tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/articles-for-young-people-49304/articlesArticles for young people – The Conversation2019-12-09T01:11:07Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1251352019-12-09T01:11:07Z2019-12-09T01:11:07Z‘How do I clean my penis?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305101/original/file-20191204-70167-1dlj45h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=538%2C0%2C2958%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>Growing up, no one ever gave me the rundown on how or what I should do to keep my penis clean […] I’ve never read any reliable answer beyond washing it with water. Do I use soap? Any soap? How normal is smegma? If my penis gets itchy from smegma should I go see a doctor? If so, my GP or a urologist? — Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>clean under the foreskin, using soap, but not too much</li>
<li>smegma is normal</li>
<li>if you have any concerns, see your GP.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>It’s a shame some people think talking about cleaning and caring for our genitals is embarrassing or taboo. We probably know more about hair care than penis care.</p>
<p>The penis is simply another part of our anatomy, so cleaning should be relatively straight forward.</p>
<p>If you’ve been circumcised, where your foreskin was removed soon after birth, your penis will look something like the one in the diagram (below, right), with the head (or glans) always exposed.</p>
<p>But if you have a foreskin (below left and centre), there are some extra things to think about when washing, which we’ll get to soon.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Foreskin facts</h2>
<p>But first, some foreskin facts. From around the time you turn five, your foreskin <a href="http://www.cirp.org/library/hygiene/camille1/">separates</a> from the head of your penis, bit by bit. This allows you to pull back your foreskin (retract it). In some boys, the foreskin can stay partially stuck to the head of the penis until puberty.</p>
<p>You should <a href="https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/boyhood-studies/1/2/bhs010206.xml">never forcibly pull back</a> your foreskin. That’ll be painful, you could bleed, you could scar, or have other complications.</p>
<h2>OK, now for the washing part</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.cirp.org/library/hygiene/camille1/">Once your foreskin separates easily from the glans</a>, gently retract and clean underneath the foreskin with each bath or shower. Then, after washing, pull the foreskin forward to its normal position.</p>
<p>When it’s time to dry off, retract the foreskin again so you can dry the head of the penis with a towel. Then, you guessed it, pull the foreskin forward to its normal position.</p>
<p>It’s OK to clean with soap whether you have a foreskin or not. But generally, too much soap is worse than none at all. Excessive cleaning removes essential body oils that would normally keep our skin moist and reduce friction. If you have sensitive skin, you can use a soap-free wash from the chemist.</p>
<h2>What about smegma?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/smegma">Smegma</a> is a thick, whitish discharge consisting of a build-up of dead skin cells, oil and other fluids under the foreskin. And it’s very useful. It protects and lubricates the penis. </p>
<p>Some people have oilier skin than others and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1034.x">tend to have more smegma</a>.
So some smegma is normal, but if you have too much or it becomes smelly, you may need to clean more.</p>
<h2>Things to watch out for (and when to see your GP)</h2>
<p>If the head of your penis becomes painful, red, itchy and has a discharge, you may have a treatable condition called <a href="https://www.mshc.org.au/SexualHealthInformation/SexualHealthFactSheets/BALANITIS/tabid/134/Default.aspx#.XcJiPfZuKUk">balanitis</a>.</p>
<p>It’s more common if you have a foreskin. And the bacteria and fungus that cause it like the warm and moist conditions under there.</p>
<p>Skin disorders, infection, poor hygiene, friction from sexual activity, and using too much soap all <a href="https://www.dermnetnz.org/topics/balanitis/">cause the condition</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-make-your-next-sexual-health-check-less-erm-awkward-72498">How to make your next sexual health check less, erm ... awkward</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>You can clear a mild case with good hygiene and simple treatments, such as an antiseptic or antifungal cream. You can buy these from any pharmacy. In addition to the medication, the cream itself helps protect and moisturise the inflammed skin. </p>
<p>If you have balanitis you may need to be more careful than usual to avoid urine irritating your inflamed skin. Retract your foreskin when you urinate. Dry the head of the penis gently after you finish.</p>
<p>If your penis is still inflamed after a week of these simple measures it’s <a href="https://www.aafp.org/afp/2018/0115/p102.html">best to see your GP</a>. They can then investigate other causes, such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537143/">psoriasis or an allergy</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125135/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David King does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s a surprisingly common question. Here’s what you need to know.David King, Senior Lecturer in General Practice, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1278992019-12-01T13:37:08Z2019-12-01T13:37:08ZCurious Kids: Why is the moon called the moon?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303841/original/file-20191126-112522-qov6cy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C0%2C4635%2C1644&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are many moons in the galaxy, but only ours is called the moon.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. Have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidscanada@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsCanada@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why is the moon called the moon? Other planets’ moons have great names, ours is just what it is. — Verity, 16; Will, 15; Keenan, 13; and Anthea, 11, Halifax, N.S.</strong> </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The origin of the moon’s name is a very interesting story. Humans have been aware of this great white orb in the sky ever since they first roamed the Earth. </p>
<p>The moon’s appearance changes as the months pass. It moves through phases from full moon to new moon, and back again. </p>
<h2>Where did the word moon come from?</h2>
<p>The Earth has just one moon. It is best known as the moon in the English-speaking world because people in ancient times used the moon to measure the passing of the months. </p>
<p><a href="https://gizmodo.com/how-the-moon-got-its-name-1696701328">The word moon can be traced</a> to the word <em>mōna</em>, an Old English word from medieval times. <em>Mōna</em> shares its origins with the Latin words <em>metri</em>, which means to measure, and <em>mensis</em>, which means month. </p>
<p>So, we see that the moon is called the moon because it is used to measure the months.</p>
<h2>Galileo’s discovery</h2>
<p>So, why do the moons around other planets have names, while ours is just the moon? </p>
<p>When the moon was named, people only knew about our moon. That all changed in 1610 when an Italian astronomer called Galileo Galilei discovered what we now know are the four largest moons of Jupiter. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303840/original/file-20191126-112545-ng3tmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A statue of Galileo Galilei in Florence, Italy. He was a 16th century Italian scientist who is known as the father of modern astronomy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other astronomers across Europe discovered five moons around Saturn during the 1600s. These objects became known as moons because they were close to their planets, just as our own moon is close to the Earth. </p>
<p>It’s fair to say that other moons are named after our own moon. </p>
<p>The newly discovered moons were each given beautiful names to identify them among the growing number of planets and moons astronomers were finding in the solar system. </p>
<p>Many of these names came from Greek myths. The four large moons Galilei discovered around Jupiter were named Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. </p>
<p>Astronomers continue to find new moons orbiting planets in our solar system. In October 2019, they announced they had newly <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/20-new-moons-saturn-now-most-any-solar-system-planet">discovered 20 moons around Saturn</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidscanada@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsCanada@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit — adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127899/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Toby Brown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Young readers ask: How did our moon get its name?Toby Brown, Postdoctoral Fellow in Astrophysics, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1262212019-11-05T14:24:45Z2019-11-05T14:24:45ZCurious Kids: why were there separate jobs for men and women in Victorian times?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300254/original/file-20191105-88394-16q4bmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C72%2C1347%2C1121&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A satirical photograph from 1901, where men's and women's dress and jobs are switched. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Woman#/media/File:The_new_woman--wash_day-crop.png">Underwood & Underwood/Wikimedia Commons. </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Why were there separate jobs for men and women in Victorian times? – Malala Yousafzai class, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</strong></p>
<p>Many Victorians thought that women and men had very different bodies and skills, meaning they were suited to different types of work. </p>
<p>They assumed that men had strong muscles and could think more rationally than women. So they thought that men were better suited to hard physical labour (such as coal mining) or to professional work needing lots of learning (being a doctor, for example). </p>
<p>They also thought that women were physically weaker, with less brain-power, but that they were good at emotional things such as showing sympathy and kindness. </p>
<p>This meant that women were mostly given simpler jobs (such as being an assistant to a man), or ones that required caring (like nursing). Women were also expected to do a lot of work around the house – but they didn’t get any money for this.</p>
<h2>Victorian values</h2>
<p>Now we understand that both men and women can be either muscly or weak, clever or not so clever, kind or cruel. But for most of the Victorian era, people thought it was normal for men and women to be treated differently, and judged by different standards. </p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p><em>Hello, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Send it in to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>, along with your name, age and area where you live. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>This made life difficult for both men and women. Men were expected <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4285488?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">to be the “breadwinner”</a>, which means earning enough money to pay the rent and buy enough food to eat, without asking their partner and children to work as well. This could be stressful, if their jobs did not pay very well. Unskilled men working as farm labourers, for example, might have been paid <a href="http://www.victorianweb.org/economics/wages2.html">less than one pound</a> per week. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jfN60ZlZhpY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Women were expected to be <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/victorian_britain/women_home/ideals_womanhood_04.shtml">mothers and housekeepers</a> – to cook meals, keep the house clean and tidy and look after everyone. This could also be tough, as women might get bored, or struggle to run their homes using just their husband’s wages. Some women would have needed to do some paid work as well, if their husbands weren’t earning enough. </p>
<p>Most adults were expected to get married and have children – so it was quite difficult to escape this pattern, where the man is the breadwinner and the woman is the housekeeper. </p>
<h2>Hardworking women</h2>
<p>Throughout the Victorian period, there were women who – by doing things that needed strength or intelligence – showed that they could be just as clever, strong or rational as men. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300250/original/file-20191105-88368-hxu6ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Portrait of Ada Lovelace by Alfred Edward Chalon, 1838.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace#/media/File:Ada_Lovelace_portrait.jpg">Wikimedia Commons.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/49960544">Ada Lovelace</a> was a mathematician – a pioneer who helped to make some of the first designs and programmes for computers. But she did this work for fun, rather than as a job, and was never given much credit for it during her lifetime. </p>
<p>Lots of poorer women were paid to do work at home, which meant they had to keep working for long periods of time, often <a href="http://tailoredtrades.exeter.ac.uk/exhibitions/sweatedindustries/">more than 12 hours a day</a>, as well as trying to look after their children. </p>
<p>But they earned so little that they often had to focus on doing the job, rather than being a mum. Women who made clothes at home often worked so hard they were actually called <a href="https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/working-home-key-gender-equality">“sweated” labourers</a>.</p>
<h2>Being human</h2>
<p>Being emotional is a human trait, not a male or female one, so of course there were men who found it difficult to cope with the expectation that they should be strong and rational all the time. Men who did not think they could show their feelings could become <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1448629#.XcFcltV8uUk">quite ill</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300252/original/file-20191105-88428-s8x0dk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Charles Darwin, photographed by Julia Margaret Cameron.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_01.jpg#/media/File:Darwin_Profile.JPG">Wikimedia Commons.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is difficult to find examples of men who confessed to emotional struggles, but the famous scientist Charles Darwin was poorly throughout his life, and historians have suggested this was partly <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0967772014555291?journalCode=jmba">caused by stress</a>.</p>
<p>By the end of the Victorian era, there was a growing sense that women should be able to do more of the things reserved for men – which included getting jobs, voting, holding elected office and being celebrated for their achievements. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://spartacus-educational.com/Wbutler.htm">Josephine Butler</a>, campaigned for women’s rights and, after her death in 1906, her name was added to a public memorial celebrating reformers. </p>
<p>The range of jobs that men and women could choose to do grew throughout the 20th century. Now, it’s pretty normal for a man to be a nurse, or a woman to be a soldier. And though some old-fashioned ideas about the roles of men and women still exist, there’s much more freedom for everyone to choose whatever job suits them best. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. When sending in questions, make sure you include the asker’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-can-we-see-what-we-are-imagining-as-well-as-whats-in-front-of-us-124944?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How did humans think about things, before they had language to think with? – Katie, aged 11, Sydney, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-ripples-form-and-why-do-they-spread-out-across-the-water-120308?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How do ripples form and why do they spread out across the water? – Rowan, aged six, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-our-brain-send-signals-to-our-body-124950?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How does our brain send signals to our body? – Aarav, aged nine, Mumbai, India.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126221/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alannah Tomkins receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council.</span></em></p>For most of the Victorian era, people thought it was normal for men and women to be treated differently, and judged by different standards.Alannah Tomkins, Professor of History, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1261462019-11-01T15:31:01Z2019-11-01T15:31:01ZCurious Kids: how did humans think about things, before they had language to think with?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299866/original/file-20191101-88409-8goaf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=112%2C67%2C4790%2C3196&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You don't actually need language to think. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/imagination-concept-girl-reading-book-air-252130108?src=ac533b4a-110a-417a-9813-1fa8567271b6-1-83">bluelela/Shutterstock. </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How did humans think about things, before they had language to think with? – Katie, aged 11, Sydney, Australia.</strong></p>
<p>When we think, most of us have the feeling that words flow through our minds. If you stop to “listen” to your own thoughts, though, you will be amazed by how jumbled and chaotic they are. Our inner voice is something of an inner mumbler, creating a stream of disconnected words and phrases, rather than crystal-clear speech. </p>
<p>It is easy to imagine that we think in whatever language we speak – whether English, Spanish or Mandarian. But this is entirely wrong: language can express some of the results of our thinking, but it’s not the thinking itself. </p>
<h2>Get it?</h2>
<p>For example, think about what happens when you “get” a joke – like this <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-28838287">award-winning joke</a>
by comedian Tim Vine: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I’ve decided to sell my hoover … well, it was just collecting dust.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Whether you laugh or groan (I rather like it), you need to do a lot of thinking to figure about what the joke even is. </p>
<p>You’ll need to remember that “collecting dust” is usually a snide remark about something that just sits in a cupboard, unused, so that dust settles on top of it. And you’ll realise that hoovers are made especially to suck up or collect dust, so it’s silly to criticise them for doing that. And that’s why the joke is funny. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>You must have reasoned along these lines, or you wouldn’t have “got” the joke. But I bet you reacted to the joke long before you had thought about what it meant using words. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299867/original/file-20191101-88382-1wxrw2g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Instant lols.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/three-girls-white-dresses-walk-nature-1545825839?src=da002c91-06b8-45af-8ad7-e35d9f57bfe2-1-29">Galina Kovalenko/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And that is always true: the thoughts come first, and the expression of our thoughts in words, whether out loud, or in our heads, comes later and much more slowly – if at all. </p>
<p>Another example is the complex thinking you need to do when playing a fast-moving video game. You might sometimes say “oh no!” or “got you!” as you play, but if I were to try and make you say all your plans out loud in words, you would slow to a snail’s pace. </p>
<h2>Smart species</h2>
<p>So we can, and do, think about things without language, all the time. I don’t think in English, but I can report some of my thoughts in English, when I have the time to do so. </p>
<p>And it turns out that people who have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4874898/">aphasia</a> – which means they sometimes can’t use or understand language, perhaps because they had a stroke – can do difficult maths, problem solving and reasoning tasks, so long, of course, as these don’t involve language. </p>
<p>You can test this yourself, by shutting down your inner voice. Simply repeat a single word quickly, either out loud or in your head – a trick psychologists call <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articulatory_suppression">“articulatory suppression”</a>. </p>
<p>You’ll find that while you’re repeating the word, you can no longer think using words, but you can still plan, reason and imagine, pretty much as normal.</p>
<p>But even though we don’t think in language, it does help us make our thoughts clear. In fact, the real magic of language is that it helps us share our thoughts with other people. </p>
