, and hosted events to discuss it (including a <a href="https://youtu.be/ZS63KV2Rm_w">solid 1.5-hour debate</a>). </p>
<p>Yet Australia is now a signatory to both agreements, with no explanation as to how that is possible under international law. We need the Australian Space Agency to provide clarity about its interpretation of both instruments, as soon as possible. The urgency for this action is pressing — we are now much more certain there is water to extract on the Moon, and that the barriers to entry have been lowered. Australian companies are building capability in space resources and they need certainty to allow those businesses to grow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Dempster works for the Australian Centre for Space Engineering Research at UNSW. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Defence Innovation Network and the Australian Space Agency. He is an advisor to the Space Industry Association of Australia. </span></em></p>Researchers have long suspected there’s water - or ice, to be precise - on the Moon. New research now confirms it, and suggests it lurks in sun-starved nooks and crannies called ‘cold traps’.Andrew Dempster, Director, Australian Centre for Space Engineering Research; Professor, School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1481342020-10-19T11:45:36Z2020-10-19T11:45:36ZArtemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon exploration agreement<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364203/original/file-20201019-21-1iptwh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=67%2C29%2C4925%2C2776&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Illustration of a future Moon base by the European Space Agency, which hasn't signed the Artemis Accords.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">ESA; RegoLight, visualisation: Liquifer Systems Group, 2018</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Eight countries have signed the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html">Artemis Accords</a>, a set of guidelines surrounding the Artemis Program for crewed exploration of the Moon. The United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates and the US are now all participants in the project, which aims to return humans to the moon by 2024 and establish a crewed lunar base by 2030.</p>
<p>This may sound like progress. Nations have for a number of years struggled with the issue of how to govern a human settlement on the Moon and deal with the management of any resources. But a number of key countries have serious concerns about the accords and have so far refused to sign them.</p>
<p>Previous attempts to govern space have been through painstakingly negotiated international treaties. <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">The Outer Space Treaty 1967</a> laid down the foundational principles for human space exploration – it should be peaceful and benefit all mankind, not just one country. But the treaty has little in the way of detail. The <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html">Moon Agreement of 1979</a> attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources, but only a small number of states have ratified it – the US, China and Russia haven’t. </p>
<p>Now that the US is pursuing the Artemis Program, the question of how states will behave in exploring the Moon and using its resources has come to a head. The signing of the accords represents a significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law and apply them to the programme. You can hear more about some of the governance issues facing nations who want to explore the Moon in the podcast <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-the-moon-and-beyond-4-whats-the-point-of-going-back-to-the-moon-120791">To the moon and beyond</a>, see link below.</p>
<iframe src="https://player.acast.com/5e3bf1111a6e452f6380a7bc/episodes/5e3bf133659d595770f8b907?theme=default&cover=1&latest=1" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="110px" allow="autoplay"></iframe>
<p>The accords are bilateral agreements and not binding instruments of international law. But by establishing practice in the area, they could have a significant influence on any subsequent governance framework for human settlements on Mars and beyond.</p>
<h2>Natural allies</h2>
<p>All seven partners who have agreed to the accords with the US are natural collaborators on the Artemis Program and will easily adhere to the stated principles. Japan is <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/07/22/1005546/why-japan-jaxa-nasas-most-important-space-partner-artemis-moon-gateway/">keen to engage</a> in lunar exploration. Luxembourg has dedicated legislation <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/luxembourg-asteroid-mining/">allowing for space mining</a> and has also signed an additional collaborative agreement with the US. </p>
<p>The UAE and Australia are both actively trying to establish collaborative links with the broader space industry, so this represents a <a href="https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/strategies-initiatives-and-awards/federal-governments-strategies-and-plans/national-space-programme#:%7E:text=The%20UAE%20launched%20the%20National,cadres%20specialised%20in%20airspace%20sciences.&text=Launching%20the%20National%20Space%20Programme,first%20settlement%20there%20by%202117.">perfect opportunity</a> for them to build up capacity. Italy, the UK and Canada all have ambitions to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/the-wider-benefits-of-space-investments-for-the-uk-economy">develop their</a> space manufacturing industries and will see this as a chance to grow their economies.</p>
<p>The contents of the accords are relatively uncontentious. Throughout, there is reference to the existing Outer Space Treaty framework, so they are tied closely to existing norms of space law. As such, the accords appear deliberately designed to reassure countries that this is not an instruction on how to behave from a hegemonic power.</p>
