tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/athletic-performance-5595/articlesAthletic performance – The Conversation2024-02-09T13:33:00Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2206412024-02-09T13:33:00Z2024-02-09T13:33:00ZAds, food and gambling galore − 5 essential reads for the Super Bowl<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574506/original/file-20240208-18-ge9cxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=203%2C54%2C4074%2C2881&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Christian McCaffrey and the San Francisco 49ers will try to stop the Kansas City Chiefs from winning their third Super Bowl in five years.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/christian-mccaffrey-of-the-san-francisco-49ers-rushes-news-photo/1976854646?adppopup=true">Michael Zagaris/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Sunday in Las Vegas, the Kansas City Chiefs will be looking to win their second straight Lombardi Trophy, while a San Francisco 49ers victory would give the team its first Super Bowl <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXIX">since 1995</a>, when <a href="https://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/Y/YounSt00.htm">Steve Young</a> was under center.</p>
<p>I didn’t get a pass to media day, so I didn’t get a chance to ask Chiefs head coach Andy Reid about how he tends to <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/nfl/article-12961001/Chiefs-coach-Andy-Reid-mustache-FREEZES.html">his mustache</a>.</p>
<p>But my colleagues and I were able to ask an all-pro lineup of scholars to write about a range of football-related topics, from the partisan food divide to the numbers behind the biggest gambling bonanza in league history.</p>
<h2>1. Flag, you’re it</h2>
<p>The Pro Bowl, the NFL’s version of the all-star game, usually gets scant attention. That’s because it happens the weekend before the Super Bowl – absent many of the stars playing in the big game – and the players seem most concerned about avoiding injuries, not winning the game.</p>
<p>A year ago, league officials decided to shake up the annual showcase. It would no longer be a tackle football game. <a href="https://www.nfl.com/news/nfl-announces-the-pro-bowl-games-to-replace-tackle-game-with-flag-football-skill">It would be a flag football match</a>. The thinking went that if the league’s stars didn’t have to tackle one another, they might play harder, be more likely to showcase their athleticism and, importantly, have more fun. </p>
<p>As West Virginia University sociologist Josh Woods explains, <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-flag-football-one-day-leapfrog-tackle-football-in-popularity-222349">the NFL’s promotion of flag football is a big deal</a>, particularly for an emerging sport that’s somewhat obscure outside of Florida, Georgia and New York, where roughly 80% of high school flag football players live. Its inclusion in the 2028 Summer Olympics will only further bolster its profile.</p>
<p>But Woods points to a gender divide and a political divide that could end up clouding the sport’s future.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-flag-football-one-day-leapfrog-tackle-football-in-popularity-222349">Could flag football one day leapfrog tackle football in popularity?</a>
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<img alt="Young man runs holding a football and waving his finger mid-stride." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574505/original/file-20240208-24-e030ed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Miami Dolphins wide receiver Tyreek Hill runs for a touchdown in the first quarter of the 2024 NFL Pro Bowl in Orlando, Fla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/tyreek-hill-of-the-miami-dolphins-and-afc-reacts-as-he-runs-news-photo/1985984027?adppopup=true">Mike Ehrmann/Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>2. X’s, O’s and Z’s</h2>
<p>In 2011, former NFL cornerback Sam Shields was a rookie playing for a Green Bay Packers team that had made the Super Bowl. The night before the big game, he tossed and turned.</p>
<p>“I had stomach aches, using the bathroom, but I didn’t have to use it,” <a href="https://www.si.com/nfl/2019/01/31/super-bowl-2019-nfl-players-sleep-rams-patriots-atlanta">he told Sports Illustrated in 2019</a>. “It felt like Christmas too, when Christmas is the next day you can’t sleep.”</p>
<p>I’ve wondered whether I would get a wink of shut-eye if I were scheduled to pitch in the World Series. Something tells me I’d be a lot like Shields. And as if the Chiefs and 49ers players and coaches aren’t feeling enough pressure, it turns out that getting a good night’s sleep is one of the most important things an athlete can do before a big game, meet or match.</p>
<p>University of Pittsburgh sleep medicine specialist Joanna Fong-Isariyawongse highlights reams of studies showing how <a href="https://theconversation.com/sleep-can-give-athletes-an-edge-over-competitors-but-few-recognize-how-fundamental-sleep-is-to-performance-221403">a poor night’s sleep can effect performance and decision-making</a> while making you more likely to get injured.</p>
<p>In fact, she writes, “Sleep deficits have been linked to decreased performance in every cognitive measure.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sleep-can-give-athletes-an-edge-over-competitors-but-few-recognize-how-fundamental-sleep-is-to-performance-221403">Sleep can give athletes an edge over competitors − but few recognize how fundamental sleep is to performance</a>
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<h2>3. Going all in on gambling</h2>
