tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/athletes-11330/articlesAthletes – The Conversation2024-03-22T10:21:16Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2263312024-03-22T10:21:16Z2024-03-22T10:21:16ZWhat happens to F1 drivers’ bodies, and what sort of training do they do?<p>Various forms of motorsport are passionately followed around the world, and the pinnacle of the sport is Formula 1 – a fast-paced battle between drivers and teams with some of the most finely engineered vehicles in the world. </p>
<p>Despite the impressive speeds and engineering of their machines, race car drivers have sometimes <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-013-0040-2">battled the stereotype</a> that they are not truly elite athletes. However, the recent advent of television series such as Drive to Survive has given the public an insight into the demands of driving in Formula 1. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-netflix-show-has-become-a-key-driver-behind-f1s-rising-popularity-221924">How a Netflix show has become a key driver behind F1's rising popularity</a>
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<h2>Formula 1 drivers: elite athletes?</h2>
<p>Drivers use split-second judgements to perform precision steering while travelling at speeds of up to 300 kilometres per hour. All the while, drivers need to concentrate on the track, their opponents, and feedback provided through their radio or steering wheel.</p>
<p>As the vehicles have developed over time, so too have the drivers. Nowadays, drivers are considered athletes who must undergo immense preparation and training to ensure their physical and mental abilities can manage the <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/abstract/9900/a_scoping_review_of_the_physiological_profiles_of.97.aspx">ever-increasing limits</a> of their machines and environmental demands. </p>
<h2>What forces are Formula 1 drivers exposed to?</h2>
<p>During a typical race, Formula 1 drivers are subjected to a <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/12471320">barrage of physical and psychological demands</a> that test their strength, endurance and mental fortitude at high speeds. </p>
<p>Not only is a driver required to have sufficient strength to perform, they must also stabilise themselves to withstand gravitational forces (G-force) in multiple different directions.</p>
<p>During cornering and braking, drivers experience forces upwards of 5Gs. In addition, each application of a brake pedal requires between 600–700 newtons of force which, during a 90-minute race, would equate to a total load of 57,940kg (based on the 14 turns and 58 laps of Melbourne’s Albert Park track).</p>
<p>However, when things go wrong, the forces experienced by drivers are even more extreme. In a crash, drivers can experience deceleration forces of <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2006/02000/an_analysis_of_maximum_vehicle_g_forces_and_brain.8.aspx">up to 100G</a>]</p>
<p>As you can imagine, such forces place incredible strain on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31246718/">a driver’s head and neck</a>.</p>
<p>The forces experienced by Formula 1 drivers are like those of military pilots. Unsurprisingly, this can result in neck and back pain or a loss of peripheral vision (often called grey-out) when forces are endured for <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/20/13413">an extended period</a>. </p>
<p>Fortunately, F1 drivers aren’t typically subject to extended G-force loading. Rather, they are challenged repeatedly through acceleration, deceleration and cornering. </p>
<p>To combat the effects of these forces, drivers train their trunk and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpFbv0KUK40">neck strength</a> against high loads to be able to counteract the forces pulling their head and neck around their cockpit. Drivers also train their <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2019/12000/v_o2peak,_body_composition,_and_neck_strength_of.18.aspx">aerobic capacity</a> to assist with handling these demands, resulting in high heart rates and physiological stress. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Formula 1 drivers push themselves to the limit during races, and training.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Trying to beat the heat</h2>
<p>Beyond the incredible forces experienced by driver-athletes, cabin temperatures can <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/33416270">exceed 50°C</a>, and extensive heat generated from the vehicle (through the close proximity of the transmission and engine to the driver) via convective heat transfer can result in more than 3% <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2018/07000/hydration_status_and_thermoregulatory_responses_in.34.aspx?casa_token=Upgf3HdNoGgAAAAA:Kfn2LsHVPDeHOvqwkFDTg5Xjr8OEM7UglO6twga--0yaeakNpm4-PU6K4NQ9gxveKJnYvlJjKcn3O7YdFbEKVYJzgw">bodyweight loss</a> during a race. </p>
<p>Drivers therefore need to stay hydrated to maintain their health, safety and performance. This process is made harder by the mandated safety equipment – under the <a href="https://www.fia.com/sites/default/files/regulation/file/Driver-Guide-2011.pdf">Federation Internationale de l’Automobile guidelines</a>, drivers must wear fire-retardant boots, under- and over-garments, balaclavas, gloves and helmets that <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/2/2/article-p182.xml">limit their capacity to cool down</a> via evaporation and convection.</p>
<h2>Every kilogram counts</h2>
<p>In preparation for these ever-increasing demands, F1 drivers maintain very low body-fat percentages (around 8%) compared with IndyCar drivers (around 17%) and maintain greater levels of fitness than their counterparts from IndyCar and NASCAR, allowing them to meet the design demands of the vehicle. </p>
<p>Similarly, F1 drivers are <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/abstract/9900/a_scoping_review_of_the_physiological_profiles_of.97.aspx">typically stronger and more powerful</a> than their counterparts from other racing series. </p>
<p>Because of the demands of the F1 racing calendar, drivers need to get the most bang for their buck through efficient training methods that improve strength, power and fitness. </p>
<p>Nutritionally, they should consume a balanced diet that maintains weight and optimal body composition so they don’t become too heavy or large for their limited cockpit space. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/women-in-formula-one-how-the-sport-is-trying-to-redress-its-longstanding-lack-of-support-for-female-drivers-and-staff-225230">Women in Formula One: how the sport is trying to redress its longstanding lack of support for female drivers and staff</a>
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<h2>What else do drivers do to prepare?</h2>
<p>Of course, racing at speeds of more than 300km per hour with millimetres between rivals requires more than strength, fitness and fearlessness. There is substantial skill required to control a machine that is being pushed to its limits.</p>
<p>Beyond their athleticism, F1 drivers develop skills from a very young age and typically progress from go-karting through to the elite level.</p>
<p>So, it’s not just about a fast car and being fit and strong enough to control it – if you want to make it as an elite driver in the top tier, years of practice and devotion to the art of driving are required too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226331/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Haines has previously worked for Toro Rosso F1 Team, and am now currently consulting with various V8 Supercars Teams & Drivers.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dan van den Hoek and Justin Holland do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Formula 1 drivers endure a barrage of physical and psychological demands - but what exactly do their bodies go through during a race?Dan van den Hoek, Senior Lecturer, Clinical Exercise Physiology, University of the Sunshine CoastJustin Holland, Senior Lecturer in Clinical Exercise Physiology, Queensland University of TechnologyPaul Haines, Manager, Sport Engagement (Performance), Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2242152024-03-07T21:09:58Z2024-03-07T21:09:58ZCanadian sport leaders should look to national team athletes for lessons in accountability<p>Canadian national team athletes have been increasingly calling for accountability from sport leaders over the past few years. The <a href="https://ca.thegistsports.com/article/canwnts-players-association-sues-canada-soccer-for-40m/">Canadian Soccer Players Association</a> (CSPA), which represents players on the women’s senior team, is the most recent team to take legal action against their organization. </p>
<p>The CSPA <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/canadian-womens-team-lawsuit-canada-soccer-1.7121834">filed a $40 million lawsuit in late February</a> against 15 current and former Canada Soccer board members for alleged “negligence and breach of fiduciary duty.”</p>
<p>The lawsuit alleges that a deal Canada Soccer signed in 2018 with a private organization (Canadian Soccer Business) has been impacting the former organization’s ability to operate.</p>
<p>This move follows similar actions by athletes from the national <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/canada-artistic-swimming-class-action-lawsuit-1.5942463">artistic swimming team in 2021</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/aquatics/water-polo/water-polo-canada-lawsuit-1.6631971">the water polo team in 2022</a>. These athletes have filed lawsuits alleging varying forms of <a href="https://www.canlii.org/en/commentary/doc/2003CanLIIDocs197#!fragment/zoupio-_Toc14435971/BQCwhgziBcwMYgK4DsDWszIQewE4BUBTADwBdoAvbRABwEtsBaAfX2zgEYAWLgZgFYAnAHYOASgA0ybKUIQAiokK4AntADk6iREJhcCRcrWbtu-SADKeUgCE1AJQCiAGUcA1AIIA5AMKOJpGAARtCk7GJiQA">vicarious liability</a> by their associations. </p>
<h2>Canada Soccer accountability issues</h2>
<p>In reviewing the events leading up to the CSPA’s lawsuit, most issues point to a failure in board accountability. The roots of the incident can be traced back to March 2018 when <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/article/canada-soccer-concacaf-officials-defend-controversial-canadian-soccer-business-deal/">Canada Soccer signed a controversial deal with Canadian Soccer Business</a>, which is owned by the Canadian Premier League owners.</p>
<p>The deal involves Canada Soccer giving Canadian Soccer Business sponsorship and broadcast rights in exchange for an annual payment of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/canada-soccer-business-offers-help-1.6747883">$3 to $4 million a year</a>. Canadian Soccer Business uses part of the money to fund the men’s Canadian Premier League.</p>
<p>In 2023, a labour dispute began when <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/soccer/article-canadian-women-slam-canada-soccer-citing-significant-cuts-to-the/">funding cuts were made to the men’s and women’s</a> national teams. In February of that year, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/parliament-committee-canada-soccer-csb-1.6763270">the Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage started looking into the Canada Soccer Business deal</a> and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/feb/11/canada-soccer-womens-team-on-strike-financial-issues-christine-sinclair">Canada women’s soccer team went on strike</a> over pay equity issues.</p>
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<p>In May 2023, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/federal-government-canada-soccer-audit-consideration-1.6829679">the federal government said it was considering an audit of Canada Soccer</a>. The government had previously commissioned an audit to determine <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/hockey-canada-federal-audit-legal-settlements-1.6749713">whether public funds were used by Hockey Canada</a> to settle sexual assault cases.</p>
<p>More of Canada’s Soccer financial issues began to come to light throughout the year. In June 2023, interim secretary general Jason deVos announced Canada Soccer was considering <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/soccer/westhead-interim-general-secretary-jason-devos-paints-grim-picture-of-canada-soccer-s-finances-1.1977583">filing for bankruptcy protection</a> before signing new bargaining agreements with the men’s and women’s teams.</p>
<p>In February 2024, it was revealed that Canada Soccer had <a href="https://www.canadiancharitylaw.ca/blog/canadian-soccer-association-not-filing-financial-statements-with-corporations-canada-as-required-by-the-canada-not-for-profit-corporations-act-cnca/">failed to file its financial statements</a> with Corporations Canada as required by the Canada Not-for-profit Corporations Act. </p>
<p>That same month, the CSPA <a href="https://www.cp24.com/news/association-representing-canadian-women-s-team-files-lawsuit-against-canada-soccer-1.6778227">filed a lawsuit against Canada Soccer board members</a> for breaching their fiduciary duty to Canada Soccer when they signed the deal with Canadian Soccer Business.</p>
<h2>Board duties and responsibilities</h2>
<p>When it comes to improving accountability, Canadian sport organizations and governing bodies have much to learn from national team athletes. These athletes are held accountable to many standards, including:</p>
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<li><a href="https://www.ccaa.ca/landing/index">academic criteria</a> to maintain their <a href="https://www.canadagames.ca/">position</a> and <a href="https://usports.ca/en">scholarships</a> during their junior or <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/u-sports-scholarship-changes-student-athletes-1.6987383">varsity careers</a>;</li>
<li><a href="https://athletics.ca/high-performance/national-team-info/team-criteria/">selection</a> and <a href="https://athletics.ca/high-performance/national-team-info/team-criteria/">performance criteria</a> to make a national team;</li>
<li><a href="https://olympic.ca/how-team-canada-can-qualify-for-paris-2024-part-3/">qualification criteria</a> at world championships and the Olympics;</li>
<li><a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/principles">Olympism</a> and <a href="https://olympics.com/athlete365/athlete-expression/">ethical standards</a> while competing.</li>
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<p>Canada Soccer has the potential to model, both nationally and globally, the same standards of accountability and leadership excellence that are expected of national team athletes.</p>
<p>As political science experts <a href="https://theconversation.com/boards-of-directors-not-governments-must-prevent-scandals-like-hockey-canadas-189201">Eric Champagne and Alex Beraskow</a> wrote in 2022, governance is a key lever for positive change in Canadian sport.</p>
<p>The principle that “<a href="https://corporationscanada.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/cd-dgc.nsf/eng/cs06643.html">directors are responsible for supervising the activities of the corporation</a>” is codified in Canadian law. <a href="https://www.canlii.org/en/commentary/doc/2003CanLIIDocs197#!fragment/zoupio-_Toc14435967/BQCwhgziBcwMYgK4DsDWszIQewE4BUBTADwBdoAvbRABwEtsBaAfX2zgEYAWLgZgFYAnADYA7AEoANMmylCEAIqJCuAJ7QA5BskRCYXAiUr1WnXoMgAynlIAhdQCUAogBknANQCCAOQDCTyVIwACNoUnZxcSA">Boards are monitors, not managers</a>, and are responsible to the extent they knew, or ought to have known, of potential problems and failed to remedy them.</p>
<p>Boards have been held vicariously liable in Canada for failing to take preventative measures against foreseeable <a href="https://www.canadianunderwriter.ca/legal/these-directors-resigned-from-their-board-but-still-got-sued-1004134308/">financial failures</a> or <a href="https://www.torkin.com/docs/default-source/publications/articles/vicarious-liability-update-201526832a2f11f2.pdf?sfvrsn=86de6b10_0">sexual abuse</a> and harassment cases.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hockey-canadas-issues-go-beyond-a-few-bad-apples-the-entire-system-needs-to-be-re-engineered-221957">Hockey Canada's issues go beyond a few bad apples — the entire system needs to be re-engineered</a>
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<p>Much like coach and athletes, the duty of a board of directors is to adopt an accountability framework — policies and supervision techniques — that demands verifiable evidence of policy implementation and achievement of standards of practice. </p>
<p>Independence, <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-clean-up-hockey-canada-financial-transparency-is-a-must-192705">transparency and accountability</a> are necessary to prevent corrupt or negligent behaviours and actions. By looking to sport itself, we can find the governance principles needed to realign our sport system with the Canadian values of hard work, diversity and respect. </p>
<h2>Non-hierarchical leadership is needed</h2>
<p>Sport works best when following <a href="https://sirc.ca/leadership-governance/">sound governance principles</a>, such as those illustrated in <a href="https://sirc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Better-governance-principles-EN-Jan-31-2023-update.pdf">a report on sport governance</a> from the Sport Information Resource Centre, a national sport organization. A new partnership model is needed — one that uses accountability frameworks built on shared values and goals, transparency and independence.</p>
<p>My research with my colleagues on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377266048_Safe_to_Belong_Contribute_Learn_Challenge_and_Transform_Fostering_a_Psychologically_Safe_and_High-Performance_Sport_Environment">psychologically safe</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2152-7857/CGP/v12i02/81-104">non-hierarchical leadership models</a> illustrates that coach-athlete partnerships are crucial for achieving optimal performance across all aspects of sport organizations.</p>
<p>Coach-athlete relationships, by nature, are not hierarchical because coaches and athletes are experts with distinct roles and responsibilities who are mutually dependent on one another. These relationships should function as true partnerships that are governed by equity and respect, and are founded on a shared goal of excellence, rather than power or control.</p>
<p>We can scale this coach-athlete partnership model from grassroots to systemic levels and apply it to any governing, officiating, accreditation or funding body.</p>
<p>In a board setting, for example, a coach-athlete relationship could be replaced with any of the following: board-CEO, CEO-staff, CEO-stakeholder or member-board.</p>
<p>The most successful coach-athlete relationships, like the best member-board and board-CEO relationships, are founded upon accountability to agreed-upon standards of practice like that of <a href="https://sportforlife.ca/long-term-development">Sport for Life’s long-term development plan</a>. </p>
<p>Accountability demands independence of roles and responsibilities, transparency of standards and criteria, and evidence of output and achievement. We need only look to sport to see where our sport system is failing; we need only look to sport to see how to fix it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224215/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Walinga receives funding from Royal Roads University, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, and the Sport Dispute Resolution Centre of Canada. She was on the board of directors for Rowing Canada Aviron 2017 until she resigned in November 2022.</span></em></p>Canada Soccer has the potential to model, both nationally and globally, the same standards of accountability and leadership excellence that are expected of national team athletes.Jennifer Walinga, Professor, Communication and Culture, Royal Roads UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220852024-02-21T21:23:29Z2024-02-21T21:23:29ZSporting change: How an elite swim club in Western Canada is addressing bullying<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576048/original/file-20240215-28-469ztc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C17%2C3970%2C2640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Since sport participation has been linked to numerous benefits, it’s essential to foster an environment that allows individuals to engage in it free from bullying.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>While most of the news coverage about <a href="https://athletescan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/prevalence_of_maltreatment_reporteng.pdf">maltreatment in sport</a> is focused on sexual abuse, a lesser-discussed, but <a href="https://sirc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Safe-Sport-Lit-Review.pdf">still prevalent and damaging aspect, is bullying</a>.</p>
<p>Bullying is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102205">one of the leading causes of sport dropout</a>. Bullying can have <a href="https://www.stopbullying.gov">profound and long-term effects on individuals</a>, resulting in depression, health issues, behaviour challenges, low self-esteem and burnout, among others.</p>
<p>Since sport participation has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2020.1850152">linked to numerous benefits</a>, including lower levels of drug use, depression and anxiety, it’s essential to foster an environment that allows individuals to engage in it free from bullying.</p>
<p>The prevalence of bullying in sports poses a threat to sport participation, demanding a proactive approach to the issue. But <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/jan/27/abuse-canada-sport-inquiry-hockey-gymnastics-soccer">what should sport communities be doing to address bullying?</a></p>
<h2>Dare to Care in Sport</h2>
<p>In an effort to create a team culture that combats bullying, <a href="https://calgaryherald.com/news/local-news/anti-bullying-program-sparks-positive-change-within-university-of-calgary-swim-club">the University of Calgary Swim Club implemented a pilot program in September 2017</a> that adapted the <a href="https://www.daretocare.ca/sports">Dare to Care program</a> to focus on sport.</p>
<p>The program required all members of the club — administration, athletes, parents, guardians and coaches — to participate in a bullying prevention workshop.</p>
<p>Over seven months, more than 1,000 club members took part in 1.5 to two-hour workshops designed and delivered by a national expert in bullying prevention and a former Team Canada swimmer. The workshops were offered at numerous times and locations for convenience. </p>
<p>The goals for implementing the Dare to Care workshops included educating and training team members on how to address and prevent bullying, reducing bullying behaviour, equipping the organization with skills to handle any bullying-related issues, and ensuring 90 per cent of members completed the training. </p>
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<img alt="A person in a t-shirt that says 'Coach' across the back faces toward a swimming pool and away from the camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576032/original/file-20240215-22-eefdfg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">It’s important that all members of sport organizations are equipped with the proper definition of bullying and have tools to deal with it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>The content for each workshop was interactive, age-appropriate and designed to equip participants with the tools and confidence to address bullying behaviour. </p>
<p>At the end of the seven months, members were invited to participate in my ongoing study investigating the impact of the Dare to Care program. I presented this research at the <a href="https://worldantibullyingforum.com/uploads/sites/2/2021/02/WABF-2019-Abstract_Book.pdf">World Anti-Bullying Forum in Ireland 2019</a>.</p>
<p>Since conducting this research, I have begun training and working for Dare to Care to deliver their anti-bullying workshops to sport organizations and clubs.</p>
<p>Participants were asked to complete a survey about bullying in the club and their opinions of the Dare to Care in Sport program. Some were also invited to participate in an interview for more in-depth information on bullying and the impact of the Dare to Care program.</p>
<h2>Program feedback</h2>
<p>In the surveys and interviews, club members said they believed bullying was present in sport, even if they personally had not seen it. </p>
<p>Participants believed there were a few reasons for the presence of bullying in sport. The first reason given was jealousy. One parent interviewee said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Someone is good and someone wants to be better, and rather than do the work to be better, the bullying could be a shortcut; it is just sheer jealousy. Even if it doesn’t get you there by taking the other person down, it might make you feel better because you are making them feel worse, right?” </p>
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<p>The second reason identified was competition. Another parent interviewee said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Part of it has to do with the winning at all costs or a ‘whatever it takes’ mentality. The pressure can be immense and some use whatever advantage is available, including bullying and harassment.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The third and final reason suggested was parental involvement. One parent interviewee said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I can see the pressure from a parent affect the athlete, and how they treat people impacts their success in their sport.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Club members also felt that educational programs to address bullying were very beneficial. The Dare to Care in Sport program was praised for being mandatory and inclusive of all members. One interviewee said: “It was just super clear to know that the swimmers were on the same page, the coaches were on the same page.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young woman and a young man in swimsuits high five while standing in an indoor pool" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576045/original/file-20240215-16-h8oh65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Encouraging participation in sport should go hand-in-hand with a commitment to fostering a culture of respect, inclusivity and fairness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Key takeaways from the program included a common definition of bullying and identification of acceptable behaviours, consequences for bullying, tools and strategies for addressing bullying as it occurs and appropriate and safe reporting mechanisms for bullying incidents and behaviours. </p>
<h2>Making sport safer</h2>
<p>The benefits of sport participation at any level are tremendous. It’s important that all members of sport organizations are equipped with the proper definition of bullying and have tools to deal with it. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.169">Many harmful behaviours in sport have been normalized over the years</a> as “just part of the game” or “building character.” Programs such as Dare to Care in Sport are taking a stand against these behaviours and making sport a more safe, inclusive and respectful environment for <em>all</em> participants. </p>
<p>Encouraging participation in sport should go hand-in-hand with a commitment to fostering a culture of respect, inclusivity and fairness. An additional resource leaders can use to accomplish this is the <a href="https://anchor.fm/sporting-change"><em>Sporting Change</em> podcast</a>, which focuses on many of these aspects.</p>
<p>It is critical to <a href="https://sirc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Safe-Sport-Lit-Review.pdf">continue to educate and ensure a safe sport experience</a> is created for all. Providing a comprehensive bully prevention education is one step forward to improving the culture of sport.</p>
<p><em>The author would like to acknowledge the contributions from the Dare to Care Team (Lisa Dixon-Wells, Mathieu Constantin and Raine Paul) to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222085/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Booke works for Dare to Care. After completing the research explained in this article, she began training as a facilitator to deliver the Dare to Care in Sport workshops. </span></em></p>The prevalence of bullying in sports poses a threat to sport participation, demanding a proactive approach to address the issue.Julie Booke, Associate Professor in Health and Physical Education/Sport and Recreation Management, Mount Royal UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2161252024-02-21T13:19:09Z2024-02-21T13:19:09ZYour heart changes in size and shape with exercise – this can lead to heart problems for some athletes and gym rats<p>Exercise has long been recognized by clinicians, scientists and public health officials as an <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart/physical-activity/benefits">important way to maintain health</a> throughout a person’s lifespan. It improves overall fitness, helps build strong muscles and bones, reduces the risk of chronic disease, improves mood and slows physical decline. </p>
<p>Exercise can also significantly reduce the risk of developing conditions that negatively affect heart heath, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and obesity. But large amounts of exercise throughout life may also harm the heart, leading to the development of a condition called <a href="https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/sports-and-the-heart/athlete%E2%80%99s-heart">athletic heart</a>.</p>
<p>As the <a href="https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/cardiology/clinical-programs/multidisciplinary-programs/sports-cardiology">sports cardiology director</a> at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, I’m often asked how much and what kind of exercise is necessary to get the benefits of exercise. Many people also wonder about the risks of exercise, and what happens if you exercise too much. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/fitness/fitness-basics/aha-recs-for-physical-activity-in-adults">American Heart Association generally recommends</a> 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, such as brisk walking, or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise, such as running, each week. It also recommends muscle strengthening exercises at least twice per week.</p>
<p>When people exceed these guidelines, the heart may remodel itself in response – that is, it begins to change its size and shape. As a result, heart function may also change. These changes in heart structure and function among people who engage in high levels of exercise are referred to as the athletic heart, or athlete’s heart. Athletic heart doesn’t necessarily cause problems, but in some people it can increase the risk of certain heart issues.</p>
<h2>What is athletic heart?</h2>
<p>To understand how exercise affects the heart, it’s important to consider what kind of exercise you’re participating in. </p>
<p>Exercise is generally divided into <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.09.033">two broad categories</a>: dynamic and static. </p>