<p>This means we don’t have to face the world all by ourselves – we can learn from the cleverness of the generations who have gone before us. This lets humans develop the really complicated scientific theories, laws, financial systems, histories and stories that make our lives so incredibly rich. </p>
<p>So we can, and do, think without language. But the invention of language is the special trick that makes us so amazingly smart as a species. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-ripples-form-and-why-do-they-spread-out-across-the-water-120308?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How do ripples form and why do they spread out across the water? – Rowan, aged six, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-our-brain-send-signals-to-our-body-124950?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How does our brain send signals to our body? – Aarav, aged nine, Mumbai, India.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-can-we-see-what-we-are-imagining-as-well-as-whats-in-front-of-us-124944?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How can we see what we are imagining but still see what’s in front of us? – Malala Yousafzai class, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126146/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Chater receives funding from ESRC and EPSRC. He is a Professor of Behavioural Science at Warwick Business School, co-founder of Decision Technology Ltd, and a member of the UK's Committee on Climate Change. </span></em></p>Language can express some of the results of our thinking, but it’s not the thinking itself.Nick Chater, Professor of Behavioural Science, Warwick Business School, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1203082019-10-28T14:52:39Z2019-10-28T14:52:39ZCurious Kids: how do ripples form and why do they spread out across the water?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298940/original/file-20191028-113987-ptaspz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C120%2C3280%2C2106&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The ripple effect.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/detail-water-drop-splash-280061825">Forance/Shutterstock. </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>When I was playing “splash rocks”, I noticed that when I threw the rock into the river it made a circle shape, which got bigger. How does it make the ripple? Why do the circles spread out further and further? Why do they stop? – Rowan, aged six, UK.</strong> </p>
<p>Hi Rowan, these are good questions, and a fun experiment to do. </p>
<p>When you throw a rock into a river, it pushes water out of the way, making a ripple that moves away from where it landed. As the rock falls deeper into the river, the water near the surface rushes back to fill in the space it left behind. </p>
<p>The water usually rushes back too enthusiastically, causing a splash – and the bigger the rock, the bigger the splash. The splash then creates even more ripples that tend to move away from where the rock went into the water.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RRPP73QM_4k?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>When water is in its calmest, lowest energy state, it has a flat surface. By throwing the rock into the river, you have given the water some energy. That causes the water to move around, trying to spread out the energy so it can go back to having a still, flat surface. </p>
<p>This follows a powerful <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_minimum_energy">principle of physics</a>, which is that everything seeks to find a state where its energy is as small as possible.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>One way energy can move around is by forming waves. For example, the waves you see at the beach <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-are-there-waves-112015">are formed</a> by energy from the wind. Light and sound <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-is-everything-really-made-of-molecules-109145">also move in waves</a>, though we can’t see that directly. And the ripples that you see in the river are small waves carrying away the energy from where you threw the rock.</p>
<h2>Up and down</h2>
<p>You might already know that <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-is-everything-really-made-of-molecules-109145">everything you can touch</a> is made up of lots of tiny molecules, which are themselves made up of even smaller parts called atoms. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-is-everything-really-made-of-molecules-109145">Curious Kids: is everything really made of molecules?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Water is also made of molecules. But during a ripple, the water molecules don’t move away from the rock, as you might expect. They actually move up and down. When they move up, they drag the other molecules next to them up – then they move down, dragging the molecules next to them down too. </p>
<p>That’s what creates the peaks and troughs you see on the surface of the water. And that’s how the ripple travels away from your rock – a bit like a human wave around a stadium. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BsCBWE5lHr4","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Dragging neighbouring water molecules up and down is hard work, and slowly uses up energy, so the ripples get smaller as they get further away. Eventually, the ripples use up all the energy from the rock and the splash, and shrink until we can no longer see them. </p>
<h2>Rippling out</h2>
<p>Ripples often spread out in circles, but this isn’t the only possibility. If you throw a stick into the water it will create straight ripples on the sides, and round ripples near the ends. So your rock probably made circular ripples because the rock itself was quite round. </p>
<p>But something else is happening too: different waves move at different speeds. Waves with a lot of energy move more quickly. For example, really big tidal waves, or tsunamis, race across the ocean <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/1/tsunamis-facts-about-killer-waves/">as fast as a plane flies</a> (up to 800 kilometres per hour). </p>
<p>When you throw a stick into the water, the ripples from the middle of the stick eventually catch up with the ripples from the ends, because of the different ways they spread out. So far away from the stick, the ripples are round … just like they were for your rock.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-our-brain-send-signals-to-our-body-124950?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How does our brain send signals to our body? – Aarav, aged nine, Mumbai, India.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-can-we-see-what-we-are-imagining-as-well-as-whats-in-front-of-us-124944?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How can we see what we are imagining but still see what’s in front of us? – Malala Yousafzai class, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-is-the-sea-salty-124743?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why is the sea salty? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120308/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cox does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The simple experiment of throwing a rock into water actually reveals some fundamental rules of physics.Simon Cox, Professor of Mathematics, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249502019-10-23T13:31:26Z2019-10-23T13:31:26ZCurious Kids: how does our brain send signals to our body?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298296/original/file-20191023-119423-1ijaew1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=212%2C0%2C3443%2C2155&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/human-central-nervous-system-brain-anatomy-1501719908?src=htHV4U_dCZq18bIwDFZJOA-1-41">Magic mine/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How does our brain send signals to our body? – Aarav, aged nine, Mumbai, India.</strong></p>
<p>For hundreds of years, scientists have tried to understand the human brain – known as <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/editorials/the-human-brain-is-the-most-complex-structure-in-the-universe-let-s-do-all-we-can-to-unravel-its-9233125.html">the most complex organ</a> in the universe. </p>
<p>The average human brain contains about 86 billion nerve cells, called neurons. These are the building blocks of your brain. Neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical and electrical signals. </p>
<p>Each neuron is connected with other neurons across tiny junctions called “synapses”. Impulses rush along tiny fibres, like electrical wires, from one neuron to the next. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298306/original/file-20191023-119414-19vz68x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Electrical impulses travel through neurons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/active-nerve-cells-3d-rendering-764353078?src=jVALGC811PjTAywtLz_z8A-1-3">Giovanni Canchemi/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Every time you recognise a familiar face, hear a voice, learn something new or read a word like this, millions of neurons are communicating with each other through hundreds of millions of synapses. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Making sense</h2>
<p>The brain is the body’s control centre: it sends messages to your body through a network of nerves called “the nervous system”, which controls your muscles, so that you can walk, run and move around. </p>
<p>The nervous system extends through your body from your spinal cord, which runs from your brain down your backbone, like the branches of a tree. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-can-we-see-what-we-are-imagining-as-well-as-whats-in-front-of-us-124944">Curious Kids: how can we see what we are imagining as well as what's in front of us?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The brain is also in charge of the way you experience the world around you. Imagine you’re walking in a forest. The light bouncing off the trees enters your open eyes; the chirping sounds of the birds reach your ears; and the damp smell of the forest soil wafts up your nose. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298294/original/file-20191023-119405-1huw80o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sensational.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-girl-dog-walking-on-road-167767784?src=ARg96TzR491-6KzUXFJTyg-1-32">vvvita/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The nerve cells in your eyes, ears and nose detect these sensations, and send signals to different parts of your brain, which turn them into what you see, hear and smell – all in a matter of milliseconds. </p>
<h2>Sending signals</h2>
<p>As well as sending electrical signals through the nervous system, the brain also uses chemical signals to control processes in the body. </p>
<p>Have you ever wondered why you feel sleepy? When the sun goes down, a part of your brain called the pineal gland produces a hormone called melatonin, which makes you feel tired. </p>
<p>Melatonin is produced a few hours later in teenagers than it is in adults and children. This makes teenagers want to go to bed and wake up later than adults and children. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-biological-reason-why-its-so-hard-for-teenagers-to-wake-up-early-for-school-88802">The biological reason why it's so hard for teenagers to wake up early for school</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/111/1110515/inventing-ourselves/9781784161347.html">Teenagers are not lazy</a>: it’s all to do with how the brain sends signals to the body. </p>
<h2>A sense of self</h2>
<p>As well as allowing us to move around and understand what’s going on in the world, the brain gives us a sense of who we are – a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02207-1">“sense of self”</a>, that’s different to other people. </p>
<p>Scientists don’t quite yet understand how the brain creates each person’s sense of self. But <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3742683/">research has shown</a> that when people think they are being watched by others, certain parts of their brains are busy. This part – called the “medial prefrontal cortex” – is what makes you feel self-conscious. </p>
<p>The human brain, with its billions of neurons working together, is sending signals to your body to determine how you feel, from one moment to the next. </p>
<p>The brain is <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/23719305-how-emotions-are-made">always trying</a> to find ways to explain the sensations that we feel in our body. And the same sensation can have different meanings in different contexts. Here’s an example: when you see a delicious piece of cake and your stomach churns, your brain might send signals to your body that you’re hungry and excited. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298303/original/file-20191023-119423-eaegpx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You’re making me hungry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/chocolate-cake-fresh-sweet-cherry-1453652648?src=a8oThWtb6GjszZCXz2dhhQ-1-4">Dream79/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But if you’re about to have a test at school, your brain may give a different meaning to that churning stomach and create feelings of fear or anxiety. </p>
<p>The experiences you have become part of how your brain makes sense of what is happening to you. This means that people have more control over their emotions than they might think, because the brain can learn how to respond to experiences differently. As author <a href="https://www.hayhouse.com/the-power-of-intention-paperback">Wayne Dyer said</a>: “If you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change.” </p>
<p>From perceiving the world through the five senses, to creating our sense of self, uncovering how the human brain sends signals to our body is one of the biggest mysteries in science.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
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<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-can-we-see-what-we-are-imagining-as-well-as-whats-in-front-of-us-124944?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How can we see what we are imagining but still see what’s in front of us? – Malala Yousafzai class, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-is-the-sea-salty-124743?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why is the sea salty? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-i-have-boogies-and-why-does-my-nose-keep-replicating-them-122660?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them? – Duncan, aged seven, Sydney, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124950/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Georgia Chronaki does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A scientist explains how the brain works, for younger readers. Georgia Chronaki, Senior Lecturer in Developmental Neuroscience, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249442019-10-14T14:57:32Z2019-10-14T14:57:32ZCurious Kids: how can we see what we are imagining as well as what’s in front of us?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296890/original/file-20191014-135501-1r4zgav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C4016&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You might be daydreaming, but your brain is hard at work.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/muslim-woman-holding-pen-handput-wireless-1503771215?src=AqmA4eYQgoN-AJNsjbJ_1A-4-27">February_Love/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How can we see what we are imagining but still see what’s in front of us? – Malala Yousafzai class, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</strong></p>
<p>This question gets right at the heart of a big issue for brain scientists. Say you’re daydreaming in class – you can have your eyes open and be aware of the colours and shapes in the classroom and the movement of your teacher and classmates, while at the same time “seeing” whatever you’re thinking of or imagining. </p>
<p>These two kinds of seeing are quite different, but they both happen in the same part at the back of our brain – the <a href="https://kids.kiddle.co/Visual_cortex">visual cortex</a>. Messages coming from different places can cause the visual cortex to become active, and whenever that happens, you “see” things. </p>
<p>To understand how this happens, imagine that you are a brain. You’re locked up inside a skull – a dark, silent vault. You’re in charge of a body, and you somehow need to know what’s going on in the world around you in order to guide this body successfully. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>One place the messages can come from is your eyes: light bounces off the objects around you and enters your eyes (if they’re open). The light is then focused onto <a href="http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_02/d_02_cl/d_02_cl_vis/d_02_cl_vis.html">the retina</a> – a thin layer of light sensitive cells on the back of your eyeball. </p>
<p>The cells in the retina then send messages through the optic nerve, back towards the visual cortex. There, <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/09/190909123715.htm">different parts of the visual cortex</a> get to work decoding colours, edges and outlines and movements and faces. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296866/original/file-20191014-135483-1utlkoo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How the brain sees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/visual-projection-pathway-78253603">Alila Medical Media/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The brain then puts all those visual messages back together again, allowing you to see what’s around you. </p>
<h2>Imagining things</h2>
<p>Remember, as far as the brain’s concerned, it doesn’t really matter where the messages are coming from – when the visual cortex is active, you are seeing. </p>
<p>So the messages could also be coming from other parts of your brain – and this is what happens when you see the things you imagine, remember or dream. </p>
<p>For example, sometimes hearing a song can make you remember where you were the last time you heard it. The sound can cause a cascade of activity in the brain: messages go from the parts of the brain that hear, to the parts that remember and eventually to the parts that see – and that’s how you experience a memory. </p>
<h2>Patterns and predictions</h2>
<p>That explains how your brain manages two different ways of seeing. But it takes a <a href="https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JacquelineLing.shtml">lot of energy</a> for your brain to see what’s going on around you, based on the messages it gets from your eyes. So there’s another trick the brain uses for seeing, to help save itself some effort: it tries to predict what’s about to happen, based on your past experiences.</p>
<p>Even before babies are born, they’re already <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/infant-perception#ref321346">learning about the patterns</a> that exist in the world. As babies get older, they learn from these patterns to predict what’s going to happen next. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296939/original/file-20191014-135501-2wszhj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning every day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-mom-cute-little-newborn-girl-1530181796?src=UlilVJ96S67OcEmeu7GP1A-1-29">PV Productions/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, the first time a baby sees her dad goes around a corner, she might think he’s disappeared, and get upset. Then, when dad comes back, the baby might be surprised and happy. </p>
<p>But after this happens a few times, the baby starts to expect that her dad will come back from around the corner, and won’t be surprised anymore. </p>
<h2>Balancing act</h2>
<p>So, your brain is actually making up what you see all the time, based on messages from different places, as well as your expectations. </p>
<p>The brain keeps a delicate balance between these messages and expectations, to help guide you through the world, while also saving energy. </p>
<p>So if the teacher calls your name while you’re daydreaming in class, your brain quickly switches from imagining things, to paying close attention to the messages coming from your senses about what’s going on in the classroom. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-is-the-sea-salty-124743?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why is the sea salty? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-i-have-boogies-and-why-does-my-nose-keep-replicating-them-122660?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them? – Duncan, aged seven, Sydney, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-could-humans-live-on-kepler-452-b-123786?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Can we live on Kepler 452-b? – Year Five, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124944/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Niia Nikolova receives funding from The Leverhulme Trust.</span></em></p>Your brain balances messages coming from lots of different places to help you see, imagine, remember and dream.Niia Nikolova, Research Associate, University of Strathclyde Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249402019-10-11T10:32:28Z2019-10-11T10:32:28Z‘I’m up late at night worrying about global warming – please can you put my mind at rest?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296654/original/file-20191011-96257-1rkfov8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C115%2C5486%2C3547&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-women-sitting-on-wooden-bridge-1522491458?src=8AVALHj34vomfnUXJ8omhw-1-34">Patty so/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>I’m up late at night worrying that my baby brothers may die from global warming and other threats to humanity – please can you put my mind at rest? – Sophie, aged 17, East Sussex, UK</strong></p>