<p>Did you bet on the 49ers to cover the spread? Perhaps you’re <a href="https://www.wikihow.com/Play-Football-Squares">playing squares</a>. Or maybe you’re betting on Reba McEntire’s national anthem <a href="https://www.foxsports.com/stories/nfl/2024-super-bowl-lviii-odds-how-long-will-reba-mcentires-national-anthem-be">to last longer than 90.5 seconds</a>.</p>
<p>If you’ve wagered on some aspect of the big game, you’re one of roughly 67 million American adults who have done the same, according to a Morning Consult survey conducted in early February. That would make another new record, shattering 2023’s record, which shattered the mark from 2022. The country’s gambling mania has been aided, in part, by the Supreme Court’s 2018 ruling that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/14/us/politics/supreme-court-sports-betting-new-jersey.html">overturned a federal ban on sports betting</a>. </p>
<p>Gambling and the Super Bowl have always gone hand in hand. To University of Iowa sports media scholar Tom Oates, what makes the developments of the past few years so remarkable is <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-super-bowl-gets-the-vegas-treatment-with-1-in-4-american-adults-expected-to-gamble-on-the-big-game-222370">the NFL’s stunning reversal on its own attitudes toward betting</a>.</p>
<p>Gone are the quaint days of league officials lobbying Congress to put restrictions and guardrails in place. The NFL has gone all in on its embrace of gambling, <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/nfl-inks-nearly-1-billion-212312677.html?_fsig=UXLu7VdB0Sg8Wcfmd7USNw--%7EA">forging billion-dollar partnerships</a> with the country’s top sportsbooks.</p>
<p>“But this infusion of extra cash comes with a substantial social cost,” Oates writes. “Gambling addictions are at an all-time high, likely spurred by the ease with which people can place bets from their phones.” </p>
<p>So if you want to get in on the action, gamble responsibly and don’t let your emotions get the best of you. </p>
<p>That being said, a little birdie told me that Reba <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=696443244813036">can really hold her notes</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-super-bowl-gets-the-vegas-treatment-with-1-in-4-american-adults-expected-to-gamble-on-the-big-game-222370">The Super Bowl gets the Vegas treatment, with 1 in 4 American adults expected to gamble on the big game</a>
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<img alt="Woman with red hair and silver dress holds microphone and smiles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574593/original/file-20240209-31-9fdvn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Country music singer Reba McEntire will be singing the national anthem at Super Bowl LVIII.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/reba-mcentire-performs-at-madison-square-garden-on-april-15-news-photo/1482508270?adppopup=true">Theo Wargo/Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>4. At least they aren’t serving donkey meat</h2>
<p><a href="https://jacobin.com/2022/01/hyper-politics-annie-ernaux-moralism-identity-media-individualization">Everything is politicized</a>, so the lament goes. And even the Super Bowl – <a href="https://thedaily.case.edu/the-super-bowl-is-a-cultural-moment-but-why/">one of the few communal events left</a> in a polarized, atomized nation – can’t avoid the creep of partisanship. </p>
<p>In recent years, some of the country’s most iconic food brands – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/bud-light-boycott.html">Bud Light</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/10/business/goya-boycott.html">Goya</a>, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/papa-johns-cuts-ties-with-the-nfl-after-national-anthem-protests-2018-2">Papa John’s</a>, <a href="https://nypost.com/2021/02/23/coca-cola-diversity-training-urged-workers-to-be-less-white/">Coca-Cola</a>, <a href="https://www.vox.com/politics/2023/5/31/23742373/chick-fil-a-boycott-controversy-conservative-backlash">Chick-fil-A</a> – have been excoriated by partisans on both sides of the aisle. </p>
<p>So food spreads can color every Super Bowl party with a tinge of “red team,” “blue team.”</p>
<p>“What you serve at your Super Bowl party, or what the host serves at the event you attend, can now be interpreted, or twisted, through a partisan lens,” write political scientists Joshua J. Dyck and Shanna Pearson-Merkowitz.</p>
<p>One possible way to bridge the divide: Unite in a bipartisan celebration of Taylor Swift. Actually, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-taylor-swift-is-an-antihero-to-the-gop-but-democrats-should-know-all-too-well-that-her-endorsement-wont-mean-its-all-over-now-222437">scratch that</a>. </p>
<p>Maybe you could just serve salmon – a food that, according to Dyck and Pearson-Merkowitz’s research, is “resistant to partisan cues.”</p>
<p>Grim times, indeed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/super-bowl-party-foods-can-deliver-political-bite-choose-wisely-222687">Super Bowl party foods can deliver political bite – choose wisely</a>
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<h2>5. ByeDaddy</h2>
<p><a href="https://apnews.com/article/super-bowl-poll-commercials-halftime-1f65969d3ec56a5c3eca3ba386428d6a">According to an Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research poll</a>, 22% of Americans planning to watch the Super Bowl are most excited about the commercials.</p>
<p>That’s one reason companies are willing to fork over so much cash for a coveted slot – as much as US$7 million for a 30-second spot. </p>