<p>There is an explicit statement that the mining of space resources is in accordance with international law. This follows on from the controversial passing of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-owns-space-us-asteroid-mining-act-is-dangerous-and-potentially-illegal-51073">Space Act 2015</a>, which put the right to use and trade space resources into American domestic law. But section 10(4) of the accords also commits to ongoing discussions at the UN <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html">Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a> as to how the legal framework should develop.</p>
<p>The rest of the accords focus on safety in space operations, transparency and interoperability (which refers to the ability of space systems to work in conjunction with each other).</p>
<h2>Controversial issues</h2>
<p>If the substance is reassuring, the US promotion of the accords outside of the “normal” channels of international space law – such as the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – will be a cause of consternation for some states. By requiring potential collaborators to sign bilateral agreements on behaviour instead, some nations will see the US as trying to impose their own quasi-legal rules. This could see the US leveraging partnership agreements and lucrative financial contracts to reinforce its own dominant leadership position. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Picture showing NASA's outline for lunar exploration." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364206/original/file-20201019-17-1jha4nk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA’s outline for lunar exploration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Russia has <a href="https://spacenews.com/russia-skeptical-about-participating-in-lunar-gateway/#:%7E:text=WASHINGTON%20%E2%80%94%20The%20head%20of%20Russia's,existing%20International%20Space%20Station%20partnership">already stated</a> that the Artemis Program is too “US-centric” to sign it in its present form. China’s absence is explained by the US congressional <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/williampentland/2011/05/07/congress-bans-scientific-collaboration-with-china-cites-high-espionage-risks/">prohibition on collaboration</a> with the country. Concerns that this is a power grab by the US and its allies are fuelled by the lack of any African or South American countries amongst the founding partner states. </p>
<p>Intriguingly Germany, France and India are also absent. These are countries with well developed space programmes that would surely have benefited from being involved in Project Artemis. Their opposition may be down to a preference for the Moon Agreement and a desire to see a properly negotiated treaty governing lunar exploration. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.esa.int/">The European Space Agency</a> (ESA) as an organisation has not signed on to the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. This is unsurprising. The ambitious US deadline for the project will clash with the lengthy consultation of the 17 member states required for the ESA to sign on as a whole. </p>
<p>Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration. Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behaviour as a condition of involvement in a programme is a significant change in space governance. With Russia and China opposing them, the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and their very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums. </p>
<p>Questions also remain about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will have on the programme. We already know that President Trump <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/may/05/trump-mining-moon-us-artemis-accords">is keen</a> to see astronauts on the Moon by 2024. The approach of his Democratic rival, Joe Biden, is a lot less clear. He may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for broader diplomatic consensus on behaviour through engagement at the UN. </p>
<p>While broader international acceptance may be desirable, the US believes that the lure of the opportunities afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board soon enough. Space-active states now face a stark choice: miss out on being the first to use the resources of the Moon, or accept the price of doing business and sign up to the Artemis Accords.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148134/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Newman receives funding from the EDRF and has taken part in projects funded by the UK Space Agency. </span></em></p>Some nations are concerned the Artemis Accords represent a US power grab.Christopher Newman, Professor of Space Law and Policy, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1389392020-06-02T04:22:19Z2020-06-02T04:22:19ZCould corporations control territory in space? Under new US rules, it might be possible<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339038/original/file-20200602-95059-cc4gs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sipa USA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last weekend, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/dm2/">NASA launched</a> US astronauts to the International Space Station for the first time in a decade, in a rocket designed by Elon Musk’s SpaceX. </p>
<p>Under President Donald Trump, the US mission to reassert itself as the dominant power in space <a href="https://theconversation.com/giant-leap-for-corporations-the-trump-administration-wants-to-mine-resources-in-space-but-is-it-legal-136395">has rapidly gathered pace</a>. In the process, the US has also begun to reshape international space law to suit its purposes – a move that has many countries concerned.</p>
<p>In April, Trump released an <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources/">executive order</a> restating <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/1508/">US support</a> for corporate exploitation of lunar and asteroid resources. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/giant-leap-for-corporations-the-trump-administration-wants-to-mine-resources-in-space-but-is-it-legal-136395">Giant leap for corporations? The Trump administration wants to mine resources in space, but is it legal?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The order also <a href="https://theconversation.com/giant-leap-for-corporations-the-trump-administration-wants-to-mine-resources-in-space-but-is-it-legal-136395">rejected</a> a long-held view in international law that space is a global commons and that commercial use of space resources should occur under international oversight. </p>