<p>Dear Sophie,</p>
<p>Thank you for asking this really important question. I know from <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783030117405">my work as a psychotherapist</a>
and with the <a href="https://www.climatepsychologyalliance.org">Climate Psychology Alliance</a> that lots of other young people are worrying about global warming and the climate crisis, too. There’s even a term for it: <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/b2e7ee32-ad28-4ec4-89aa-a8b8c98f95a5">“eco-anxiety”</a>. </p>
<p>I know that may not be much comfort, but it’s important to remember when you are worrying about something – especially something as huge as climate change – that you are not the only one feeling this way. So, my first piece of advice to you is to carry on doing what you have done here – do not keep your worries to yourself: talk with people about this, because sharing worries does help to make them a little better. </p>
<p>If you are not sure who to talk to then maybe start by listening to <a href="https://www.climatepsychologyalliance.org/podcasts/381-podcast-navigating-youth-in-a-time-of-climate-change">these podcasts</a> by young people talking about how they coped with their eco-anxiety, and there are lots of <a href="https://youngminds.org.uk/blog/why-we-all-need-to-be-better-listeners/">good blogs</a> and <a href="https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/anxiety-and-panic-attacks/self-care-for-anxiety/#.XZ_IVi2ZM_M">advice</a> online that can help as well.</p>
<p>I also want to say that I am really impressed by what a caring big sister you are. You are worrying about your baby brothers but do not say that you are worrying so much about yourself. They are lucky to have such a loving and protective big sister as you. </p>
<p>Our loving relationships with family and friends are important to remember when we’re worrying about things. Make sure that you ask others to look after you sometimes, then you can look after them in return when they need it – that always helps.</p>
<h2>Understanding eco-anxiety</h2>
<p>Eco-anxiety <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rise-of-eco-anxiety-climate-change-affects-our-mental-health-too-123002">is being felt</a> more and more by people as they “wake up” to the climate and ecological problems that humanity is facing. But it is not just anxiety: people also experience feelings of grief, anger, guilt, fear, shame and panic – sometimes all in one day. This can be confusing, and create even more anxiety. </p>
<p>Sometimes, we worry about our feelings and tell ourselves that we should not be feeling them (or other people say this to us). But it’s really important to remember that whatever feelings you’re having – even if they’re not nice to feel – are okay, you’re not going crazy and there is nothing wrong with you. Your fears are a really healthy response to what is going on in the world. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Do not be self-critical, be kind to yourself and be proud – because these feelings show how much you care about your brothers, and the state of the world. That’s why I sometimes call it “eco-awareness” or “eco-empathy”, rather than eco-anxiety. </p>
<h2>Taking action</h2>
<p>One of the best ways to deal with this anxiety is to take some action, so that we do not feel powerless and helpless. I suggest that you join a group that is organising discussions or taking action to help protect the environment. </p>
<p>The school strike for climate groups are very supportive, but you could also suggest to your friends or classmates that you get together to talk about these things – maybe with a counsellor or teacher or another adult, or maybe on your own. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Supportive strikers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/leicester-england-september-20-2019-activists-1511842949?src=OaEky4TQ0GnkBII9nDzExg-1-64">Michael715/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Between you, I am sure you can support each other and discuss how you can take positive action to use these anxieties and worries to make yourselves feel more powerful in the world. These things can start small, but they do make a huge difference to us all. These worries can be put to good use – and that’s often the best way to put your mind to rest.</p>
<h2>Remember to breathe</h2>
<p>Also – when you feel anxiety, it might sound silly, but <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/breathing-exercises-for-anxiety#lions-breath">remember to breathe</a>. We <a href="https://www.uhs.nhs.uk/Media/Controlleddocuments/Patientinformation/Stayinginhospital/Anxietyandbreathingdifficulties-patientinformation.pdf">often hold our breath</a> when we are anxious, and that makes it much worse. Here is a list of things I suggest to people to remember when they feel anxious: </p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Stop</strong>: don’t panic or let your thoughts run away with you into horrible fantasies. Do not let your fears control you, but do not shut them down either </li>
<li><strong>Breathe</strong>: slowly in and out, count the breaths and count to ten on each in and out breath </li>
<li><strong>Think</strong>: reassure yourself, ask yourself these sort of questions – am I panicking too much here? Can I calm my fears down? What can I do to help myself? Who else can I talk to?</li>
<li><strong>Connect</strong>: with other people, for example by joining a community or group</li>
<li><strong>Act</strong>: in some positive way, even if it is very small </li>
</ul>
<h2>Facing the future</h2>
<p>The reason I have focused on how you can cope with your worries – rather than addressing your concerns about your baby brothers – is that we cannot promise that everything will be okay in the future. But what we can try do is make sure that you, me and everyone else is emotionally resilient enough to cope with whatever happens. </p>
<p>That means that we have to be good at listening to our feelings, be good at listening to other people too. We have to be kind to ourselves, to cope with a mix of feelings, to have empathy for other people and also ourselves, to be creative and also to be able to think when we are scared.</p>
<p>We also have to have a balance between thinking about worrying things, and also thinking about the good things that are around – these are just as important. So while I can’t promise you that everything will be okay, I can promise that lots of people – including parents, psychotherapists and school strikers – will be working very hard and taking action to help people deal with things. And that means learning to build this emotional strength, together. </p>
<p>Then, in the future (whatever that looks like) you can teach these lessons to your baby brothers and help them deal with their fears. So, you will be helping them by helping yourself. That is the most important thing you can do to take care of them, and yourself, at the moment. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443">Imagine newsletter: researchers think of a world with climate action</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caroline Hickman is affiliated with The Climate Psychology Alliance. </span></em></p>In the face of the climate crisis, a lot of young people are experiencing eco-anxiety – here, a psychotherapist explains how to cope.Caroline Hickman, Teaching Fellow in Social Work and Psychotherapy, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1247432019-10-09T12:51:02Z2019-10-09T12:51:02ZCurious Kids: why is the sea salty?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296197/original/file-20191009-3872-f1k9k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C173%2C4804%2C3038&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/aWo49dHxYVE">Grant Elliott/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Why is the sea salty? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</strong></p>
<p>Two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, and <a href="https://enviroliteracy.org/water/oceans/">97% of that is salty seawater</a>. Only 3% of our planet’s water is fresh, and 2% is trapped, frozen in ice caps, glaciers and soils. That leaves less than 1% as fresh, liquid water in rivers, lakes and streams – and this fresh water plays a big role in explaining why the sea is salty. </p>
<p>Water moves around our planet in <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/met-office-for-schools/other-content/other-resources/water-cycle">a cycle</a> powered by the sun: from the sea, to the sky, to the land and then back to the sea. When the sun heats the water in the sea, it changes into a gas called “water vapour” and rises into the air, through a process called “evaporation”. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>While floating in the air, the water vapour cools off and turns back into liquid water, forming clouds (through a process called “condensation”). This water eventually falls from the clouds in the sky as rain, sleet, hail or snow (that’s called “precipitation”). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296200/original/file-20191009-3887-1r501t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The water cycle in action.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/2eujrTV8NG8">Vikas Anand Dev/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When precipitation falls on land, the water flows into streams and rivers, and eventually makes its way back out to the sea. Then the sun heats the sea water and the cycle starts all over again. </p>
<h2>(Slightly) acid rain</h2>
<p>You’re probably still wondering where the salt comes in. Well, the rain that falls from the sky is not just pure water – it actually contains small amounts of chemicals called carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, which are <a href="https://sciencetrends.com/what-is-chemical-weathering-with-examples/">absorbed by the water</a> while it is still in the air. </p>
<p>This means that rain is actually very slightly acidic (but not enough to do you any harm). When the rain falls on the ground, this weak acid <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwd2mp3/revision/2">can dissolve</a> small amounts of mineral salts from the rocks, including sodium and chloride, which then enter the water.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296199/original/file-20191009-3872-1bof5jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Run, river, run.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/JJdBjI5BXzA">Matt Heaton/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sodium chloride is the main salt in seawater, and the same one you might have on your table at home. The rain water flows off the land and into the rivers and streams that lead all the way to the sea – carrying the dissolved salts along with it. </p>
<h2>Salinity in streams?</h2>
<p>But if the rivers and streams are carrying these dissolved salts, then why aren’t they as salty as the sea? In fact, they’re only carrying very low levels of these salts. The salts in the seas have built up over billions of years, and seawater contains about <a href="http://ocean.stanford.edu/courses/bomc/chem/lecture_04.pdf">300 times more dissolved salts</a> than average river water. </p>
<p>To put it another way, every one litre of seawater has <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/whysalty.html">35 grams of salts</a> dissolved in it, while a litre of freshwater would only have 0.5 grams. That’s why we say that seawater has a much higher concentration of salt – or “salinity” – than the freshwater flowing through rivers and streams. </p>
<p>Some salts can also enter the seas from hot vents on the deep ocean floor and from volcanoes on the land and in the sea. Some salts (particularly chloride) are also moved around as part of the water cycle – these are known as “cyclic salts” and originally <a href="https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/exploring-our-ocean/0/steps/730">came from volcanoes</a>. </p>
<h2>Tipping the balance</h2>
<p>Since salt is always flowing from the land to the sea, you might think the sea is getting saltier. But actually, some of this salt is removed by algae and animals that live in the sea, and some is deposited as sediment on the bottom of the ocean. So the salt going into the sea keeps a balance with the salt being deposited or removed. </p>
<p>The salinity of the sea isn’t the same everywhere. In warmer, tropical areas, more evaporation occurs, so the water is saltier. Towards the north and south poles, the seawater is diluted by melting ice, so the water is not so salty. This is natural. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296205/original/file-20191009-3856-1r1vi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Melting sea ice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/qbtyUQtqJ8k">Roxanne Desgagnés/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But these differences in salinity might get bigger in the future, <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/07052018/atlantic-ocean-circulation-slowing-climate-change-heat-temperature-rainfall-fish-why-you-should-care">because of climate change</a>. Warmer climates may lead to more rain and melting ice in the northern hemisphere, and more evaporation in the southern hemisphere, which could change the saltiness of our seas. </p>
<p>The saltier that water is, the more dense (or heavier) it becomes. Along with warmer temperatures, this could affect how water moves around in the oceans, which could affect all life on our planet – not just the creatures living in the sea. </p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to reflect the fact that sodium and chloride ions separate out when dissolved in water.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-does-the-light-turn-on-124549?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why does the light turn on? – Ben, aged three, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-i-have-boogies-and-why-does-my-nose-keep-replicating-them-122660?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them? – Duncan, aged seven, Sydney, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-could-humans-live-on-kepler-452-b-123786?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Can we live on Kepler 452-b? – Year Five, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Little does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The salt in the sea has built up over billions of years – but it wouldn’t have got there without freshwater rivers and streams.Sally Little, Senior Lecturer in Ecology, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1245492019-10-03T12:42:18Z2019-10-03T12:42:18ZCurious Kids: why does the light turn on?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295422/original/file-20191003-52832-1sexfyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C35%2C5982%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/HfR0W6HW_Cw">Alex Iby/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Why does the light turn on? – Ben, aged three, UK.</strong></p>
<p>The electric light <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/incandescent-lamp#ref1061303">was invented</a> more than 200 years ago, and has been in common use for over a century. It works by converting electricity into light (and a bit of heat). </p>
<p>The two most common electric lights in use today are incandescent lights (which are the oldest) and light emitting diodes (LEDs). The word <a href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/incandescent">“incandescent”</a> refers to something that’s so hot it glows white. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295398/original/file-20191003-52816-lnckdu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A light bulb, with labels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roger Clarke.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Incandescent lights have an outer shell made of glass, which has all the air sucked out of it. </p>
<p>Inside this vacuum, there’s a thin coiled wire called a “filament”, made of a metal called tungsten. </p>
<p>The glass shell has to have all the air removed so that the tungsten doesn’t rust away or “oxidise” when it gets hot.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tungsten-chemical-element">Tungsten</a> is used in light bulbs because it has a really high melting point (over 3,000°C), which is much higher than the temperature needed to give a nearly white light (2,000°C). </p>
<h2>Heating up</h2>
<p>These types of light bulbs are now mostly used in vehicles and low cost pocket torches because they are cheap and reliable. But they also make a lot of heat – in fact, it’s only by getting very hot that they can light up at all – and this is seen as being wasteful of energy. </p>
<p>When the light bulb is connected to a source of electricity, the electricity can easily travel along the thick wires to the light bulb. But when it reaches the filament, with its very thin wire, the electricity has to force its way through, using up a lot of energy which makes the filament very hot, and very bright. </p>
<p>The more energy used by the incandescent light, the brighter it will be. The amount is usually written on the side of the light bulb; for example 20 watts, 40 watts and so on.</p>
<h2>Lighting the way</h2>
<p>In modern houses, schools and workplaces, the incandescent light has mostly been replaced with LED lights. This is because they use much less energy – about one sixth – to make the same amount of light, since they don’t really get hot. LEDs can also last a very long time, compared to other lights.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295405/original/file-20191003-52857-jt4xrb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An LED light, with labels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roger Clarke.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The way that LED lights work is not actually very different to the way incandescent lights work. </p>
<p>But instead of heating up a wire to produce the white light, an LED light has a special material inside it called a “semiconductor” to produce the light.</p>
<p>The particular type of semiconductor in an LED reacts when an electric current is passed through it by a process called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/electroluminescence">electrolumincescence</a> and this gives out lots of light, but not very much heat. </p>
<p>LEDs can be made to produce light <a href="http://edisontechcenter.org/LED.html">in almost any colour</a>, by changing the chemicals in the semiconductor. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-i-have-boogies-and-why-does-my-nose-keep-replicating-them-122660?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them? – Duncan, aged seven, Sydney, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-could-humans-live-on-kepler-452-b-123786?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Can we live on Kepler 452-b? – Year Five, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-when-fish-get-thirsty-do-they-drink-sea-water-122761?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">When fish get thirsty do they drink sea water? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roger Clarke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Light bulbs can turn electricity into light (and a bit of heat) – an expert explains how they do it.Roger Clarke, Honorary Visiting Senior Research Fellow, University of BradfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1237862019-09-23T09:22:01Z2019-09-23T09:22:01ZCurious Kids: could humans live on Kepler 452-b?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293362/original/file-20190920-50928-1cejkq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=644%2C0%2C3862%2C2545&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/soaking-up-the-rays-of-a-sun-like-star-artistic-concept">NASA Ames/JPL-Caltech/T. Pyle</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Can we live on Kepler 452-b? – Year Five, Globe Primary School, London, UK.</strong></p>
<p>Kepler-452 is the name of a star in the constellation of <a href="http://www.exoplanetkyoto.org/exohtml/Kepler-452.html">Cygnus</a> (the swan). It’s a star that’s similar to our own sun, but it’s too faint for us to see from Earth without a telescope. </p>
<p>Kepler-452 is about <a href="http://www.exoplanetkyoto.org/exohtml/Kepler-452_b.html">1,800 light years away</a>, which means it currently would take a spacecraft about 30m years to travel there. At least one planet is orbiting the star: it’s called <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-33641648">Kepler-452b</a>, and astronomers have wondered <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-five-most-earth-like-exoplanets-so-far-50669">whether it could be home to alien life</a>.</p>