<p>However, as Auburn University scholars Linda Ferrell and O.C. Ferrell point out, many regulars on the airwaves of the Super Bowl, such as GoDaddy and Ford, are <a href="https://theconversation.com/super-bowl-ads-its-getting-harder-for-commercials-to-score-with-consumers-222269">missing from this year’s lineup</a>.</p>
<p>What gives?</p>
<p>“Gen Z, in particular, is not impressed by Super Bowl ads,” they write, “and complicating the matter is their lack of interest in broadcast TV.”</p>
<p>So as a millennial who’s spent years listening to how <a href="https://knowyourmeme.com/memes/millennials-are-killing">my generation has killed</a> everything from paper napkins to mayonnaise, I take great pleasure in typing: Gen Z killed the Super Bowl ad.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/super-bowl-ads-its-getting-harder-for-commercials-to-score-with-consumers-222269">Super Bowl ads: It's getting harder for commercials to score with consumers</a>
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<p><em>This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220641/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Oh, yeah, and there’s a game, too.Nick Lehr, Arts + Culture EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2214032024-01-31T13:36:42Z2024-01-31T13:36:42ZSleep can give athletes an edge over competitors − but few recognize how fundamental sleep is to performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571989/original/file-20240129-15-rvkoy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C2663%2C1778&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sleep has been an underappreciated strategy for gaining an edge over an opponent at any level of athletic competition.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ChiefsRavensFootball/47d36cdc32f2464d8b6aaed9cba32412/photo?Query=football%20playoffs&mediaType=photo,video,graphic,audio&sortBy=&dateRange=now-24h&totalCount=54&currentItemNo=44">AP Photo/Alex Brandon</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the adrenaline-packed world of professional sports, the power of sleep rarely gets adequate attention.</p>
<p>A healthy sleep pattern can be a stealthy game plan for athletes to gain an edge over their opponents. Only a <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/21/lebron-james-reveals-the-nighttime-routine-that-sets-him-up-for-success.html">few top elite athletes</a> know the secret of early bedtimes for optimal performance.</p>
<p>Sleep is vital not only for keeping the mind sharp and body healthy but also for excelling in all fields in life – whether <a href="https://theconversation.com/school-start-times-and-screen-time-late-in-the-evening-exacerbate-sleep-deprivation-in-us-teenagers-179178">in the classroom</a>, on the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5158299/">battlefield</a> or in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab051">other professional arenas</a>. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.neurology.pitt.edu/people/joanna-fong-isariyawongse-md-faes-faan">neurologist specializing in sleep medicine</a> at the University of Pittsburgh, I have devoted my career to understanding and advocating for the importance of sleep health. </p>
<p>Here are some key facts to understand why sleep matters.</p>
<h2>The critical role of sleep in performance</h2>
<p>Sleep is a complex, <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/stages-of-sleep#">cyclical process</a> that progresses through several stages, each with distinct characteristics and functions. Initially, it begins with light sleep, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526132/#">encompassing stages 1 and 2</a>, where the body starts to relax and brain wave activity begins to slow down. </p>
<p>These stages are followed by deep sleep, also known as <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/stages-of-sleep/slow-wave-sleep#:">slow-wave sleep</a>, where the body undergoes significant restorative processes. The final stage is <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/12148-sleep-basics">rapid eye movement</a>, or REM sleep, characterized by vivid dreams and increased brain activity. Typically, a person cycles through these stages four to six times each night, with each cycle lasting approximately 90 minutes. </p>
<p>Sleep is when our bodies heal. Deep sleep helps repair muscles and bones through several key mechanisms, including the release of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824213/">human growth hormone</a> – a protein produced in the pituitary gland – and various <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2016.148">anti-inflammatory agents</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/growth-hormone-athletic-performance-and-aging">Human growth hormone is a key player</a> in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824213/">muscle development, tissue repair</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2008-0027">metabolism</a>, and is it vital for maintaining physical health. It significantly enhances the body’s capacity for self-repair, be it following an intense sports event or recovering from a sports-related injury. </p>
<p>In addition, sleep helps your brain to recalibrate through the waste-clearing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2022.11.012">glymphatic system</a>, which is part of the central nervous system. Think of it as a dishwasher in your brain, flushing out waste products, including neurotoxic proteins such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2015.00221">amyloid-beta</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1755-5949.2010.00177.x">abnormal tangles of a protein called tau</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a009399">alpha-synuclein proteins</a>. </p>