<p>Then, last month, NASA released the “<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords_v7_print.pdf">Artemis Accords</a>”, named after its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis Program</a>, which aims to return humans to the moon by 2024. The accords claim to </p>
<blockquote>
<p>establish a common set of principles to govern the civil exploration and use of outer space. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1265312759153131525"}"></div></p>
<h2>What the Artemis Accords would do</h2>
<p>Although NASA has only released a high-level summary of the accords, two issues for international space law are already clear. </p>
<p>First, the Artemis Accords go beyond simply rejecting the unpopular 1979 <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_34_68E.pdf">Moon Agreement</a>, which declared lunar resources to be the “common heritage of mankind” and committed parties to establish an international regime to oversee space mining. Only 18 countries have signed the treaty.</p>
<p>In its place, the accords envisage a US-centric framework of bilateral agreements in which “partner nations” agree to follow US-drafted rules.</p>
<p>Second, the accords introduce the concept of “safety zones” around lunar operations. </p>
<p>Although territorial claims in space are prohibited under international law, these safety zones would seek to protect commercial and scientific sites from inadvertent collisions and other forms of “harmful interference”. What kinds of conduct could count as harmful interference remains to be determined.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-costly-collateral-damage-from-elon-musks-starlink-satellite-fleet-138553">The costly collateral damage from Elon Musk’s Starlink satellite fleet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The accords claim to comply with the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">1967 Outer Space Treaty</a>, a widely supported agreement that declared space the
“province of all mankind” and permitted commercial resource exploitation as a “peaceful use” of space.</p>
<p>However, in practice, the accords have the potential to challenge the Outer Space Treaty’s ban on territorial claims in space. They could also intensify international conflict over space resources. </p>
<h2>Will space continue to be treated as a global commons?</h2>
<p>The Artemis Accords effectively kill off the prospect of international oversight of space mining. </p>
<p>The Moon Agreement committed signatories to establish an international regulatory framework when space mining was “about to become feasible”. This moment is clearly now, as Japan’s <a href="http://www.hayabusa2.jaxa.jp/en/">Hyabusa2</a> mission to the Ryugu asteroid and China’s <a href="https://www.space.com/china-change-4-mission-completes-15th-lunar-day.html">Chang’e 4</a> lunar mission have demonstrated. Both missions are collecting mineral samples.</p>
<p>Although the Moon Agreement itself has attracted little support, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space has <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/2019/index.html">revisited</a> the framework of space resources law in recent years and <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/law/institute-of-public-law/institute-of-air-space-law/the-hague-space-resources-governance-working-group">commissioned a working group</a> to draft a new regime to govern space mining. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleerdheid/instituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf">draft principles</a> were due to be considered at a UN meeting this year, but it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>Now, by releasing the Artemis Accords, the US has potentially scuttled these international negotiations for good.</p>
<p>The real difference between the Artemis Accords and an international framework negotiated within the UN turns on whether space will be treated as a global commons when space mining begins. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-reaches-for-milestone-in-spaceflight-a-private-company-launches-astronauts-into-orbit-138765">SpaceX reaches for milestone in spaceflight – a private company launches astronauts into orbit</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Under current international law, the benefits from commercial mining in global commons areas, including the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/27/3/693/2197248">international seabed</a>, must in principle be shared equitably by “all mankind”. </p>
<p>The idea that the profits of space resource extraction should be shared via an international body garnered much support among <a href="http://blogs2.law.columbia.edu/jtl/interpreting-space-resources-obtained-historical-and-postcolonial-interventions-in-the-law-of-commercial-space-mining/">developing nations and their supporters</a> in the 1960s and ‘70s. </p>
<p>But entrepreneurs in the US space sector have long contested the global commons principle. And the US rejection of a global commons framework for space is ultimately a rejection of profit sharing. Mining and tech companies would retain all the profits. </p>
<p>And this, in turn, would further entrench existing wealth inequalities in the space resource industry. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339050/original/file-20200602-95049-1ux8onb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tech entrepreneur Elon Musk celebrates at Saturday’s SpaceX launch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sipa USA Paul Hennessy / SOPA Images/Sipa</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Territorial claims and 'safety zones’</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords_v7_print.pdf">safety zones</a> under the Artemis Accords would require all commercial and government ventures to share information on the location and nature of their space operations and notify and coordinate any approaches to other sites.</p>