<p>Kepler-452b is sometimes called “Earth’s cousin” or “Earth 2.0”, and some astronomers have nicknamed it <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=4792">“Coruscant”</a>, which is the name of the home of the Galactic Empire in the Star Wars films. </p>
<h2>Another Earth?</h2>
<p>We don’t know whether life exists on Kepler-452b, but we do know that it has some things in common with the Earth. For instance, Kepler-452b takes 385 Earth days to complete its orbit around its star, which is only a bit longer than one Earth year. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Astronomers say that the planet is in the “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/habitable-zone">Goldilocks zone</a>”, meaning that the distance of the planet from its star is just right, making it not too hot and not too cold for life to exist. </p>
<p>The same is true of the Earth in our own solar system. Venus is too close to the Sun and is so hot that water would boil; Mars is too far away from the Sun and is so cold that water freezes. </p>
<p>But the Earth and Kepler-452b are both at just the right distances from their stars so that water can be liquid, at a temperature between 0°C and 100°C.</p>
<h2>Measuring mass</h2>
<p>Astronomers have also managed to measure the size of the planet Kepler-452b. They can do this because the planet passes in front of its star once every orbit, as seen from Earth. </p>
<p>When the planet does this, it blocks a small part of the star’s light, so that it gets a bit fainter for a few hours. By measuring the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/%7Eavanderb/tutorial/tutorial2.html">amount of the dip</a> in light, scientists have worked out that Kepler-452b is about one-and-a-half times the size of the Earth. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293557/original/file-20190923-54744-1ruq1ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Earth, from space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasamarshall/5091372229/sizes/l">NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If the star Kepler-452 was closer to us, and therefore brighter, astronomers could measure how much it <a href="https://lco.global/spacebook/exoplanets/radial-velocity-method/">wobbles</a> as it’s pulled backwards and forwards by the planet orbiting it. They could then use that measurement to work out the mass of Kepler-452b. </p>
<p>This is not possible, but we can still make a good guess about the mass of the planet. If it’s made of rock (like the Earth), then the mass of Kepler 452-b must be about five times greater than Earth’s. </p>
<p>This would mean that gravity on the planet is about twice as strong as on Earth, so you would weigh twice as much there as you do here, and it would be twice as hard to jump.</p>
<h2>The next discovery</h2>
<p>Other things about Kepler-452b are much more uncertain, but if it really is a “super-Earth” sized planet, then it may have lots of active volcanoes. It may also have a thick atmosphere with clouds covering most of its surface. </p>
<p>We don’t know what the atmosphere of the planet is made of, so we don’t know whether you could breathe the air there. It’s very unlikely to be the same mix of oxygen and nitrogen as the Earth’s atmosphere though.</p>
<p>Kepler-452b may not be exactly like the Earth, but it’s probably the most Earth-like planet that astronomers have found so far. </p>
<p>The European Space Agency’s <a href="https://platomission.com/">PLATO spacecraft</a> will be launched in 2026, carrying a set of telescopes which will search for more Earth-like planets around nearby stars. PLATO will probably discover several dozen planets that are even more like the Earth than Kepler-452b, and many of those will be much closer to us. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-i-have-boogies-and-why-does-my-nose-keep-replicating-them-122660?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them? – Duncan, aged seven, Sydney, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-when-fish-get-thirsty-do-they-drink-sea-water-122761?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">When fish get thirsty do they drink sea water? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-batteries-work-123023?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How do batteries work? – Dominick, aged seven, Indiana, US.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123786/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Norton has previously received funding from the Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC).
He is the author of a book about exoplanets for children, "Oogle Flip and the Planet Adventure" (Magic World Media, ISBN: 978-0982114162)</span></em></p>Kepler-452b is sometimes called ‘Earth 2.0’, but there’s a lot we still don’t know about it.Andrew Norton, Professor of Astrophysics Education, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1237042019-09-19T14:46:49Z2019-09-19T14:46:49ZClimate change: children are carving out a place in politics – now adults must listen and act<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293230/original/file-20190919-22441-10cbh26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C155%2C4695%2C2991&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/15th-march-2019-london-uk-thousands-1339618181?src=0IdwWd82Q9O8GwFiArjxfw-1-7">Andrius Kaziliunas/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s no doubt that young people today are driving action on climate change. The <a href="https://www.fridaysforfuture.org/">#FridaysforFuture</a> school strikes are arguably the most dedicated and sustained direct action in a generation. School pupils have kicked off an international movement committed to addressing the injustices, mass extinctions and environmental damage caused by climate change – while also building global networks, speaking out in public and holding the adults around them to account. </p>
<p>As more adults and institutions <a href="https://www.campaigncc.org/climate_strike_20_september">join the protests</a>, it seems the agency of these young people is finally being recognised. But conversations about climate change still appeal to authorities for answers – whether calling for politicians to act, or for people to listen to scientists. </p>
<p>Of course, listening to experts and holding politicians to account is an important part of what climate activists need to achieve. But it’s not the only part. As the schools strikes continue to gain momentum, it’s time to think about how young people can be meaningfully involved in shaping the future of our planet. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, there are still significant barriers preventing children from making their voices heard in democratic societies – not least the way they are represented in the media. As academics interested in children in politics and culture, we’re exploring these issues as part of a project called <a href="https://www2.mmu.ac.uk/artshumanities/rah/news/story/?id=10645">Europe and the Child - Crisis, Activism, Culture</a>. So far, we’ve found that cultural images of children involved in activism reveal adult desires and anxieties, rather than providing real empowerment. </p>
<h2>Are you listening?</h2>
<p>Swedish activist Greta Thunberg captured the world’s attention when she was invited to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFkQSGyeCWg">address world leaders</a> at the UN conference on climate change in December 2018, at just 15 years of age. Since then, her school strikes have become a global phenomenon. Through international media coverage and meetings with high-profile political figures, Thunberg has brought the climate emergency into view, right at the heart of political power in the West. </p>
<p>Thunberg has explained that her actions were inspired by by the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/feb/11/parkland-student-activists-march-for-our-lives-year-later-2019">Parkland students’ protests against gun violence</a>, while the school strike model builds on the walkouts and sit-ins <a href="http://www.ushistory.org/us/54d.asp">by African-American students</a> during the civil rights era. </p>
<p>Thunberg is not the first young person to address the UN climate conference. <a href="https://www.kathyjetnilkijiner.com/author-bio/">Kathy Jenil-Kijiner</a>, a Marshall Islands poet and activist, has called for urgent action as rising sea levels threaten her home, as has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/apr/01/yeb-sano-typhoon-haiyan-un-climate-talks">young diplomat Yeb Sano</a> from the Philippines. Global climate injustice cannot be fully understood without listening to, and empowering, young people from around the world. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293229/original/file-20190919-22441-qp2pvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Thunberg at a school strike in Washington, DC.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/washington-dc-usa-september-13-2019-1506895724?src=oEuoV4eoZnL0HaErtGOLRw-1-0">Aschwaphoto/Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>Thunberg’s role as spokesperson for the younger generation is fraught with difficulties. As a child herself, Thunberg has insisted that the blame for the current climate emergency – and the responsibility for fixing it –lies with older generations. Yet adults and establishment figures have repeatedly sought to position her either as a prophet and a child saviour, or as a naive puppet of interested parties. </p>
<p>For example, writer and activist Naomi Klein <a href="https://truthout.org/video/naomi-klein-greta-thunberg-is-a-prophetic-voice-in-fight-for-climate-justice/">praised Thunberg for her moral clarity</a>, arguing that she is one of the youth voices that has “burst through the bureaucratic language with which we shield ourselves from the reality of the stakes, the extraordinary stakes of our moment in history”, and that young people have <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/oureconomy/naomi-klein-moral-crisis-inextricable-ecological-crisis/">found a sense of agency</a> in Thunberg’s school strikes, and her insistence that no one is too small to make a difference. </p>
<p>Conversely, Thunberg has also been subjected to a series of attacks from <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/aug/15/arron-banks-jokes-about-greta-thunberg-and-freak-yachting-accidents">right-wing establishment figures</a> and climate deniers, doubting her sincerity and ridiculing her appearance and her way of speaking, with reference to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-02/thunberg-hits-back-after-being-called-deeply-disturbed/11376724">her Asperger’s diagnosis</a>. Some of those criticisms have also been levelled at the school strikes movement, with <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-49291464">politicians calling</a> young participants “truants” and “puppets”. </p>
<h2>A story of empowerment</h2>
<p>Beyond the media coverage, there has also been a surge in fiction and non-fiction books published about the climate crisis for young people. Some publishers have called this <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/11/greta-thunberg-leads-to-boom-in-books-aimed-at-empowering-children-to-save-planet">“the Greta effect”</a>, though the environment has been a concern in children’s literature since at least the 1970s, exemplified by <a href="https://clpe.org.uk/corebooks/dinosaurs-and-all-rubbish">Dinosaurs and all that Rubbish</a> by Michael Foreman. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/childrens-books-can-do-more-to-inspire-the-new-generation-of-earth-warriors-97580">Children's books can do more to inspire the new generation of Earth warriors</a>
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</em>
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<p>In contrast to that classic parable – which seeks to educate its readers – recent books including Lily Dyu’s <a href="https://nosycrow.com/product/earth-heroes/">Earth Heroes</a> and Martin Dorey’s <a href="http://www.walker.co.uk/Kids-Fight-Plastic-9781406390650.aspx">Kids Fight Plastic</a> present children as saviours of the planet. </p>
<p>It’s positive that books by adults <a href="https://theconversation.com/childrens-books-can-do-more-to-inspire-the-new-generation-of-earth-warriors-97580">are recognising</a> the agency of young people and seeking to empower them further. But this rhetoric also burdens young people with the responsibility for change, while political institutions afford them little power. </p>
<p>It’s not enough to put children on the covers of newspapers and call them “heroes”. It’s not even enough to listen to the concerns they’re raising through the global strikes for climate action. Adults in positions of authority need to give young people the means to change the world and create their own visions for the future. </p>
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<p><strong><em>This article is part of <a href="https://www.cjr.org/covering_climate_now/covering-climate-partnerships.php/">The Covering Climate Now</a> series</em></strong>
<br><em>This is a concerted effort among news organisations to put the climate crisis at the forefront of our coverage. This article is published under a Creative Commons license and can be reproduced for free – just hit the “Republish this article” button on the page to copy the full HTML coding. The Conversation also runs Imagine, a newsletter in which academics explore how the world can rise to the challenge of climate change. <a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CoveringClimateNow">Sign up here</a></em>.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123704/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From media coverage to story books, children are consistently represented as prophets or puppets in the midst of climate emergency. It’s time for that to change.Eleanor Byrne, Senior Lecturer in English, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityBenjamin Bowman, Lecturer, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityChloe Germaine Buckley, Senior Lecturer in English, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1235552019-09-18T13:54:12Z2019-09-18T13:54:12ZLittle Mix member Jesy Nelson confronts the harsh realities of online abuse – and she’s not alone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292850/original/file-20190917-19083-sd1yk0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C23%2C2273%2C1483&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jesy Nelson performs with Little Mix. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/2019-april-27-breda-netherlands-little-1383247061?src=nT4pEyHT1S6P8L5WCguHbQ-1-4">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Jesy Nelson – 28-year-old member of British girl group Little Mix – has spoken candidly about what it’s like to be on the receiving end of online abuse, and the effect that it had on her mental health. From the moment Little Mix won ITV talent show <a href="https://www.itv.com/xfactor">The X Factor</a> in 2011, Nelson was subjected to a barrage of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/919c481a-882c-44d7-826f-5e6a25537543">horrific messages</a> about her weight and looks. </p>
<p>In a new documentary, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/p07lsr4d/jesy-nelson-odd-one-out">Jesy Nelson: “Odd One Out”</a>, the pop star opens up about her harrowing experiences.</p>
<p>She is not alone. </p>
<p>Anti-bullying charity <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/">Ditch the Label</a> has <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/cyber-bullying-statistics-what-they-tell-us/">found that</a> 17% of 10,020 young people surveyed in 2017 had experienced some form of cyber-bullying, while a further <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/research-papers/the-annual-bullying-survey-2017/">69% admitted</a> doing something abusive online. Of those who had been bullied online, <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/cyber-bullying-statistics-what-they-tell-us/">26% developed suicidal thoughts</a> as a direct consequence of their experience. </p>
<h2>The harsh realities</h2>
<p>Cyber-bullying and trolling can be relentless, with messages sent and received around the clock. For some, the answer is simple – if you don’t want to receive abuse, don’t go online. But these days, to withdraw from social media is to withdraw from social life. There is intense pressure – especially on young people – to <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0024/134907/children-and-parents-media-use-and-attitudes-2018.pdf">have a presence</a> on some form of social media. In fact, in the documentary Nelson claims she was told that she had to be on social media when she took part in The X Factor.</p>
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<p>This form of abuse can alter the lives of victims dramatically, and change who they are as a person. It can cause people to <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9283/a01263d26c34dfe2f7943ee18ea311a4a8da.pdf">withdraw from social life</a> and change their online <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/666927/6.3637_CO_v6_061217_Web3.1__2_.pd">presence</a>, for instance by <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/cyber-bullying-statistics-what-they-tell-us/">closing down</a> their social media accounts. It can also lead to significant mental health issues, including <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=2ahUKEwjig4j-89LkAhX-ThUIHSCQDtEQFjAAegQIARAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fsummit.sfu.ca%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Firitems1%2F15668%2Fetd9124_SBates.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2a_mhHv92AAunwz_dFIdKf">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>, <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/04/22/cyberbullying-makes-young-people-twice-likely-self-harm-attempt/%3e">self-harm</a> and in some cases <a href="https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/family-devastated-after-tragic-erin-13-takes-own-life-after-vicious-online-bullying-28824852.html">suicide</a>.</p>
<p>In Nelson’s case, it led her to attempt to take her own life in 2013. Sadly, this is one of the harsh realities of online abuse: a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5934539/">2018 study</a> found that young people under 25 years old, who were subjected to cyber-bullying, were 2.3 times more likely to self-harm or display suicidal tendencies. As in <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=2ahUKEwjqrcHDi9PkAhU1sXEKHcc5BF0QFjAFegQIAhAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.childrenssociety.org.uk%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fsocial-media-cyberbullying-inquiry-full-report_0.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1RGFyB6XWxVHFF5CzrkXul">most cases of cyber-bulling</a>, Nelson’s own experience had a lasting impact, not only on her, but also on her family and friends.</p>
<h2>Unable to cope</h2>
<p>Trolling and cyber-bullying is having significant effect on <a href="https://www.anti-bullyingalliance.org.uk/news-insight/news/serious-mental-health-consequences-children-and-young-adults-result-bullying">institutions</a> across society. Police forces have been placed under mounting pressure following the rise in social media use.</p>
<p>Between 2015 and 2016, police reports involving malicious communications <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-41693437">increased by 36,462</a> to 79,372, according to 38 of 42 police forces responding to a Freedom of Information request by the BBC. Yet <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-41693437">police chiefs</a> say this is only the tip of the iceberg, and that police forces are <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/tackling-online-abuse-will-overwhelm-police-smcqm5grc#">unable to cope</a> with the “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/mar/04/online-abuse-existing-laws-too-fragmented-and-dont-serve-victims-says-police-chief">unimagined scale of online abuse</a>” across the country. </p>
<p>Similar arguments have been raised in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-48692953">schools</a>, where teachers have come under increasing pressure to tackle online abuse. According to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-48692953">research undertaken</a> by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 14% of headteachers in England stated that they receive complaints of “hurtful comments” online at least once a week from pupils. </p>
<p>There is no single solution to online abuse. Social media companies must do more to protect their users. Earlier in 2019, the UK government announced plans to impose a <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/793360/Online_Harms_White_Paper.pdf">duty of care</a> on the likes of Facebook and Twitter. But the biggest change needs to come from the wider public. </p>
<h2>Moving forward</h2>
<p>Research <a href="https://theconversation.com/online-abuse-teenagers-might-not-report-it-because-they-often-dont-see-it-as-a-problem-11647">has found</a> that many young people see forms of online abuse as “normal” and “tolerated” by authority figures like the police. That’s why it’s crucial for people to learn about the real-world consequences of online abuse, to build <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldcomuni/130/13008.htm">resilience</a> and to call out inappropriate behaviour online. </p>