<p>All three of those proteins have direct association with neurodegenerative diseases such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2023.3889">Alzheimer’s dementia</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.016">chronic traumatic encephalopathy</a>, a disorder thought to be caused by repeated head injuries. For athletes, maintaining proper brain health and cognitive function is paramount.</p>
<p>In addition, deep sleep <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-011-1044-0">strengthens the immune system</a> to help keep us healthy and free of illnesses.</p>
<p>REM sleep is the most active stage of sleep, the one in which we experience dreams. This contrasts with deep sleep, where the brain enters a state of synchronized slow waves, indicative of restorative rest. REM sleep is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-013-0430-8">essential for memory</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00459">emotion processing</a>, which help with recall and reducing anxiety. </p>
<p>Athleticism by its purest definition and overall body control can often be linked to the benefits of Stage 2 sleep, which has been shown to play an instrumental role in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002429">consolidating of motor sequence memories</a> and physical skills learned during practice.</p>
<p>To fully benefit from these sleep cycles, adults need <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352721815000157?via%3Dihub">seven to nine hours</a> of sleep per night. This duration ensures that they complete the necessary four to six sleep cycles, allowing their bodies and minds to fully experience the restorative effects of each sleep stage, which is essential for optimal health and performance.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Sleep is a performance enhancer, if you do it right.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How sleep helps prevent injuries</h2>
<p>In professional sports, more training and higher pressure increase the chances of getting hurt. Research shows that collegiate athletes who sleep less than seven hours per night are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000849">nearly twice as likely to get injured</a> when compared with those who sleep more than eight hours. In a game like football, where split-second decisions can lead to a touchdown or interception, a well-rested brain is the best tool for quick thinking and staying free of injury. </p>
<p>Good sleep also cuts down on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.03.008">risk of concussions</a>, which, sadly, are pretty common in sports. Up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/00001199-200609000-00001">3.8 million cases</a> of concussions occur annually in the U.S. during competitive sports. Studies have shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.03.008">sleepy athletes</a> are nearly three times more likely to suffer a concussion.</p>
<p>Sleep deficits have been linked to decreased performance in every cognitive measure, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab051">vigilant attention, spatial cognition</a> and tasks involving <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.034">inhibitory control</a>. On the sports field, this translates to sleepy athletes making more impulsive and risky decisions. </p>
<h2>Enhancing athletic performance through ample sleep</h2>
<p>Athletes of any level, even at the highest levels of competition, could gain a competitive edge by giving more attention to the value of sleep. Studies focusing on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31820abc5a">sprinters</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.07.002">tennis players</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31820abc5a">endurance athletes</a> have found that sleep can enhance the following four key abilities: </p>
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<li><p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31820abc5a">Speed, strength and endurance</a>: More sleep can lead to faster sprint times, greater strength and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1103-9">higher endurance</a>, which are crucial in sports where every second counts. Adequate sleep enhances muscle recovery and energy restoration, which are crucial for the strength and power needed in sprinting. </p></li>
<li><p>Accuracy and reaction time: One study found that tennis players who got more sleep showed better <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.07.002">accuracy and faster reaction times</a>. Increased sleep enhances brain function by boosting cognitive processes such as focus, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab051">decision-making</a> and sensory perception. Well-rested individuals also experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002429">better neuromuscular coordination</a>, essential for precise movements and quick responses. </p></li>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Sleep can make a critical difference when it comes to split-second decision-making.</span></figcaption>
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<ul>