<p>The practical sense of safety zones is clear. However, such zones seriously test a fundamental principle of the Outer Space Treaty – the ban on territorial claims in space. </p>
<p>This revives an old <a href="https://www.ejiltalk.org/what-on-earth-is-happening-to-space-law-a-new-space-law-for-a-new-space-race/">legal debate</a> over whether the distinction between private property and sovereign territory can actually be maintained in space. </p>
<p>Property rights provide commercial certainty, which space mining entrepreneurs have been demanding. But property rights are only effective if the threat of legal enforcement is real. </p>
<p>Whether safety zones can be enforced without amounting to a breach of the ban on territorial claims remains to be seen.</p>
<p>Russian officials have already <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/russia-slams-us-order-to-privatize-outer-space/a-53051820">denounced</a> Trump’s executive order as an attempt to “expropriate space” and “seize territory”. </p>
<p>Chinese space experts have also <a href="https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1187654.shtml">concluded</a> that safety zones amount to sovereign claims. </p>
<p>These criticisms have been fuelled by US space entrepreneurs, including Amazon founder Jeff Bezos, actively promoting “<a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Business/blue-origin-jeff-bezos-unveils-lunar-lander-mission/story?id=62941981">space colonisation</a>”. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1265986175057174528"}"></div></p>
<h2>Which countries are likely to sign on?</h2>
<p>States already friendly to commercial space mining, including <a href="https://space-agency.public.lu/en/space-resources.html">Luxembourg</a>, the <a href="https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/science-and-technology/key-sectors-in-science-and-technology/space-science-and-technology">United Arab Emirates</a> and <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2019/04/critical-shifts-in-indias-outer-space-policy/">India</a>, will likely sign on to the Artemis Accords. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-moon-mining-exclusi-idUSKBN22H2SB">Early reports</a> suggest Russia will not participate, though, and given the <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/us-and-china-on-the-brink-of-a-new-type-of-cold-war-20200510-p54rhb">current state</a> of US-China relations, Chinese participation is even less likely. </p>
<p>But the real impact of the accords will be determined by the countries in between. The response of the European Space Agency, which has <a href="https://www.esa.int/Education/Teach_with_the_Moon/Lunar_Exploration_ESA_s_missions">partnered</a> with Roscosmos in its own lunar prospecting mission, remains to be seen. </p>
<p>Australia, for its part, faces an <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-long-valued-an-outer-space-shared-by-all-mining-profits-could-change-this-137405">awkward decision</a>. As a party to the 1979 Moon Agreement, it will have to withdraw if it intends to sign an accord with the US. </p>
<p>Significant diplomatic manoeuvring can be expected over the coming months as the US seeks support for its attempt to redirect international space resources law.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138939/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cait Storr does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>NASA’s new Artemis Accords will clearly test international treaties governing the extraction of resources and bans on territorial claims.Cait Storr, Chancellor's Postdoctoral Research Fellow, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1397602020-06-01T19:28:53Z2020-06-01T19:28:53ZSpaceX’s historic launch gives Australia’s booming space industry more room to fly<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338758/original/file-20200601-83195-175cg7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=324%2C101%2C3924%2C2720&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/49419331818/in/album-72157647244171004/">NASA Kennedy/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At the weekend, Elon Musk’s commercial giant SpaceX <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-31/space-x-launches-astronauts-to-iss-from-nasa-pad/12304294">launched two NASA astronauts</a> in a spacecraft named Crew Dragon which, from the inside, looked like a souped-up Tesla. </p>
<p>The Falcon 9 rocket launched the spacecraft, returned to Earth and landed on a ship to later be re-used. And the Crew Dragon eventually docked autonomously with the International Space Station (ISS).</p>
<p>The flight marks the first time in history:</p>
<ul>
<li>a commercial company has launched astronauts</li>
<li>a crewed spacecraft has docked with the ISS while “self-driving” and </li>
<li>a reusable rocket has been used to launch people, which can help cut down on debris re-entering the atmosphere, such as the rocket pieces that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/may/22/absolutely-amazing-space-junk-delivers-light-show-across-the-sky-in-south-east-australia">recently burned up over Victoria and Tasmania</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>SpaceX has well and truly revolutionised space travel. But what does this mean for the many Australian companies making up a new space sector Down Under?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338779/original/file-20200601-83282-dnvdyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Crew Dragon spacecraft can carry up to seven astronauts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/spacex/21314715631">Official SpaceX Photos/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A burgeoning local industry</h2>