<p>Digital literacy skills need to be embedded within the school curriculum, so that young people leave school knowing how to navigate the online world with confidence. Lessons should cover online privacy settings, reporting harmful content and teaching young people that it is real people behind the screens. Education should not stop with schools, though – <a href="https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-we-do/news-opinion/Parents-missing-vital-information-in-online-safety-talks-with-children/">parents </a> also need to understand how social media platforms work, to ensure everyone is helping to tackle online abuse. </p>
<p>Jesy Nelson’s journey, as documented in Odd One Out, should be a starting point for meaningful discussions about the harsh realities of social media, and the horrific consequences online abuse can have – especially for young people. </p>
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<p><em>If you or someone you know is experiencing depression or suicidal thoughts as a result of cyber-bullying, phone <a href="https://www.samaritans.org/">Samaritans</a> on 116 123. Young people under the age of 19 can also phone <a href="https://www.childline.org.uk/">Childline</a> on 0800 1111. These services operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123555/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Higson-Bliss does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Authorities are struggling to deal with the unimaginable scale of online abuse – and young people are suffering as a result.Laura Higson-Bliss, Teaching Fellow in Law, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1226602019-09-17T09:54:51Z2019-09-17T09:54:51ZCurious Kids: why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292396/original/file-20190913-8678-jvzwrj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C583%2C5630%2C3911&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is that what I think it is?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-girl-pointing-nose-her-happy-1256154631?src=KG8SiSnlk4M-I6qWTP6iqA-2-27">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Why do I have boogies and why does my nose keep replicating them? – Duncan, aged seven, Sydney, Australia.</strong></p>
<p>Boogies, bogeys or even boogers – whatever you call them, the little bits of dry snot (or “mucus”) that form in your nose actually help protect you from harm. </p>
<p>Your nose makes mucus to help collect the tiny dust and dirt particles in the air you breathe, to stop them getting into your lungs. </p>
<p>The mucus also contains special molecules (with interesting names like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4055063">“immunoglobulins”</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/129629">“enzymes”</a>) that help protect you against infection or break down the dirt that you pick up from the outside air. </p>
<p>Mucus is usually runny, but since you breathe through your nose (as well as your mouth) the air flowing through it will dry out some of the mucus and dirt. That’s what forms the little nuggets at the front of your nose you call “boogies”. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>An adult’s nose produces about <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00016487809123497">750ml of mucus</a> every day – that’s about the same as ¾ of a carton of orange juice. That sounds like a lot, but most of it flows down inside the nose to the back of your mouth, where you swallow it without even thinking about it. </p>
<h2>Cleaning machine</h2>
<p>The mucus is <a href="https://theconversation.com/sore-throat-cough-and-phlegm-all-you-need-to-know-about-your-horrible-cold-111462">produced by tiny little cells</a> in the lining of your nose and sinuses, which are air pockets in your face. </p>
<p>Tiny little hair-like endings on the cells (called cilia) beat the mucus towards the back of your nose. </p>
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<p>If you looked at the cilia under a microscope, you might see them all waving in the same direction. </p>
<h2>Clear or colourful?</h2>
<p>Mucus is normally clear, but you might have noticed that bogeys can come in different colours. Remember, your bogeys pick up particles in the air you breathe, so it’s normal for them to be different colours sometimes. </p>
<p>But if your bogeys are pink, red or brown, it might mean the inside of your nose is bleeding. And if your bogeys have a <a href="https://www.livescience.com/33733-snot-green.html">green or yellow</a> tinge, it might be a sign that your body is fighting back against an infection. </p>
<p>Whatever colour they are, your bogeys are a sign that your nose is working to protect you. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-when-fish-get-thirsty-do-they-drink-sea-water-122761?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">When fish get thirsty do they drink sea water? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-animals-have-two-different-coloured-eyes-119727?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do some animals have two different coloured eyes? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-high-could-i-jump-on-the-moon-120865?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How high could I jump on the moon? – Miles, aged five, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122660/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl Philpott receives funding from NIHR, Rosetrees, Sir Jules Thorn Trust and the Royal College of Surgeons of England. He is affiliated with the charity Fifth Sense. </span></em></p>Those little nuggets in your nose are actually a sign your body is working to protect you.Carl Philpott, Professor of Rhinology and Olfactology, University of East AngliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227542019-09-16T09:17:35Z2019-09-16T09:17:35ZWill politicians take action and try to save the planet from climate change?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291743/original/file-20190910-190061-120d1q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C65%2C5472%2C3571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Shouting out loud.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brussels-belgium-8th-sep-2018activists-hold-1174495165?src=lSaGNkzNRMOak0-7gCzCug-2-30">Alexandros Michailidis/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>I am scared of climate change and the fact that a lot of adults aren’t taking it seriously – do you think politicians will take action and try to save what we have left? – Carolina, aged 15, Santiago de Chile.</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-climate-change-k4.html">Climate change</a> is the most pressing threat humanity has ever faced. Changes in the natural balance of the Earth’s atmosphere, caused by human behaviour, are having a major impact on the environment. Hurricanes are becoming larger and more powerful than in the past. Floods cover vast regions, causing people to lose their homes. Droughts cause crops to die, which means people go hungry. The sea level is rising, and will one day swallow up entire countries. </p>
<p>Scientists <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/24/scientific-consensus-on-humans-causing-global-warming-passes-99">from all over the world agree</a> that the impacts of climate change will get worse, unless we take action now. Of course, there are things that you can do to reduce your own impact on the environment, like <a href="https://theconversation.com/going-veggie-would-cut-global-food-emissions-by-two-thirds-and-save-millions-of-lives-new-study-56655">eating less meat</a>. But big changes are required in every country to meet this challenge. Which leads us to your excellent question: what are politicians doing to combat climate change?</p>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you’re aged 12 to 18, send your questions – along with your first name, age and the area where you live – to <a href="mailto:ineedtoknow@theconversation.com">ineedtoknow@theconversation.com</a>, DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a> or submit via <a href="https://ansr.me/gwpx5">Incogneato</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>We have a huge pool of experts at our fingertips, and we can’t wait to share their knowledge with you.</em></p>
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<p>Because climate change is caused by the actions of countries, it can only be solved by the cooperation of countries – and that means international law offers the best pathway forward. In 2015, political leaders from all over the world visited Paris, France, to agree on a response to climate change. The result was an international treaty called the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris Agreement</a>. </p>
<h2>The Paris Agreement</h2>
<p>In the Paris Agreement, leaders decided that it’s vital to stop the atmosphere from heating more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To do this, countries need to reduce their carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, which trap heat and cause this warming effect. So far, the Paris Agreement sounds useful.</p>
<p>But there’s a problem: the Paris Agreement does not offer any direct instructions on what countries have to do to reduce their CO₂ emissions. Countries do not have to meet specific targets to lower their emissions. Instead, the Paris Agreement asks that countries set their own targets, called “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs, for short). </p>
<p>NDCs offer the best picture of what each country’s politicians are prepared to do in order to tackle climate change. So lets take a look at what some <a href="https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/indc/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx">countries have promised to do in their NDCs</a>.</p>
<h2>Falling short</h2>
<p>In its NDCs, Chile has committed to <a href="https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Chile/1/INDC%20Chile%20english%20version.pdf">a 30% reduction</a> in greenhouse gas emissions below what they were in 2007. But a much stronger target would have been to reduce emissions by 30% against 1990 levels. Between 1990 and 2016, Chile’s emissions <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/chile/current-policy-projections/">increased by 115%</a>, which shows the country has a poor history of tackling climate change. </p>
<p>Australia is one of the <a href="https://www.heritage.org/index/country/australia">richest countries</a> on the planet. It has said it will try to reduce emissions by 26-28% below 2005 levels. But this commitment is not very ambitious for a country with the wealth of Australia. And with <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/solar-coverage-fact-check-is-australia-sunniest-continent/6659316">all the sunshine</a> it gets, the government could be investing much more in solar energy. </p>
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<span class="caption">More of this, please.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/solar-photovoltaic-renewable-energy-facility-northern-517089196?src=Cw8cqfN0GibbkxQhn6iHew-1-0">Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>Brazil is home to much of the Amazon Rainforest. In its NDCs, it had promised to restore more than 12m hectares of forest, which is about half the size of the United Kingdom or one third the size of Chile. By protecting the forest, which absorbs CO₂, Brazil could reduce its emissions by 37%. </p>
<p>This does sound good. But the new Brazilian government, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-46013408">elected in 2018</a>, does not intend to honour this commitment. Already, deforestation to make room for crops and cattle grazing has contributed to <a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-fires-what-will-happen-if-they-keep-burning-122758">this year’s devastating fires</a> in the Amazon. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-fires-what-will-happen-if-they-keep-burning-122758">Amazon fires: what will happen if they keep burning?</a>
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<p>The European Union’s NDCs promise to reduce its emissions by 40%. But because all the different countries aren’t required to share reductions equally, this will see some countries in the EU making big reductions, while others do very little. </p>
<p>These examples show that politicians in these countries are not taking climate change seriously – and they are not alone. Many countries are not doing enough. At the current rate, humanity will continue to heat the Earth to <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/global/cat-thermometer/">somewhere between 3°C and 5°C degrees</a>, which will cause severe hurricanes, droughts and floods all over the globe. </p>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>The lesson here is very simple – climate change must be our number one priority. People who can vote in elections should consider voting for parties that promise strong action on climate change. This usually means looking away from the major political groups: <a href="https://www.globalgreens.org">parties with a specific “green” focus</a> will typically be the main ones tackling climate change.</p>
<p>Another option is to support global movements like <a href="https://rebellion.earth">Extinction Rebellion</a>. By turning up to rallies and showing support for groups like these, you can send a strong message to politicians that you care about the planet and all the life on it. Some young activists have even been involved in bringing legal challenges against governments that continually <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/04/teen-activists-face-us-government-in-crucial-hearing-over-climate-trial">disregard their climate obligations</a>. </p>
<p>This depends on there being a legal mechanism – such as a right to the environment or a constitutional provision – and people having the ability to access it through the courts, which can be a costly endeavour. Nevertheless, a legal challenge can make politicians understand the extent of the passions running through people.</p>
<p>If we send these messages to politicians, there’s a chance to make them do better and stop climate change, before the worst effects of global warming become a reality. </p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This article is part of <a href="https://www.cjr.org/covering_climate_now/covering-climate-partnerships.php/">The Covering Climate Now</a> series</em></strong>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ash Murphy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scientists from all over the world agree that the impacts of climate change will get worse, unless action is taken now.Ash Murphy, PhD Researcher, International Environmental Governance, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1230232019-09-09T19:07:56Z2019-09-09T19:07:56ZCurious Kids: how do batteries work?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291493/original/file-20190909-109939-ow5vzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C4%2C2758%2C1846&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/color-batteries-different-sizes-362759357?src=Kt9WzHbVe-HFn6F5Na9Haw-4-19">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How do batteries work? – Dominick, aged seven, Indiana, US.</strong></p>
<p>A battery is a device that can make electricity, with the reaction of certain chemicals. Lots of different chemicals can be used in batteries – it depends how the battery is made, or what you’re using it for. </p>
<p>The rechargeable batteries used in smartphones or electric cars are called “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/lithium-ion-battery">lithium ion batteries</a>”. But it’s really rare to see them, because they don’t normally need to be replaced and are hidden away safely inside.</p>
<p>You’re much more likely to see alkaline batteries, which are used in things like clocks, torches, remote controls and lots of other objects around the house. Strictly speaking, they should be called “alkaline cells”, since a battery is a number of cells connected together. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Making electricity</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=935&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=935&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=935&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1175&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1175&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291486/original/file-20190909-109935-p5hv4s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1175&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An alkaline cell.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roger Clarke.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Inside the metal case of the alkaline cell there are three main chemicals: zinc, manganese dioxide and potassium hydroxide. </p>
<p>It might sound complicated, but the way the cell works to make electricity is actually pretty simple: a chemical reaction takes place, which moves tiny, negatively-charged particles called “electrons” around to create <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z8mxgdm">an electric current</a>. </p>
<p>When the cell is connected to a circuit – like a light bulb, for example – the zinc inside reacts with the manganese dioxide and loses electrons. </p>
<p>The electrons are collected by a metal rod inside the cell, which allows them to flow from the bottom of the cell (the negative terminal), through the wires to the bulb (making it light up) and then back into the top of the cell (the positive terminal). </p>
<p>This reaction produces around <a href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/everyday-tech/battery6.htm">1.5 volts of electricity</a>. Because not many devices can work on 1.5 volts, very often two or four cells are used together to give more power. So four cells connected together (end to end) would give six volts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291495/original/file-20190909-109939-xo2x3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Let’s shed a little light on the matter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/parallel-electrical-circuit-experiments-using-batteries-1179016648?src=cnYB4_GUJYRTbHv_zQfPSg-1-12">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When most of the zinc has reacted with the manganese dioxide, we say the cell is “flat”, which means it can’t make any more electricity. Because the chemical reaction that takes place in alkaline cells cannot easily be reversed, it means that the cell can’t be recharged. </p>
<p>But remember, most cells and batteries <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/how-to-recycle-batteries_l_5d274fdbe4b07e698c46e7b0">can be recycled</a>, so make sure you get rid of them carefully. </p>
<h2>Reversing the reaction</h2>
<p>All types of cells and batteries have a similar type of chemical reaction taking place to produce the electricity. </p>
<p>But in some types of cell or battery, the chemicals are different, and the reaction can be reversed. This way, the cells can be recharged – just like the lithium ion batteries in cars or smartphones.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291494/original/file-20190909-109952-1pdriyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lithium ion batteries are often hidden out of sight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mechanic-repairing-electric-driven-car-garage-1122594407?src=Xg9cKNrOh_bV4lKh45QyUQ-1-55">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It used to be much cheaper to make non-rechargeable cells, like alkaline cells, so they were used very widely.</p>
<p>But now that people have recognised how bad for the environment it is to just throw away non-rechargeable cells, and since rechargeable cells are getting cheaper, we’ll probably use non-rechargeable cells less and less in the future. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-when-fish-get-thirsty-do-they-drink-sea-water-122761?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">When fish get thirsty do they drink sea water? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-animals-have-two-different-coloured-eyes-119727?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do some animals have two different coloured eyes? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-high-could-i-jump-on-the-moon-120865?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How high could I jump on the moon? – Miles, aged five, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123023/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roger Clarke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A battery’s power comes from a chemical reaction that happens inside the cell.Roger Clarke, Honorary Visiting Senior Research Fellow, University of BradfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227612019-09-03T12:33:54Z2019-09-03T12:33:54ZCurious Kids: when fish get thirsty do they drink sea water?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290552/original/file-20190902-175668-1javyse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=97%2C13%2C4399%2C3084&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">I'm parched as. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nickharris1/6931604669/">Nick Harris/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>When fish get thirsty do they drink sea water? – Torben, aged nine, Sussex, UK.</strong></p>
<p>This is a great question, Torben, thanks very much for sending it in. </p>