<li><p>Cognitive skills and inhibitory control: Good sleep helps with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab051">strategizing and decision-making</a> through improved recall and a clearer mind, thanks to the cleansing action of the glymphatic system. Sleep deprivation, on the other hand, can impair cognitive abilities, as evidenced in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab051">research involving NASA recruits</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Pain tolerance: More sleep can lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.1830">increased pain tolerance</a>, playing a vital role in the quality of life and recovery process following injuries or intense physical exertion. While the exact mechanisms are complex and involve a two-way relationship between sleep and pain, this benefit is particularly important in physically demanding sports. Improved pain tolerance can aid athletes not only in recovery but also in maintaining mental well-being, allowing them to focus on rehabilitation and training without being overly hindered by discomfort. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Essential sleep tips for peak performance</h2>
<p>Here are some practical and effective sleep tips tailored for athletes, designed to help them harness the power of sleep for top-notch performance in their respective sports: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Consistency and quantity: A regular sleep schedule is crucial for peak performance. Athletes should make sure they’re getting eight to 10 hours of sleep, not just the day before a big game but every day throughout the competitive season. </p></li>
<li><p>Environment: A sleep-conducive environment – dark, quiet and cool – is essential to getting a restful night’s sleep.</p></li>
<li><p>Pre-sleep routines: Relaxing activities such as reading, stretching and meditation before bed can enhance sleep quality.</p></li>
<li><p>Screen limits: <a href="https://theconversation.com/school-start-times-and-screen-time-late-in-the-evening-exacerbate-sleep-deprivation-in-us-teenagers-179178">Reducing screen time</a> before bed helps maintain natural sleep rhythms and the production of melatonin.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-best-diet-for-healthy-sleep-a-nutritional-epidemiologist-explains-what-food-choices-will-help-you-get-more-restful-zs-219955">Dietary considerations</a>: Avoiding caffeine, alcohol and heavy meals before sleep aids in restfulness.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/short-naps-can-improve-memory-increase-productivity-reduce-stress-and-promote-a-healthier-heart-210449">Strategic napping</a>: Short, well-timed naps can be a valuable tool for recovery and achieving peak performance. </p></li>
<li><p>Sleep banking: To prepare for travel when you anticipate reduced sleep, consider sleeping longer beforehand. This can be achieved either through extra napping or by extending your regular nightly sleep. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>It’s important for any athlete to remember that sleep isn’t a weakness. Success as an athlete is about more than just physical training and tactical preparedness; it’s also about harnessing the power of sleep for optimal performance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221403/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Fong-Isariyawongse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Studies show college athletes sleeping less than 7 hours per night are almost twice as likely to be injured when compared with athletes sleeping more than 8 hours.Joanna Fong-Isariyawongse, Associate Professor of Neurology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2019922023-04-16T12:23:29Z2023-04-16T12:23:29ZHow does intermittent fasting affect athletic performance? There’s no simple answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516395/original/file-20230320-18-lg7o4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5424%2C3646&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Intermittent fasting has become increasingly popular — but does this diet help or hinder athletic performance?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Intermittent fasting has become increasingly popular and is now gaining a following among athletes. </p>
<p>The practice consists of going without food for periods of varying lengths. Outside these periods, you can eat any type of food in any quantity you want. There are several types of intermittent fasting, including alternative fasting (every other day), modified fasting (reduced calorie intake on two non-consecutive days per week) and time-limited eating (for example, fasting from 6 p.m. to 10 a.m.). </p>
<p>How does intermittent fasting affect athletic performance? And what are the benefits, practical considerations and risks involved?</p>
<p>I am a dietitian nutritionist with a PhD in nutrition from Laval University, and currently a postdoctoral fellow at the Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC). This article was written in collaboration with Geneviève Masson, a sports nutritionist who advises high performance athletes at the Canadian Sport Institute Pacific and teaches at Langara College in Vancouver.</p>
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À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/le-jeune-intermittent-est-il-pour-vous-voici-ce-quen-dit-la-science-183497">Le jeûne intermittent est-il pour vous ? Voici ce qu’en dit la science</a>
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<h2>Varying effects on athletic performance</h2>
<p>During physical activity, the body primarily uses carbohydrate reserves, called glycogen, as its energy source. During fasting, glycogen reserves decrease rapidly. So in order to meet its energy needs, the body increases its use of lipids (fats).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When fasting, glycogen reserves decline rapidly. So in order to meet its energy needs, the body increases its use of lipids (fats).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The practice of intermittent fasting has been associated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113453">with a decrease in fat mass and maintenance of lean mass in athletes</a>. However, as contradictory results of several studies have shown, these changes do not always improve athletic performance.</p>