<p>Dynamic exercises, like running, cross-country skiing and soccer, require the heart to pump an increased amount of blood, compared to the amount delivered to the body at rest, in order to sustain the activity. For example, when running, the amount of blood the heart pumps to the body may increase by threefold to fivefold compared to at rest.</p>
<p>Static exercises, like weightlifting, gymnastics or rock climbing, require the body to use skeletal muscle in order to push or pull heavy amounts of weight. While the heart does pump more blood to skeletal muscles that are working during these activities, these kinds of exercises depend on a muscle’s ability to move the weight. For example, in order to do curls with dumbbells, the biceps must be strong enough to lift the desired weight. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of lower half of the back of a person cycling, one hand outstretched towards the vegetation on the side of the road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cycling involves both dynamic and static exercise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-black-shorts-riding-bicycle-on-road-during-daytime-vRuoDd-Qnq8">Judit Murcia/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some exercises, like rowing or cycling, are both highly dynamic and highly static because they require the heart to pump large amounts of blood while simultaneously requiring a large amount of muscle strength to sustain effort.</p>
<p>It is important to distinguish between dynamic and static exercise because the heart adapts differently according to the type of exercise you engage in over time. Dynamic exercise increases the volume of blood pumping through the heart and can cause the heart to become enlarged, or dilated, over time. Static exercise increases the amount of pressure on the heart and can also cause it to become enlarged over time but with thickened walls.</p>
<h2>Who develops athletic heart?</h2>
<p>Exercise that exceeds guidelines, such as exercising more than an hour most days of the week, may lead to development of athletic heart. Athletic heart commonly occurs <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.336">among endurance athletes</a>, who regularly compete in activities like marathons or other long-duration events. Many exercise several hours per day and more than 12 to 15 hours per week.</p>
<p>Among runners, for example, the heart remodels itself in response to having to pump a high volume of blood. As a result, the chambers of the heart enlarge to hold and pump more blood. Among weightlifters, the heart remodels itself by thickening in response to the increase in pressure applied on the heart.</p>
<p>Exercise is good for the body, and athletic heart results from a lifelong commitment to an activity that promotes good health. But there may be some issues that arise from an athletic heart.</p>
<p>First, athletes with markedly enlarged hearts may be at risk of developing <a href="https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2019/08/16/08/20/Atrial-Fibrillation-in-Competitive-Athletes">atrial fibrillation</a>, which is abnormal heart rhythms that typically occur among older adults or people with high blood pressure or heart failure. Abnormal heart rhythms are worrisome because they may lead to a stroke. </p>
<p>There are many potential reasons atrial fibrillation occurs in athletes. A dilated atrium – the top chamber in the heart – may become inflamed and develop scar tissue, increasing the risk of atrial fibrillation. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000031733.51374.C1">Stress and environmental factors</a> may also work together to increase the risk of arrhythmia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Clip of an ultrasound reading of an enlarged heart beating" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is an echocardiogram of a 30-year-old athlete with an enlarged heart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:4_chamber_(1).gif">Runandbike/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.027834">Coronary artery calcification, or CAC</a>, is another concern among elite athletes. Coronary artery calcification, which commonly occurs in older adults or those with risk factors for coronary artery disease, increases the risk of having a heart attack or stroke. In recent years, doctors have been using imaging tests to monitor calcium buildup in the arteries of their patients to try to determine their risk of heart attack or stroke over time.</p>
<p>It is not entirely clear why elite athletes develop coronary artery calcification. Fortunately, it does not appear that athletes have an increased risk of heart attack, even among those with very high levels of CAC. For example, a large study of almost 22,000 participants found that even athletes who engaged in high amounts of exercise and had elevated levels of CAC <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2018.4628">did not have an increased risk</a> of death from cardiovascular disease over a decade of follow-up.</p>
<p>Some athletes are appropriately concerned about having calcium buildup in their heart arteries and may wonder whether or not they should be taking medications like aspirin or statins. But risks <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2019.03.007">vary from person to person</a>, so anyone concerned about CAC should talk to their doctor</p>
<h2>Putting exercise in its place</h2>
<p>Though elite athletes may have an increased risk of developing athletic heart, exercise undoubtedly remains one of, if not the best, methods to maintain a healthy lifestyle.</p>
<p>For example, if someone does not exercise routinely, their heart <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.105.541078">will become stiff</a> and not pump blood as well as it once did. Routine exercise – especially dynamic exercise like running – maintains a compliant heart and prevents stiffening. A compliant heart will expand a lot more as it fills with blood and, in turn, pump out more blood with each heartbeat. A stiff heart has difficulty filling up with blood and has difficulty pumping blood through the body.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people running on a road lined with trees -- the younger person is trailing behind the older person who has leaped into the air with arms raised" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Regular exercise can help keep your heart young.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-old-and-young-sportsmen-running-on-the-road-royalty-free-image/1086683052">Viacheslav Peretiatko/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Generally, routine exercise throughout adulthood encourages the heart to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.03.062">remain strong and flexible</a> even in old age. Even if someone were only to begin regularly exercising in their 40s to 50s, it is possible to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030617">reverse some of the effects</a> of sedentary aging.</p>
<p>For example, a 2018 study of 53 sedentary people mostly in their early 50s found that those who participated in a two-year exercise training program using a combination of running, cycling and elliptical exercise had hearts that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030617">became more compliant</a> compared to the hearts of those who did not exercise.</p>
<p>It is never too late to start exercising. Routinely following exercise guidelines can help promote physical and mental health and help your heart stay young throughout your life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Cornwell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People who regularly engage in significant amounts of exercise, as endurance athletes do, may develop enlarged hearts. While athletic heart is adapted for performance, it can be cause for concern.William Cornwell, Associate Professor of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical CampusLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223712024-02-13T22:40:18Z2024-02-13T22:40:18ZViolence prevention can transform Canadian hockey culture — but only if implemented properly<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574543/original/file-20240208-20-atky56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C60%2C6669%2C4365&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Investing in violence prevention that is evidence-based and sustainable is the key to ensuring violence stops.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/sources-confirm-nhl-players-facing-charges-in-sexual-assault-investigation-1.2069570">recent charges against five members of Canada’s gold medal-winning 2018 world junior hockey team</a> in connection with an alleged sexual assault has thrust <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/10273307/hockey-canada-world-juniors-sex-assault-case-timeline/">Hockey Canada and its issues back into the public eye</a>.</p>
<p>A woman <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/nhl/world-juniors-assault-explainer-1.7100420">sued Hockey Canada in 2022</a>, alleging she had been sexually assaulted in a hotel room by <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/hockey-canada-chl-settle-lawsuit-over-alleged-sexual-assault-involving-world-junior-players-1.1804861">eight Canadian Hockey League players</a>, some of whom were members of the 2018 world junior team. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/nike-permanently-ends-hockey-canada-support-1.6909029">In her statement of claim filed in April 2022</a>, the woman accused Hockey Canada of failing to address systemic abuse in its organization and of fostering a “culture and environment that glorified the degradation and sexual exploitation of young women.”</p>
<p>Police dropped the investigation in 2019, but reopened it in 2022, leading to <a href="https://apnews.com/article/hockey-canada-cale-makar-f75afaa9aea186b1f90d9439312882f3">the suspension of the 2018 world junior team from international tournaments</a> and the recent charges. </p>
<p>Hockey Canada also faced criticism in May 2022 when news broke that it had paid out <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/hockey-canada-house-of-commons-committee-1.6533439">$8.9 million in sexual abuse settlements since 1989</a> (excluding an undisclosed settlement in a $3.5 million lawsuit for the alleged 2018 assault). </p>
<p>While coverage of this case continues to <a href="https://theconversation.com/hockey-canada-scandal-highlights-toxic-masculinity-in-sports-192712">raise important questions about the systemic failures within Hockey Canada</a>, many have been left wondering what can be done to prevent gender-based and sexual violence in the future. </p>
<p>As a public educator and researcher who has worked with men and boys in violence prevention for eight years, I urge us to invest in programs with proven effectiveness to reduce rates of abuse and harassment in sport.</p>
<h2>Hockey Canada lacks accountability</h2>
<p>Hockey Canada’s response to the scandal has been largely reactive, which is typical of institutions when they are faced with mounting public pressure. </p>
<p>But, as <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/hockey-canada-lawsuit-more-oversight-accountability-1.6640941">some critics have already articulated</a>, their plans lack transparency, accountability and foresight in preventing violence. In November 2023, Hockey Canada said <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/10091307/hockey-canada-sex-assault-report-appeal">they would not release their third-party report on the alleged 2018 sexual assault</a> to the public. </p>
<p>They did, however, say they have taken <a href="https://leaderpost.com/news/local-news/hockey-canada-reacts-we-have-been-too-slow-to-act-in-the-past/wcm/8b19e772-59d6-434c-9392-afb7731ffa6c">measures to address the issue</a>, including implementing a mandatory screening process, adopting a code of conduct, a third-party complaint process and <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9304932/sexual-harassment-prevention-2023-world-junior-hockey">anti-violence training during key tournaments</a>. Whether these measures will be effective still remains uncertain.</p>
<h2>The spectrum of violence</h2>
<p>This Hockey Canada issue is not isolated; there have been many <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/jan/27/abuse-canada-sport-inquiry-hockey-gymnastics-soccer">high-profile domestic and sexual violence cases</a> in professional and competitive sports, including claims of hazing, harassment and sexual violence all the way down to the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/shattered-trust-nso-jurisdiction-money-safe-sport-1.6727216">amateur level</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://women-gender-equality.canada.ca/en/gender-based-violence/about-gender-based-violence.html">Gender-based violence</a> doesn’t occur in a vacuum; it thrives in environments that facilitate it — particularly the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26873070">normalization of hazing</a> that is predicated on sexism, racism and homophobia. </p>
<p>Research indicates that <a href="https://safesport101.coachesontario.ca">one in three coaches in Ontario</a> are aware of hazing rituals within their teams. One in five have heard sexist, racist or homophobic language within their organizations or at competitions. </p>
<p>These practices often go unchallenged because coaches either feel ill-equipped to address them or they share the belief that hazing is merely a <a href="https://sirc.ca/blog/changing-the-culture-of-hazing-in-canada/">part of sport culture</a> or team building.</p>
<p>However, we know that hazing can have <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/hazing-physical-mental-health-consequences-1.4936003">dire consequences</a> on health, well-being and overall participation in sport. </p>
<p>Hazing rituals can sometimes <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/nhl/article/daniel-carcillo-says-hockey-canada-testimony-didnt-acknowledge-hazing-abuse-in-chl/">escalate to sexual assault within hockey teams</a>. Practices like hazing also <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/05/nyregion/violent-cast-of-school-hazing-mirrors-society-experts-say.html">create an environment</a> where misogyny, homophobia and racism can <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/7612597/st-mikes-football-coach-did-not-see-accused-in-video-sex-assault-court-hears/">escalate into tangible forms of violence</a> outside the locker room.</p>
<p>Efforts to address these issues commonly rely on framing it as a problem caused by a few “<a href="https://theconversation.com/hockey-canadas-issues-go-beyond-a-few-bad-apples-the-entire-system-needs-to-be-re-engineered-221957">bad apples</a>.” However, this approach overlooks the normalization of these practices and the bystander behaviours that allow it to continue unabated. </p>
<h2>Violence prevention programs</h2>
<p>In my experience running gender-based violence prevention programs with young male athletes, many initially balk at violence prevention programs as they are seen as vilifying boys and men. </p>
<p>However, research indicates that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018801330">gender-specific programs</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218815778">delivered during youth</a> have some of the most positive impacts in <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(14)61683-4/fulltext">changing misogynistic attitudes</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515584346">reducing abuse perpetration</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004">improving bystander intervention behaviours</a>.</p>
<p>These programs are particularly effective when they are <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429280054-11/engaging-men-boys-violence-prevention-michael-flood">sustained over longer periods of time</a>, focus on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X14558240">gender messaging</a> and take place in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X12458590">key sites like schools or sports environments</a>.</p>
<p>These findings contradict current models of violence prevention in professional or competitive sport, such as the <a href="https://cdn.ontariohockeyleague.com/archive/ohl.uploads/app/uploads/ohl/2016/11/22155545/OHLONSIDE_MediaInfo.pdf">OHL’s mandatory <em>Onside</em> training</a>, which is a two-hour workshop for new players on sexual violence. </p>
<h2>Addressing violence in sport</h2>
<p>To meaningfully address violence in sport, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/hockey-sexual-violence-training-ohl-funding-1.6623213">gender-based violence programs must be ongoing and dynamic</a> instead of being treated like a mere checkbox.</p>
<p>An example of such a program is <a href="https://coachescorner.org">Coaching Boys Into Men</a>, a program created by <a href="https://www.futureswithoutviolence.org">the Futures Without Violence non-profit</a> that has been <a href="https://intervalhousehamilton.org/new-program-announcement-coaching-boys-into-men/">piloted in Hamilton, Ont</a>.</p>
<p>Coaching Boys Into Men equips coaches to have fifteen-minute weekly conversations for three months with their adolescent boys’ teams about consent, healthy relationships and challenging harmful behaviour. </p>
<p>Those who complete the program are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.01.018">less likely to perpetrate abuse</a> and are <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2758662">significantly more likely to intervene</a> if they see harm happening. </p>
<p>Rather than viewing violence prevention as a blame game, we should see it as an inherently hopeful endeavour that focuses on the humanity and wellness of our athletes and communities. Investing in violence prevention that is evidence-based and sustainable is the key to ensuring that this violence stops.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222371/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maddie Brockbank works at Interval House of Hamilton in the MentorAction program. Maddie is a Vanier Scholar and received doctoral funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).</span></em></p>While many initially balk at violence prevention programs aimed at boys and men, these programs reduce the likelihood of abuse and improve the chances of bystanders intervening on behalf of victims.Maddie Brockbank, PhD Candidate & Vanier Scholar, Social Work, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208252024-02-09T03:53:35Z2024-02-09T03:53:35ZLamar Jackson is the NFL’s MVP. He’s also the NFL’s most valuable negotiator.<p><a href="https://www.cbssports.com/nfl/news/nfl-honors-2024-lamar-jackson-wins-league-mvp-ravens-star-youngest-qb-to-capture-the-award-twice/">Lamar Jackson has been named the National Football League’s Most Valuable Player</a> for the <a href="https://www.espn.com/nfl/story/_/id/28614953/ravens-qb-lamar-jackson-unanimous-pick-nfl-mvp-historic-season">second time in his career</a>. Evidenced by his <a href="https://www.nfl.com/players/lamar-jackson/stats/career">3,678 passing yards, 821 rushing yards and 29 total touchdowns</a>, and in leading the Baltimore Ravens to the AFC championship game, Jackson has more than earned the MVP designation. </p>
<p>However, just as impressive, but perhaps less well known, was Jackson’s <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lamar-jackson-baltimore-ravens-260-million-dollar-extension-nfl-highest-paid-player/">remarkable off-the-field performance at the negotiating table in 2023</a>. </p>
<p>Leading into the NFL’s 2023 season, Jackson was without a long-term contract extension and without representation. <a href="https://www.foxsports.com/nfl/lamar-jackson-player-injuries">Season-ending ankle and knee injuries in each of the previous two seasons</a> could have impacted teams’ willingness to meet Jackson’s demands for a long-term contract with significant guaranteed compensation. </p>
<p>Yet despite those challenges and concerns, Jackson was able to advocate and negotiate — for himself — <a href="https://www.nfl.com/news/lamar-jackson-ravens-agree-to-terms-on-new-contract">the most lucrative contract in the history of the NFL</a>: a five-year, US$260 million contract.</p>
<h2>Objective criteria</h2>
<p>There are several negotiation principles that impacted the Jackson negotiation. The first negotiation principle that helps explain how Jackson was able to achieve US$52 million per season, despite the issues and concerns discussed, is objective criteria. </p>
<p>In their book <a href="https://www.pon.harvard.edu/daily/negotiation-skills-daily/six-guidelines-for-getting-to-yes/"><em>Getting to Yes</em></a>, Roger Fisher, William Ury and Bruce Patton argue that using objective criteria, such as fair market value and professional and moral standards, helps focus negotiating parties on shared principles like fairness while de-emphasizing winning at the expense of the other party.</p>
<p>In Jackson’s case, the clearest example of objective criteria is the <a href="https://overthecap.com/position/quarterback">comparable NFL quarterbacks’ contracts at the time of the negotiation</a>, like those of Patrick Mahomes, Deshaun Watson and Aaron Rodgers. </p>
<p>Since Jackson’s contemporaries were earning US$45 to $50 million per season (see above: fair market value), it suggests his eventual negotiated agreement with the Ravens would fall within the same ballpark — that is, if the Ravens agreed with Jackson’s assessment that his unique skills and on-field performance/potential were at, or near the top of, the NFL.</p>
<p>The lesson for those of us not in the NFL is the importance of discovering and articulating reasonable objective criteria in negotiations. For example, in a salary negotiation, we might point to colleagues who make more than we do for similar work and/or performance. While <a href="https://www.hrreporter.com/focus-areas/employment-law/ontario-introduces-pay-transparency-law/381144">publicly available figures can be hard to come by</a>, using external examples can also be effective. </p>
<p>However, it’s crucial to keep in mind that determining what qualifies as reasonable objective criteria is only half the battle. To effectively use objective criteria in negotiations, both sides must agree on it.</p>
<h2>Building a golden bridge</h2>
<p>A second negotiation principle illuminated by the Jackson negotiation is the importance of managing the relationship by “<a href="https://www.beyondintractability.org/bksum/ury-gettingpast">building a golden bridge</a>.” </p>
<p>Particularly useful in heated negotiations, the golden bridge principle invites parties to set aside their often self-defeating ambition to win at all costs, and instead, imagine how they can make it as easy as possible for their negotiation counterpart to say yes.</p>
<p>In Jackson’s case, the relationship between him and the Ravens organization appeared compromised throughout the negotiation, in part because <a href="https://theathletic.com/4427133/2023/04/19/lamar-jackson-ravens-contract-negotiation/#">the Ravens’ side held certain asymmetric powers over Jackson</a>, including the ability to trade the quarterback and/or unilaterally sign him to a one-year extension at US$32.4 million. </p>
<p>As a result, the relationship deteriorated to the point where Jackson announced on social media that he had <a href="https://www.nfl.com/news/ravens-qb-lamar-jackson-says-he-requested-trade-on-march-2">requested a trade</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1640365154880704514"}"></div></p>
<p>Remarkably, at the very same time, <a href="https://x.com/Ravens/status/1640365741277937664?s=20">Ravens head coach John Harbaugh was speaking to media at the NFL owners’ meeting</a>, and, calm and composed, reiterated his endorsement of Jackson as the team’s quarterback for the future. </p>
<p>Later, in substantive negotiations, both sides embraced the golden bridge principles by incorporating both sides’ ideas and helping one another save face. This approach played a crucial role in repairing the strained relationship between Jackson and the Ravens organization.</p>
<h2>Lessons for all of us</h2>
<p>There are valuable lessons to be learned from Jackson’s negotiation. First, it’s crucial to recognize and appreciate tensions and frustrations that put our relationships at risk can and do occur in high-stakes negotiations. </p>
<p>Second, these tensions and frustrations can be overcome through careful and composed attention to the relationship between parties — using reasonable objective criteria and building the golden bridge.</p>
<p>In the case of Jackson and the Ravens, their use of objective criteria and the golden bridge principles ultimately resulted in a win-win — a five-year, US$260 million contract extension, of which US$185 million was guaranteed. </p>
<p>This extension allowed the Ravens to secure their franchise quarterback for the future and overcome the pressure to abandon their long-term financial interests and guarantee US$185 million instead of US$260 million.</p>
<p>Jackson’s US$52 million annual salary meant he had reasons to celebrate as well. Not only did he become the NFL’s highest paid player, but he also negotiated the highest per-year contract in the league’s history. Credit is due to Jackson and the Ravens for achieving this remarkable win-win.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220825/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite being without a long-term contract extension and representation, Lamar Jackson was able to advocate and negotiate the most lucrative contract in the history of the NFL. Here’s how.Ryan Clutterbuck, Assistant Professor in Sport Management, Brock UniversityMichael Van Bussel, Assistant Professor in Sport Management, Brock UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2201212024-01-31T13:35:57Z2024-01-31T13:35:57ZHow Black male college athletes deal with anti-Black stereotypes on campus<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572017/original/file-20240129-23-pzkon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Professors have lower academic expectations of Black college athletes compared with white college athletes, a study found.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/basketball-makes-me-fulfilled-royalty-free-image/1407119795">supersizer/E+ Collection/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In an effort to avoid stereotypes about Black male athletes, such as being labeled a “<a href="https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/jade/vol3/iss3/1">dumb jock</a>,” Spike, a college football player, says he wore athletic clothes to class as little as possible. </p>
<p>“I mean, granted, I’m a 6-foot-4, 240-pound Black kid on campus, so it’s kind of hard to get away from that,” he said. “But I didn’t want any, you know, significant confirmation that I was an athlete. So, I just wore like a collared shirt, jeans and nice shoes every day.”</p>
<p>Trey, a baseball player, refrained from speaking up or sharing personal information – even with his teammates. </p>
<p>He said he was often “outnumbered in opinion” as he was one of two Black athletes on a team of 40, which led to him “not even wanting to speak up” about issues that may cause conflict with others. “I’m a Black student-athlete and, like, that already makes me have to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2022-0108">carry myself</a> a different way,” he said.</p>
<p>I’m a professor of sport management who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221082042">researches</a> the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221082042">experiences of Black male college athletes</a>. During the 2020-21 academic year, I <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2022-0108">interviewed 16 Black male college athletes</a> at Division I colleges across the U.S. I wanted to know how they changed their behavior to navigate stereotypes about them. </p>
<p>I also asked participants, who competed in numerous sports – including football, baseball, cheer, diving, and track and field – to record audio diaries about the topic as part of the study.</p>
<p>I found that these college athletes, at times, went out of their way to change how they present themselves to others in order to avoid anti-Black racism and “dumb jock” stereotypes on campus. At other times, they pushed back against these stereotypes as a form of resistance.</p>
<h2>‘I don’t bring up that I am a student-athlete’</h2>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Presentation_of_Self_in_Everyday_Lif.html?id=Sdt-cDkV8pQC">Self-presentation</a> refers to how someone acts or behaves during social interactions in order to influence how others perceive them. For example, a person may change how they speak, or their word choices, depending on who is around them.</p>
<p>The Black male college athletes in my study altered their presentation in a number of ways, including their dress or clothing and their speech. They also limited how much information they shared, and at times they hid details about their identity.</p>
<p>Marc, another football player, reflected on how being a Black male college athlete affected how he spoke – both the frequency and delivery – during class. “You have to be, like, more engaged,” he said. “You got to assert yourself more and you got to be more analytic about things.”</p>
<p>These adjustments were not restricted to academic environments. Marc was also careful about what information he shared in various athletic settings, too. “You do not really <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2022-0108">talk about personal stuff</a> or anything like that,” he said. </p>
<p>Participants did not want their vulnerabilities used against them by their coaches or academic advisers.</p>
<p>Another strategy Black male college athletes used was hiding details about their identity – most often their athletic identity. Tyler, a track athlete, noted, “I try to make sure I don’t bring up that I am a student-athlete. I’m just trying to build my <a href="http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1623682148502463">identity away from the sport</a>.”</p>
<h2>Black students, white campuses</h2>
<p>Black men represent about <a href="https://nscresearchcenter.org/current-term-enrollment-estimates/">6% of total college students</a> in U.S. four-year public institutions. Yet at Division I schools, the highest level of college athletic competition, they represent roughly <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/12/13/ncaa-demographics-database.aspx">45% of football players</a> and <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/12/13/ncaa-demographics-database.aspx">51% of men’s basketball players</a>. </p>
<p>Overall, Black men represent <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/12/13/ncaa-demographics-database.aspx">12% of all Division I college athletes</a>, excluding historically Black colleges and universities.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, at Power Five schools, where college football is a big-time business, as many as <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/article/madness-doesnt-end-march/">1 in 6 Black male students</a> are athletes, compared with 1 in 50 white students. </p>