<p>The short answer is yes, some fish do drink seawater – but not all of them. Fish are amazing animals, and have some very cool solutions to living in water. Naturally, different types of fish have evolved different solutions. </p>
<p>The bony kinds of fish that live in the sea – such as cod, herring, tuna and so on – have a few ways of getting water in and out of the body. As well as swallowing and peeing, like humans do, these fish can pass it through their skin and gills.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>To understand how this works, you first need to know that bony fish have a different <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-concentration-605844">concentration</a> of salt in their bodies to their environment. This means they’re more or less salty than the water they swim in. </p>
<p>The bodies of marine fish (which live in the sea) are less salty than the water they swim in, while the bodies of freshwater fish (which live in rivers and lakes) are more salty than the water they swim in. </p>
<p>Both marine and freshwater fish have to control the amount of water and salt in their bodies, to stay healthy and hydrated. </p>
<h2>Hard to stay hydrated</h2>
<p>Bony marine fish are constantly losing water from their body, through a process called “<a href="https://sciencing.com/osmosis-kids-8650496.html">osmosis”</a>“. During osmosis, water moves through a membrane (like skin), from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration. </p>
<p>Remember, the body of a marine fish is less salty than the seawater it swims in – which means it has a lower concentration of salt. So these fish actually lose water through osmosis: it passes from their body, through their skin and gills, out into the sea. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290692/original/file-20190903-175714-vntsr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thirsty work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastian Pena Lambarri/Unsplash.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since they’re constantly losing water this way, these fish have to drink a lot of seawater to stay hydrated. </p>
<p>You might be interested to know that the opposite happens in freshwater fish. Water flows into their body through osmosis, instead of out. This means they don’t generally need to drink – but they do have to pee a lot.</p>
<p>We all know that <a href="http://www.actiononsalt.org.uk/salthealth/children/">too much salt is bad for us</a>. So of course, an animal that drinks seawater must have a way to get rid of excess salt. </p>
<p>Marine fish have kidneys, which pump excess salt into their pee so they can get it out of their bodies. They also have special cells in their gills that pump excess salt out into the sea. Together, these two systems mean that marine fish can stay hydrated. </p>
<h2>Salty sharks</h2>
<p>Sharks have evolved a completely different system. Their bodies have a slightly higher concentration of salt than seawater. This means they don’t have the problem that bony fish have, of losing water through their skin all the time.</p>
<p>Sharks have high levels of waste chemicals – called urea and trimethylamine N-oxide – in their body, which other animals would usually get rid of. Sharks keep them in their body, which keeps them "salty”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290693/original/file-20190903-175714-1brmqcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">I don’t drink.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/j3Kbs-GcEXs">David Clode/Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sharks take in small amounts of water through their gills (by osmosis – because they are slightly saltier than the sea) which means they don’t directly have to drink. </p>
<p>Sharks also have <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-00989-5_25">a salt gland</a> (in their rectum) to get rid of any excess salt they may have. </p>
<p>The problem of drinking seawater isn’t just for fish. Some seabirds – albatrosses, for example – have to drink seawater too. Like sharks, these seabirds <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/salt-gland">have a salt gland</a> to get rid of excess salt. But on an albatross it is found at the top of the bird’s beak. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
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<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-animals-have-two-different-coloured-eyes-119727?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do some animals have two different coloured eyes? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-high-could-i-jump-on-the-moon-120865?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How high could I jump on the moon? – Miles, aged five, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-are-the-bubbles-in-fizzy-drinks-so-small-the-ones-i-blow-are-much-bigger-121513?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why are the bubbles in fizzy drink so small? The ones I blow are much bigger - Alison, aged seven, Aberdeen, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122761/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Lacey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fish that live in the sea have found amazing ways to control the amount of water and salt in their bodies, and stay hydrated.Claire Lacey, PhD Candidate in Biology, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1216692019-09-02T11:33:46Z2019-09-02T11:33:46ZSchools could teach children how to be happy – but they foster competition instead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290524/original/file-20190902-175686-1b3zbyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=248%2C0%2C4764%2C3391&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-school-pupils-sitting-on-wall-300290351?src=-1-7">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Diagnoses of mental disorders and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jcpp.12381">drug prescriptions</a> among school-age children have skyrocketed over the last two decades. The World Health Organisation (WHO) reports that <a href="http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA66/A66_R8-en.pdf?ua=1">20% of children</a> experience mental disorders – such as depression, anxiety and <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/">ADHD</a> – at any given time. </p>
<p>This is a significant problem in the UK, where one in eight children between the ages of five and 19 has been diagnosed with an <a href="https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/mental-health-of-children-and-young-people-in-england/2017/2017">emotional or behavioural disorder</a>. Even children as young as five are getting ill: according to the latest reports, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/mental-health-of-children-and-young-people-in-england-2017-pas">6% of five year olds</a> suffer from a mental disorder. The challenges are greater still for children from low income families, who are four times more likely to <a href="https://www.centreformentalhealth.org.uk/fact-sheet-children-and-young-peoples-mental-health">develop mental health problems</a> than their better off peers. </p>
<p>While home life, friends, social media and body image all have an impact on the mental health of children, <a href="https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/sites/default/files/the_good_childhood_report_2019_summary.pdf">a recent report</a> from The Children’s Society found that more young people feel unhappy about school than any other area of their lives. Yet a growing body of research from around the world shows that schools can actually help children lead happier lives – if they value such outcomes. </p>
<h2>Under pressure</h2>
<p>Generally speaking, the UK’s education system – like many others around the world – is geared toward competition. International rankings such as OECD’s <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">Programme for International Student Assessment</a> (PISA) rate the performance of schools, placing pressure on governors, teachers and pupils. As a result, schools seem to value the academic achievement of students over their <a href="https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/2548662/1/The%20WHO%20Health%20Promoting%20School_GREEN%20VoR.pdf">mental health and well-being</a>, which is reflected not only in the way students are taught, but also how they are assessed. </p>
<p>Teachers also face a lot of pressure to ensure their students obtain the highest grades possible. This is also contributing to poor mental health among teachers, with many developing mental health problems such as burnout, which <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24721572.pdf?casa_token=WljMiAI8xicAAAAA:fQGyRsdseJ4ZxCz0b157VA_7ZhEXWOnQrRxQX-XPTbpYwHFRa7foZ4iOcKViHDeJan69v-bErQLK_2xRJBL1FNGeBElz7FBkatekffAiK4TnV2og8oY">negatively impacts</a> their performance and can ultimately lead them to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/may/13/teacher-burnout-shortages-recruitment-problems-budget-cuts">quit the profession</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mountain of marking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-asian-teacher-her-desk-marking-388588402?src=-1-4">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While there are <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/801429/Education_inspection_framework.pdf">requirements</a> for UK schools to teach pupils how to stay physically and mentally healthy, it’s clearly not enough. All too often, academic demands on pupils <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/431180.pdf?casa_token=kmzyEr-NSR4AAAAA:oZ9zsV7ZQXCyR7cT8pRpNYJVsCxIBbj754AW29VdW-2-ef96NxGOaWo2Wop2r0Sz2OFi0Ua6veDGIF4FN_WrzRjf7UpF0btxjitRJLZ01gafhCenLVs">provoke a sense of rivalry</a>, rather than teaching them how to enjoy life and cultivate positive emotions. Yet educational performance does not need to come at the cost of children’s happiness and well-being. </p>
<p>Education systems, including the UK’s, have the capacity to respond to the growing mental health crisis among children. And research shows that promoting mental health and well-being in schools, on a par with core skills such as maths and literacy, has <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44875/9789241503648_eng.pdf?sequence=1">a positive impact</a> on the self-esteem, academic achievement, social relations, motivation and career prospects of pupils. </p>
<h2>The Nordic way</h2>
<p>To see how schools can teach pupils to be happy, consider the education systems of some of the happiest countries in the world. For instance, all five of the Nordic countries – Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland – appear in the top ten happiest countries, according to the <a href="https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2019/">World Happiness Report</a>. </p>
<p>It’s well known that Nordic countries place a greater emphasis on <a href="https://www.cfchildren.org/what-is-social-emotional-learning/">social-emotional learning</a>, which gives children the skills and knowledge to recognise and manage emotions in effectively. This forms <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/807c/3297fdd2e64e3d94cbfeb76b72a95d6ae8db.pdf">the basis of well-being</a>, and can significantly improve <a href="https://campbellcollaboration.org/media/k2/attachments/Maynard_Mindfulness_Title.pdf">academic achievement</a> among students. </p>
<p>Nordic countries also value the judgements of teachers over national examinations, and schools are <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/best-education-world-finland-what-uk-schools-can-learn-a7319056.html">not rated or ranked</a> as they are in the UK or US. This prevents the education system from placing needless <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/02/how-does-finland-s-top-ranking-education-system-work">pressure on schools</a>, leading to less rivalry, stress and anxiety among students, and <a href="https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/&httpsredir=1&article=2809&context=ajte">lower rates of burnout</a> among teachers. </p>
<h2>Finding happiness</h2>
<p>When it comes to being healthy and happy, research suggests that money only matters to a certain extent. What matters most is <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4.pdf">developing self-knowledge</a> – that is, knowing how you think, behave and manage your own emotions – and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907000359">positive social relationships</a>. This is evident in some Latin American countries. For example, Costa Rica and Mexico also score well on the World Happiness Index, and rank among the happiest countries according to the <a href="http://happyplanetindex.org/">Happy Planet Index</a> (which takes into account well-being, life expectancy and inequality, as well as ecological footprint). </p>
<p>These nations have a culture of promoting social networks of <a href="https://blogs.iadb.org/ideas-matter/en/latin-americans-happier-gdp-suggest/">friends, families and neighbourhoods</a>. Despite living on the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/inequality-is-getting-worse-in-latin-america-here-s-how-to-fix-it/">most unequal continent</a> in the world, research indicates that Latin American people <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/10680702010003011?casa_token=QUyoQGlSVpEAAAAA:pdQkhfWKv_Btm3nZqx2XN_EXOzdC8YzkvRCkPnsheOi1U657yCdYN8WnFYRLzf1MYD7zIO9aFVoP">are extremely resilient</a>, meaning they have the ability to successfully overcome adversity and enjoy life in spite of difficult circumstances. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.unicef.org/lac/sites/unicef.org.lac/files/2018-06/CandY_guide_for_governments.pdf">recent UN reports</a>, schools in Latin America are also doing a good job in promoting resilience among children. Environmental sustainability is also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073805930700051X">a key part of education policies</a> in places like Costa Rica. This promotes empathy toward other members of the society – a core skill of social-emotional learning. </p>
<p>My own research has found that education systems in both <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057925.2019.1647513?journalCode=ccom20">developing and developed countries</a> value forming responsible citizens through valuing equality, harmony and diversity among others. Yet none of the countries included in the analysis – China, England, Mexico and Spain – seem to place an explicit value on mental health in their education systems. </p>
<p>Education systems around the world can tackle the mental health crisis among children – if they set out to do so. And countries that prioritise children’s happiness and well-being offer a strong starting point. By promoting positive relationships over rivalry, and learning over league tables, children around the world can be given the chance to flourish. </p>
<p><em>The article has been corrected to remove a reference to <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/autism/what-is-autism/">autism</a> as a mental disorder, since it is not relevant in the context of this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121669/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angel Urbina-Garcia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In Nordic and Latin American countries, education systems promote well-being and resilience. The UK still has a lot to learn.Angel Urbina-Garcia, Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Studies, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1186032019-08-30T02:17:30Z2019-08-30T02:17:30ZCurious Kids: how do wounds heal?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278847/original/file-20190611-32373-17h8wdw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5742%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When you have a wound, your body gets to work straight away to clean it out, kill germs and repair the skin. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pleasant-nice-girl-holding-her-knee-628311236?studio=1">Shutterstock/Yakobchuk Viacheslav</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au.</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>I would like to know how wounds heal. – Simon, age 7.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Thank you for this excellent question, Simon. To explain how the body heals a break in the skin, I first need to explain a bit about how skin works. </p>
<p>Did you know the skin is the largest organ in the body? It has three layers that protect us from germs and help our body keep the right temperature. For example, when our body gets too hot, we have sweat glands in the skin that release salty water to cool us down (it’s like air conditioning in our bodies). Our skin also has a lot of sensors so we can touch and feel hot and cold.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-our-blood-fight-viruses-like-chicken-pox-and-colds-119394">Curious Kids: how does our blood fight viruses like chicken pox and colds?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Plugging the wound</h2>
<p>Once we get a wound, the first thing the body tries to do is stop the bleeding. </p>
<p>Within minutes or even seconds, tiny things in your blood called “blood cells” start to group together, protecting and plugging up the wound to stop any more bleeding. A scab will start to form. </p>
<p>The body tries to plug up the wound as quick as it can. It wants to stop germs getting in through broken skin and making you really sick. But even as this happens, the wound may let out a bit of clear fluid that helps to clean the wound.</p>
<p>Your doctor may also decide to close your wound with stitches, special glue or staples to keep the skin together until the body has built new skin to heal.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281076/original/file-20190625-81754-du1xsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scabs help keep germs out.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/450987034?studio=1&size=huge_jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Behind the scenes</h2>
<p>Under the skin, your body is hard at work cleaning and fixing. </p>
<p>The wound may be swollen, red and painful. Doctors call this “inflammation”. Swelling like this means the body is sending more fluid, oxygen and blood cells to the wound to get to work fixing it. </p>
<p>In your blood there are special “soldier” cells in charge of fighting germs. They are called white blood cells, and as soon as you get a cut, your body will send a lot of white blood cells to the wound to get to work. They eat any germs that may have come in when your skin was broken and they also guide the healing process. </p>
<p>The blood cells in the body then work to start building new skin, layer by layer. One thing they do is tell the body to start producing more of a chemical called “collagen” which helps the skin form new layers.</p>
<p>It usually takes a few days for a wound to heal fully, but it sometimes takes much longer. If you get a really big wound, you might get a scar. A scar is also made out of collagen. It is a mark on your skin. Sometimes they stay there forever, and sometimes they disappear or get lighter over time. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281069/original/file-20190625-81737-1f1zox7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White blood cells will eat any germs that may have come in when your skin was broken.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/search/blood+cells+wound+skin?search_source=base_landing_page">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to help your body fix a wound</h2>
<p>It is important to keep the wound clean, damp and covered to help it heal quicker. Wounds that are left uncovered are likely to dry out and are not protected from other injuries.</p>
<p>If your wound creates a scab, it might get really itchy. But try not to scratch! Your skin is busy healing underneath. Just let it fall off on its own. Band-aids are perfect to protect small wounds from further injury.</p>
<p>You should eat healthy food to help fuel your body while it fixes itself. Your body needs protein (like meat, milk and cheese), carbohydrates (like bread and pasta) and vitamins (like oranges, carrots and spinach). </p>
<p>These foods supply energy for healing your wound, and help your immune system fight germs.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-we-have-two-kidneys-when-we-can-live-with-only-one-113201">Curious Kids: why do we have two kidneys when we can live with only one?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au</em></p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p><em>Please tell us your name, age and which city you live in. We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118603/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina Parker is a member of Wounds Australia and is the secretary for the QLD committee. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen Edwards receives funding from research grants, including government grants, philanthropic foundation grants and NHMRC grants for wound research. She is a member of Wounds Australia, Fellow, College of Nursing Australia, Fellow, Sigma Theta Tau International and has an Order of Australia Medal.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathleen Finlayson receives funding from government grants, philanthropic foundation grants and NHMRC grants for wound research. She is a member and volunteer for Wounds Australia, the Australian Nursing Council, and Sigma Theta Tau International.