<p>Several studies reported that aerobic capacity, measured by a VO<sub>2</sub> max test, remained unchanged after intermittent fasting in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1186/s12970-020-00396-z">elite cyclists</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">runners</a>, as well as in well-trained <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002488">long-distance</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3182293891">middle-distance</a> runners. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">trained runners</a>, there was no effect on running time (10 km), level of perceived exertion or heart rate.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.5604/20831862.1185888">Trained cyclists</a> reported increased fatigue and muscle soreness during Ramadan, but this may be partly due to dehydration, since fluids are also restricted during this period when you cannot consume anything from sunrise to sunset.</p>
<h2>Power sports</h2>
<p>In the context of fasting, low glycogen (carbohydrate) reserves may limit the execution of repeated, intense efforts. Active adults reported a decreased speed in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0125">repeated sprints</a> after fasting 14 hours per day for three consecutive days. </p>
<p>Active students reported decreased power and anaerobic capacity after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1438520">ten days of intermittent fasting</a> as assessed by the Wingate (stationary bike) test, although the study reported that power increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147227">in the same group</a> after four weeks. </p>
<h2>Strength training</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-016-1044-0">Men</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz126">women</a> who followed a strength training program had similar gains in muscle mass and strength when practising intermittent fasting compared to a control diet. There was no significant difference in muscle power between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2017.12.014">active men</a> who did or did not practise intermittent fasting. However, one study reported an increase in strength and muscular endurance in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2016.1223173">active young adults</a> after eight weeks of strength training combined with intermittent fasting. </p>
<p>So, as we see, the results vary greatly from one study to another and are influenced by several factors, including the type of fasting and its duration, the level of the athletes, the type of sport they practise and so on. In addition, very few studies have been carried out in women. Also, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051390">lack of a control group</a> in most studies means the effect of intermittent fasting cannot be isolated. </p>
<p>So for the moment, it is not possible to draw a conclusion about the effectiveness of intermittent fasting on athletic performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The effects of intermittent fasting on athletic performance, according to the current state of knowledge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Bénédicte L. Tremblay)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eating before and after training</h2>
<p>Athletes who wish to use intermittent fasting should consider several practical issues before starting. Are their training schedules compatible with this dietary approach? For example, does the period during which an athlete is allowed to eat allow them to consume enough food prior to doing physical exercise, or to be able to recover after the training? </p>
<p>And, importantly, what about food quality, given that athletes must consume <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">sufficient protein</a> to recover and maintain their lean body mass and limit negative impacts on their performance?</p>
<h2>Questioning the impacts of — and reasons for — fasting</h2>
<p>Intermittent fasting may result in an energy deficiency that is too great for athletes with high energy needs to overcome. This could be the case for endurance athletes (running, cycling, cross-country skiing, triathlon, etc.) due to their high volume of training. These athletes may end up suffering from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193">Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S)</a>, a syndrome that affects hormone secretion, immunity, sleep and protein synthesis, among other things. If the deficit is prolonged, this will have an adverse effect on an athlete’s performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Intermittent fasting could result in an energy deficiency that is too great for athletes with high energy requirements, including endurance athletes, to overcome due to their high volume of training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Geneviève Masson)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is also important to question the motivation for adopting a dietary practice as strict as intermittent fasting. Some people do it for religious reasons such as Ramadan. Others are motivated by weight control goals and the hope of achieving an “ideal” body according to socio-cultural norms. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2022.101681">recent study</a> showed a significant association between intermittent fasting in the past 12 months and eating disorder behaviours (overeating, compulsive exercise, vomiting and laxative use). Although this study does not determine whether fasting causes eating disorders, or eating disorders lead to fasting, it does highlight an associated risk in this practice. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A recent study showed a significant association between intermittent fasting in the past 12 months and eating disorder behaviours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, the potential impact of intermittent fasting on social interactions must also be considered. A fasting schedule may limit participation in social activities that involve food. What is the risk of negatively influencing the eating behaviours of other family members, especially children or teenagers who see their parents abstain from eating and skip meals?</p>