<p>The vast majority of Division I schools are predominantly white institutions. Their athletic departments, including coaching staffs and administrators, are <a href="https://www.tidesport.org/college">overwhelmingly white</a>. For example, 78% of Division I athletic directors, 81% of head coaches, 68% of assistant coaches and 90% of head athletic trainers <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/12/13/ncaa-demographics-database.aspx">are white</a>. </p>
<p>Similar to their athletic experience, these athletes do not see many other Black people across campus. Faculty on these campuses are <a href="https://www.bestcolleges.com/research/diversity-in-higher-education-facts-statistics/#faculty-diversity">93% non-Black</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="College student wearing ear buds works on laptop on campus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572018/original/file-20240129-17-e529bf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black college athletes often go out of their way to avoid ‘dumb jock’ stereotypes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/male-college-student-studying-online-on-laptop-in-royalty-free-image/1304983476">Maskot/Maskot Collection/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Racism and discrimination</h2>
<p>It is well documented that Black male college athletes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723513520013">experience racism and discrimination</a> while attending these predominantly white schools. This includes, for example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690208099874">unequal enforcement of school policies</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2016.1194097">less access to educational opportunities</a>. </p>
<p>They are discriminated against for being Black, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207307742">for being Black males</a> and for being athletes. Although touted for their physical prowess, Black male athletes are often <a href="https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/jade/vol3/iss3/1">labeled “dumb jocks”</a> – their intelligence somehow discredited by their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221082042">physical stature</a>.</p>
<p>They are sometimes seen by students, faculty, staff and even fans as <a href="https://doi.org/10.17161/jis.v14i2.13606">lacking the intellectual ability</a> and motivation to succeed academically. They are characterized as illegitimate students who undermine the academic mission of the university and <a href="https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA163678994&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=01463934&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7E5882e246&aty=open-web-entry">receive special treatment</a>. </p>
<p>One study found that professors and academic counselors had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723513520013">lower academic expectations</a> of Black college athletes compared with their white counterparts and that these athletes lacked autonomy in making academic decisions. Academic counselors often selected their courses, as opposed to the athletes registering themselves, which made the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723513520013">athletes feel powerless</a>.</p>
<p>Another study found that faculty members were more likely to attribute Black male college athletes’ success to policies, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.27.4.390">such as affirmative action</a>, instead of their merits, as they did for white athletes.</p>
<h2>Resisting societal pressure</h2>
<p>Not all the athletes altered their behavior or appearance to avoid anti-Black stereotypes. Keyvon, a football player, expressed that he presents himself authentically in predominantly white spaces as a way to “<a href="http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1623682148502463">apply pressure</a>” and force people to get comfortable with his Blackness. </p>
<p>Being a big-time college athlete indeed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221082042">presents privileges</a>, such as a pseudo-celebrity status, which at times can shield Black male college athletes from the impact of stereotypes and anti-Blackness. However, this is often the case solely when Black males perform well in their sport. </p>
<p>Sport performance should not determine how people treat Black male college athletes. Nor should Black male college athletes be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2016-0039">placed in a box</a> when it comes to how they present themselves, or risk anti-Black discrimination if they express themselves authentically. Ultimately, Black male college athletes will present themselves in a manner they deem appropriate – whether that aligns with what society expects or not.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220121/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Howe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Black male athletes at Division I schools say they alter their speech, dress and other behaviors to gain acceptance in mostly white academic and athletic settings.Jonathan Howe, Assistant Professor of Sport Management, Temple UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212892024-01-30T20:37:34Z2024-01-30T20:37:34ZFrom ancient Greece to now, the bravado of athletes transcends centuries<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571296/original/file-20240124-17-4eykqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=189%2C0%2C3327%2C2059&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ancient bas-relief on grave stele in Kerameikos in Athens, Greece depicting two wrestlers in action.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/from-ancient-greece-to-now-the-bravado-of-athletes-transcends-centuries" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>“I am the greatest. I said that even before I knew I was. I figured that if I said it enough, I would convince the world that I was really the greatest.” This <a href="https://www.espn.com/boxing/story/_/id/15930888/muhammad-ali-10-best-quotes">quote from Muhammad Ali</a> summarizes his legendary wit. But it also indicates the self-confidence and attitude that characterizes so many athletes.</p>
<p>Since the beginning of sport media coverage on radio and television, and now with <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CwcjaSGArUq/?img_index=1">social media</a> providing intimate access to athletes, it has been clear that boasts, attitudes and confidence are part of the athlete persona. These attitudes, however, are nothing new. </p>
<p>Sport as it is practised around the globe has its origins in a <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/ca/sport-9781350140202/">partially real and partially imaginary ancient Greece</a>. Similarly, the literary and documentary records from antiquity show that the attitudes of athletes are not a new phenomenon.</p>
<p>Ancient Greek athletes, however, faced a challenge unlike modern athletes. Without the internet, television, radio or any widespread means of communication, athletes had to struggle to make their success known and easily communicated to a broad public. </p>
<h2>Songs of victory</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white sculpture of a naked young man with a strip of cloth held in his left hand. The right arm is broken at the wrist." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=817&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=817&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=817&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1027&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1027&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571330/original/file-20240125-23-jhtqbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1027&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fragments of a marble statue of the Diadoumenos (a youth tying a fillet around his head after victory in an athletic contest).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(The Metropolitan Museum of Art)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike today’s elite athletes, athletes in antiquity were far less interested in highlighting sporting prowess. Athletic boasts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-5370.12068">rarely focused on how quickly someone ran</a>, how easily they defeated an opponent in wrestling or how far they threw the discus. </p>
<p>Rather, athletes modified <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/in-praise-of-greek-athletes/605B9251CD2411DF810486AAF10A033F">the proclamation of victory</a> — an announcement made by a herald at athletic games, like the Olympics, that actually made them the victor. This proclamation is akin to the contemporary medal ceremony, but with more ritual and religious authority. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.academia.edu/1874218/_The_Heralds_and_the_Games_in_Archaic_and_Classical_Greece_Nikephoros_15_2002_69_97">The proclamation contained everything necessary to celebrate an athlete</a>: his name, father’s name, city of origin and the event in which he was successful. </p>
<p>The proclamation is referred to time and time again in the epinikian poetry of Pindar, an Ancient Greek poet from Thebes. Epinikian poetry consists of songs composed for a victory, as the word “epinikian,” which translates to “upon a victory,” indicates.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DN.%3Apoem%3D5">opening of Pindar’s Nemean 5</a>, composed for an athlete named Pytheas, the herald’s proclamation is nearly repeated. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Sweet song, go on every merchant-ship and rowboat that leaves Aegina, and announce that Lampon’s powerful son Pytheas won the victory garland for the <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/ancient-olympic-games/pankration">pancratium</a> at the Nemean games, a boy whose cheeks do not yet show the tender season that is mother to the dark blossom.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This is a relatively simple representation of the herald. Still, the conceit of the song — that this message will go forth everywhere by means of word-of-mouth on ships — shows the determination of athletes to make their accomplishments known. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D8">Olympian 8</a>, Pindar’s song claims the authority that comes from a supposed eye witness. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“He was beautiful to look at, and his deeds did not belie his beauty when by his victory in wrestling he had Aegina with her long oars proclaimed as his fatherland.” </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Ancient Greek epigrams</h2>
<p>It’s not only in epinikian song that boasts and accomplishments appear. Dozens of epigrams (poems inscribed on stone) remain from ancient Greece. Many of these leverage the proclamation, and many claim special success. </p>
<p>One simple example is that of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110863543">Drymos</a>, who won a running event at the Olympics in the early fourth century BC and erected a statue with an inscribed poem. “Drymos, son of Theodoros, proclaimed here, on that very day, / an Olympic contest, running into the famous grove of the god, / an example of manliness; equine Argos is my homeland.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A weathered piece of stone with ancient Greek inscribed on the surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571341/original/file-20240125-23-hm34m3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A statue base from ancient Olympia inscribed with an epigram in honour of the victory of Kyniska of Sparta in the four-horse chariot race of 396 BC.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Peter J. Miller)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Still, these seemingly simple poems often include much more. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110863543">Kyniska of Sparta’s epigram</a>, one of the only epigrams for a victory by a woman in this period, is a good example. “Spartan kings are my fathers and brothers, / but, victorious with a chariot of swift-footed horses, / Kyniska set up this statue. And I declare that I alone / of women from all of Greece seized this crown.”</p>
<p>Kyniska’s epigram focuses on her and her singular achievement. Its boast is unique, but the rhetoric is not. It points to the ways in which ancient athletes established records and competed with their counterparts.</p>
<h2>We’re not so different</h2>
<p>Rather than counting statistical achievements, ancient athletic records tend to be of the type <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474469920-023">“the first with the most.”</a> Perhaps most telling is the massive inscription and poem celebrating the career of the most successful athlete from antiquity, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110863543">Theogenes of Thasos</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An ancient Greek vase depicting five men, drawn in black ink, running against a terracotta background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571343/original/file-20240125-15-qpq0ml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora from 530 BC.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(The Metropolitan Museum of Art)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This poem builds from the proclamation to claim his incredible supremacy by winning boxing and pancration at Olympia, something “no one” had done before. He also won three victories at the Pythian Games without competition (that is, his prospective opponents chose not to bother), something “no other mortal man” had done. Last, he won two crowns at the Isthmian Games on the same day. </p>
<p>All of these accomplishments were memorialized in poetry and inscribed on stone, along with a massive catalogue of his victories across a 20-year athletic career.</p>
<p>So, as the world prepares for another Olympic year, with television networks focusing on competition between athletes, and as the social media profiles of athletes themselves turn to vaunts, boasts and rivalry, we can reflect on the notion that athletics and athletes seem intrinsically connected to these attitudes. </p>
<p>There are, it seems, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/gutt13340">vanishingly few continuities between the sports cultures of classical antiquity and those of today</a>. Nonetheless, the attitudes of ancient and modern athletes remain, at their core, so very similar, despite massive change over millenia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221289/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter J. Miller receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p>Without the internet, television, radio or any widespread means of communication, ancient Greek athletes had to struggle to make their success known and easily communicated to a broad public.Peter J. Miller, Associate Professor of Classics, University of WinnipegLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2170402024-01-17T19:50:11Z2024-01-17T19:50:11ZBig dreams and high demands: The mental health challenges of elite youth athletes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569667/original/file-20240116-25-tskkz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=215%2C17%2C5775%2C3889&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A recent study found that 41 per cent of Canadian Olympic and Paralympic athletes met the criteria for one or more mental disorders, such as depression, anxiety or eating disorders.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Elite sport poses several unique pressures that can impact athletes’ mental health. </p>
<p>Demanding travel schedules and intense <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410500131480">competition pressures</a> can lead to negative emotional experiences. Athletes can <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096731">become injured</a>, or they may be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2017.04.018">uncertain about their future career</a> in sport. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, some athletes may also face <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211045096">physical, psychological or sexual abuse</a> in their sport. </p>
<h2>Pressures of elite sport</h2>
<p>Research has shown that elite athletes can experience mental health issues at rates equal to or higher than the general population. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102018">recent study</a> found that 41 per cent of Canadian Olympic and Paralympic athletes surveyed met the criteria for one or more mental disorders, such as depression, anxiety or eating disorders. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01266-z">Another study</a> involving Australian elite athletes revealed that they were nearly twice as likely to experience significant psychological distress compared to the broader community.</p>
<p>Even though elite athletes often have many resources to support them, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000319">they may feel it is hard to reach out and ask for help</a>. When left untreated, mental health challenges and performance pressures can lead to athletes feeling burned out or wanting to drop out of their sport, and they may even experience <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101386">feelings of hopelessness and suicidal thoughts</a>. </p>
<p>Young people engaged in elite sport might be at even greater risk. </p>
<h2>Who are elite youth athletes?</h2>
<p>Reaching the highest levels of performance often requires athletes to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2017.1324503">specialize</a> in their sport during their teenage years, and <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/age-number-youngest-olympians-2021-tokyo-2020-athletes">several athletes competing at the Olympic Games are adolescents</a>. There are numerous clubs, leagues and <a href="https://sportpourlavie.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Sport-Schools-in-Canada.pdf">schools</a> that focus on elite youth sport specialization, and there will be 1,900 athletes taking part in the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/gangwon-2024/">Youth Olympic Games</a> Jan. 19 to Feb. 1, 2024. </p>
<p>Clearly, youth athletes are already competing at elite levels or hope to reach elite levels in their sport.</p>
<p>While the term “elite youth athlete” can be tricky to define, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381231219230">we use the term</a> to describe youth athletes who are training in sport settings that have a primary focus on achieving superior performance, with the explicit or implicit goal of moving to adult elite, collegiate or professional sports. </p>
<p>Elite youth sport environments may prioritize spending time on sport activities instead of school or relationships with friends outside of sport. These settings can provide the training and specialized skills needed to become an elite performer, but they may also pose risks to the mental health of young athletes.</p>
<h2>Mental health among elite youth athletes</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A swimmer training alone in a pool" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569462/original/file-20240116-19-i1hpc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Perfectionism is common among athletes, and strongly linked with poor mental health outcomes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Jonathan Chng)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some pressures that are unique to elite youth athletes include early specialization and over-training, having critical or demanding coaches and parents, poor sleep, and trying to balance educational and social needs with increasingly professionalized sporting demands. <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-pressuring-young-athletes-to-perform-well-does-them-harm-186699">These factors can all affect the well-being of youth elite athletes</a>. </p>
<p>Perhaps especially related to elite sport, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-perfectionism-became-a-hidden-epidemic-among-young-people-89405">young people around the world are reporting unprecedented levels of perfectionism</a>. Perfectionism is common among athletes, and strongly linked with poor mental health outcomes. </p>
<p>Beyond the pressures of elite sport environments, young people experience the heaviest burden of mental ill-health. For young people around the world, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7">the peak age at onset for a mental health disorder is 15, and approximately half of these disorders occur before the age of 18</a>. There are many reasons why young people’s mental health is at such high risk, including increasingly troubling <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-023-02300-x">global conflicts and climate change</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105772">parental unemployment</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3885">economic prospects</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-harming-childrens-mental-health-and-this-is-just-the-start-168070">Climate change is harming children’s mental health – and this is just the start</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Compared to the body of research on mental health among <em>adult</em> athletes, there is limited research exploring this issue among elite <em>youth</em> athletes. Currently, we do not have adequate data to reliably report on the prevalence of mental health disorders among elite youth athletes. </p>
<p>One exception is the topic of eating disorders, with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsampl.2023.100040">recent review</a> suggesting that elite youth athletes may be at increased risk compared to non-elite youth athletes, and compared to young people more broadly. </p>
<p>Considering the unique challenges faced by adolescents in elite sport, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106352">there is a pressing need to support the mental health of elite youth athletes</a>.</p>
<h2>Closing the gap: Supporting elite youth athletes</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A skiier in mid-air" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569464/original/file-20240116-25-25lkrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some pressures that are unique to elite youth athletes include early specialization and over-training, having critical or demanding coaches and parents, poor sleep, and trying to balance educational and social needs with increasingly professionalized sporting demands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Sebastian Staines)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A key focus for supporting the mental health of elite youth athletes involves creating youth sport contexts that are protective for mental health. Elite youth sports environments need to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01912-2">psychologically safe</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050068">free from abuse and harassment</a>. </p>
<p>A large responsibility sits with parents and coaches, who must avoid overly critical or demanding behaviours and instead engage with young people in supportive ways. Sport organizations should <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780359">prioritize well-being and healthy development</a> among youth athletes.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-023-02202-z">Early detection</a> is important to help elite youth athletes get the support they need. Warning signs of mental health concerns can include changes in an athlete’s emotions, mood, behaviours, sleep and appetite. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.008">Coaches and parents</a> play important roles in noticing changes in athletes’ mental health, and they can help by opening up conversations about mental health among youth athletes. </p>
<p>Listening without judgment, asking athletes what they think they might need, and offering to help them find places to seek support <a href="https://cmha.ca/brochure/talking-to-teens-about-mental-health/">are all helpful strategies when talking about mental health concerns</a>.</p>
<p>Elite youth athletes and their parents may benefit by seeking support from a psychologist, psychotherapist or psychiatrist who specializes in working with athletes. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13889">Much more work is needed</a> to understand the nature of mental health concerns among elite youth athletes. Given the unique demands and pressures of competing in elite sport environments and the challenges that youth face, it is imperative that we pay attention to the mental health needs of these young performers.</p>
<h2>Need support?</h2>
<p><a href="https://cmha.ca/find-help/">Canadian Mental Health Association </a></p>
<p><a href="https://www.ccmhs-ccsms.ca/mental-health-services/referrals">Canadian Center for Mental Health in Sport</a> </p>
<p><a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/mental-health-services/mental-health-get-help.html">Canada Mental Health Support and Resources</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217040/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katherine Tamminen is an Associate Professor at the University of Toronto and a Registered Psychotherapist. Her research is supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and Sport Canada, the Tanenbaum Institute for Science in Sport, and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation and the Ontario Research Fund.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Courtney Walton receives funding through an MSPS Academic Fellowship at the University of Melbourne. He has advised a number of elite sports codes and organisations nationally.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordan Sutcliffe is an Assistant Professor at the Royal Military College of Canada. Some of his past research has been supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, and he is currently involved on a project funded by the Tannenbuam Institute for Science in Sport.</span></em></p>Given the unique demands and pressures of competing in elite sport environments, it is imperative that we pay attention to elite youth athletes’ mental health needs.Katherine Tamminen, Associate Professor, Sport Psychology, University of TorontoCourtney C Walton, Academic Fellow & Psychologist, Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of MelbourneJordan Sutcliffe, Assistant Professor, Military Psychology and Leadership, Royal Military College of CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2197902024-01-11T21:37:33Z2024-01-11T21:37:33ZHalf a century later, the military junta still haunts Chile<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/half-a-century-later-the-military-junta-still-haunts-chile" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Chileans recently voted to reject a proposed new constitution which critics said was <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/12/16/why-chiles-draft-constitution-reads-like-us-conservative-wish-list/">even more authoritarian and conservative</a> than the 1980 dictatorship-era constitution it sought to replace. </p>
<p>Most notably, the rejected changes sought to strengthen property rights and uphold free-market principles. Roughly 56 per cent of voters rejected the new constitution while around 44 per cent were in favour. Debates about the constitution highlight the political challenges that have plagued Chile since the violent days of the military junta. </p>
<p>Hosted in Santiago, <a href="https://www.panamsports.org/en/news-sport/the-santiago-2023-pan-american-games-left-the-name-of-chile-at-the-highest-level/">the 2023 Pan and Parapan American Games</a>, were seen as an opportunity to signal a new Chile. For Toronto-born Olympian <a href="https://olympic.ca/team-canada/melissa-humana-paredes/">Melissa Humaña-Paredes</a>, daughter of Chilean political refugees, entering the Estadio Nacional (National Stadium) as a <a href="https://olympic.ca/2023/10/20/humana-paredes-wilkerson-to-be-team-canadas-opening-ceremony-flag-bearers-at-santiago-2023/">flag-bearer</a> for the Canadian team, conjured up simultaneous feelings of pride, and the images of the atrocities from 50 years ago. </p>
<p>Under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet which ruled Chile from 1970 to 1990, many sport stadiums, especially the Estadio Nacional, were used as open-air prisons, where many Chileans were tortured and killed.</p>
<h2>Athlete activism in 1970s Chile</h2>
<p>On Sept. 11, 1973, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/10/1193755188/chile-coup-50-years-pinochet-kissinger-human-rights-allende">a coup backed by the United States overthrew the democratically-elected government of Chilean President Salvador Allende</a>. Allende was the first Marxist president in Latin America and leader of the Unidad Popular (Popular Unity) coalition. He earned a <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/20130911-1973-chile-1973-coup-defining-moment-france-left-communist-socialist-party">“mythical status”</a> among leftist political groups globally as a renowned socialist elected in the midst of the Cold War.</p>
<p>The defeat of Chilean democracy had devastating effects on the Chilean people. The violence of Pinochet’s reign was documented by the National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture. In 2011, the Commission presented a <a href="https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/resources/collections/truth_commissions/Chile90-Report/Chile90-Report.pdf">final report</a> recognizing a total of <a href="https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/pais/2023/09/12/exvicepresidenta-de-comision-valech-acusa-a-diputado-bobadilla-udi-de-ofender-a-las-victimas/">40,018 victims, 3,065 of them dead or missing</a>.</p>
<p>Melissa’s father, sport sociologist and professor, Hernán Humaña, a co-author of this article, recounts his own experiences as a Chilean national volleyball player during that time in his book <em>Playing Under the Gun: An Athlete’s Tale of Survival in 1970s Chile.</em></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Standing in line on the [volleyball] court, looking at the flag, and singing the anthem had turned into a painful routine for me. I felt the pain viscerally — not just in my heart. Observing spectators in the stands, also struggling during the anthem, made for an interesting study of people’s political alliances. Those supporting the military sang their lungs out, whereas those opposed either didn’t sing at all or selected only one part of the anthem, the one about “granting asylum to those persecuted.” What irony! Standing there singing, in full view of everyone, I was always aware that any departure from the norm could be dangerous for me, as the military and their supporters were humourless and would punish and persecute for such unpatriotic conduct.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://www.londres38.cl/1937/w3-article-97937.html">Sergio Tormen Méndez</a> and <a href="https://www.londres38.cl/1937/w3-article-97894.html">Luis Guajardo Zamorano</a> were two athletes, less fortunate in the military junta, forcibly disappeared 10-months after the coup d'etat.</p>