</span></em></p>The body tries to plug a wound quickly to stop germs getting in through broken skin and making you sick. But behind the scenes, your blood is working hard to repair a wound.Christina Parker, Senior Lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyHelen Edwards, Professor, Queensland University of TechnologyKathleen Finlayson, Lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1221452019-08-29T09:23:12Z2019-08-29T09:23:12ZCurious Kids: how do mobile phones and tablets work?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289924/original/file-20190828-184207-m5hia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C163%2C5472%2C3473&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Like magic. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-asian-child-girl-look-smart-1092089723?src=-1-53">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How do mobile phones and tablets work? Tom, aged six, Quorn, UK</strong></p>
<p>Great question, Tom! There’s a lot of amazing technology packed into mobile phones and tablets. Nowadays, most have a touch screen, speakers, a microphone, WiFi, Bluetooth, a camera, a telephone and more. </p>
<p>Underneath all these fun features, though, mobile phones and tablets are basically mini computers. And computers work by carrying out instructions we humans have given them. </p>
<p>To a computer, <a href="https://www.howtogeek.com/367621/what-is-binary-and-why-do-computers-use-it/">everything is a number</a>. A picture? Lots of numbers: three for every tiny dot in the image. A sound? A long list of numbers, including one for how “loud” the sound is at each point in time (that’s thousands every second). A word? Each letter has its own unique number, too.</p>
<h2>Machine brains</h2>
<p>Computers have a machine “brain” called the <a href="https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2851/central-processing-unit-cpu">Central Processing Unit</a> (CPU), which has two main jobs: getting instructions from the computer’s memory, and carrying them out. The instructions are stored as numbers, too, of course. </p>
<p>The programs or “apps” you find on a mobile phone or tablet are basically lists of instructions. With a bit of practice, you can even write your own: it’s called “programming” or “coding”. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>But writing down lots of lists of numbers to give your instructions to the computer would be really difficult, and takes a very long time. Luckily, people have invented special coding languages, that are much easier for us to read and understand. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://medium.com/web-development-zone/a-complete-list-of-computer-programming-languages-1d8bc5a891f">lots of different programming languages</a> these days, with names like C, C++, Python and Java. Different languages are better for different jobs – but mostly it’s just down to what the programmer likes to use. </p>
<p>There are even programming languages made of different shapes, like a jigsaw, which can be great for learning – like <a href="https://scratch.mit.edu">Scratch</a>, which you can use to make games.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning to code can be lots of fun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/group-african-american-kids-learn-coding-656332537?src=-1-24">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once you’ve used one of those languages to make a list of instructions, you run it through a special programme – called a compiler – that turns them into programs or apps that computers can run.</p>
<h2>Powering up</h2>
<p>The most important program on any mobile phone or tablet is the operating system. The operating system runs all the different programs and helps them use the phone’s different features, like speakers, touchscreen and microphones. </p>
<p>The operating system also lets you do lots of things at once, so you can still get a phone call even while you’re playing a game. </p>
<p>And, of course, mobile phones wouldn’t be very “mobile” without a battery. Batteries have been around for <a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-04-history-batteries.html">at least 200 years</a>, but they have got a lot better recently, so they can power complicated things like mobile phones, tablets – and even electric cars. </p>
<p>Batteries work by converting chemicals to electricity. With an adult’s help, you can make a simple battery using fruit and some coins, which is fun – but wouldn’t be strong enough to run a mobile phone. </p>
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<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-animals-have-two-different-coloured-eyes-119727?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do some animals have two different coloured eyes? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-high-could-i-jump-on-the-moon-120865?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How high could I jump on the moon? – Miles, aged five, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-are-the-bubbles-in-fizzy-drinks-so-small-the-ones-i-blow-are-much-bigger-121513?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why are the bubbles in fizzy drink so small? The ones I blow are much bigger - Alison, aged seven, Aberdeen, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122145/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bernie Tiddeman has previously received funding from AHRC, EPSRC, ESRC and Unilever Research. He has current funding from the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund, the European Social Fund, RHE Global and the Welsh European Funding Office. He works for Aberystwyth University. </span></em></p>Mobile phones and tablets are basically mini computers – and to a computer, everything is a number.Bernie Tiddeman, Reader in Computer Science, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1166632019-08-08T20:06:35Z2019-08-08T20:06:35ZCurious Kids: why do I sometimes forget what I was just going to say?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286868/original/file-20190805-117861-1tte4c9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C6211%2C4147&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Everyone forgets things sometimes. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-little-asian-boy-feel-strain-784533127?src=sW4Ng_XroqbHx9blIK7FZw-1-18&studio=1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au.</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why do I sometimes forget to say something mere moments before I say it? - Labib, aged 12, Irvine, CA.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>That’s an interesting question, Labib.</p>
<p>Forgetting to do or to say things happens to all of us sometimes. </p>
<p>Have you ever walked into a room and realised you can’t remember what you were looking for? We tend to do this more when we are thinking of a few things at once or doing two things at the same time.</p>
<p>Some people call this “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-task_paradigm">dual-tasking</a>”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-adults-think-video-games-are-bad-76699">Curious Kids: Why do adults think video games are bad?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Have you ever crossed the road while chatting to a friend at the same time, or walked across a room while tapping away on a tablet or phone? That’s dual-tasking.</p>
<p>Everyone does it and we <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40279-015-0369-9">tend to get better</a> at it as we get older and learn new skills.</p>
<p>But while our brain is a truly amazing computer – more powerful than any real computer – it can only use so much mental energy at one time. </p>
<h2>Your brain is a power station</h2>
<p>Think of your brain as a power station, providing electricity to a number of cities. </p>
<p>If some cities cry out for a lot of energy (by having all their light switches on), other cities would have less power to work with. There’s only so much electricity to go around. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286864/original/file-20190805-117866-aoy5et.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our brain is like a power station, providing energy to lots of different tasks we might be trying to do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/artificial-intelligence-concept-electric-brain-people-1135626104?studio=1">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>In the same way, your brain only has so much energy to share around at any one time. Younger kids have small brains and have less mental energy available than older kids. In the same way, a teenager’s brain is less mature than an adult brain. </p>
<p>Now, this brings us back to the question of forgetting things. </p>
<p>An older (and more experienced) brain means more mental energy to share between tasks. </p>
<p>For young kids, dual-tasking is possible. However, some studies suggest that it can be a little more <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40279-015-0369-9">difficult for younger kids</a> compared with older kids.</p>
<p>Why? The power station in their brain is a little smaller and is not producing quite the same amount of energy as older kids. </p>
<h2>Practise makes perfect</h2>
<p>The more we practise our skills (like riding a bike, playing a sport, or baking a cake), the better we are at doing another task at the same time.</p>
<p>For a very skilled sportsperson (like a footballer), juggling a football while having a chat with a friend would be easy. </p>
<p>Their football skills are so automatic that they don’t need much mental energy to do it, leaving more for other things.</p>
<p>However, for someone who is just learning, juggling a ball may require a lot of mental energy just by itself. There is not much leftover for holding a conversation.</p>
<p><img width="100%" src="https://media.giphy.com/media/S7EOVjt13qKJcatWqG/source.gif"></p>
<h2>So, why do I sometimes forget to say something before I say it?</h2>
<p>The answer is you are likely to have been “dual-tasking” just before speaking. </p>
<p>It might have been because you were thinking about the words you wanted to say and something else at the same time. Or maybe you were concentrating on listening while trying to think of what to say.</p>
<p>Sometimes, your brain just can’t do two complicated things at once. You might not have enough mental energy in that moment. </p>
<p>Forgetting things is normal for everyone and can happen when you are doing too many things at once.</p>
<p>When it happens to you, take a deep breath and relax! </p>
<p>Perhaps those words will come back to you later when you clear your head and re-energise.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-much-does-a-brain-weigh-112000">Curious Kids: how much does a brain weigh?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116663/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Wilson receives funding from The Australian Research Council (ARC). </span></em></p>Have you ever walked into a room and realised you can’t remember what you were looking for? We tend to do this more when we are thinking of a few things at once or doing two things at the same time.Peter Wilson, Professor of Developmental Psychology, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1168222019-08-06T04:55:30Z2019-08-06T04:55:30ZCurious Kids: why is air colder the higher up you go?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277812/original/file-20190604-69095-wobo98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5068%2C3456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The air up high is just really bad at 'holding' onto the radiation coming from the Sun, and the warmth passes straight through it on its journey toward the ground.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/vek/9401307943/">Kevin Spencer/flicr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why is air colder the higher up you go? Shouldn’t it be hotter as you’re getting closer to the Sun? – Flynn, age 6, Sydney.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Thank you Flynn, that’s a great question. A lot of people have probably wondered this. </p>
<p>As you may know, hot air rises. So why is it so cold at the top of a mountain?</p>
<p>Well, it helps if you imagine the ground here on Earth as a big heater. It keeps us warm, and if you move away from the heater you feel cold.</p>
<p>So what “heats up” the heater? The light and warmth from the Sun. Scientists call this light and warmth “radiation”.</p>
<h2>Light and warmth travel from the Sun</h2>
<p>The light and warmth from the Sun travel through space towards Earth, and pass through our atmosphere. (The “atmosphere” is what we call the swirling air that surrounds our planet.)</p>
<p>But the atmosphere isn’t very good at holding onto the warmth from the Sun. The heat just slips straight through it. (For the adults reading: that’s because air at higher altitudes thins out as the gas particles expand and lose energy.)</p>
<p>Eventually, the heat from the Sun hits the ground and the ground soaks it up. This especially happens in forests and oceans, which are very good at absorbing heat. Other places, like snow fields, are more likely to reflect the radiation – meaning it bounces back toward the Sun instead of being soaked up by the ground.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285033/original/file-20190722-116569-k5gskm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ocean and forests are especially good at soaking up and holding onto heat from the Sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pixabay/Stocksnap</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Up, up, up</h2>
<p>The higher up you go, the further you are away from the “heater” that is keeping us all warm – the ground that has absorbed the warmth from the Sun. At the top of mountains it can get so cold people could die within minutes without special protection. That’s because the air up there is just really bad at “holding onto” the radiation coming from the Sun, and the warmth passes straight through it on its journey toward the ground.</p>
<p>And all the way up in space, there is a lot more radiation from the Sun, and astronauts wear special suits to protect themselves from it. But there’s also no air in space, which means there’s really nothing much at all to “hold onto” the warmth of the Sun and make the temperature around you feel warm.</p>
<p>So if you were unlucky enough to be caught in space without a suit, you would freeze to death before the Sun’s radiation would get you.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-is-global-warming-heating-up-the-earth-117543">Curious Kids: how is global warming heating up the Earth?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116822/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zoran Ristovski has received a number of grants from the Australian Research Council (ARC) as well as other funding bodies.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Branka Miljevic receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Australian Department of Education Endeavour Leadership program, the Australian Academy of Science and various internal QUT grants.