<p>Globally, the space sector is worth at least <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/2019/12-december/1219-commercial-space.htm">US$415 billion</a>, and is expected to grow to US$1 trillion over the next decade. By then, the Australian space sector is also expected to be <a href="https://business.nt.gov.au/developing-industries/space-industry/territory-space-industry-2020/market-analysis">worth A$12 billion</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-astronaut-launch-heres-the-rocket-science-139398">SpaceX astronaut launch: here's the rocket science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>An estimated <a href="https://www.consultancy.com.au/news/1626/australias-space-industry-crosses-5-billion-revenue-mark">770 Australian entities</a> already develop space-related infrastructure. This includes satellites, and technologies for telecommunications or television, bushfire monitoring, weather and climate tracking, search and rescue, navigation, deep space research, and defence and security.</p>
<p>In 2018, the <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/strategies-for-the-future/australian-space-agency">Australian Space Agency (ASA)</a> was established with a mandate to the support Australian space industry, rather than develop a national civil space program. </p>
<p>The global commercial space sector is now watching Australia with excitement, and possibly some envy. Many countries over-regulate their space industries, or fail to give them legislative support. But Australia is a new entrant to the space sector that benefits from full government support through an industry-dedicated space agency.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338760/original/file-20200601-83195-py40mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft lifted off atop a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Launch Complex 39A at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/49430129116/in/album-72157647244171004/">NASA Kennedy/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The commercialisation of spacefaring</h2>
<p>The 20th century <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/1950s-america/a/the-start-of-the-space-race">space race</a> began with government programs spurred by a technological and ideological competition between the US and the Soviet Union. However, today’s space race is highly commercial. </p>
<p>Many national space programs and militaries outsource to commercial entities for space services. Just this month, the Australian Department of Defence <a href="https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/minister/lreynolds/media-releases/defence-signs-agreement-gold-coast-space-company">signed a contract with Queensland company Gilmour Space technologies</a> to develop rockets for small military cargo and satellites. </p>
<p>Rather than large, expensive technologies developed for single purposes by government agencies, we’re now in an era of <a href="https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/emerging-commercial-space-industry-new-technologies/">“NewSpace”</a>. This is a term associated with small and medium sized companies developing smaller, lighter, and therefore cheaper technologies that can be repurposed and turned into “off the shelf” components. </p>
<p>Australian companies excel at this, as demonstrated by Gilmour, <a href="https://renewalsa.sa.gov.au/neumann-space-lifts-off-at-lot-fourteen/">Neumann Space</a> – which has a unique thrust technology for small satellites – and <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2020/04/06/myriota-raises-19-3-million-to-expand-its-iot-satellite-constellation/">Myriota</a>, a world leader in groundbreaking Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. </p>
<p>Giants such as SpaceX and Blue Origin are developing NewSpace technologies alongside their larger launch projects, and smaller companies benefit from their success when it comes negotiating public-private partnerships.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-reaches-for-milestone-in-spaceflight-a-private-company-launches-astronauts-into-orbit-138765">SpaceX reaches for milestone in spaceflight – a private company launches astronauts into orbit</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Innovative mindsets pave the way</h2>
<p>Even the opening of our own spaceport in East Arnhem land, expected by early 2021, is thanks to industry innovation. </p>
<p>NewSpace company <a href="https://ela.space/what/">Equatorial Launch Australia</a> is the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/business/small-business/world-first-startup-wins-nasa-deal-to-launch-rockets-from-australia-20190531-p51t8g.html">first commercial company ever to receive a launch contract from NASA</a>. As a result, the company is developing the spaceport, where it will specialise in new launch technologies for small and light satellites. </p>
<p>With our own spaceport, Australia will join the ranks of just 13 other nations that have launch capacity from their territory. </p>
<p>And aside from NASA, many Australian companies and research institutes will be keen customers. <a href="https://www.inovor.com.au/">Inovor, which builds tiny nanosatellites</a> may be among the first. </p>
<p>Or perhaps Gilmour, as it tests a revolutionary hybrid propulsion rocket <a href="https://www.spaceconnectonline.com.au/r-d/4358-anu-re-opens-national-space-testing-facility-discovers-cosmic-hidden-treasurers?utm_source=SpaceConnect&utm_campaign=29_05_20&utm_medium=email&utm_content=3&utm_emailID=71b8ae82567b8c1542c01de0febc35d1246cdfc9f33cc7cc762cccff9659ae65">in partnership with the Australian National University</a>. This could be the first commercial rocket of its kind to launch in the world. </p>
<h2>Even in a pandemic, the space economy booms</h2>
<p>According to a <a href="https://home.kpmg/au/en/home/insights/2020/05/30-voices-on-2030-future-of-space.html">report released</a> in May by accounting organisation KPMG, by 2030 every business will be a “space business”. The report suggests humans will live, work and holiday in space, and will be mining the moon for water and minerals.</p>
<p>And while human space flight from Australian shores may not be on the horizon, SpaceX’s launch is a beacon of hope for local commercial entities – especially because they push new technologies faster than government programs tethered to budgets and low-risk approaches. </p>
<p>Moreover, the ASA is considering entering into an <a href="https://spacenews.com/nasa-announces-artemis-accords-for-international-cooperation-in-lunar-exploration/">Artemis Accord</a> with the US. The launch technology demonstrated by SpaceX this weekend will be part of the Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the moon by 2024.</p>