<p>Méndez and Zamorano were two elite cyclists and friends committed to fighting the military dictatorship. On the morning of July 20, 1974, DINA, the feared secret police, kidnapped the two men along with national cycling coach, Andres Moraga, and 14-year-old Peter, Méndez’s younger brother. In subsequent days, Moraga and Peter were released with a message: Sergio and Luis are in big trouble. Numerous survivors recount seeing the two in various torture centres, yet, the details of their disappearance remains a dark secret, and their bodies have yet to be found.</p>
<p>The tireless efforts of many groups, principally the Association of Relatives of the Detained-Disappeared (<em>Agrupación de Familiares de Detenidos Desaparecidos</em>), have attempted to break pacts of silence amongst those responsible for human rights violations, and authorities, especially members of the armed forces, have consistently impeded efforts to pursue justice. </p>
<p>Efforts are further complicated by a <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/09/chile-amnesty-law-keeps-pinochet-s-legacy-alive/">1978 amnesty law</a> that pardoned perpetrators and accomplices of all offenses committed between Sept. 11, 1973 and March 10, 1978.</p>
<p>Since the return to democracy in 1990, only 307 previously missing victims have been identified, and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/30/chile-announces-much-anticipated-plan-to-search-for-pinochet-victims">Chilean courts have since processed 584 kidnapping cases, 169 murders, and 85 illegal burials under the dictatorship</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, in August 2023, president Gabriel Boric’s government <a href="https://elpais.com/chile/2023-08-30/chile-buscara-a-mas-de-mil-desparecidos-de-la-dictadura-la-mayor-apuesta-de-boric-a-50-anos-del-golpe-militar.html">initiated a plan</a> to determine the circumstances of forced disappearances and offer reparations and assurances to the families of victims.</p>
<h2>Mythical miracles</h2>
<p>The history of brutal violence <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/democraciaabierta/myths-about-pinochets-chile-persist-brazil-today/">counters the sanitized myths</a> about a Chilean miracle popularized by people like economist Milton Friedman, who called it Latin America’s “<a href="https://www.druglibrary.org/special/friedman/socialist.htm">best economic success story</a>.”</p>
<p>In 2019, the attempted framing of the “miracle of Chile” could no longer be maintained. Two years after Chile was announced as host of the 2023 Pan/Parapan American Games, civic unrest erupted after the government announced an increase in transit fares. <a href="https://ciudadaniai.org/en/chile.html">Mass demonstrations were led by students</a> who jumped turnstiles and held open gates for people to avoid fares.</p>
<p>With some of the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-50123494">highest levels of inequality</a> among 30 of the wealthiest nations in the world, and <a href="https://corruption-tracker.org/case/chiles-milicogate-scandal#:%7E:text=Summary%20of%20Corruption%20Allegations&text=Three%20Chilean%20Armed%20Forces%20(CAF,were%20indicted%20or%20tax%20fraud">public officials marred by corruption scandals</a>, Chileans were reacting to 30 years of free-market neoliberal failure. </p>
<p>More than a million people, from the poorest to those from upper middle-class neighbourhoods, took to the streets. Militarized police and armed forces brutally repressed demonstrations, as protesters chanted <a href="https://jacobin.com/2019/10/chile-protests-pinera-repression">“It’s not about 30 pesos, it’s about 30 years.”</a></p>
<p>In a matter of weeks, at least <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/13/chile-un-prosecution-police-army-protests">26 people were killed, 113 people were tortured, and 24 cases of sexual violence were committed</a> by the police and army.</p>
<p>In response to protests, the political establishment agreed to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/how-chile-is-rewriting-its-pinochet-era-constitution-2021-05-14/">redraft the 1980 constitution</a>, ratified amid the bloodshed of Pinochet, and Boric <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59694056">was elected in December 2021</a> with a progressive agenda. </p>
<p>His minority government has <a href="https://apnews.com/article/chile-constitution-kast-boric-2c0c228d4608a55faf75ad6a318865a0">struggled to implement significant changes</a>. The first attempt to pass a progressive constitution — which included a host of rights and guarantees — was rejected in 2022.</p>
<p>Roughly 80 per cent of <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1294731/distribution-wealth-by-percentile-chile/">Chile’s wealth</a> remains concentrated within the top 10 per cent, and almost 50 per cent of the total national wealth belongs to the top one per cent.</p>
<p>The entrance of the Estadio Nacional reads “<a href="https://apnews.com/article/national-stadium-santiago-pan-american-games-788a048385aa169950ffd0b5915d3edd">A people without memory is a people without future</a>” and serves as a stark reminder that memories, especially those bearing the weight of state repression in stadiums celebrated now, remain living.</p>
<p>The Pan and Parapan American Games and constitutional debates, while ostensibly thought to represent a new Chile, temporarily obscured histories, still repeating.</p>
<p><em>This article was also co-authored by Chilean filmmaker Hernán Morris, and Melissa Humaña-Paredes, a 2020 Tokyo Olympian.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219790/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite hosting the 2023 Pan American Games and electing a president with a progressive agenda, Chile continues to grapple with entrenched economic inequality.Hernan Humana, Associate Lecturer, School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, CanadaAmanda De Lisio, Assistant Professor, School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2196812024-01-07T12:37:16Z2024-01-07T12:37:16ZWhy we should take competitive video games more seriously<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564974/original/file-20231115-25-zcd5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C980%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Today, the esports industry is worth several billion dollars globally.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Is playing competitive video games a serious business? </p>
<p>There’s no question about it for the thousands of <a href="https://www.leagueoflegends.com/en-us/">League of Legends</a> fans who flocked to South Korea last October to attend the <a href="https://youtu.be/tHMcncCS-XE?si=KFfNbrcjaTSCaCB6">Worlds 2023</a> championships of this ultra-popular game. The grand prize? <a href="https://lol.fandom.com/wiki/2023_Season_World_Championship">US$2,225,000</a>. </p>
<p>The Worlds 2023 event, which is still largely unknown to the general public, provides an opportunity for video game law specialists such as ourselves to explain just why competitive video games should be taken more seriously. </p>
<h2>Esports: a global social, cultural and economic phenomenon</h2>
<p>While North American sports leagues such as the NHL and NFL are well known — as are major traditional sporting competitions such as the Football World Cup or the Olympic Games — the same cannot be said for video game competitions. And yet, there is a whole world of professional competitions in the video game universe. Like traditional sports, the competitive video games world has its own leagues, well-established international competitions, its share of famous athletes and <a href="https://mashable.com/video/esports-events-are-filling-stadiums">hordes of fans</a>. These are known as esports.</p>
<p>Esports can be described simply as video games played in a competitive environment.</p>
<p>Although esports do not always enjoy the same level of recognition as traditional sports, they represent a sector that has grown significantly <a href="https://youtu.be/B_59wZ27ROE?si=4OWyy6Klh40POwwJ">over the last 10 years</a> and regularly attracts <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/490480/global-esports-audience-size-viewer-type/">millions of simultaneous viewers</a>. </p>
<p>A huge variety of esports games are now played competitively. In games such as <a href="https://lolesports.com/">League of Legends</a> or <a href="https://www.dota2.com/home">Dota</a>, two teams of players compete in multiplayer online battle arenas (MOBAs). These action-strategy games are something like supercharged chess games in which the aim is to destroy the opposing base. </p>
<p>There are also a number of very popular first-person shooting games such as <a href="https://valorantesports.com/">Valorant</a>, <a href="https://pro.eslgaming.com/csgo/proleague/">CSGO</a>, <a href="https://overwatchworldcup.com/en-us/">Overwatch</a> and <a href="https://www.fortnite.com/competitive">Fortnite</a>. </p>
<p>In short, when it comes to esports, there’s something for everyone, including those who prefer to (virtually!) play <a href="https://www.ea.com/en-ca/sports">traditional sports</a>.</p>
<h2>A booming sector</h2>
<p>In terms of viewership and popularity, the esports industry has <a href="https://www.insiderintelligence.com/insights/esports-ecosystem-market-report/">started to overtake traditional sports</a> in the past 10 years. The COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to this phenomenon.</p>
<p>Esports has also seen the emergence of internationally renowned superstars such as <a href="https://youtu.be/wU-1ZaT0hIg?si=vLKp_Krn37NSmKFV">Faker</a>, an athlete often considered the <a href="https://www.scmp.com/sport/china/article/3236384/asian-games-2023-south-koreas-league-legends-esports-gold-without-goat-faker-earns-military-service">greatest League of Legends player of all time</a> thanks to his huge victories and consistent success over the past decade.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1544343462476402688"}"></div></p>
<p>Today, the esports industry is worth <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/490522/global-esports-market-revenue/#:%7E:text=The%20term%20%22eSports%22%20is%20characterized,over%201.38%20billion%20U.S.%20dollars.">several billion dollars globally.</a></p>
<p>So it’s worth asking if esports will come to be recognized alongside traditional sports, or even have organized events as part of the Olympic Games?</p>
<p>It’s certainly possible. Esports are becoming more popular and have recently been added to the programs of major regional and international competitions. Several esports games have been included as demonstration events at the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/esports-historic-medal-debut-19th-asian-games-hangzhou-schedule-live">Asian Games since 2018</a> and were on the official program of the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/asian-games-2023-overall-medal-table-complete-list">2023 Asian Games held in Hangzhou, China</a>. <a href="https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/10/600_360240.html">South Korea won the gold medal</a> in the League of Legends competition at these games, which led to Faker getting a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/sports/korean-gamers-cusp-gold-avoiding-military-service-2023-09-28/">rare exemption from South Korea’s compulsory military service</a>. This exemption demonstrates how much recognition esports athletes are getting today in certain countries.</p>
<p>Regarding the inclusion of esports in the Olympics, video games were included as part of the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/esports/">Olympic Esports Series</a> in 2023. The event is organized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).</p>
<p>This committee, which explores ways to rejuvenate the image of the Olympic Games and attract new audiences, has also initiated discussions about the <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-president-announces-plans-to-create-olympic-esports-games-at-opening-of-141st-ioc-session-in-mumbai">creation of an esports Olympic Games</a>.</p>
<h2>Career opportunities, but little support infrastructure</h2>
<p>Much like traditional sports, the opportunity to get involved in esports isn’t reserved exclusively for professional gamers who compete in official events.</p>
<p>As with any competitive event, professional management and support teams are essential for achieving a high performance level.</p>
<p>That means the development of electronic sports has opened up a <a href="https://esportslane.com/esports-job-profiles-non-gaming/">vast field of career possibilities</a> for game enthusiasts: as event organizers and managers, specialized journalists, nutritionists, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/beijing-winter-olympics-athlete-mental-health-1.6348932">consultants in mental preparation</a>, physiotherapists and even lawyers to organize the relationships between all these actors.</p>
<p>However, despite the popularity and immense potential of electronic sports, Canada lacks infrastructure and programs. This is especially obvious within educational institutions, places which nevertheless have many young fans of this booming industry.</p>
<p>Ideally, infrastructure suitable for esports should include high-performance computers, a dedicated esports room, a support team, intercollegiate competitions and, above all, an atmosphere that promotes the inclusion and participation of all in esports.</p>
<p>Some post-secondary institutions have created spaces on their campuses dedicated to esports. These spaces contribute to student recruitment. This is the case, for example, of <a href="https://www.stclaircollege.ca/news/2022/nexus-esports-arena-unveiled-opening-don-france-student-commons">St. Clair College in Ontario</a> which in 2022 created a brand new space at the cutting edge of technology — with a $23 million budget.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the University of British Columbia (UBC) invested $100,000 in equipment to create a <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/3001912/ubc-esports-club-%20opens-online-gaming-lounge/">lounge dedicated to electronic sports</a>.</p>
<p>Other organizations, such as the <a href="https://www.osea.gg">Ontario School Esports Associations (OSEA)</a>, are actively promoting the integration of an esports program into the school curriculum.</p>
<p>In the near future, if these efforts expand, we can imagine young esports fans will have the chance to turn their passion for video games into a professional career — whether they would compete at high-level competitions or whether they would pursue another career in the video game field.</p>
<h2>Players’ health</h2>
<p>Even with the growth and dazzling popularity the sector has gained in recent years, the picture of esports today is not entirely rosy.</p>
<p>The daily life of professional esports athletes is not easy. Their <a href="https://www.invenglobal.com/articles/8845/skt-fakers-24-hour-schedule-infographic-with-mobalyticsgg">schedules</a> are particularly busy and they spend a large part of their day <a href="https://youtu.be/uyF6ZwtLonM?si=IcG1dt7zjtHxtKZR">training</a> or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/@T1_Faker">producing online content</a>.</p>
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<p>The competitive seasons are particularly demanding and, with some exceptions, most players’ careers are very short. In recent years, more and more players have opened up about their <a href="https://www.esports.net/news/industry/hidden-struggles-of-esports-athletes-mental-health-crisis/">mental health struggles</a>. Others have simply <a href="https://dotesports.com/league-of-legends/news/depression-burnout-insomnia-lec-pros-reveal-the-mental-toll-of-a-lol-esports-career">disappeared from the radar</a> after having made a thunderous breakthrough on the professional scene.</p>
<p>Research and support related to athletes’ working conditions will be necessary to ensure that they <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00494755221122493?icid=int.sj-abstract.citing-articles.5">do not endanger their health</a> and that they are not exploited by professional teams and leagues.</p>
<h2>Prevention and treatment of addiction phenomena</h2>
<p>The practice of esports can also have harmful effects on professional players, aspiring athletes or the general public due to excessive play time and/or expenses.</p>
<p>These phenomena are encouraged and exacerbated by the presence of mechanisms or strategies called <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/301007767.pdf">“Dark Patterns,”</a> widely used in <a href="https://www.darkpattern.games">certain video games</a>.</p>
<p>Dark Patterns can be temporal, encouraging players to invest an extended period of time in playing the game. For example, rewards for progressing in the game can be offered to players who play regularly every day.</p>
<p>Dark Patterns can also be monetary, by maximizing how much players will spend on a game. These expenses include mechanisms allowing players to pay to unlock aesthetic content or additional parts of a game.</p>
<p>Because of these mechanisms, it is essential to monitor and regulate the practices of the video game companies that use them.</p>
<h2>Esports are growing</h2>
<p>Electronic sports is a relatively recent practice that has grown incredibly over the last 10 years. However, this development has gone largely unnoticed by a large part of the general public.</p>
<p>Esports is nevertheless in a position to offer <a href="https://youtu.be/mP3fGkpmVM0?si=x6d7Pk9xr7BPOPTz">major events</a> which can easily rival the biggest traditional sporting events in popularity. It would be a mistake to underestimate esports, as it attracts both large crowds and talent.</p>
<p>On the contrary, it is important to support those who aspire to work in this field.</p>
<p>And above all, it is important to take a serious interest in the challenges and problems that esports face today, both in its professional and amateur practice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219681/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Electronic sports, or esports, is a practice that is often looked down upon. But it is a growing global phenomenon played on an incredible scale.Thomas Burelli, Professeur en droit, Section de droit civil, Université d’Ottawa (Canada), membre du Conseil scientifique de la Fondation France Libertés, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaHaoran Liu, Reaserch Assistant, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaMarie Dykukha, Research Assistant, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2197962023-12-18T22:48:17Z2023-12-18T22:48:17Z‘Politically neutral’ Russian athletes can now enter the Olympics – but don’t expect many to compete<p>Earlier this month, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced Russian and Belarussian athletes <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/strict-eligibility-conditions-in-place-as-ioc-eb-approves-individual-neutral-athletes-ains-for-the-olympic-games-paris-2024">will be able to compete</a> in the 2024 Paris Olympics if they are politically neutral. The decision from the committee’s executive board reversed an earlier ban. </p>
<p>The IOC made this change even though the Russian National Olympic Committee remains suspended from competition for its <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-executive-board-suspends-russian-olympic-committee-with-immediate-effect">violation</a> of “the territorial integrity of the National Olympic Committee of Ukraine”. For its part, Russia <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/12/09/1218406353/russian-belarus-athletes-ioc-2024-olympic-games">rejects</a> the decision.</p>
<p>The committee’s decision has enraged Western leaders, particularly those in Ukraine. Ukrainian Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba <a href="https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1142889/kyiv-says-ioc-encouraging-war-ukraine">accused</a> the committee of effectively giving “[…] Russia the green light to weaponize the Olympics”.</p>
<p>While it might seem like a good idea not to hold individual athletes responsible for the decisions of governments, the decision is more complicated that it appears.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/refugee-team-offers-a-way-for-russian-and-belarusian-dissidents-to-compete-at-the-paris-olympics-202427">Refugee team offers a way for Russian and Belarusian dissidents to compete at the Paris Olympics</a>
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<h2>Athletes caught in the middle</h2>
<p>More than 30 Western nations, including Australia, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/dec/08/athletes-who-have-not-supported-ukraine-war-to-compete-at-paris-2024">have previously called for</a> a complete ban on Russian participation in the Games. </p>
<p>IOC President Thomas Bach <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67711799">defended his decision</a> by arguing “individual athletes cannot be punished for the acts of their governments”. </p>
<p>The ruling came with <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/strict-eligibility-conditions-in-place-as-ioc-eb-approves-individual-neutral-athletes-ains-for-the-olympic-games-paris-2024">strict conditions</a>. Athletes must not be open supporters of the Russian invasion and they cannot be affiliated with Russian or Belarussian military or security services.</p>
<p>They cannot compete under their home country’s flag, or with national emblems or anthems.</p>
<p>The committee estimates that only 11 athletes – six Russians and five Belarussians – will qualify under these regulations.</p>
<p>The committee has been <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/64604212">slowly working towards this policy</a> since the spring of 2023. </p>
<p>The call may seem reasonable. After all, why should Russian and Belarussian athletes, especially those not supportive of the invasion, suffer from the actions of their government?</p>
<p>But it’s not quite that cut and dry.</p>
<h2>Different, inconsistent approaches</h2>
<p>The rule change seems inconsistent. As the committee continues to ban the participation of Russian teams, not all neutral Russian and Belarussian athletes will be able to participate. </p>
<p>Sporting federations can also continue to ban Russian and Belarussian athletes from competition and therefore qualification for the Games. World Athletics President <a href="https://news.yahoo.com/world-athletics-defies-ioc-maintains-113900349.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAK8RYILhtTwcf8F72FRd3jOng0u7BeehrhgaTPszxpb7HT9ufXfwDnRCQSfZc9McQRQCjCxxmdsURC3tDSmswrm1A60uNAT8dg">Seb Coe confirmed</a> that the organisation will continue to ban them. </p>
<p>By contrast, World Taekwondo and World Judo have both allowed Russian and Belarussian athletes to <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/media/q-a-on-solidarity-with-ukraine-sanctions-against-russia-and-belarus-and-the-status-of-athletes-from-these-countries">compete in qualification</a>.</p>
<p>In September, the International Paralympic Committee also decided neutral athletes <a href="https://www.paralympic.org/news/ipc-general-assembly-partially-suspends-npc-russia">can compete</a>.</p>
<h2>What can Ukraine’s allies do?</h2>
<p>With the Paris 2024 games only seven months away, the IOC’s decision seems final. But frustrated Western leaders have other options. </p>
<p>In the past year, Western officials have <a href="https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/30/paris-olympics-if-russian-athletes-are-cleared-to-compete-will-a-boycott-threat-have-any-e#:%7E:text=Ukraine%20has%20threatened%20to%20boycott,the%202024%20Paris%20Olympic%20Games.">threatened to boycott</a> the Olympics if Russian and Belarussian athletes competed. </p>
<p>There is a long history of politically motivated Olympic boycotts and threatened boycotts. In 1980, the United States and 66 other countries boycotted the Moscow games <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/12/08/history-olympic-games-boycotts/">in response to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan</a>. Eight other countries, including Australia, competed under an Olympic flag to signal their opposition to the invasion. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-a-year-of-sporting-mega-events-the-brisbane-olympics-can-learn-a-lot-from-the-ones-that-fail-their-host-cities-187838">In a year of sporting mega-events, the Brisbane Olympics can learn a lot from the ones that fail their host cities</a>
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<p>In 1984, in response, the Soviet Union and its allies boycotted the summer Olympics in Los Angeles. </p>
<p>A boycott of the Paris Olympics would be devastating to the organisers, but it remains very unlikely. France is a Western nation and a strong supporter of Ukraine. President Emmanuel Macron recently <a href="https://www.barrons.com/news/eu-should-give-ukraine-full-and-enduring-support-macron-65f3b496?refsec=topics_afp-news">encouraged the European Union</a> to continue supporting the beleaguered nation.</p>
<p>As a more palatable approach, Western leaders could ban athletes from Russia and Belarus from competing in international athletic competitions in Western Europe in the run-up to the games. This would likely make it impossible for any athletes from those countries to qualify for spots in Paris. </p>
<p>As historian Heather Dichter <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/190/monograph/chapter/3034403">has shown</a>, travel bans have a long history in the Olympics. </p>
<p>In the 1960s, there was a <a href="https://members.shafr.org/assets/docs/Passport/2022/September-2022/passport-09-2022-dichter.pdf">NATO-wide ban on East German athletes</a> travelling to compete in events in Western European countries. This effectively barred them from participation in several major sporting competitions and from qualifying for the Olympics. </p>
<p>Some Western leaders have already attempted to use this strategy against Russian and Belarussian athletes. Polish President Andrzej Duda <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/media/q-a-on-solidarity-with-ukraine-sanctions-against-russia-and-belarus-and-the-status-of-athletes-from-these-countries">refused to issue visas</a> to Russian and Belarussian fencers for a qualification competition in June. The International Fencing Federation moved the matches to Bulgaria where the neutral athletes could compete. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gender-inequality-will-still-be-an-issue-at-the-paris-2024-olympics-despite-the-games-being-gender-balanced-210883">Gender inequality will still be an issue at the Paris 2024 Olympics — despite the Games being gender-balanced</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As a more drastic step, French officials could simply ban all Russian and Belarussian athletes from travelling to Paris during the Olympics. The committee would likely have no recourse at this late date.</p>
<p>It would would align with the approach of some other EU member nations that <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-russian-tourists-seek-new-destinations-as-europe-shuts-its-doors-over-ukraine-war">ban Russian tourism and travel</a>. </p>
<p>However, the French National Olympic Committee would likely oppose such a move. They might worry that it threatens the viability of their likely future <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/the-french-alps-and-salt-lake-city-utah-invited-into-respective-targeted-dialogues-to-host-the-olympic-and-paralympic-winter-games-2030-and-2034">2030 Winter Olympic Games</a>.</p>
<p>At a time when so much international attention has turned to the Israel/Hamas war, will leaders, however frustrated, do anything in response?</p>
<p>Only time will tell, but one thing’s for sure: whatever happens will be carefully calculated to account for the vast array of geopolitical moving parts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219796/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Keith Rathbone does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The International Olympic Committee has ruled politically-neutral individual athletes are eligible, but some nations aren’t happy about it.Keith Rathbone, Senior Lecturer, Modern European History and Sports History, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2169652023-11-08T22:30:03Z2023-11-08T22:30:03ZHockey organizations need to address the psychological impacts of team trauma, not just the physical ones<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/hockey-organizations-need-to-address-the-psychological-impacts-of-team-trauma-not-just-the-physical-ones" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Hockey player <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/29/sport/adam-johnson-ice-hockey-death-spt-intl/index.html">Adam Johnson’s death</a> from an on-ice skate blade incident was jarring and tragic. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/oct/29/nottingham-panthers-ice-hockey-player-adam-johnson-dies-after-freak-injury">Johnson passed away on Oct. 28</a> after being cut in the neck by another player’s skate blade during a professional hockey game in Sheffield, England.</p>
<p>Understandably, a vigorous debate has ensued about whether neck guards should be made mandatory beyond the minor hockey league level. <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/hockey-whl-nhl-adam-johnson-1.7015959">Some leagues quickly responded</a> by implementing neck guard policies and <a href="https://www.espn.com/nhl/story/_/id/38794588/nhl-nhlpa-discuss-safety-player-death-england">others might follow</a> once the issue has been filtered through the proper channels.</p>
<p>Hockey organizations have been <a href="https://cdn.hockeycanada.ca/hockey-canada/Hockey-Programs/Safety/Concussion/Downloads/hockey-canada-concussion-policy-e.pdf">responsive to physical injuries</a> in recent years, and the adoption of life-saving protective equipment is certainly important, but this is not the only conversation we should be having.</p>
<p>Organized hockey at all levels needs a strategy for unseen injuries as well. They’re often the last to heal, <a href="https://theathletic.com/5014881/2023/10/30/clint-malarchuk-adam-johnson-death/">if they do at all</a>. </p>
<h2>Lasting impacts of traumatic events</h2>
<p>Traditionally, hockey culture — the norms and behaviours that guide the sport — has shown a preference for attributes like mental toughness over emotional vulnerability. This practice can damage athletes when they’re confronted with traumatic events, which are more frequent than many realize.</p>
<p>I have spent the last four years exploring team tragedy in the youth hockey context. Alongside research team members Todd Loughead, Owen Bravo, Joe Miller and Shaun Smith, <a href="https://www.uwindsor.ca/dailynews/2020-07-13/swift-current-bus-crash-incident-inform-best-practices-teams-crisis">we have been working to understand why organized youth hockey has mishandled team tragedy</a>, the consequences of untreated trauma and, most importantly, ways to improve support systems for young athletes.</p>
<p>To that end, we conducted almost 30 in-depth interviews, starting with survivors of the Western Hockey League’s <a href="https://www.espn.com/espn/eticket/story?page=swiftcurrent&redirected=true">Swift Current Broncos bus crash</a> that took place in Swift Current, Sask. in 1986. The crash claimed the lives of four players (Trent Kresse, Scott Kruger, Chris Mantyka and Brent Ruff) and the survivors received no formal support from their head coach and general manager, Graham James.</p>