</span></em></p>It helps if you imagine the ground here on Earth as a big heater. It keeps us warm, and if you move away from the heater you feel cold.Zoran Ristovski, Professor, Queensland University of TechnologyBranka Miljevic, Senior Lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1208652019-07-25T13:26:59Z2019-07-25T13:26:59ZCurious Kids: how high could I jump on the moon?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285693/original/file-20190725-136737-9zg9di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=419%2C9%2C5279%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/astronaut-jumping-on-asteroid-1073913749?src=lZnwvZwYnv1c3uObeMlQwg-1-1&studio=1">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How high could I jump on the moon? – Miles, aged five, London, UK.</strong></p>
<p>If you were lucky enough to go to the moon, you’d be able to jump six times as high there as you can here on Earth. Try it: jump up and imagine you’re on the moon. Six times further up you’d go (better not look down). </p>
<p>How does that work? Well, it’s all to do with gravity, that mysterious force that <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-gravity-pull-things-down-to-earth-101545">pulls you down</a> when you jump up, and makes sure the people living on the other side of the Earth don’t just fall off.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-does-gravity-pull-things-down-to-earth-101545">Curious Kids: how does gravity pull things down to Earth?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Gravity doesn’t stick you to the ground like glue, or pull you back to earth like an elastic band. What you’re actually feeling is space changing shape. You can do an experiment to show how it works. You need a towel, an apple or an orange, a pea and four friends. </p>
<p>Get your friends to each hold a corner of the towel so that it is nice and flat. Ask your friends to close their eyes. Then place the fruit in the middle. Your friends will know when you did so, because they felt the towel pull at their hands. This is because the fruit has got “mass” – it’s made of stuff. </p>
<p>Now place the pea somewhere on the towel and let go. You’ll see it rolls towards the fruit in the middle – not because the fruit pulled at it, but because the fruit changed the shape of the towel, and the pea noticed that.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Anything with mass changes space in this way. You do, too – just a tiny amount. Perhaps it’s not surprising, then, that the moon orbits around the Earth, since our planet is so much bigger. </p>
<p>But wait – it’s not just size that matters, mass does too. The moon is just over a quarter of the size of the Earth. But if it had the same mass, then the moon’s gravity would be about 14 times stronger than Earth’s and you’d hardly be able to jump at all. </p>
<p>If that same mass was squeezed down to the size of a village, it’d become a black hole, and we’d all be sucked into it. </p>
<p>But the moon is made of similar stuff as the outer bits of the Earth, which are less dense and float on top of the heavier core in the middle, like oil floats on top of water. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-would-happen-if-the-earths-core-went-cold-107537">Curious Kids: what would happen if the Earth's core went cold?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This means the moon actually has 80 times less mass than Earth. So, the gravity on the moon is (80 divided by 14) six times as weak. And that’s what makes it so easy (and fun) to hop around on – just like the Apollo astronauts used to do. </p>
<iframe src="https://giphy.com/embed/69mUSKBujnpgmxcqlg" width="100%" height="467" frameborder="0" class="giphy-embed" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<p><a href="https://giphy.com/gifs/usnationalarchives-moon-nasa-apollo-69mUSKBujnpgmxcqlg">US National Archives/Giphy</a></p>
<p>But beware: when you come down after your record-breaking jump, the landing will feel just as hard as it does on Earth.</p>
<h2>Up, up and away?</h2>
<p>Although you can jump very high on the moon, you’ll be happy to know that there’s no need to worry about jumping all the way off into space. In fact, you’d need to be going very fast – more than 2 kilometres per second – to escape from the moon’s surface. </p>
<p>The fastest jumping human being ever was Javier Sotomayor, who reached a speed of 7 metres per second, and a height of 2.45 metres (he was nearly 2 metres tall already). </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/L67kB3MX1RQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>If Sotomayor had jumped on the moon, he would have been able to jump over a house - but he wouldn’t have gone any faster. The speed at which you jump does not depend on the strength of gravity – it depends on your muscle strength (and skill). So he wouldn’t have been able to jump off the moon, either. </p>
<p>What about fleas? They would be able to jump well into space, surely? Nope. They can’t even reach the same speed as humans when they jump. That’s why a flea on Earth couldn’t jump 2.45 metres high. They do <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20160825-the-greatest-jumper-on-earth-is-probably-not-a-flea">jump many more times</a> their own height, of course – but then, they are really tiny. </p>
<p>The highest jumping animal in the world is the white-tailed jackrabbit. They can jump over six metres in the air, and would certainly get a speeding ticket if caught jumping in town. On the moon, a white-tailed jackrabbit would easily jump over a ten-storey flat – but still not shoot off into space. </p>
<p>People would love to go back to the moon. If they get serious about it, it will happen. Wouldn’t you love to be one of them?</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-animals-have-two-different-coloured-eyes-119727?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do some animals have two different coloured eyes? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-long-has-gravity-existed-117538?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How long has gravity existed? - Aine, aged 13, Edinburgh, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/does-the-sky-protect-the-earth-and-if-yes-then-how-curious-kids-117542?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Does the sky protect the Earth and if yes, then how? – Saskia, aged eight, Estonia.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120865/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacco van Loon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You could jump much higher on the moon than you can on Earth – but you’d be in no danger of shooting off into space.Jacco van Loon, Astrophysicist and Director of Keele Observatory, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1199102019-07-05T13:01:11Z2019-07-05T13:01:11ZCori Gauff: the support network behind 15-year-old who beat Venus Williams at Wimbledon<p>Until recently, it seems likely that only dedicated tennis fans had heard of Cori Gauff: the second youngest winner of the <a href="https://www.express.co.uk/sport/tennis/1147708/cori-gauff-wimbledon-2019-who-is-15-year-old-cori-gauff-age">Junior French Open in 2018</a>, she was one to watch – but it’s unlikely anyone predicted just how fast her star would rise. Yet the youngest player in the professional era to qualify for the main draw at Wimbledon somehow did the unthinkable. She knocked out her tennis hero in the first round: none other than Venus Williams, who has seven Grand Slams, 45 titles and 670 overall wins and a <a href="https://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/10/venus-williams-debut-20-years-1994">20 year career</a> to her name. </p>
<p>At 15 years old, Cori Gauff is undoubtedly the new kid on the court. <a href="https://www.wtatennis.com/players/player/328560/title/Cori-Gauff">Born in Atlanta, Georgia</a>, Gauff came to tennis relatively late and didn’t start to play until she was seven years old, unlike many young players who start as early as three. And while tennis experts observed her lethal serve and hooked topspin, what’s perhaps most impressive when watching the youngster is her maturity and the composure with which she carries herself. </p>
<p>She plays with experience and intelligence and appears to be very grounded in her approach to the game. She’s been <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/tennis/48846713">cited as saying</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I just literally don’t play with any pressure. I just tell myself whatever happens happens. I mean, my motto is just, like, wing it. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>And perhaps it’s easy to not feel pressure when you are only 15 years old and ranked outside of the top 300 in the game, with nothing to lose. Yet it’s not uncommon for young athletes to feel so much pressure they succumb to <a href="http://assets.usta.com/assets/1/USTA_Import/dps/usta_master/sitecore_usta/USTA/Document%20Assets/PlayerDevelopment/SportsScience/Gould_1993_Burnout%20in%20Competitive%20Junior%20Tennis%20Players.pdf">burnout and withdraw from sport</a>. Gauff’s parents seem aware of this risk, and by making efforts to provide her with the right support, they are consciously protecting her from burning out.</p>
<h2>Strength through support</h2>
<p>Having a robust support network can have an overwhelmingly positive impact on all aspects of an athlete’s development and performance. Studies <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/hub/publication/590400">now recognise</a> that, for a young athlete to be successful, parents, coaches and team-mates all have a vital role to play. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282852/original/file-20190705-51284-1dwhrxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s got to be fun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hilarious-laughing-boy-man-ready-tennis-710397550?src=0mPU3ONvTc5Y-4h1DBOPyA-1-6&studio=1">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers suggest that it’s fundamental for this support network to be established early on in the athlete’s career, since social support in particular has a powerful influence on young people’s experiences of sport, especially in connection to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1750984X.2014.931999">motivation, participation and athletic development</a>. Young athletes are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1750984X.2014.931999">often unaware or naïve</a> about the challenges they may face in a professional sports setting, for example a sports injury. </p>
<p>That said, support comes in many different guises. Earlier research <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43094174.pdf">has concluded</a> that that there are four broad dimensions of social support: emotional (feeling cared for by others), esteem (bolstering their sense of competence), informational (solutions to problems) and tangible (concrete assistance). Each of these dimensions tend to be filled by different people in an athlete’s support network. </p>
<h2>Parent power</h2>
<p>A good example of this is how parents often play the largest role in this support network when athletes are still relatively young, and are likely to give a combination of emotional and tangible support. This emotional support is illustrated perfectly by Cori’s mother, Candi Gauff, <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tennis/2019/07/02/cori-gauff-teenage-prodigy-beat-venus-williams-reminded/">who has said</a> she is focused on Cori being healthy and happy: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>When I look at her, I am looking for her emotions, her facial expression, to see if she is a happy individual… I want to raise children who are happy and appreciative.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Gauff’s coach <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/av/tennis/48857711">Patrick Mouratoglon</a> a key figure in her support network and her predominant source of informational support has recognised the commitment of her parents, noting how even early in her career they did all they could for her. This dedication – combined with <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/av/tennis/48857711">their desire</a> to ensure her upbringing is as normal as possible – could be credited with keeping Gauff grounded. She has a core group of people, mostly made up of extended family, who surround her, protect her and reiterate how important it is for her to remain humble and grateful. </p>
<p>It’s an approach that clearly works: since her victory over Williams, Gauff has maintained her composure even under the media spotlight.</p>
<p>Gauff appears to be on the path to greatness. She is being allowed to grow in a balanced environment where she is still made to tidy her room and do her homework and, most importantly, be a child. This healthy environment, together with a committed support network with her parents at the heart, suggest we are may be seeing a future Wimbledon champion in the making.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119910/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Candice Lingam-Willgoss does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A young athlete’s support network is key to their development and performance, according to sports psychologists.Candice Lingam-Willgoss, Lecturer in Sport & Fitness, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1197272019-07-02T12:26:05Z2019-07-02T12:26:05ZCurious Kids: why do some animals have two different coloured eyes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282220/original/file-20190702-126382-1onmhhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=380%2C231%2C4062%2C2838&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What a good boy. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/black-white-mixed-breed-dog-one-1305351652?src=gIWU6zYLfJANv-1S2wCY4A-3-5&studio=1">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Some dogs have two different coloured eyes. Do other animals (besides people) and, if so, why? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</strong></p>
<p>Some dogs are born with one brown eye and one blue eye, which can look very strange, since we’re used to seeing dogs with two brown eyes. This is sometimes called “<a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pjJKkwJbLBQC&pg=PA211&lpg=PA211&dq=heterochromia+wall+eye&source=bl&ots=QERmm7E3NI&sig=ACfU3U3XvEL1ro-jPAjO3iVmnkAFHukTNg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZntXElZbjAhU8UBUIHVrwBXUQ6AEwF3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=heterochromia%20wall%20eye&f=false">wall eye</a>”, and it’s caused by certain genes that are passed down from parents to offspring. </p>
<p>If you look closely, you’ll also see that dogs with two different coloured eyes have unusually coloured coats, too. Their coats might be dappled or streaked with white. This is because the genes for eye colour and coat colour are <a href="https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/jgen/052/02/0425-0440">closely connected</a>. </p>
<p>The parents themselves may not show any sign of these unusual coat or eye colours. But usually there’s at least one dog on both sides of the family tree that has the unusual colouring. That’s how the mother and father can both pass on the genes that give some of their puppies the unusual colouring. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. All questions are welcome: serious, strange or funny – send them in, along with your name, age and town or city, to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>By now, you might be wondering – what are <a href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/gene/603646">genes</a>? Let me explain: every living thing is made up of cells. Each cell contains all the information needed to tell the body what to look like and how to work. Every little bit of information is called a “gene”, and there are lots and lots of genes which decide nearly every aspect of how we are. </p>
<h2>Passed down from parents</h2>
<p>For example, there are <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/human_genome.htm">around 25,000 genes</a> in human cells, which can decide everything from our height, to our hair colour or how likely we are to get certain diseases. The genes are made up of DNA, and held together on stringy structures called “chromosomes” in the centre of the cell. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282211/original/file-20190702-126364-gkw5od.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">See inside a cell, where genes are made of DNA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome#/media/File:Eukaryote_DNA-en.svg">Wikimedia Commons/Magnus Manske.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because every mammal comes from two parents, it has two copies of every gene – one from the mother and one from the father. Each copy may be telling the body to do something different. For example, the mother’s gene might be saying “dark hair” while the father’s says “fair hair”. </p>
<p>In that case, the mother’s gene will win and their baby will have dark hair, because the dark hair gene is dominant over the fair hair gene. The baby will only have fair hair if both parents pass on the gene for fair hair.</p>
<p>The genes for wall eye and streaky coat are similar to the fair haired gene, in this way. An animal will only have those features if that specific gene is passed down from both parents. When the mother and father carry the gene, but don’t have wall eye themselves, then some of their offspring will have it, though not all of them. </p>
<h2>Wall eye woes</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=963&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=963&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=963&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1211&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1211&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282233/original/file-20190702-126345-14cqtx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1211&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">My horse Biggles, with his two blue eyes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jan Hoole.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Wall eye is also sometimes seen in rabbits, cats, cattle, sheep and horses. Horses that have one blue eye usually have black and white patches on their coat – they are called “piebald” or “pinto” or “paint”. Some of these horses even have two blue eyes (one of mine does!), which makes them look even more unusual.</p>
<p>Humans can also have one blue eye and another of a different colour, like brown or green. This often goes with a white streak in the front of their hair. </p>
<p>Sometimes, having wall eye can cause problems. For dogs, the eye that is blue often has problems that <a href="https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/jgen/052/02/0425-0440">can affect its sight</a>. For this reason, breeders don’t let two dogs with wall eye and streaky coat have puppies together. If they do, then the puppies will often be blind and sometimes deaf as well. </p>
<p>In horses, wall eye does not seem to cause problems with vision, though having two blue eyes can be <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1002653&type=printable">associated with deafness</a>. Some cats and humans who have it can also have trouble hearing, and humans whose parents both have wall eye may be unable to speak or hear.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
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<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-long-has-gravity-existed-117538?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How long has gravity existed? - Aine, aged 13, Edinburgh, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-does-it-mean-to-be-double-jointed-118703?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">What does it mean to be double jointed? – Gen, aged 11, Melbourne, Australia.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/does-the-sky-protect-the-earth-and-if-yes-then-how-curious-kids-117542?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Does the sky protect the Earth and if yes, then how? – Saskia, aged eight, Estonia.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119727/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan Hoole does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Having different coloured eyes is quite unusual, but it happens in many species throughout the animal kingdom.Jan Hoole, Lecturer in Biology, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.