<p>So although the national and global economy reels from the impacts of COVID-19 shutdowns, the global space economy continues to boom. And with Australia’s space industry taking off, the sky is definitely not the limit.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338774/original/file-20200601-83282-fi8sgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley piloted the Crew Dragon. It’s the first spacecraft to carry humans into space from US shores since 2011.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasakennedy/49727102273/">NASA Kennedy/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Steer receives funding from the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, and the Canadian Department of National Defence. </span></em></p>About 770 Australian entities are already developing space-related infrastructure, most of which are privately owned.Cassandra Steer, Lecturer, ANU Center for International and Public Law; Mission Specialist, ANU Institute for Space, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1231712019-09-10T03:34:04Z2019-09-10T03:34:04ZIndia’s moon mission should be considered a success, and a lesson in spacefaring<p>Over the weekend, India attempted to make history by becoming just the fourth nation to successfully land a probe on the Moon. It came agonisingly close, but after journeying millions of kilometres, the Vikram lander lost contact in the final few hundred metres and crash-landed on the lunar surface.</p>
<p>But it would be both unfair and plain wrong to label the mission a failure.</p>
<h2>Two-month trip</h2>
<p>After a postponed launch, India’s Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft began its journey to the Moon on July 22. </p>
<p>Onboard it carried the Vikram lander and Pragyan rover, equipped to search the lunar south pole for water and other valuable resources. Everything seemed to be going according to plan. Chandrayaan-2 completed several orbits around Earth and then the Moon, slowly making its way closer to the lunar surface and taking photographs the whole time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291446/original/file-20190909-109915-fxfe7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trajectory of the Chandrayaan 2 spacecraft.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Source: Indian Space Research Organisation.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On September 2, the Vikram lander separated and began to make its descent. All communications were normal until the lander was within 2km of its goal. </p>
<p>Then it went silent – a space engineer’s worst nightmare. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291454/original/file-20190909-109923-dak5dd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chandrayaan-2 Surveys the lunar surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Indian Space Research Organisation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Vikram, do you copy?</h2>
<p>So far, the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) engineers have not been able to reestablish communications with the lander. It’s likely Vikram landed with enough force to damage its communications equipment, as well as other instruments. </p>
<p>But all hope was not lost, as Chandrayaan-2 remained in orbit above the Moon and, with its high-resolution camera, was able to spot the lander. If oriented favourably, Vikram could still manage to power itself up. </p>
<p>ISRO has not admitted defeat and will keep trying to connect to Vikram for the next two weeks. However, the chances of success diminish with time.</p>
<p>While the Chandrayaan-2 mission has not gone as expected, it cannot be called a failure. The <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANDRYN2">Chandrayaan-2</a> orbiter will continue to monitor the Moon for up to seven years and the high-resolution images it takes will be vital to future international efforts to land on the Moon.</p>
<h2>Technically a success</h2>
<p>The near success of Vikram’s landing should be celebrated. To appreciate just how hard it is, let’s delve into some physics. </p>
<p>Earth is rotating and also hurtling through space at more than 100,000km per hour. The Moon is almost 400,000km away and travelling around 4,000km per hour as it orbits Earth. </p>
<p>To reach the Moon, you first have to escape Earth’s gravity and ensure you’re going at the right speed to orbit Earth a few times before moving far enough to be caught by the Moon. Then you slowly decrease your distance to the lunar surface, inching closer over several orbits until you are low enough to use powered assistance to land. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/india-has-it-right-nations-either-aim-for-the-moon-or-get-left-behind-in-the-space-economy-121497">India has it right: nations either aim for the Moon or get left behind in the space economy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It took the United States and Russia decades to design, plan and execute missions to the Moon. In fact, the ISRO was founded shortly after the successful Apollo 11 mission. </p>
<p>We should applaud the hard work India has done over the past 50 years to get this far. This sentiment was clear as Indian prime minister Narendra Modi <a href="https://www.space.com/india-prime-minister-chandrayaan-2-moon-landing-video-transcript.html">addressed</a> his country, all of whom stood in solidarity with the scientists who spent countless hours in pursuit of their goal.</p>
<h2>A global space community</h2>
<p>The story of the Indian lander echoes that of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/first-private-spacecraft-shoots-for-the-moon-109994">failed Israeli landing attempt</a> earlier this year. </p>
<p>The Beresheet lander was built by private company SpaceIL, which was chasing the coveted <a href="https://www.xprize.org/prizes/google-lunar">Google Lunar XPrize</a> when an engine malfunction caused it to swan dive into the Moon’s surface.</p>
<p>I mention this mission to reiterate just how hard the task is, but also to demonstrate that the old Cold War space superpowers are no longer the only ones in the game. Countries and even private companies across the world are gaining spacefaring capabilities and undertaking incredible missions that will enable humankind to go further than ever before. </p>