<p>James, in his role as team gatekeeper, employed the time-honoured practice of closing ranks in the face of adversity. Given <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/graham-james-sex-assault-parole-theo-fleury-sheldon-kennedy-1.3762624">James’s later conviction in junior hockey sex assaults against players</a> he coached in the 1990s, this “closing ranks” response seems not only outdated, but profoundly disturbing.</p>
<p>Players, too concerned about appearing weak, didn’t self-advocate for resources. They didn’t want to appear as “damaged goods,” particularly when they were so close to their childhood NHL dreams. Our interviews revealed that some players turned to substances to help cope with their survivor’s guilt and their unresolved mental turmoil. Others struggled because of their close relationships with their fallen teammates or because they had increased responsibilities that resulted from the deaths. </p>
<p>Players that were billeted — a reality of junior hockey — tended to fare worse because they were separated from their families, and their billet families often felt under-resourced to support them. Some players managed to sublimate their mental struggles while their hockey career lasted, but many experienced a significant, if delayed, reckoning in their late 30s.</p>
<h2>Hope on the horizon</h2>
<p>Hockey culture has drawn <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/nhl/article/hockey-canada-summit-puts-elite-mens-hockey-culture-under-the-microscope/">increased scrutiny</a> in recent years for failing to modernize and address toxic masculinity in the sport. <a href="https://theconversation.com/hockey-canadas-problems-show-that-the-government-needs-to-regulate-sport-in-canada-192052">Recent troubling incidents involving Hockey Canada</a> prove more can, and must, be done to improve the hockey experience. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, our interviews with youth hockey stakeholders demonstrate there is a clear desire to better support teams struck by tragedy. </p>
<p>A striking example of positive change is evident in the post-tragedy experience shared with us by Tim Barrie, director of hockey operations for the Ayr Centennials. When captain <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/eli-palfreyman-funeral-tuesday-ayr-centennials-1.6571031">Eli Palfreyman</a> collapsed during an intermission and died, the team and league insisted on supporting players with mental-health resources. </p>
<p>The team WhatsApp group chat demonstrated an environment where players and team staff felt safe to express love, sorrow and brotherhood. This stands in stark contrast to the experience of the Broncos, who largely suffered in silence.</p>
<p>The landscape surrounding mental health in youth hockey has changed. Some of this improvement is owing to likes of <a href="https://igotmind.ca/about/">Bob Wilkie</a>, a 1986 Broncos bus crash survivor that saw the system for what it was and knew it could be better. <a href="https://calgarysun.com/sports/hockey/former-nhler-wilkies-i-got-mind-mental-health-tour-helps-parents-athletes">Wilkie founded I Got Mind</a>, a program that helps young athletes and their families deal with mental illness, in 2008.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CwkoCBzr6N0/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>What remains elusive, however, is an emergency plan that youth hockey organizations can implement once tragedy occurs. </p>
<h2>Supporting player mental health</h2>
<p>At present, responses to tragic events in Canadian hockey have been reactive and improvisational. Representatives from the Ontario Minor Hockey Association and Hockey Canada expressed that <a href="https://cdn.hockeycanada.ca/hockey-canada/Hockey-Programs/Safety/Insurance/Downloads/claim_process_e.pdf">resources are available</a> for member leagues and clubs, but there was some doubt that affected groups would know how to access them. </p>
<p>The money provided by <a href="https://hockeycanada.ca/en-ca/hockey-programs/safety/essentials/insurance">Hockey Canada’s insurance</a> for grief counselling is capped at $1,000 per team, which doesn’t go far in our inflationary times. </p>
<p>To complicate matters, Hockey Canada provides the money but not the expertise, leaving tragedy-stricken teams to search for their own grief counselling providers who can offer timely support. Given <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/checkup/mental-health-service-climbs-waitlists-too-1.6798601">wait times and the scarcity of therapists</a>, particularly in rural areas, this solution seems problematic. </p>
<p>Minor hockey associations that operate in the not-for-profit space and rely heavily on volunteers are particularly shorthanded. They depend on the kindness of the communities they serve to offer resources and expertise to players.</p>
<p>A recent <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/hockey-canada-elect-new-board-of-directors-1.6689752">change in leadership</a> and direction shows Hockey Canada is serious about <a href="https://www.thestar.com/opinion/editorials/the-funding-is-back-but-can-public-trust-in-hockey-canada-be-restored/article_5b6e5faa-982b-5be0-bc53-71e021c41503.html">winning back the trust</a> of the public. As such, the governing body should embrace this opportunity to properly resource hockey teams in crisis by creating a mental-health unit that can be deployed across the country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216965/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Greenham receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>Hockey culture’s tendency to prefer attributes like mental toughness over emotional vulnerability can damage athletes when they’re confronted with traumatic events. This needs to change.Craig Greenham, Associate professor, Department of Kinesiology, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2138372023-11-08T13:38:11Z2023-11-08T13:38:11ZWe blurred the gender of soccer players and had people rate their performances − with surprising results<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557856/original/file-20231106-15-rwljfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Would people still call a women's soccer match boring if they didn't know the players' genders?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/soccer-player-royalty-free-image/154902638?phrase=leg+kicking+ball+female+soccer+player+illustration&adppopup=true">isitsharp/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup, the telecommunications company Orange <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVNZRHIZVL8">ran a powerful TV ad</a>. It depicts the graceful agility and dramatic goal-scoring shots from French national players such as Antoine Griezmann, Kylian Mbappé and Olivier Giroud. </p>
<p>Then comes the catch. After about a minute, the viewer sees that the highlights had been artifically modified: All of the players were actually from the French women’s national team. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QVNZRHIZVL8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>The ad seeks to push back on <a href="https://moneysmartathlete.com/women-athletes/female-athletes-stereotypes-and-public-opinion-and-how-it-affects-self-image/">a common criticism of women’s sports</a>: that female players aren’t as entertaining as their male counterparts, and the action is less exciting than it is in men’s sports.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2023.2233341">our recently published study</a>, we decided to put this notion to the test. We obscured the gender of soccer players and asked participants to rate the performances of the athletes they viewed.</p>
<h2>A pay and coverage gap</h2>
<p>Sports is one of the world’s largest markets – estimated to be <a href="https://www.ucfb.ac.uk/news/global-sports-industry-report-a-resilient-fightback-and-promising-future/">around US$83 billion</a> in the United States alone. But any fan, casual or serious, can readily observe striking gender differences in media coverage and player salaries. </p>
<p>Outside of the Olympics, <a href="https://webarchive.unesco.org/web/20230104165710/https:/en.unesco.org/themes/gender-equality-sports-media">only about 4% of all sports media coverage around the world</a> is devoted to women’s sports. Live events are much less likely to be broadcast, and only one woman, retired tennis star Serena Williams, is among the Forbes’ 50 <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/brettknight/2023/05/16/why-only-one-woman-made-the-ranks-of-the-worlds-50-highest-paid-athletes/?sh=4fd612986a19">highest-paid athletes</a> in the world.</p>
<p>In 2019, the U.S. women’s national soccer team filed a gender discrimination lawsuit against U.S. Soccer. Even though the squad had won the past two women’s World Cups – and the men’s team <a href="https://ussoccerplayers.com/2013/01/the-us-national-team-at-the-1930-world-cup.html">hadn’t reached a semifinal since 1930</a> – the women weren’t paid as much as their male counterparts. In 2022, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/22/sports/soccer/us-womens-soccer-equal-pay.html">the two sides came to an agreement</a> guaranteeing equal pay. But the dispute offered a window into the thinking of many sports executives and fans.</p>
<p>U.S. Soccer’s <a href="https://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/seyfarth-shaw-seeks-exit-as-u-s-soccer-nixes-biology-defense">legal counsel stated</a> that the women’s team plays “a different game” from the men’s “in the sense that men are bigger, stronger, faster.” </p>
<p>Research has proven that women’s and men’s soccer does indeed differ in several <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24139663/;%20https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29927885/">physical aspects</a> – for example, male soccer players cover more ground and run faster during games.</p>
<p>But the question is whether the physical differences of women necessarily make the games less entertaining. The existence of stereotypes points to an alternative possibility: Gender biases might influence perceptions of the quality of the games.</p>
<p>Physical differences are often used to sustain sexist assertions that most women’s sports are boring and slow. This narrative – especially prominent among detractors of women’s sports and internet trolls – likely influences mainstream attitudes toward sports such as women’s basketball and women’s soccer.</p>
<h2>When gender is obscured, differences disappear</h2>
<p>Prior research shows that biases likely play a role when people evaluate the performance of women on the field and in the workplace.</p>
<p>It includes the work of Claudia Goldin, who was recently <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/09/business/economy/claudia-goldin-nobel-prize-economics.html">awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics</a>. <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.4.715">Her fascinating 2000 study</a> with economist Cecilia Rouse showed how blind auditions for symphony orchestras resulted in more women being hired.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman with white hair and glasses smiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557817/original/file-20231106-27-ba26ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Economist Claudia Goldin was able to show that when female musicians participated in blind auditions, it improved their chances of being hired.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/american-economist-claudia-goldin-who-was-awarded-the-nobel-news-photo/1715805050?adppopup=true">Lauren Owens Lambert/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Goldin’s work inspired our study. What if we could prevent soccer fans from identifying players and test for whether gender bias influenced evaluations of the players’ athletic performance?</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2023.2233341">We set up an experiment</a> and showed more than 600 participants highlights from men’s and women’s professional soccer videos. We asked the group, which was made up of 55% men and 45% women, to watch 10 videos and then rate the performance of the players during the goal-scoring plays on a scale of 1 to 5.</p>
<p>In the control group, participants watched and evaluated regular videos. For the experimental group, we blurred the gender of the players, making it impossible for participants to distinguish the men from the women. To do this, we painstakingly went through each frame of every video and used a program to blur the bodies.</p>
<p>Participants who watched regular highlights evaluated the goals scored by men significantly higher. However, the difference evaporated under the experimental condition, where participants did not know if they were watching men or women playing. The results held even after controlling for demographics, whether they preferred men´s or women´s soccer and how often they watched soccer.</p>
<h2>A market that’s ripe for growth</h2>
<p>The findings reveal that gender biases influence fans’ perceptions of women’s soccer – and possibly other women’s sports.</p>
<p>Precisely quantifying the influence of these biases is difficult, and these types of experiments have several limitations, such as the focus on highlights and the practice of blurring, that prevent us from drawing definitive conclusions.</p>
<p>The findings, however, challenge conventional wisdom about the potential of the women’s sports market. Any evaluation of quality in women’s sports should stop and think about whether biases are playing a role.</p>
<p>People often apply a double standard in evaluating the quality of women’s sports, particularly soccer. You’ll hear the argument that “a women’s team can never beat a men’s team,” which is used to justify why people shouldn’t care as much about women’s sports. </p>
<p>But in our view, that argument is beside the point. You don’t hear the same argument when it comes to the performance of boxers from different weight classes, or whether college basketball is an inferior product to pro basketball.</p>
<p>Despite stereotypes, biases and a late start in the business, women’s soccer keeps growing; the most recent World Cup shattered <a href="https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/womens/womensworldcup/australia-new-zealand2023/media-releases/staggering-statistics-demonstrate-fifa-womens-world-cup-tm-growth">viewership records</a> in multiple countries. </p>
<p>Clearly, there’s a market. And clearly, it has plenty of room to grow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213837/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A common criticism of women’s sports is that female players aren’t as entertaining or skilled as their male counterparts. Two researchers decided to put this notion to the test.Carlos Gómez González, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of ZurichCornel Nesseler, Associate Professor of Economics, University of StavangerLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154372023-10-18T03:35:03Z2023-10-18T03:35:03ZWhat the David Beckham documentary tells us – and what it doesn’t – about controlling parents in sport<p>In the Netflix documentary Beckham, the footballer is asked how he coped with the abuse of his entire country after the 1998 men’s football World Cup. David Beckham responds:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I was able to handle being abused by the fans […] because of the way my dad had been to me.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A poignant scene shows Beckham’s mother Sandra struggling with how hard his father Ted was on their son. Ted’s shouting often brought David to tears. When asked if he was too tough on David, Ted says:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>No […] if I told him how good he was, then he’s got nothing to work at.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Throughout the documentary, Ted’s behaviour is rationalised by Ted and even Beckham himself as necessary to support David’s sporting trajectory. But David also said he was <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/sport/24259838/david-beckham-netflix-dad-ted-childhood-sir-alex-ferguson/">scared</a> of his father’s feedback and felt compelled to practise for hours every day.</p>
<p>Other athletes with similar stories include <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/hbo-s-tiger-woods-documentary-takes-deep-dive-star-s-ncna1253644">Tiger Woods</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2015/dec/01/the-joy-of-six-athletes-pushy-parents">Andre Agassi</a> and Australian <a href="https://au.sports.yahoo.com/jelena-dokic-shares-sickening-account-of-being-abused-as-a-teen-tennis-star-213349759.html">Jelena Dokic</a>. </p>
<p>Too often, controlling behaviour by parents is portrayed as necessary for success as an athlete. But the evidence shows this idea is false. In fact, such an approach can be detrimental to both a child’s chances of sporting success and their wellbeing. </p>
<p>And it’s not just a problem with elite sport; our research shows it’s also occurring with community sport.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/winning-at-all-costs-how-abuse-in-sport-has-become-normalised-142739">Winning at all costs – how abuse in sport has become normalised</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/08862605221114155">research</a> found about one in three people we surveyed said they’d experienced abuse by a parent during their time in Australian community sport. </p>
<p>Psychological abuse by parents was reported by just under a third of our respondents, and included behaviours such as: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>excessive criticism</p></li>
<li><p>insults and humiliation</p></li>
<li><p>excessively training to extreme exhaustion/vomiting</p></li>
<li><p>ignoring a child following a sport performance.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The controlling and abusive behaviours described above have been consistently <a href="https://theconversation.com/winning-at-all-costs-how-abuse-in-sport-has-become-normalised-142739">normalised</a> by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02614367.2016.1250804">parents</a>, coaches and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001">sporting organisations</a> as being necessary to create “mentally tough” athletes ready for high-level competition.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-taking-a-trauma-and-violence-informed-approach-can-make-sport-safer-and-more-equitable-213349">Why taking a trauma- and violence-informed approach can make sport safer and more equitable</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>However, there is no evidence abusive and controlling behaviours have a positive impact on performance. </p>
<p>Instead, there is ample evidence to indicate it:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>harms children’s confidence and self-esteem</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00572/full">increases competition anxiety</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1356336X14555294">leads to sport dropout</a></p></li>
<li><p>is associated with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.5694/mja2.51870">depression and anxiety</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Research shows when adults in community sport use what’s known as an “autonomy-supportive approach” – in which young people are empowered to make their own decisions and have their feelings validated – children can be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17408989.2017.1346070?casa_token=Wd8P4Y9I2fEAAAAA%3AIXY0n8e9BoTJKIB29IQ4NWeKZEgghs_1FXqfq2rQ1jgoqt5EJuQeFqmkEtdIIpt7TJEBi9d_iLK_3LA">more self-motivated</a>. </p>
<p>An <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1469029215000229">experiment</a> at the 2012 Olympic Games found coaches with a more supportive approach achieved higher medal tallies than those who did not. </p>
<p>Most of this evidence has focused on coaching, but given many parents act as coaches for their children, these findings remain relevant. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A child looks sad at football." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554131/original/file-20231016-21-vqceuc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is no evidence abuse improves performance of children in sport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Putting children’s experiences first</h2>
<p>There is no evidence that controlling or abusive practices improve children’s performance in sport. But even if there was, sport performance should not be valued above a child’s health and wellbeing.</p>
<p>These behaviours would not be tolerated in different environments, such as workplaces or schools. </p>
<p>It’s time to move on from this debate in sport. So where to from here?</p>
<p>The sport system is complex, and while it’s easy to think it’s just a few problematic people, the reality is these practices have been normalised for generations. </p>
<p>Parents are repeating patterns from their own experiences and mirroring practices they see as normal in elite sport. There is no quick fix. </p>
<p>But we can all play a part by reflecting on our own behaviours and considering how we can prioritise children’s experiences and wellbeing. </p>
<p>Parents should <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2022.1087182/full">focus on fun, learning new skills, enjoying the moment</a>, and being part of a team so their kids can get the most out of the games they love.</p>
<p>Despite Beckham himself suggesting it was all worth it, the evidence suggests he was successful in spite of the high-pressure home environment, not because of it. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-sport-abuse-is-often-dismissed-as-good-coaching-211691">In sport, abuse is often dismissed as 'good coaching'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215437/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Parker receives funding from the Australian Government Emerging Priorities Program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aurélie Pankowiak receives funding from VicHealth.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mary Woessner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>David Beckham says he felt prepared for the nation’s wrath because of how he says he was treated by his father. It’s a familiar story in sport, but evidence shows controlling behaviour doesn’t work.Mary Woessner, Lecturer in Clinical Exercise and Research Fellow, Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Victoria UniversityAlexandra Parker, Professor of Physical Activity and Mental Health, Victoria UniversityAurélie Pankowiak, Research Fellow, Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2101132023-08-14T18:42:59Z2023-08-14T18:42:59ZRunning on empty: Female athletes’ health and performance at risk from not eating enough<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542354/original/file-20230811-27-3dms0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=263%2C161%2C3580%2C2413&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When the energy consumed from food becomes insufficient to meet the demands of high physical activity levels, a state of imbalance occurs called low energy availability.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/running-on-empty-female-athletes-health-and-performance-at-risk-from-not-eating-enough" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>For athletes and highly physically active individuals, a well-planned and executed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.01.016">nutrition</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00017.2022">exercise training</a> regimen are critical to maximizing training and pursuing peak performance.</p>
<p>Many people are aware that habitually consuming more calories than is expended can lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac031">weight gain</a>. It also increases the risk of developing obesity and other metabolic health concerns such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2015.19">Type 2 diabetes</a>. </p>
<p>However, female athletes and highly active women are at an increased risk of quite the opposite problem; that is, not eating enough. </p>
<p>When energy intake is reduced by too much for too long, or not increased to match the demands of their training, the consequences for exercise performance, muscles and health can potentially be severe. </p>
<h2>Low energy availability</h2>
<p>Food provides our bodies with energy to carry out basic bodily processes, such as regulating metabolism and promoting cell repair and growth from exercise training. </p>
<p>When the energy consumed from food becomes insufficient to meet the demands of high physical activity levels in athletes, a state of imbalance occurs called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04516-0">low energy availability</a>. Low energy availability is the underlying cause of the sporting phenomenon known as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2014-093502">relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S)</a>. </p>
<p>RED-S refers to a syndrome where several physiological functions outside the context of exercise are impaired. These include metabolic rate, menstrual function and bone health.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman jumping over a hurdle during training on race track" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542355/original/file-20230811-29-18fnrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Low energy availability can disrupt hormones and metabolism in as little as five days.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While it varies considerably between sports, it is estimated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0201">25 to 60 per cent of athletic women</a>, consciously or unconsciously, may be in a state of low energy availability. </p>
<p>There are a whole host of reasons why one may be in a state of low energy availability. Mental health issues such as an eating disorder, a desire to achieve a particular body image due to social media pressures, or taking part in weight-sensitive or aesthetic sporting events such as combat sports or gymnastics all <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-020-00275-6">increase the risk of low energy availability</a>.</p>
<p>However, it can be extremely difficult to establish the true prevalence of low energy availability or RED-S for <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fnu14050986">several reasons</a>: the symptoms can be subtle, we often rely on self-reported assessments and athletes may wish to hide its presence for sociocultural reasons. There is also no widely established biomarker to screen for RED-S.</p>
<h2>Health and performance concerns</h2>
<p>In an energy crisis, the body will prepare for a period of starvation — entering “survival mode” — by trying to preserve as much energy as possible by reducing the most energy-consuming processes. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04516-0">Low energy availability</a> can disrupt hormones and metabolism in as little as five days. If this persists, long-term energy deprivation can lead to more severe health issues such as menstrual cycle irregularities, impaired bone health and increased risk of injury.</p>
<p>We are a team of muscle physiologists — from Canada and Denmark — who study nutrition and female physiology. We recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/JP284967">conducted a study</a> to understand how low energy availability impacts the muscles and metabolism of female athletes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Female boxer hitting a huge punching bag at a boxing studio" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542356/original/file-20230811-29-lcgei4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Public weigh-ins and drastic weight cuts are prominent features of several sporting disciplines, such as weightlifting and combat sports.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We put 30 young, healthy female athletes through an intense exercise training program designed to increase muscle mass and strength, and improve cardiovascular fitness. At the same time, and with their prior informed consent, we controlled their dietary intake and reduced the energy they consumed to around half of what is considered optimal. </p>
<p>In this study, we showed that reducing the energy available for the body for just 10 days impairs the muscle-building response during intense exercise training. It also led to a rapid loss of lean mass, reduced resting metabolic rate (the number of calories burned at rest) and altered thyroid hormones. </p>
<p>We know that protein intake is essential to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608">maximize gains in muscle mass</a> with exercise training. One may think that if the women involved in the study were exercising intensely and consuming enough protein, they would be protected against muscle loss during this energy crisis.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, this was not the case. The negative consequences of low energy availability occurred despite consuming protein at about 2.2 grams per kilogram of lean body mass per day — about twice the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/dietary-reference-intakes/tables/reference-values-macronutrients-dietary-reference-intakes-tables-2005.html">recommended daily allowance</a></p>
<p>As little as 10 days of low energy availability can have grim consequences for muscle. </p>
<h2>Low energy availability in elite sports</h2>
<p>Numerous examples exist of athletes passing out on stage or suffering health scares because of <a href="https://theconversation.com/mixed-martial-arts-and-the-danger-of-extreme-weight-cutting-162569">dangerous weight-cutting practices</a>. This is because public weigh-ins and drastic weight cuts are prominent features of several sporting disciplines, such as weightlifting and combat sports. These practices contribute to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-sport-cultures-are-damaging-female-athletes-health-but-we-can-do-better-128376">toxic culture</a> where many female athletes constantly strive to lose weight. </p>
<p>Our results show that low energy availability can have short-term and potentially long-lasting negative consequences for female athletes’ training outcomes and overall health. Hopefully, this study provides athletes and coaches with a more nuanced understanding of the possible side-effects of weight-cutting and low energy availability. </p>
<h2>Something needs to change</h2>
<p>Current estimates suggest that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-015-0037-5">fewer than 50 per cent of professionals</a> — physicians, coaches, physiotherapists, athletic trainers and school nurses — can identify the condition, emphasizing the need for improving knowledge on low energy availability.</p>
<p>The International Olympic Committee has recently developed a <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/49/7/421.full.pdf">RED-S Clinical Assessment Tool</a>. The tool needs further validation, but it aims to identify and separate athletes into high-risk, moderate-risk and low-risk categories and facilitate return-to-play decisions.</p>