<h2>Is this a good or bad idea?</h2>
<p>With such conflicting scientific data, it is not possible at this time to come to a conclusion about the effects of intermittent fasting on sports performance. </p>
<p>Further studies are needed before this practice can be recommended, especially for seasoned athletes. Furthermore, the potential negative effects on other aspects of health, including eating habits and social interactions, are not negligible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201992/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bénédicte L. Tremblay has received funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Laprise ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Does intermittent fasting have a negative or positive effect on athletic performance? At the moment, the scientific data about this is contradictory.Bénédicte L. Tremblay, Nutritionniste et stagiaire postdoctorale, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Catherine Laprise, Professeur UQAC, Co-titulaire de la Chaire de recherche en santé durable du Québec et Directrice du Centre intersectoriel en santé durable de l'UQAC, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868012022-09-28T12:32:30Z2022-09-28T12:32:30ZYour mighty tendons help you sprint, jump and move – a genetic mutation in one key protein may increase athletic performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486922/original/file-20220927-26-skh2t7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2139%2C1396&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A variant of Piezo1 may boost tendon strength and, subsequently, athletic ability.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/sprinters-in-motion-royalty-free-image/a0091-000172">Yellow Dog Productions/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ability to move is an essential part of daily life. The <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/locomotor-system">locomotor, or musculoskeletal, system</a> of the body consists of muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage and other connective tissue. <a href="https://www.physio-pedia.com/Ageing_and_the_Locomotor_System">Loss of motor function</a> due to disease or injury can result in a lifetime of disability. In a rapidly aging society, maintaining and improving motor function can be a significant challenge for many people.</p>
<p>But there are ways to get around motor failure. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=6NvNu40AAAAJ&hl=en">molecular biologists</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ryo-Nakamichi">orthopedic surgeons</a> who study the locomotor system, we believe one key part of it has been underestimated – the tendons.</p>
<p><a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21738-tendon">Tendons</a> are tough tissues that connect muscle to bone. Tendons are what allow <a href="https://a-z-animals.com/blog/how-high-and-far-can-a-kangaroo-jump/">kangaroos</a> to jump over 25 feet (7.62 meters) high and run up to 40 mph (64 kph). While their leg muscles are small, the kangaroos’ highly developed and long tendons act like powerful springs. People can also jump higher if they squat down first because their tendons <a href="https://spaniardperformance.com/muscle-tendon-unit-characteristic-to-potenciate-training/">store elastic energy</a> that helps propel them upward.</p>
<p>In our research, we found that the presence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abj5557">one particular protein in tendons</a> plays a key role in how tendons heal – and a genetic mutation in that protein may also enhance athletic performance.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/hdes6W76OOw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Tendons connect muscle to bone and are essential to movement.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Identifying tendon proteins</h2>
<p>Tendon damage can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.22869">difficult to heal</a>. Approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546520939897">60% of tendon injuries</a> lead to <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/osteoarthritis.htm">osteoarthritis</a>, a disease resulting from the breakdown of the cartilage in joints that can make movement even more difficult.</p>
<p>Developing treatments for tendon injuries has likewise been challenging. One of the reasons is that the proteins controlling the genes instructing the body to create tendons, called <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/transcription-factor-167">transcription factors</a>, had been unknown.</p>
<p>To identify these proteins, we <a href="https://www.embrys.jp/embrys/html/MainMenu.html">created a catalog</a> of the 1,600 transcription factors in the human body. Based on this catalog, we examined what genes were active in the Achilles tendon of genetically engineered mice and found that a protein called Mkx was a central transcription factor for the health of tendons.</p>