<p>In the next five years, more than a dozen missions to the Moon from six different countries, including Japan and Korea, are slated. This doesn’t include NASA’s ambitious <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/what-is-artemis">Artemis</a> mission that seeks to put the first woman on the Moon. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-reasons-india-china-and-other-nations-plan-to-travel-to-the-moon-87589">Five reasons India, China and other nations plan to travel to the Moon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But as the cliché goes, with great power comes great responsibility.</p>
<p>Now that countries across the world can send things into space, we must have solidarity as a global spacefaring community to consider how our actions up there will affect us on Earth and to ensure long-term success in space ventures. </p>
<p>This is not the last international space mission you will hear about in the news this year. </p>
<p>In coming years, we may even be discussing Australian ventures into space – and maybe even <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-can-pick-up-its-game-and-land-a-moon-mission-121109">to the Moon itself</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123171/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Allen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite a last-minute crash-landing, efforts behind India’s moon mission should be applauded. The endeavor has set an example for emerging space programs across the globe.Rebecca Allen, Swinburne Space Office Project Coordinator | Manager Swinburne Astronomy Productions, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/861772018-12-07T11:39:53Z2018-12-07T11:39:53ZHunting for rare isotopes: The mysterious radioactive atomic nuclei that will be in tomorrow’s technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249379/original/file-20181206-128202-1d16zby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers have identified 3,000 radioactive isotopes – and predict 4,000 more are out there.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/high-energy-particles-collision-abstract-illustration-539127385">GiroScience/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When you hear the term “radioactive” you likely think “bad news,” maybe along the lines of fallout from an atomic bomb.</p>
<p>But radioactive materials are actually used in a wide range of beneficial applications. In medicine, they routinely help diagnose and treat disease. Irradiation helps keep a number of foods free from insects and invasive pests. Archaeologists use them to figure out how old an artifact might be. And the list goes on.</p>
<p>So what is radioactivity?</p>
<p>It’s the spontaneous emission of radiation when an atom’s dense center – called its nucleus – transforms into a different one. Whether in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves called gamma rays, radiation transfers energy away from the atomic nucleus.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249353/original/file-20181206-128193-1ucj6s2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The nuclear chart showing the 250 or so stable isotopes in pink, the around 3,000 known rare isotopes in green and the approximately 4,000 predicted isotopes in grey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Erin O'Donnell, Michigan State University</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through experiments, nuclear physicists have seen about 3,000 different kinds of nuclei to date. Current theories, though, predict the existence of about 4,000 more that have never yet been observed. Around the world, thousands of scientists, <a href="https://www.artemisspyrou.com">including me</a>, continue to study these tiny constituents of matter, while governments spend billions of dollars on building powerful new machines that will produce more and more exotic nuclei – and maybe eventually more technologies that will further improve modern life. </p>
<h2>The birth of nuclear physics</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249330/original/file-20181206-128193-1qr8qdq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Henri Becquerel, 1904.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Becquerel,_Henri_(1852-1908).jpg">Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>French physicist <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/becquerel/biographical/">Henri Becquerel</a> discovered natural radioactivity in 1896. He was trying to study how uranium salts phosphoresce – that is, emit light – when they’re exposed to sunlight. Becquerel placed a uranium sample on a photographic plate covered with opaque paper and left it in direct sunlight. The plate got foggy, which he concluded was due to sun exposure.</p>
<p>Thanks to a few days of cloudy weather, though, Becquerel left his whole setup in a dark drawer. Surprisingly, the photographic plate still fogged up, even in the absence of light. Sunlight had nothing to do with his previous observation. It was the natural radioactivity of the uranium samples that had this effect. As the uranium nuclei decayed – that is, transformed into different nuclei – they spontaneously emitted lightwaves that registered on the photographic plates.</p>
<p>Becquerel’s discovery ushered in a new era of physics and launched the field of nuclear science. For this work, he won the Nobel Prize in 1903.</p>
<p>Since then, nuclear scientists have unraveled a lot of the inner workings of the atomic nucleus, and have harnessed its amazing energy both for good and unfortunately not so good uses. Nuclear physics discoveries have given us ways to look inside our bodies noninvasively, ways to create energy without air pollution, and ways to study our history and our environment.</p>
<h2>On the atomic level</h2>
<p>The known atomic nuclei belong to 118 different elements, some of them naturally occurring and some of them human-made. For every element on the periodic table there are many different “isotopes,” from the Greek word “ισότοπο,” which means “same place,” implying the same place on the periodic table of the elements.</p>