<p>Moving forward, to prevent low energy availability from affecting female athletes’ health and performance, we must strive to increase awareness of the condition, improve our ability to identify those at risk, and provide appropriate support and treatment options to individuals suffering from low energy availability.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James McKendry receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mikkel Oxfeldt receives funding from the Faculty of Health, Aarhus University.</span></em></p>Female athletes are at increased risk of not eating enough. If energy intake is too low to meet training needs, there can be severe consequences for exercise performance, muscles and health.James McKendry, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in exercise physiology, muscle protein metabolism and aging, McMaster UniversityMikkel Oxfeldt, PhD Fellow, Department of Public Health, Aarhus UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105282023-08-01T22:27:03Z2023-08-01T22:27:03ZWomen’s World Cup: The epidemic of ACL tears in female soccer players is about more than just biology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540285/original/file-20230731-25-w0j3d7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3418%2C2279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canada forward Janine Beckie watches after attempting a shot during the first half of a SheBelieves Cup women's soccer match against the United States, Feb. 16, 2023, in Orlando, Fla.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Phelan M. Ebenhack)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/womens-world-cup-the-epidemic-of-acl-tears-in-female-soccer-players-is-about-more-than-just-biology" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Over <a href="https://twitter.com/aclwfc/status/1680694763547230208">25 of the world’s top female soccer players</a> are missing the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup because of ACL tears, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/womens-world-cup-acl-injuries-1.6904291">including Canada’s Janine Beckie</a>.</p>
<p>Female athletes are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106099">two to eight times more likely to tear their anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) compared to males</a>, and their odds of returning to sport within five years are 25 per cent lower. If we trust the research, we should brace ourselves for two to three ACL tears during the World Cup itself.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two blonde soccer players fight for a ball, one wearing light blue and jumping into the left shoulder of one wearing red and black" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ellie Carpenter of Australia and Jordyn Huitema of Canada vie for the ball during Group B soccer action at the FIFA Women’s World Cup in Melbourne, Australia, July 31, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Scott Barbour)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Greater awareness of the ACL epidemic in women’s soccer is shedding light on gender disparities in sport and highlighting the need for immediate action to create a more equitable playing field.</p>
<h2>Dreaded aftermath of the ACL tear</h2>
<p>The ACL is a thick band of connective tissue found in the middle of the knee joint. It plays a vital role in controlling knee joint motion and telling the brain about knee position. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A medical diagram shows the location of the ACL, a ligament behind the knee cap that can tear during quick changes of direction" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">ACL tears are dreaded due to their long recovery time and potential for reinjury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>ACL tears typically happen with movements that involve pivoting and quick changes of direction like pressing or tackling. People usually feel or hear a pop when they tear their ACL and experience significant joint swelling within a couple of hours.</p>
<p>For athletes, the treatment of an ACL tear involves physical therapy, exercise or surgery, where the ACL is reconstructed using a piece of tendon harvested from the quadricep or hamstring muscles. <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/56/24/1445">Under ideal conditions, recovery from an ACL tear takes nine to 12 months</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/23259671231169199">30 per cent of female athletes who tear their ACL do not return to sport</a>, and even if they do, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967117724196">15 per cent experience a re-tear</a>. Even after treatment and returning to sport, people that tear their ACL are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105496">six times more likely to develop early onset osteoarthritis</a>, a degenerative joint disease characterized by pain and loss of function.</p>
<h2>Greater risk for female athletes</h2>
<p>While past research has focused on differences in anatomy, biomechanics and monthly hormonal cycles, these <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-103173">biological factors do not paint a complete picture</a> of why female athletes tear their ACL more than their male counterparts.</p>
<p>The environments in which female athletes learn and play sport also contribute to the risk. The gender stereotypes that permeate sport often undervalue females’ athletic abilities, which can lead to fewer and inferior opportunities and resources. For example, at the 2021 NCAA March Madness, male athletes had access to a full gym, while female athletes were provided with a <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CMkRJ2LswFp/">few light dumbbells and yoga mats</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Black woman wearing a two-piece black workout set focuses as she pulls up a barbell" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gender stereotypes discourage women and girls from weight training, despite its protective benefits against ACL tears.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Girls and women with muscular and bulky body types are seen by some as unattractive, which can also impact access and enthusiasm for weight training. This gender stereotyping is a problem because <a href="https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-99-16">weight training is important for preventing ACL tears</a>.</p>
<p>The rapid professionalization of women’s soccer has also led to higher physical demands on female players and an increased risk of injury. However, the sporting environment hasn’t kept up, lacking resources, facilities and coaching tailored to meet the needs of female athletes. </p>
<p>Shorter, condensed seasons with match congestion combined with limited strength training programs — and in some cases limited access to skilled coaches and medical teams — further contributes to the ACL problem. </p>
<h2>Addressing the epidemic</h2>
<p>Solving this problem requires every member of the soccer community. To begin with, investing more resources and expertise into women’s soccer is crucial. This means a national professional league, pay and resource equity, investment in long-term welfare and prioritizing training opportunities for female coaches, trainers and medical staff.</p>
<p>There is also an urgent need to fund research focused on female health, injury prevention and long-term health. This research should be conducted collaboratively with players, coaches and sport federations so that everyone has an invested interest in acting on the findings.</p>
<p>We know that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101587">injury prevention warm-up programs can reduce the number of ACL tears</a> and despite <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/may/03/women-taking-pill-less-likely-suffer-acl-injury-study-finds">flashy misleading headlines</a> there is no evidence that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106519">contraceptives decrease the risk</a>. Every single female athlete who plays soccer, from the grassroots to professional levels, needs this knowledge so they can make informed decisions.</p>
<p>To foster lasting change and promote the health and success of female soccer players, we must confront the gender inequities that have long persisted in the sport. By showcasing the talents of female athletes in media, we can challenge gender stereotypes, demonstrate that female athletes are not lesser than their male counterparts and create more opportunities for growth. </p>
<p>Only through collective effort and a commitment to addressing all the root causes of ACL injuries in female athletes can we build a future where all athletes have an equal chance to excel in the beautiful game.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210528/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jackie Whittaker receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Arthritis Society, and Michael Smith Health Research BC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina Le received funding from the Arthritis Society and Canadian MSK Rehab Research Network.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Linda Truong receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. </span></em></p>Gender disparities in sport extend to injuries too. Female soccer players are at greater risk for ACL tears than males and it is clear immediate action is needed to address the non-biological factors for the injury.Jackie Whittaker, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British ColumbiaChristina Le, Physiotherapist and Researcher, University of AlbertaLinda Truong, PhD Candidate, Rehabilitation Sciences, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2101292023-07-26T23:02:00Z2023-07-26T23:02:00ZHow to train your body for hot weather if you are active or work outdoors<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539662/original/file-20230726-17-1vooan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=865%2C201%2C5613%2C4023&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are several ways to help prevent a perilous rise in core temperature while being physically active in the heat.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-to-train-your-body-for-hot-weather-if-you-are-active-or-work-outdoors" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Global warming is making outdoor activities challenging — especially exercise. Indeed, we have a very small buffer to tolerate an increase in body heat. A rise in core temperature of only three degrees Celcius can be life-threatening, even for young healthy adults.</p>
<p>There are several ways to help prevent a perilous rise in core temperature while being physically active in the heat. There are numerous <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-166">pre-cooling strategies</a> that can help. Most practical of those is consuming a cold drink (or better yet, an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3181bf257a">ice slurry or slushie</a>) prior to exercise. But “training” your body to cope better in the heat is the best defence. </p>
<p>The strategy of heat training is particularly important for endurance athletes. Athletes who incorporate even a modest heat acclimating protocol before competing in the heat on average <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-104569">perform better and are less likely to require medical attention for heat-related injuries</a>.</p>
<p>However, given our warming environment, it may be time to consider heat training even for non-athletes, especially for people working outdoors. </p>
<p>While heat acclimation training is most often used by endurance athletes, it was first developed for underground <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2016.1240749">gold mine workers in the 1940s</a>, who were exposed to environmental temperatures exceeding 50 C with humidity near 100 per cent. </p>
<h2>How does heat acclimation help?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="womens soccer team training outdoors" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539663/original/file-20230726-17-ek3f5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Athletes who incorporate even a modest heat acclimating protocol before competing in the heat on average perform better and are less likely to require medical attention for heat-related injuries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The benefits of heat acclimation are a growing area of research. In fact, the benefits seem to extend beyond being more heat tolerant, and into improvements for general cardiovascular health — known as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00141.2020">heat therapy</a>. </p>
<p>For improvements in heat tolerance, however, the primary benefits are quite simple: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>It lowers our resting body temperature, which provides a larger reserve for our core temperature to rise before problems occur.</p></li>
<li><p>It increases our sweating rate, which optimizes our evaporative heat loss potential, thereby attenuating the rise in core temperature.</p></li>
<li><p>It increases our plasma volume (the liquid part of blood), which lowers the cardiovascular strain imposed by a rise in core temperature, and provides a larger reserve to maintain sweat rate (<a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/anatomy-and-physiology/anatomy-and-physiology/sweating">sweat comes from plasma</a>). </p></li>
</ol>
<p>In addition to these three factors is an improved perception of thermal comfort. There are also other more nuanced benefits for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12408">improved heat tolerance, including salt conservation, metabolic and anti-inflammatory effects</a>, but the three listed above are most important. </p>
<h2>Methods of heat acclimation</h2>
<p>Heat acclimatization and heat acclimation are slightly different: It is called heat acclimatization when it occurs naturally over a longer period, and heat acclimation when done “artificially” or purposefully over a shorter duration. Both forms confer benefits for heat tolerance, but they are not entirely synonymous.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two people in hard hats outside" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539664/original/file-20230726-21-necxl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Training the body to cope better in the heat may be the best way for outdoor workers and athletes to cope with heat waves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Heat acclimatization can, and does to some extent, occur naturally in people who are constantly exposed to hot and humid environments. But for those of us living in a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/humid-continental-climate">humid continental climate</a> (which includes most populated regions above the 40th parallel), or for those who usually seek air-conditioning in the summer, natural heat acclimatization <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-010-1743-9">rarely occurs</a>. It takes a bit of work. </p>
<p>The degree of heat adaptation depends on the duration, intensity and frequency of heat exposure. </p>
<p>The gold standard for heat acclimation involves maintaining an elevated core temperature by one to two degrees Celcius for at least 60 minutes, for a minimum of five consecutive days, or over a two-week period allowing for a few rest days. But importantly, the biggest adjustments occur within the first few days, and begin to have a ceiling effect around two weeks, with minor benefits thereafter. </p>
<p>The benefits of heat acclimation for improved heat tolerance unfortunately don’t last forever. They are largely retained for approximately one week following the last heat exposure, but approximately 75 per cent of the benefits will be lost after three weeks without any heat exposure. Thankfully re-acclimatization is generally easier, and a “steady state” heat acclimated status can be achieved by maintaining some form of heat exposure at least three times per week. </p>
<h2>At-home heat acclimation</h2>
<p>For those without access to a heat chamber or thermistor (<a href="https://doi.org/10.3791/53258">for example an ingestible internal thermometer</a>) to monitor your body’s core temperature, heat acclimation is still possible. All you need is a tub. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2021.05.008">A recent study</a> suggests that an effective (and practical) protocol for partial but meaningful heat acclimation is simply three consecutive days of soaking in 40 C water for about 40 minutes, immediately after about 40 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise at room temperature. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Express food delivery courier riding bicycle with insulated bag behind his back" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539665/original/file-20230726-15-es1kjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heat exposure is inevitable for those who work or are active outdoors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The key is that the exercise must be strenuous enough to bring your body temperature past a threshold for sweating, and that you immediately enter the tub after the exercise. According to the study’s authors: “Taking a hot bath submerged to the neck, for up to 40 minutes, following habitual training in temperate conditions, presents a practical and economical heat acclimation intervention — eliminating the requirement for an increased training load, access to an environmental chamber or relocation to a hot climate.”</p>
<p>Ultimately, strategies to avoid excessive heat exposure are still paramount, especially for those who are more <a href="https://theconversation.com/heat-stroke-is-a-danger-but-cardiovascular-stress-causes-more-heat-wave-deaths-164688">vulnerable to heat-related injuries</a>, including older adults and people with conditions such as heart disease and diabetes. </p>
<p>But it is becoming increasingly apparent that heat exposure is inevitable for those who work or are active outdoors. Incorporating a heat acclimation protocol, in combination with the more recognized heat-mitigating strategies — including sun protection and maintaining hydration — provides your body with the best defence against heat-related injuries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210129/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Bain does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Heat exposure is inevitable for those who work or are active outdoors. A heat acclimation protocol, combined with heat-mitigating strategies, is the best defence against heat-related injuries.Anthony Bain, Associate Professor, Kinesiology, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2067002023-07-23T19:58:45Z2023-07-23T19:58:45ZDoes a woman’s menstrual cycle affect her athletic performance? Here’s what the science says<p>During the Women’s FIFA World Cup, it has been wonderful to see the spotlight turn to female athletes. </p>
<p>There’s always been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24766579/">more research on male athletes</a> compared to female athletes, but the gap is narrowing. </p>
<p>One thing we still don’t know enough about is the effect of the menstrual cycle on athletic performance. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-why-do-women-menstruate-13744">Explainer: why do women menstruate?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What does the menstrual cycle do to a woman’s body?</h2>
<p>The menstrual cycle is a complex cascade of events typically lasting 28 days. The primary female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone rise and fall as the body cycles through four phases, beginning at menstruation, maturation and releasing of an egg (ovulation), preparation for pregnancy, and restarting the cycle if the egg is not fertilised.</p>
<p>Fluctuations in female sex hormones have been associated with changes in inflammation, metabolism, muscle activation and body composition, which <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33572406/">can influence athletic performance</a>. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22306563/">inflammation decreases</a> when the body is preparing to ovulate, reaching its lowest point around ovulation. It then increases following ovulation and peaks during menstruation. </p>
<p>This peak coincides with lower perceived performance among many female athletes.</p>
<p>The menstrual cycle can also give rise to symptoms including pain, cramps, weakness, and poor sleep and focus, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35911030/">challenging performance</a> during training and competition. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2021.2020330">research</a> conducted in elite female soccer players found over 87% of players perceived reduced power and increased fatigue during menstruation, while over 66% perceived their reaction time and recovery to be affected.</p>
<p>Considering the approximate maximum career length of soccer players (21 years) and a woman’s fertile life, that adds up to about 250 times throughout a woman’s soccer career that performance may be compromised. </p>
<p>Trends observed among female soccer players closely mirror the experiences of other female athletes, with over <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37389782/#:%7E:text=Results%3A%20Sixty%20studies%20involving%206380,the%20most%20prevalent%20MC%20disorder">74% reporting</a> negative effects mainly during the first days of menstruation. </p>
<p>For some, this may lead to reduced training participation, potentially compromising skill development, fitness levels, and even their chances of being selected for competition. </p>
<p>But the menstrual cycle is complex, and its effects can vary between athletes and sports. Consequently there is disagreement regarding whether the menstrual cycle universally affects athletic performance, with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10076834/#:%7E:text=Findings%20suggest%20that%20strength%2Drelated,cause%20variations%20in%20strength%20performance">some research</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32661839/">indicating</a> no influence of the menstrual cycle on certain performance measures. But these studies are few and had various logistical limitations, including a small number of participants.</p>
<p>Also important to note is that most studies to-date have excluded women using hormonal contraceptives, which is about <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29283683/">50% of female athletes</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35475746/#:%7E:text=Conclusion%3A%20Most%20WSL%20players%20do,minimise%20discomfort%20and%20maximise%20performance.">28% of female soccer players</a>. The use of hormonal contraceptives suppresses natural hormonal fluctuations and replaces them with external synthetic versions of female sex hormones, affecting the athlete differently. </p>
<p>Clearly the extent and severity to which the menstrual cycle impacts athletic performance is highly variable and complex, with more research needed. So for now it’s sensible to consider the effects of the menstrual cycle on an individual basis.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/supporting-menstrual-health-in-australia-means-more-than-just-throwing-pads-at-the-problem-161194">Supporting menstrual health in Australia means more than just throwing pads at the problem</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How to support athletic performance at all cycle stages</h2>
<p>It’s essential for players to familiarise themselves with their own cycles to understand how they’re affected throughout, as well as communicate any menstrual cycle-related issues to support staff (physicians and coaches). This awareness can guide adjustments in training and nutrition when required.</p>
<p>For example, oestrogen has an important influence on iron levels in females, such as chronic oestrogen deficiency is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23041085/">linked to iron deficiency</a>. Iron status can also be compromised by blood loss during menstruation, depending on the heaviness and duration of bleeding.</p>
<p>Iron is essential for human function, facilitating energy production and the transportation of oxygen around the body. In soccer, about <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16521852/#:%7E:text=Of%20the%20investigated%20female%20soccer,at%20the%20top%20international%20level">60% of elite female players</a> present as iron deficient, compared to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18384395/">less than 12% of their male counterparts</a>. For an iron deficient midfielder, this might translate into covering less distance at lower speeds. </p>
<p>It’s therefore important female athletes have their iron levels regularly checked by qualified practitioners. Addressing deficiencies through diet, supplementation, or iron transfusions, will ensure athletic performance during training and competition is not compromised.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1631298254078894082"}"></div></p>
<p>Individual athletes’ training loads can also be strategically managed to accommodate severe menstrual symptoms. </p>
<p>Football clubs around the world have been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24733938.2020.1828615">experimenting with this strategy</a> since it gained popularity during the 2019 Women’s FIFA World Cup. But how does it look in practice? </p>
<p>For team sport athletes, such as soccer players, this can be a demanding logistical task. It’s not easy to track the menstrual cycles of more than 25 players concurrently, and hold training sessions at convenient times for all of them. The complexities are heightened when training and game days cannot be avoided. </p>
<p>But performance coaches must consider athletes’ needs and ensure they’re prepared for competition, while minimising the risk of injury and menstrual discomfort. Coaches should also ensure athletes maintain adequate nutrition for both competition and to support their menstrual cycle. </p>
<p>For an athlete who reports severe menstrual symptoms during the first days of menstruation (such as increased pain and weakness), this might translate into reduced training intensity, additional recovery days, and an anti-inflammatory diet that also supports the restoration of iron levels (increased intake of nuts, seeds, berries, lean red meats, and fibre and Omega-3 rich foods). </p>
<p>And it’s important to keep in mind some athletes might experience menstrual cycle issues in phases other than menstruation. So, training and nutrition should be flexible and individualised across the cycle. </p>
<p>Using this approach, athletes can mitigate the influence of the menstrual cycle on their performance, giving them the best opportunity to achieve their athletic potential and success during competition.</p>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206700/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Chica-Latorre receives funding from the Australian Department of Education</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Pengelly and Michelle Minehan do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fluctuations in sex hormones are associated with inflammation peaks and troughs. These could potentially influence athletic performance.Sara Chica-Latorre, Phd Candidate and Research Assistant, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of CanberraMichael Pengelly, PhD Candidate, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2052012023-07-20T01:33:54Z2023-07-20T01:33:54ZWill the Matildas and Football Ferns have a home ground advantage?<p>The FIFA Women’s World Cup is held just once every four years, and for the first time ever, it’s on home soil for Australia and New Zealand.</p>
<p>So will the host nations’ sides, the Matildas and the Football Ferns, have a “home ground advantage”?</p>
<p>A home advantage is often touted by sports fans, the media, coaches and athletes, and data suggests it’s a real phenomenon.</p>
<p>But a host nation team hasn’t won the Women’s World Cup since the United States back in 1999.</p>
<p>Here’s why the concept of home ground advantage isn’t straightforward.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/penalties-passes-and-a-touch-of-politics-the-womens-world-cup-is-about-to-kick-off-209050">Penalties, passes, and a touch of politics: the Women's World Cup is about to kick off</a>
</strong>
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<h2>What the data says</h2>
<p>The concept of the home advantage can be traced back as far as the 1870s, around the time the first professional sports leagues formed. Back then, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7671541_Long-term_trends_in_home_advantage_in_professional_team_sports_in_North_America_and_England_1876-2003">data suggested</a> teams experienced more success when playing at home than away.</p>
<p>One study looked at win-loss records in top domestic sport leagues across 65 countries between 2011 and 2015, and found <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/24748668.2017.1372164">most professional sports</a> experience a home advantage. Basketball, handball and rugby union had the strongest home advantage, winning between 58-60% of their points at home. For men’s football, teams won 56.5% of their points at home.</p>
<p>In women’s football leagues across Europe, research between 2004 and 2010 found the home ground advantage was <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254229356_Comparison_of_home_advantage_in_men's_and_women's_football_leagues_in_Europe#:%7E:text=A%20total%20of%2047%2C042%20games,home%20advantage%20which%20averaged%2060.0%25.">slightly weaker</a>, averaging 54.2% of points won at home compared with around 60% for men’s leagues. It’s not yet known why this difference exists.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/without-crowds-football-teams-still-have-a-home-advantage-new-study-158018">Without crowds, football teams still have a home advantage – new study</a>
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<p>The home team in football <a href="https://psychology.org.au/for-members/publications/inpsych/2020/oct-nov-vol-42-issue-5/the-home-ground-advantage">tends to take more risks</a> and is more proactive than away teams, and gets positive reinforcement from the crowd. </p>
<p>Away teams tend to attack less, attempt fewer shots, put in fewer crosses, and score fewer goals.</p>
<h2>3 key factors</h2>
<p>Academic research has spent considerable time exploring the factors related the home advantage.</p>
<p>There are three main factors that stand out.</p>
<p><strong>1. The crowd effect</strong></p>
<p>When playing at home, the crowd is usually filled with home fans wanting to see a big win. But as the number of supportive crowd members increases, there’s also a larger expectation placed on the team and individual athletes to perform well.</p>
<p>Researchers have been interested in how crowd size and density impact the home advantage. Results are mixed, but there’s <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/215866196?fromopenview=true&pq-origsite=gscholar">some evidence</a> to suggest that as average attendance at football games increases, the home advantage may also increase. </p>