<p>To be the same element, two isotopes must have the same number of protons – the positively charged subatomic particle. It’s their number of neutrons – subatomic particles with no charge at all – that can vary significantly.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249332/original/file-20181206-128196-1lo06wp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The periodic table lists all the elements based on their number of protons. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons – for Beryllium it’s four – but various numbers of neutrons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Artemis Spyrou</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, gold is element 79 on the periodic table, and all isotopes of gold will have the same metallic, yellowish appearance. However, there are 40 known isotopes of gold that have been discovered, and another roughly 20 are theorized to exist. Only one of these isotopes is the “stable,” or naturally occurring, form of gold you might be wearing on your ring finger right now. The rest are radioactive isotopes, also known as “rare isotopes.”</p>
<p>Rare isotopes each have unique properties: They live for different amounts of time, from a fraction of a second to a few billion years, and they release different types of radiation and different amounts of energy.</p>
<p>For example, modern smoke detectors <a href="https://www3.epa.gov/radtown/americium-smoke-detectors.html">use the isotope Americium-241</a>, which emits a type of radiation called alpha particles that have a very short range. The radioactivity can’t travel more than a couple of inches in air. Americium-241 lives for a few hundred years.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the isotope Fluorine-18, which is commonly used in medical PET scans, lives for only about 100 minutes – long enough to complete the scan, but short enough to avoid irradiating the healthy body unnecessarily for an extended period. The secondary electromagnetic radiation that comes from Fluorine-18 is in the form of long-range gamma rays, which allows it to travel out of the body and into the PET cameras. </p>
<p>These different nuclear properties make each rare isotope unique, and nuclear physicists have to design specialized experiments to study each one of them separately.</p>
<h2>Hunting for more</h2>
<p>Current nuclear science research strives to develop new techniques for discovering new isotopes, understanding their properties, and eventually producing and harvesting them efficiently.</p>
<p>Producing rare isotopes <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPG919lJK8s&t=57s">is not an easy task</a>; it requires large machines that will make nuclei travel, and collide with each other, at speeds close to the speed of light. During these collisions nuclei can fuse together, or they can break each other apart, producing new nuclei, potentially with previously unseen combinations of protons and neutrons.</p>
<p>Nuclear physicists have dedicated equipment - detectors - that can observe these newly formed nuclei and the radiation they emit, and study their properties. For example, at the <a href="https://www.nscl.msu.edu">National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MFjq3JsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">where I work</a>, my group has developed an extremely efficient gamma ray detector we called SuN.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249321/original/file-20181206-128202-nxvd3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The SuN detector at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory measures gamma rays and helps researchers study the properties of rare isotopes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Artemis Spyrou</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The majority of the known isotopes emit gamma radiation when they decay. We want to know how much energy is released in this process, how many different gamma rays are emitted and how the energy is shared between them, and how long it takes for the decay to take place. SuN can answer these questions about whichever isotope we are investigating.</p>
<p>In a typical experiment, we implant a beam of rare isotopes at the center of SuN. The rare isotopes will decay of their own accord after a short amount of time, roughly one second or less, and emit their characteristic radiation. SuN detects these emitted gamma rays. It’s our job as nuclear experimentalists to put together the puzzle of how those gamma rays were emitted and what they tell us about the properties of the new isotope.</p>
<p>These kinds of production and detection techniques are complex and costly, and therefore there are only a handful of rare isotope laboratories in the world that can produce and study the most exotic nuclear species.</p>
<p>It’s impossible to predict which new discoveries in basic research will have an impact on people’s lives. Who could have known 100 years ago, when the electron was discovered, that for a few decades almost every house in the developed world would have an electron machine – otherwise known as a <a href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/tv3.htm">cathode-ray tube</a> – to watch television? And who could have guessed that the discovery of radioactivity would eventually lead to <a href="https://rps.nasa.gov/power-and-thermal-systems/power-systems/current/">space exploration powered by radioactive decays</a>?</p>
<p>In the same way, we cannot predict which rare isotope discoveries will be the game-changers, but with more than half of the predicted isotopes still unexplored, to me the possibilities feel endless.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86177/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Artemis Spyrou receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy/National Nuclear Security Administration. </span></em></p>Alongside their famous dangers, radioactive materials have many beneficial uses. With as many more predicted as have already been discovered, nuclear physicists are searching for more isotopes.Artemis Spyrou, Associate Professor of Nuclear Physics, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.