<p>As crowds typically have more supporters for the home team, referees are thought to subconsciously favour the home team when making officiating decisions. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/32/4/article-p483.xml">Research</a> from Germany found crowd noise caused more referee decisions in favour of the home team. The away side is generally given more yellow cards. The authors say these effects correlate with the density of the crowd, such that the more dense (and presumably therefore louder) the home crowd is, the more likely it is the away team will receive more yellow cards.</p>
<p>Other research from England <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640410601038576">found</a> “home teams consistently received fewer cards and converted more penalty kicks than visiting teams”.</p>
<p>When there were no crowds during the 2020 European football season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, research found the portion of home advantage that comes through referee decisions was <a href="https://journalofsportbehavior.org/index.php/JSB/article/view/158">eliminated</a>.</p>
<p>It also found fewer yellow and red cards were given to away teams in this period. The authors say they “interpret these results to mean that crowds influence referee judgements about how severe an infraction is”. </p>
<p><strong>2. The location matters</strong></p>
<p>Disadvantages for the away team <a href="https://psychology.org.au/for-members/publications/inpsych/2020/oct-nov-vol-42-issue-5/the-home-ground-advantage">include</a> disruptions to routine, unfamiliarity with the venue and conditions, longer travel times, and less support. </p>
<p>By playing at home, the Matildas and Football Ferns will experience familiar sights and sounds. They won’t need to speak a different language to communicate, they will be closer to family and friends, and they won’t have to adjust to a large time zone difference. Not having to contend with a new environment can be an advantage for the home team.</p>
<p>Research suggests these factors can support what are called “<a href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/encyclopedia-of-sport-and-exercise-psychology/i4420.xml">superior psychological states</a>”, such as greater confidence in the self and the team.</p>
<p><strong>3. Every player perceives pressure differently</strong></p>
<p>When trying to understand the home advantage, it’s important not to overlook the individual athlete. While for some, playing at home may be viewed as motivating and inspiring, for others it creates extra pressure and anxiety.</p>
<p>Whether playing at home or away, another factor to consider is what’s at stake. Because many teams will only play three matches before being eliminated, each match of the world cup will hold great importance, with the outcome having consequences for each team.</p>
<p>For some players, higher stakes may present a threat, which may lead to greater anxiety and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-00665-001">lower performance</a>. </p>
<p>But other athletes might view added pressure as an opportunity to perform. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-00665-001">Research</a> shows such players experience much more “adaptive” thoughts, emotions and behaviours, meaning they’re more able to cope with the demands and thrive. </p>
<p>So, will our football stars from Australia and New Zealand be saying “there’s no place like home” when the world cup finishes? Let’s watch and see.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205201/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amber Mosewich is an Associate Professor at the University of Alberta whose role involves research, teaching, and academic service. She receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Sport Participation Research Initiative. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alyson Crozier does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Data suggests most professional sports experience some form of home ground advantage. But it’s not straightforward.Alyson Crozier, Senior Lecturer, Exercise and Sport Psychology, University of South AustraliaAmber Mosewich, Associate Professor, Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071892023-06-29T12:17:28Z2023-06-29T12:17:28ZThink being a NASCAR driver isn’t as physically demanding as other sports? Think again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534663/original/file-20230628-29-pxt28c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C17%2C2982%2C2056&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Race car drivers compete in full-body safety gear while sitting in a piping hot car, which puts tremendous strain on the heart.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/driver-michael-gallegos-climbs-behind-the-wheel-during-the-news-photo/77354033?adppopup=true">Grant Halverson/Getty Images for NASCAR</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine an NBA game played outdoors. In August. In Phoenix. Tip-off is at noon. There are no timeouts. There is no halftime. There are no substitutions. And players must wear snowsuits, gloves, and ski masks. </p>
<p>Sounds ridiculous, right? </p>
<p>Yet race car drivers routinely compete under similar conditions.</p>
<p>On July 1, 2023, for the first time in over 60 years, NASCAR, the nation’s premier stock car series, will hold a race on the streets of a U.S. city at the <a href="https://www.nascarchicago.com/racing/">Grant Park 220 in Chicago</a>.</p>
<p>The fans who attend are sure to appreciate the sound, speed and spectacle. But how many truly grasp the physical and mental strain placed on the drivers?</p>
<p>Our research team from the University of Florida and Michigan State University is collaborating with NASCAR to better understand the stressors drivers experience on the track.</p>
<p>We’ve learned that professional drivers need extraordinary physical and mental stamina to compete in major racing series such as NASCAR, IndyCar and Formula One. Our data shows the metabolic demands of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002070">auto racing and basketball are similar</a>. But unlike other athletes, race car drivers compete in full-body safety gear while sitting in a piping hot car for hours at a time.</p>
<h2>Not your mom’s minivan</h2>
<p>Race car drivers face unique challenges that require strength, endurance and hand-eye coordination.</p>
<p>First, the physical effort of driving a race car is much greater than that of driving your family car. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.roadandtrack.com/motorsports/news/a18270/you-think-driving-an-indy-car-is-easy/">Turning and braking require more force</a> due to the high speeds and the unique engineering of race cars. Drivers control the vehicle <a href="https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/video.2022-italian-grand-prix-williams-mechanics-help-exhausted-nyck-de-vries-out-of-the-car-after-his-points-scoring-f1-debut.1743691636627328562.html">by constantly engaging</a> the muscles of the arms, upper body and legs.</p>
<p>“There’s tremendous kick-back through the steering wheel,” IndyCar driver Dario Franchitti <a href="https://www.roadandtrack.com/motorsports/news/a18270/you-think-driving-an-indy-car-is-easy/">said in a 2012 interview</a>, “and there’s no power steering, so every movement of the wheel requires a lot of energy.”</p>
<p>After being hooked up to sensors to track the stresses and strains he endured a race, Franchitti learned he needed to generate 35 pounds of force just to steer, and 135 pounds of force to brake.</p>
<p>“Imagine a string tied to your hand where you have to pull that 35 pounds up or down constantly,” he added.</p>
<p>Also, fast turns and abrupt braking create accelerative forces, <a href="https://www.geotab.com/blog/what-is-g-force/">known as G-forces</a>. Like a jet fighter pilot in a dogfight, intense G-forces make it hard for racers to maintain their posture and promote muscle fatigue. It can even become <a href="https://us.motorsport.com/f1/news/magnussen-says-his-neck-just-broke-in-q3-in-jeddah/9364564/">impossible to hold their heads up</a>. </p>
<p>For these reasons, drivers undergo rigorous training to <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001961">strengthen key muscle groups</a> in the neck, upper body and legs while working to improve their cardiovascular fitness. </p>
<p>Heat is also a major challenge for driver athletes. Like any exercise, the work of driving a race car causes the body to generate metabolic heat. In most sports, athletes wear lightweight clothes that promote cooling by convection and sweat evaporation. </p>
<p>Not so in auto racing. Driver body <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.06.001">heat is trapped by the safety gear</a> worn during competition to protect against fire in case of a crash. The gear includes long fireproof undershirt and underpants, full-body fire suit, socks and driving shoes, gloves, a fireproof balaclava, and a full-face helmet with closed eye shield.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Formula One driver Nigel Mansell faints at the 1984 Dallas Grand Prix, which was held on a day where temperatures exceeded 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 Celsius).</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Bodies pushed to the limit</h2>
<p>To make matters worse, drivers compete in what’s essentially a moving oven. </p>
<p>A massive amount of heat is generated by the race car engine, exhaust, brakes and tires. These sources heat the cockpit and the driver, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001997">especially in cars with roofs</a> like stock cars. In summer, cockpit temperatures can exceed 135 degrees Fahrenheit (57 Celsius), leading to profuse sweating, dehydration and <a href="https://f1i.com/images/350956-mansells-dallas-gp-push-and-coast.html">even heatstroke</a>. </p>
<p>Most race cars lack air conditioning. Instead, <a href="https://www.hendrickmotorsports.com/news/articles/100361/how-drivers-stay-cool-in-the-car-during-summer-months">technologies used to combat the heat</a> include hoses that bring fresh air into driver helmets and cool-shirts worn by drivers. <a href="https://www.formulasantander.com/how-formula-1-drivers-stay-hydrated-during-the-race/">In-car drink systems</a> can also provide fluids for re-hydration.</p>
<p>Drivers and other endurance athletes metabolize oxygen to power their muscles and regulate body temperature. Comparing data across sports, my colleague and I found that metabolic demands of auto racing are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002070">similar to basketball, soccer or boxing</a>.</p>
<p>Delivering more oxygen to the driver’s body puts stress on the heart. Drivers often <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/asem.1483.2008">maintain near-maximal heart rates</a> while racing for hours at a time. </p>
<p>Beyond the heat, other aspects of racing also put demands on the heart. </p>
<p>First, there is speed. The <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2002/12000/Physiological_responses_to_high_speed,_open_wheel.33.aspx">faster a race car is driven</a> on a given track, the higher the driver’s heart rate due to greater physical and mental effort. Configuration of the race track is also important. Compared to oval tracks, heart rates are <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2002/12000/Physiological_responses_to_high_speed,_open_wheel.33.aspx">higher on road courses and street races</a>. This reflects the extra work required for hard braking and sharp turns.</p>
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<img alt="Fans watch from balconies as cars zip along a city street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534666/original/file-20230628-29-f5h5gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Street courses like the Monaco Grand Prix add extra strain on drivers due to the prevalence of sharp turns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/daniel-ricciardo-of-australia-driving-the-aston-martin-red-news-photo/962946726?adppopup=true">Dan Istitene/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.977940">mental stress of competition</a>, compounded by the imminent risk of serious injury, can make the heart beat like a jackhammer. Weather can also play a role. This is especially true during the hot days of summer when the heart works harder to regulate driver body temperature. Even the race car contributes: Beyond the hot cabin environment, the car creates vibrations that also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1966.21.6.1725">stimulate the heart to beat faster</a>.</p>
<p>The race in Chicago will feature all of these challenges, putting extreme stress on drivers. Drivers will be racing closed-cockpit cars wheel-to-wheel through the twists and turns of an unfamiliar street course in the heat of midsummer. These athletes must endure all of these challenges for two hours or longer, while racing 220 miles (354 kilometers) at speeds exceeding 100 mph (161 kph). </p>
<p>While the outcome is unpredictable, the drivers will be pushing their bodies – in addition to their cars – to their limits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207189/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Reid receives funding from NASCAR to measure the physiological stresses experienced by race car drivers. NASCAR will have access to these findings, which are expected to be published in a peer-reviewed journal.</span></em></p>Imagine an NBA game played outdoors in August, with no substitutions and players wearing snowsuits, gloves and ski masks. Race car drivers routinely compete under similar conditions.Michael Reid, Professor of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2061612023-06-23T12:48:18Z2023-06-23T12:48:18ZJa Morant shows how a ‘good guy with a gun’ can never be Black<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533247/original/file-20230621-22-uh7sna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C2986%2C1989&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The NBA suspended Ja Morant for 25 games after he posted a video of himself brandishing a gun.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/ja-morant-of-the-memphis-grizzlies-brings-the-ball-upcourt-news-photo/1485941791?adppopup=true">Justin Ford/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Man enough to pull a gun, be man enough to squeeze it,” rapped NBA superstar Allen Iverson on his song “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2skYVPGExgY">40 Bars</a>.” </p>
<p>This was two weeks prior to the 2000-01 NBA season, one in which Iverson would be named league MVP. Ja Morant, the 23-year-old star point guard for the Memphis Grizzlies, was barely 1 year old.</p>
<p>Today, Morant’s game conjures <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYbs4adAyds">that of the electrifying Iverson</a>. With colorfully dyed dreadlocks, an infectious smile and <a href="https://www.si.com/fannation/sneakers/news/the-nike-ja-1-day-one-sold-out-quickly-online">a signature sneaker</a>, Ja represents the next generation of NBA superstars.</p>
<p>But his bursting athletic brilliance, so evocative of Iverson, comes with a cost: the perceived menace of the Black gangster.</p>
<p>On March 4, 2023, Morant posted an <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/35782987/nba-investigating-ja-morant-displays-gun-instagram-video">Instagram Live video</a> of him displaying a gun at a Denver strip club. Colorado is an open carry state, but it’s illegal to carry a firearm while under the influence of alcohol. Though Morant was never charged for a crime, the NBA suspended him eight games for “<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/nba-hands-down-8-game-suspension-ja-morant-gun-incident-shotgun-willies/">conduct detrimental to the league</a>.” </p>
<p>Then, on May 14, 2023, <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/ja-morant-addresses-latest-gun-controversy-i-take-full-accountability-for-my-actions/">another Instagram Live video</a> surfaced of Morant holding a gun in a parked car with his friends while dancing to rap music. In response, <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/37863825/sources-grizzlies-ja-morant-suspended-25-games-nba">the NBA suspended Morant for 25 games</a> to start this upcoming season for “engaging in reckless and irresponsible behavior with guns.”</p>
<p>I’m not looking to defend Morant’s behavior. It was careless, and he could have harmed himself and others.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cla.purdue.edu/directory/profiles/aaron-dial.html">But as a scholar of Black popular culture</a>, I can’t help but wonder what the reaction would have been if Morant were white.</p>
<p>To many politicians and activists in the gun-obsessed U.S., the freedom to own and flaunt firearms is a sacred right. And yet throughout the nation’s history, gun ownership among Black Americans has elicited fear and recrimination. Even when folks who look like Morant innocuously and legally possess a gun, they find themselves too easily typecast as villains. </p>
<h2>Disciplining ‘thugs’ and ‘children’</h2>
<p>The NBA has long had a fraught relationship with its Black superstars.</p>
<p>When global sports icon Michael Jordan <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nba/2022/03/22/ap-was-there-michael-jordan-retires-for-3rd-final-time/49970153/">retired from basketball in 2003</a>, the league found itself in a period of transition.</p>
<p>How would it continue to fill arenas, satisfy advertisers and spread its vision of a global game without its brightest star? </p>
<p>Not only did the NBA need a new crop of superstars to mitigate Jordan’s exit, but it also needed a fresh attitude. In response, the league turned to the <a href="https://stanforddaily.com/2018/03/08/the-answer-to-the-nbas-stance-on-hip-hop/">marketing juggernaut of hip-hop and Black culture</a>.</p>
<p>Players openly professed their love for rap music, with stars like <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/shaquille-oneal-rap-return-king-talk-nba-playoffs-1235405566/">Shaquille O'Neal</a>, <a href="https://deadline.com/2021/05/kobe-bryant-los-angeles-lakers-rap-album-hall-of-fame-induction-1234757106/">Kobe Bryant</a>, Iverson <a href="https://ballislife.com/nba-players-music-albums/">and others</a> recording and releasing music. Players wore oversized T-shirts, baggy jeans and New Era fitted caps as they traveled. You’d see durags and iced-out diamond chains during postgame interviews. </p>
<p>At first, the league saw opportunity – an opening to usher in a new <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_Street">post-Jordan</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Ultimate-Assist-Relationship-Strategies-Communication/dp/1572734086">audience</a>. </p>
<p>However, in 2004, two events prompted a backlash.</p>
<p>First, there was the notorious “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EP7xRieiZm0">Malice at the Palace</a>,” during which players for the Indiana Pacers went into the stands to fight fans who had provoked them at Detroit’s Palace of Auburn Hills stadium.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Basketball fan grabbing arm and tusseling with basketball player." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533250/original/file-20230621-11103-foropp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indiana Pacers forward Ron Artest fights with a fan during a brawl at a game against the Detroit Pistons, in Auburn Hills, Mich., on Nov. 19, 2004.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NBAat75APWasThereMaliceatthePalace/e858811ee860456d882be6320dc9ec41/photo?Query=pistons%20pacers%20brawl&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=68&currentItemNo=2">Duane Burleson/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A year later, there was an infamous Team USA dinner in Serbia. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2005/10/23/opinions-on-the-nbas-dress-code-are-far-from-uniform/d8110301-49b4-4151-b0c2-42c2c5f30ae8/">As The Washington Post reported</a>, “Iverson and some of his fellow National Basketball Association professionals arrived wearing an assortment of sweat suits, oversize jeans, shimmering diamond earrings and platinum chains … Larry Brown, the Hall of Fame coach of the U.S. team, was appalled and embarrassed.”</p>
<p>Former commissioner David Stern went on to institute <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id=2194537">a controversial dress code for NBA players</a>, banning, among other things, baggy clothing, along with the display of gaudy jewelry. But Los Angeles Lakers coach Phil Jackson exposed the ban’s quiet truth. </p>
<p>“The players have been dressing in prison garb the last five or six years,” <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id=2197012">he said</a>. “All the stuff that goes on, it’s like gangster, thuggery stuff.”</p>
<p>The NBA decided its foray into the marketing of hip-hop with basketball required a paternalist brand of discipline to keep its players’ “street cool” in line and avoid the poisonous image of Black criminality.</p>
<p>And like Jackson all those years ago, ESPN’s Tim MacMahon, on the network’s <a href="http://www.espn.com/espnradio/podcast/archive/_/id/10528553">Lowe Post basketball podcast</a>, criticized Morant with not so subtle racial undertones.</p>
<p>“Ja Morant is a child,” he announced. “This guy is so worried about being cool: ‘Look at me, man: Life is like a rap video.’”</p>
<h2>The NBA’s gun culture</h2>
<p>Ja Morant isn’t the first NBA player to find himself in trouble for wielding firearms. </p>
<p>In 2006, <a href="https://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/NBA-suspends-Jackson-for-seven-games-2581301.php#:%7E:text=After%20all%20the%20legal%20and,finally%20caught%20up%20with%20him.">Stephen Jackson</a> was suspended just seven games for firing a gun after an altercation at an Indianapolis strip club. In 2010, <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id=4802267">Gilbert Arenas and Javaris Crittenton </a> were suspended for 50 and 38 games, respectively, after pulling guns on each other in the Washington Wizards team facilities. And in 2014, <a href="https://www.sbnation.com/nba/2014/8/7/5979817/raymond-felton-suspension-gun-charges-mavericks">Raymond Felton</a> was suspended four games after pleading guilty to charges stemming from an incident where he threatened his estranged wife with a gun. </p>
<p>Like Ja, all these players are Black. But unlike his situation, these incidents were violent, criminal offenses.</p>
<p>The closest analogues to Morant are Chris Kaman and Draymond Green. <a href="https://www.sportskeeda.com/basketball/news-flexing-guns-used-school-shootings-pictures-chris-kaman-posing-guns-spark-ja-morant-double-standards-claim">Kaman</a>, a former center who is white, posted pictures of his arsenal to social media in 2012, 2013 and 2016. In 2018, during a trip to Israel, Golden State Warriors star forward <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/draymond-green-warriors-israel-rifle-photo-outrage/">Draymond Green</a> posed with an assault weapon. Neither Kaman nor Green was suspended for their posts. </p>
<p>The metaphor of guns also saturates the league in ways that <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-warspeak-permeating-everyday-language-puts-us-all-in-the-trenches-121356">reflect the country’s obsession with firearms</a>. </p>
<p>The alias of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko">Andrei Kirilenko</a>, a former All-Star for the Utah Jazz, was “AK- 47.” Fans anointed Lakers guard <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/lakers-guard-austin-reaves-wants-to-get-rid-of-ar-15-nickname/">Austin Reaves</a> with the nickname “AR-15” until he denounced it after <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2023/05/24/uvalde-school-shooting-what-to-know/">the tragic mass shooting in Uvalde, Texas</a>. NBA superstar Kevin Durant’s <a href="https://www.instagram.com/easymoneysniper/">Instagram handle</a> is “easymoneysniper.” Watch Hall of Fame broadcaster Mike Breen announce a game, and you’ll inevitably hear <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AtIx03UmiiE">his famous catch phrase</a>, “BANG.” </p>
<h2>Was this ever about guns?</h2>
<p>After Morant’s most recent incident, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j03cKLDTo0Y">Adam Silver</a>, league commissioner, said, “I’m assuming the worst.” </p>
<p>But why is Morant, according to Silver, all of a sudden a poor role model to “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-6-xiD8Xkk">millions of kids, globally</a>,” especially when <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/former-nfl-player-says-posing-with-gun-in-daughters-prom-photo-was-a-joke/19915571">former</a> <a href="https://www.thedodo.com/pro-baseball-player-is-trolled-803649064.html">and</a> <a href="https://torontosun.com/opinion/columnists/lilley-carey-price-is-showing-how-far-reaching-trudeaus-hunting-gun-ban-will-go">current</a> athletes have done the same without punishment? </p>
<p>To me, the answer is simple: In America, armed Black folks conjures pathological criminality.</p>
<p>Guns, since the nation’s inception, have fortified <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-good-guy-with-a-gun-became-a-deadly-american-fantasy-117367">a uniquely American masculine fantasy</a>: the revolutionary and the cowboy, the cop and the soldier, the spy, the hunter, the gangster – all coalesce around the presumed thrill of the trigger. These fantasies reflect the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2012/12/21/167824766/nra-only-thing-that-stops-a-bad-guy-with-a-gun-is-a-good-guy-with-a-gun">National Rifle Association’s</a> most pernicious and oddly patriotic lie: “The only way to stop a bad guy with a gun is a good guy with a gun.”</p>
<p>At the same time, Historian Carol Anderson’s book “<a href="https://www.professorcarolanderson.org/the-second">The Second: Race and Guns in a Fatally Unequal America</a>” explores how the imagined danger of armed Black people has long pervaded the national psyche. </p>
<p>In her telling, this story begins in Morant’s home state of South Carolina, where the <a href="https://www.usccr.gov/files/pubs/2020/04-06-Stand-Your-Ground.pdf">Negro Act of 1722</a> and the <a href="https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/may/10">Negro Slave Act of 1740</a> argued Blacks were “instinctually criminal” and abolished their access to weapons and right to self-defense.</p>
<p>So if people are so sure of Morant’s villainy, I ask without a hint of snark: What does responsible Black gun ownership look like?</p>
<p>Does it look like Huey Newton, Bobby Seale and the Black Panther Party, whose armed protests were the impetus behind <a href="https://www.history.com/news/black-panthers-gun-control-nra-support-mulford-act">California’s stricter gun laws – legislation that was backed by the NRA</a>? </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black and white photo of Black men and women congregating, with some men holding guns." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533252/original/file-20230621-3564-twpfqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Armed members of the Black Panther Party stand in the corridor of California’s capitol in May 1967.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HueyNewton/176d2c81ae1648cda9038c36e3aa7b15/photo?Query=black%20panthers%20guns&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=28&currentItemNo=0">Walt Zeboski/AP Photo</a></span>
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<p>Does it look like <a href="https://exhibits.stanford.edu/saytheirnames/feature/philando-castile">Philando Castile</a>? Do we see it in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/07/us/marissa-alexander-released-stand-your-ground.html">Marissa Alexander</a>, who was sent to prison after she fired a warning shot at her husband, who had threatened to kill her?</p>
<p>To me, this was never about guns – just as, back in the early 2000s, it was never about rap music or baggy clothing.</p>
<p>It’s about <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Feminist-Theory-From-Margin-to-Center/hooks/p/book/9781138821668">white paternalism</a>. It’s about how Black people can’t be trusted with weapons. It’s about how the country’s veneration of gun ownership as an inalienable right is seconded only by its commitment to rendering armed Blacks an existential danger to the civility and structure of America.</p>
<p>Blackness seems to disavow any possibility of being a “good guy,” gun or not. <a href="https://fox17.com/news/local/tennessee-lawmaker-proposes-2nd-amendment-bill-in-honor-of-hero-kyle-rittenhouse-kenosha-wisconsin-gun-rights-crime-courts-usa-news-politics">Kyle Rittenhouse</a> was a “good guy with a gun.” So, too, was <a href="https://psmag.com/news/george-zimmerman-hero-77272">George Zimmerman</a>. Both meted out extrajudicial killings, and both emerged unpunished.</p>
<p>According to this warped, uniquely American fantasy, “good guys with guns” can never look like Ja Morant – and good guys can always kill bad guys.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206161/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>A. Joseph Dial does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>America’s veneration of gun ownership is seconded only by its commitment to rendering armed Blacks as an existential danger to the civility and structure of America.A. Joseph Dial, DISCO Network Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2051702023-05-10T16:31:19Z2023-05-10T16:31:19ZPlastic rats and playoff beards: Superstitious behaviours in hockey fans and players increase during the playoffs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525391/original/file-20230510-19-ghb0bb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C3000%2C1953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Toronto Maple Leafs fans and players celebrate a goal during the second round playoff series against the Florida Panthers.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Michael Laughlin/AP Photo)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/plastic-rats-and-playoff-beards--superstitious-behaviours-in-hockey-fans-and-players-increase-during-the-playoffs" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>As the Toronto Maple Leafs recently limped to a third straight defeat to the Florida Panthers, Leafs fans experienced the dreaded <a href="https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Journal/Issues/2022/05/09/Closing-Shot/Closing-Shot.aspx">rat trick</a>. In this ritual, Panthers fans throw plastic rats onto the ice to summon the energy of past, unexpected successes.</p>
<p>A group of extraterrestrials watching this event might be puzzled to see hundreds of otherwise normal people hurling mass-produced rodents at a few dozen tired men with unkempt facial hair. If, as sport fans, we set our past experiences to the side, these superstitions that are so pervasive in sport — especially when the games carry the most weight — really make very little objective sense.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jnPZX0U9-XI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">TSN looks at the history of the ‘rat trick,’ when Florida Panthers fans throw plastic rats onto the ice after games.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As an ardent sport fan for most of my life — and someone who may or may not have participated in fan rituals — I’m in no position to judge. And although I am not a particularly superstitious person overall, I’ve engaged in my fair share of sport-related irrationality as both a participant and a spectator. </p>
<p>For much of my early life, I saw sport superstition as part of fandom. I have now been studying <a href="https://www.uwindsor.ca/kinesiology/755/dr-terry-eddy">sport fans for about 15 years</a>, and if I’ve learned one thing, it’s this: rationality and objectivity generally do not apply in sports fandom.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/leafs-and-oilers-in-the-nhl-playoffs-can-i-cheer-on-a-team-i-usually-hate-204893">Leafs and Oilers in the NHL playoffs: Can I cheer on a team I usually hate?</a>
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<h2>The superstitious athlete</h2>
<p>Although all sports have their share of superstitious participants, hockey players have certainly earned their <a href="https://thehockeynews.com/news/the-nhls-10-weirdest-rituals-and-superstitions">reputation for being at the high end of the range</a>. </p>
<p>As I alluded to earlier, <a href="https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/32804681/playoff-beards-hockey-wackiest-tradition">playoff beards become ubiquitous among players at this time of year</a>. This seemingly age-old tradition only dates back to the early 1980s, but has become ingrained in hockey culture among amateurs and professionals alike. </p>
<p>Baseball players are certainly not to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2701_7">be outdone as a superstitious group</a> — for example, it’s taboo to talk about a no-hitter. <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097815/">In the 1989 movie <em>Major League</em></a>, the Cuban baseball player Pedro Cerrano (played by Dennis Haysbert) used supernatural means to magic his bat. As contrived as the character might have appeared to the average person, most baseball fans would believe that such a player could (and probably does) exist.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cr8NJkggkln","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>For some athletes, superstitions aren’t just meaningless, irrational behaviours; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12301">they can have positive effects on mental state and performance</a>. Superstitions can boost confidence and sense of control, as well as reduce anxiety — really, it’s the routine that prepares the body and mind for the performance, rather than the specific behaviour itself. </p>
<p>Superstitions may not be as readily prescribed by sport psychologists as meditation or visualization, but for some athletes, they can serve a similar purpose.</p>
<h2>Fan superstitions</h2>
<p>Like athletes, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.12.001">fans also tend to exhibit numerous superstitious behaviours</a> both at the game and in other locations, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740645">either before or during the game</a>. These superstitions can be group-based — like the rat trick — or personal. </p>
<p>Some of the most common personal behaviours include wearing certain articles of clothing (special underwear and socks are particularly popular), sitting in a particular place and eating or drinking specific foods. </p>
<p>But if we can understand why athletes succumb to superstition based on actual benefits, how can we justify these behaviours among fans? They have no direct involvement in the game. Well, the benefits for fans are not actually that different from those for athletes.</p>
<h2>Handling uncertainty</h2>
<p>In general, humans <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.12.001">don’t handle uncertainty very well</a>. We crave order in our lives, and fundamentally need to explain the underlying causes of important events or outcomes. </p>
<p>In the absence of concrete answers, we start to make up explanations of our own — <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1622327285?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">these are known as attributions</a>. We especially tend to attribute sporting success to factors that are under our control, like player and coach performance or fan involvement. And we attribute failure to things beyond our control, such as the other team’s performance, referees’ actions or fate.</p>
<p>Superstitions help us feel like we have some control over the uncontrollable. There have only been a handful of academic studies on fan superstition, but the findings tend to be consistent. By engaging in superstitions, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/specials/superfan-the-nav-bhatia-story-1.6235377">fans feel as if they’re doing their part to help the team</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a man in the stands holds a sign reading I'M A CANIAC FROM N.J." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A Carolina Hurricanes fan holds a sign following the Hurricanes’ win over the New Jersey Devils in Game 2 of the second-round playoff series.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Karl B DeBlaker)</span></span>
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<p>When the team wins, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.12.001">being involved generates an even more positive mood</a>, likely due to the perceived satisfaction of helping the team. On the other hand, carrying out the appropriate superstitions can have positive effects on mood even after a loss, possibly because the fan feels as though they did everything they could to help the team. Superstitions can also reduce the stress associated with watching a game among avid fans. </p>
<p>It’s worth pointing out that “fair-weather fans,” who only support the team when it’s doing well, generally aren’t doing this stuff — <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-16583-002">the team has to be very important to us</a> in order for us to be compelled to engage in superstitions. </p>
<p>Academic research refers to these passionate supporters as “highly identified fans,” because the fan role is a central and important part of that person’s identity and self-concept. As such, their sport fandom is closely tied to their self-esteem, which is why watching sports is such a heavily invested, emotional experience for these highly identified fans (myself included). </p>
<p>Spectator sport is one of the most unpredictable things in the world, so we have a desire to combat this uncertainty and control what’s happening by any means possible, rational or otherwise.</p>
<h2>During playoff time, be kind</h2>
<p>Sport superstitions make very little sense to non-sport fans, because they haven’t experienced the intensity of emotions and mental gymnastics that come with being a highly identified fan. </p>
<p>It’s more than a pastime, it’s a big part of who we are and how we see ourselves. </p>
<p>And to anyone who couldn’t care less about the playoffs, please just indulge the sport fans in your life and let them do whatever it is that makes them feel better at this time of year. That includes you, Mrs. Eddy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terry Eddy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Superstitions have a role in helping hockey fans and players feel more in control of the game.Terry Eddy, Associate Professor, Sport Management, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2019922023-04-16T12:23:29Z2023-04-16T12:23:29ZHow does intermittent fasting affect athletic performance? There’s no simple answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516395/original/file-20230320-18-lg7o4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5424%2C3646&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Intermittent fasting has become increasingly popular — but does this diet help or hinder athletic performance?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Intermittent fasting has become increasingly popular and is now gaining a following among athletes. </p>
<p>The practice consists of going without food for periods of varying lengths. Outside these periods, you can eat any type of food in any quantity you want. There are several types of intermittent fasting, including alternative fasting (every other day), modified fasting (reduced calorie intake on two non-consecutive days per week) and time-limited eating (for example, fasting from 6 p.m. to 10 a.m.). </p>
<p>How does intermittent fasting affect athletic performance? And what are the benefits, practical considerations and risks involved?</p>
<p>I am a dietitian nutritionist with a PhD in nutrition from Laval University, and currently a postdoctoral fellow at the Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC). This article was written in collaboration with Geneviève Masson, a sports nutritionist who advises high performance athletes at the Canadian Sport Institute Pacific and teaches at Langara College in Vancouver.</p>
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À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/le-jeune-intermittent-est-il-pour-vous-voici-ce-quen-dit-la-science-183497">Le jeûne intermittent est-il pour vous ? Voici ce qu’en dit la science</a>
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<h2>Varying effects on athletic performance</h2>
<p>During physical activity, the body primarily uses carbohydrate reserves, called glycogen, as its energy source. During fasting, glycogen reserves decrease rapidly. So in order to meet its energy needs, the body increases its use of lipids (fats).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When fasting, glycogen reserves decline rapidly. So in order to meet its energy needs, the body increases its use of lipids (fats).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The practice of intermittent fasting has been associated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113453">with a decrease in fat mass and maintenance of lean mass in athletes</a>. However, as contradictory results of several studies have shown, these changes do not always improve athletic performance.</p>
<p>Several studies reported that aerobic capacity, measured by a VO<sub>2</sub> max test, remained unchanged after intermittent fasting in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1186/s12970-020-00396-z">elite cyclists</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">runners</a>, as well as in well-trained <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002488">long-distance</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3182293891">middle-distance</a> runners. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">trained runners</a>, there was no effect on running time (10 km), level of perceived exertion or heart rate.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.5604/20831862.1185888">Trained cyclists</a> reported increased fatigue and muscle soreness during Ramadan, but this may be partly due to dehydration, since fluids are also restricted during this period when you cannot consume anything from sunrise to sunset.</p>
<h2>Power sports</h2>
<p>In the context of fasting, low glycogen (carbohydrate) reserves may limit the execution of repeated, intense efforts. Active adults reported a decreased speed in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0125">repeated sprints</a> after fasting 14 hours per day for three consecutive days. </p>
<p>Active students reported decreased power and anaerobic capacity after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1438520">ten days of intermittent fasting</a> as assessed by the Wingate (stationary bike) test, although the study reported that power increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147227">in the same group</a> after four weeks. </p>
<h2>Strength training</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-016-1044-0">Men</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz126">women</a> who followed a strength training program had similar gains in muscle mass and strength when practising intermittent fasting compared to a control diet. There was no significant difference in muscle power between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2017.12.014">active men</a> who did or did not practise intermittent fasting. However, one study reported an increase in strength and muscular endurance in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2016.1223173">active young adults</a> after eight weeks of strength training combined with intermittent fasting. </p>
<p>So, as we see, the results vary greatly from one study to another and are influenced by several factors, including the type of fasting and its duration, the level of the athletes, the type of sport they practise and so on. In addition, very few studies have been carried out in women. Also, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051390">lack of a control group</a> in most studies means the effect of intermittent fasting cannot be isolated. </p>
<p>So for the moment, it is not possible to draw a conclusion about the effectiveness of intermittent fasting on athletic performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The effects of intermittent fasting on athletic performance, according to the current state of knowledge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Bénédicte L. Tremblay)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eating before and after training</h2>
<p>Athletes who wish to use intermittent fasting should consider several practical issues before starting. Are their training schedules compatible with this dietary approach? For example, does the period during which an athlete is allowed to eat allow them to consume enough food prior to doing physical exercise, or to be able to recover after the training? </p>
<p>And, importantly, what about food quality, given that athletes must consume <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">sufficient protein</a> to recover and maintain their lean body mass and limit negative impacts on their performance?</p>
<h2>Questioning the impacts of — and reasons for — fasting</h2>
<p>Intermittent fasting may result in an energy deficiency that is too great for athletes with high energy needs to overcome. This could be the case for endurance athletes (running, cycling, cross-country skiing, triathlon, etc.) due to their high volume of training. These athletes may end up suffering from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193">Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S)</a>, a syndrome that affects hormone secretion, immunity, sleep and protein synthesis, among other things. If the deficit is prolonged, this will have an adverse effect on an athlete’s performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Intermittent fasting could result in an energy deficiency that is too great for athletes with high energy requirements, including endurance athletes, to overcome due to their high volume of training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Geneviève Masson)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is also important to question the motivation for adopting a dietary practice as strict as intermittent fasting. Some people do it for religious reasons such as Ramadan. Others are motivated by weight control goals and the hope of achieving an “ideal” body according to socio-cultural norms. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2022.101681">recent study</a> showed a significant association between intermittent fasting in the past 12 months and eating disorder behaviours (overeating, compulsive exercise, vomiting and laxative use). Although this study does not determine whether fasting causes eating disorders, or eating disorders lead to fasting, it does highlight an associated risk in this practice. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A recent study showed a significant association between intermittent fasting in the past 12 months and eating disorder behaviours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, the potential impact of intermittent fasting on social interactions must also be considered. A fasting schedule may limit participation in social activities that involve food. What is the risk of negatively influencing the eating behaviours of other family members, especially children or teenagers who see their parents abstain from eating and skip meals?</p>
<h2>Is this a good or bad idea?</h2>
<p>With such conflicting scientific data, it is not possible at this time to come to a conclusion about the effects of intermittent fasting on sports performance. </p>
<p>Further studies are needed before this practice can be recommended, especially for seasoned athletes. Furthermore, the potential negative effects on other aspects of health, including eating habits and social interactions, are not negligible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201992/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bénédicte L. Tremblay has received funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Laprise ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Does intermittent fasting have a negative or positive effect on athletic performance? At the moment, the scientific data about this is contradictory.Bénédicte L. Tremblay, Nutritionniste et stagiaire postdoctorale, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Catherine Laprise, Professeur UQAC, Co-titulaire de la Chaire de recherche en santé durable du Québec et Directrice du Centre intersectoriel en santé durable de l'UQAC, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2024822023-04-16T12:19:07Z2023-04-16T12:19:07ZTo change for the better, Canadian sport needs leadership from the bottom up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520063/original/file-20230410-7479-agkvcs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=84%2C9%2C6145%2C4240&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Efforts are underway to clean up sport in Canada, but if sporting bodies and athletes want to prevent abuse from occurring, we must re-engineer the structures, policies and practices that lead to abuse in the first place.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/jan/27/abuse-canada-sport-inquiry-hockey-gymnastics-soccer">Canadian sport</a> has been rocked by a series of scandals in recent years. National sporting bodies that govern <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/bobsleigh-canada-skeleton-athlete-safety-racial-abuse-1.6383602">bobsleigh and skeleton</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/alpine-skiing/sexual-assault-victims-suing-alpine-canada-1.4942675">alpine skiing</a>, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/former-members-of-canada-s-national-water-polo-team-have-filed-a-5-5m-lawsuit-against-the-federation-alleging-abuse-1.6128677">water polo</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/boxing/boxing-canada-resignation-investigation-1.6440793">boxing</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/gymnastics-canada-resignation-moss-1.6731050">gymnastics</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-national-synchronized-swimming-program-overhauls-its-safety-policies/">artistic swimming</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/canada-soccer-women-pay-equity-parliament-1.6773010#:%7E:text=The%20governing%20body%20says%20the,competing%20and%20representing%20our%20country.%22">soccer</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-hockey-canada-says-it-paid-out-76-million-worth-of-settlements-with/">hockey</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/rugby/rugby-sevens-women-let-down-rugby-canada-bullying-harrassment-policy-1.6005901">rugby</a> and <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/olympics/article/report-reveals-toxic-culture-within-rowing-canadas-high-performance-program/">rowing</a> have all faced major criticism for abuse, neglect and discrimination.</p>
<p>University sport teams have also faced their share of scandals including <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/4406312/harassment-lawsuit-university-lethbridge-hockey-pronghorns/">Lethbridge</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/st-fx-women-s-basketball-coach-suspended-1.5013056">St. Francis Xavier</a>, <a href="https://windsor.ctvnews.ca/lancer-hockey-coach-faces-allegations-of-verbal-abuse-from-players-1.4351228">Windsor</a>, <a href="https://rowingcanada.org/uploads/2021/04/Full-Written-Decision-with-Reasons-on-Complaints-Against-Barney-Williams.pdf">Victoria</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/former-u-of-g-track-coach-accused-of-harassment-sexual-harassment-athletics-canada-says-1.5449370">Guelph</a>. And <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/amateur-sport-abuse-local-clubs-1.5006510">amateur clubs</a> <a href="https://macleans.ca/longforms/gymnastics-abuse-scandal-canada/">aren’t immune</a> either.</p>
<p>Athletes often recount how, at the very least, sport built their character and at the very most, saved their lives. But currently, Canadian sport itself needs rebuilding.</p>
<h2>Imbalance of power</h2>
<p><a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9239000/sport-abuse-women-study-hockey-canada/">Efforts are underway</a> to clean up sport in Canada, but if sporting bodies and athletes want to prevent abuse from occurring, we must re-engineer the structures, policies and practices that lead to abuse in the first place.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-clean-up-hockey-canada-financial-transparency-is-a-must-192705">To clean up Hockey Canada, financial transparency is a must</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black bobsleigh on the ice with a red maple leaf and the word Canada on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Several Canadian sporting bodies have been rocked by a series of scandals in recent years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Oksana Dzadan)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the core of abuse is an <a href="https://calgaryjournal.ca/2018/03/06/sexual-abuse-in-sports-calgary-professor-explains-power-dynamics-between-elite-athletes-and-those-in-power-2/">imbalance of power</a> where one person, group or body controls all the resources, decision-making and information. </p>
<p>Total control can only be achieved through a lack of accountability, and examples exist at all levels in Canada:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Hockey Canada lacked a system of accountability to members, professional principles, or an overarching governing body. This led to their board and CEO controlling the money, information and decision-making and quickly devolved into <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/hockey-canada-funding-sex-assault-1.6795229">corruption, and protectionism</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>The same lack of accountability exists at university level sport which can lead to a toxic mix of <a href="https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2376-5267.2020.1.8.34-54">intergroup dynamics and groupthink</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>At the club level, volunteer burnout and resource scarcity causes a gap in oversight, accountability and transparency and leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001">an environment that tolerates or even rewards abuse</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>A team without strong <a href="https://athletescan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/atheletescan_ar_guide_book_vf.pdf">athlete representation</a>, transparent and independent avenues for feedback, or powerful coaches or sport leaders can foster <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.05.007">susceptible followers</a> who soon become colluders, conformers or abusers.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Most of the abuse issues in Canadian sport stem from <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/canadian-bobsleigh-skeleton-athletes-calls-to-sports-minister-st-onge-1.6549392">failures of leadership</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6EGvl8-nA4">governance</a>, and most of the change has been driven by athlete <a href="https://www.gymnasts4changecanada.com/">movements</a> and <a href="https://athletescan.ca/">associations</a>, <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/rick-westhead-1.88451">journalists</a>, <a href="https://www.thesheldonkennedyshow.com/podcast/episode-2/">academics</a> and <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5179352/whitecaps-fan-groups-plan-walkout-abuse-allegations/">fans</a>. The most productive and promising source of positive change in sport continues to come from the bottom up.</p>
<h2>Change from the bottom up</h2>
<p>A great deal of change has been sparked by this bottom-up movement including a new <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/files/UCCMS-v6.0-20220531.pdf">Universal Code of Conduct</a>, an independent <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/">Office of the Sport Integrity Commissioner</a> and a more trauma-informed <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/osic-processes">complaint process</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cces.ca/true-sport">True Sport</a> is a bottom-up initiative by the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport designed to help Canadians reclaim the promise of sport. Canadian academics have <a href="https://abuse-free-sport.ca/symposium">led the way</a> in understanding abuse problems in sport. Yet, sport in Canada is currently caught in a <a href="https://www.aicd.com.au/corporate-governance-sectors/types/sports/morals-or-medals-governance-drugs-and-sport.html">hierarchical system</a> that fosters power imbalance and thus perpetuates the abuse at all levels.</p>
<p><a href="https://sportandsociety.com/journal/awards">Our research</a> at Royal Roads University highlights the need for <a href="https://viurrspace.ca/bitstream/handle/10613/25708/WatchamRoy_royalroads_1313O_10816.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">accountability frameworks</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2152-7857/CGP/v12i02/81-104">power-balanced organizational structures</a> and processes, and <a href="https://viurrspace.ca/handle/10613/26013">educational programming</a> for all sport participants. </p>
<p>While removing bad apples from the barrel is necessary, we must then refine the barrel itself. Every sport participant has the power to build a safe, quality, fun and exciting sport system in Canada.</p>
<p>Sport leaders can start by learning from sport itself. At its heart, sport is a collaborative endeavour for the mutual benefit of all. The word compete is <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/compete">derived from the Latin <em>competere</em></a> which means strive together. </p>
<p>Sport can build great people, communities and nations. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2U7ZgCMLjHc">Nelson Mandela</a> described sport as a tool against racism:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1-7w-bJCtY">Sport has the power to change the world</a>. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does… It laughs in the face of all types of discrimination.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The <a href="https://invictusgamesfoundation.org/">Invictus Games</a> were founded upon this principle of recovering from violence, rebuilding trust and regenerating hope with fellow athletes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hockey player in a Canada shirt" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Every sport participant has the power to build a safe, quality, fun and exciting sport system in Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntos</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Inclusive environment</h2>
<p>Likewise, sport leaders at all levels can lean on these principles of sport to shape the sport environment in ways that balance power and ensure better experiences for all sport participants with the following strategies:</p>
<p>Language — State the purpose of sport verbally, visually, and structurally:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>A sport organization should be open to <a href="https://youtu.be/2kvlJiFbSh8?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07f">all abilities</a> and for the sake of individual and community development.</p></li>
<li><p>Be guided by the values of equity, friendship, and integrity and reflect regularly on whether we are living these values fully.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://youtu.be/CXvHVQcWz6k?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07focUzst5HJI78&t=3790">Frame challenges as opportunities to make the team, club or system better</a> just as we do on the field or court.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Practice — Function in a way that honours everyone:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>There are multiple ways to participate in our sport.</p></li>
<li><p>The goal is for every sport participant to have an excellent experience.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Structures — Build an environment that promotes equity:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The CEO, head coach, or club manager, like a team captain, is a coordinator of activities and people — not the boss.</p></li>
<li><p>The <a href="https://youtu.be/3Z1H5kaUv34?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07focUz">board’s role, like a coach</a>, is to set, support and monitor the standards of practice for the organization, not to run the race.</p></li>
<li><p>Forums, surveys and communication channels are pathways to question and learn together as a whole organization.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We know from research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.823488">psychological safety</a> that a safe environment is crucial to excellent sport experiences. Psychological safety hinges on leadership and the ability to <a href="https://youtu.be/9WYsazDCwDo?t=6">foster an environment</a> where participants feel they belong and are safe to contribute, express ideas, learn, experiment and grow individually and collectively.</p>
<p>Cultural integrity, values alignment, or walking the talk of human and social development builds trust in the leaders and environment and gives people the safety and confidence to truly excel. </p>
<p>Canadians can reclaim sport by prioritizing individual and community development over dominance and control. This can be done at any level through our words, actions and structures. </p>
<p>By creating sport environments that actively welcome people, invite contribution, see failure and mistakes as learning opportunities, and provide avenues and opportunities to challenge the system as a whole, we will be true sport leaders.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Walinga receives funding from Royal Roads University, SSHRC, SDRCC and CAC.</span></em></p>Athletes often recount how, at the very least, sport built their character and at the very most, saved their lives. But currently, Canadian sport itself needs rebuilding.Jennifer Walinga, Professor, Communication and Culture, Royal Roads UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.