<p>Researchers have long considered tendons to be inert tissue unable to contract like muscles can. But we discovered with our colleague, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2aSu29oAAAAJ&hl=en">Ardem Patapoutian</a>, the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2021/advanced-information/">Nobel Prize-holder</a>, that one particular protein on the surface of tendon cells, Piezo1, can sense when the tendon is engaging in moderate exercise and stimulate the Mkx transcription factor.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wtkKyZ9vjq4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The discovery of Piezo1’s role in the perception of touch won the 2021 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Piezo1 and athletic performance</h2>
<p>We then wondered about the role that Piezo1 plays in athletic performance. We were particularly interested in a variant of Piezo1 called E756del, which is found in around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.02.047">a third of people of African descent</a> and thought to play a potential role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-021-00716-x">how high people can jump</a>. </p>
<p>So we genetically engineered mice to produce an equivalent mouse version of Piezo1 E756del proteins throughout their body and then <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abj5557">tested their performance</a> on different physical activities, including long jump and running on a treadmill. Surprisingly, we found that mice with E756del proteins were able to jump about 1.6 times farther without training than mice without the E756del proteins. Mice with Piezo1 in their tendons were also able to run about 1.2 times faster than those without Piezo1.</p>
<p>To identify which body part was producing this jumping ability, we then created mice that produced Piezo1 proteins either in their muscles or their tendons. The results were even more surprising: Mice with Piezo1 in their tendons improved in their jumping ability just as well as mice with Piezo1 throughout their entire body. Mice with Piezo1 only in their muscles, however, did not have any improvement in jumping ability.</p>
<p>We then decided to test the role of Piezo1 in human athletic performance. In collaboration with the <a href="http://www.athlomeconsortium.org/">Athlome Consortium</a>, an international athletic genomics organization, we compared the prevalence of the gene that codes for E756del in 91 Olympic-level Jamaican sprinters and 108 people in the general population in Jamaica. We found that 54% of Jamaican sprinters had an active gene for E756del, compared to just approximately 30% of the general population.</p>
<p>Our findings show that changing a single protein, in this case E756del, can play a role in athletic performance. Further research on tendons and other parts of the human motor systems could help improve treatments for musculoskeletal conditions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186801/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hiroshi Asahara receives funding from National Institute of Health, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryo Nakamichi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The discovery of the role that the protein Piezo1 plays in touch and body awareness won the 2021 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. Piezo1 may also be a significant player in motor function.Hiroshi Asahara, Professor of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research InstituteRyo Nakamichi, Postdoctoral Researcher in Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860212022-08-09T18:44:24Z2022-08-09T18:44:24ZLessons from a cancelled marathon: Athletic events, heat and the effects of climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478321/original/file-20220809-18-89tjcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C0%2C4211%2C2822&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Runners should have advance knowledge of what to expect in case of race disruption or rerouting prior to setting off on the course.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/lessons-from-a-cancelled-marathon--athletic-events--heat-and-the-effects-of-climate-change" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-marathon-2022-heat-warning-1.6493963">cancellation of the Manitoba Marathon due to extreme heat</a> may provide a case study for athletic event management in extreme weather. </p>
<p>As researchers in kinesiology and recreation management, we took an interest in how the disruption was handled not only professionally, but also from a personal perspective: one of us (Shaelyn) was participating in the half marathon. </p>
<p>The race was cancelled after it had started, with runners already an hour into the race. The result was ambiguity and confusion. Runners were left scratching their heads both during and after the race: wondering what they were supposed to do during the disruption, and pondering how the course shutdown was handled after the event. </p>
<h2>Racing in the heat</h2>
<p>Hot road races may become more common. The climate crisis is <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/">expected to increase severe weather</a>, which can have devastating consequences such as loss of life, injury and illness when people are unprepared. Even when lives are not lost, the negative experience of an emergency can have <a href="https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/48053">psychological consequences</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2014.5500">Runners can train for heat, wear appropriate clothing and hydrate, but even these steps are often not sufficient to overcome the effects of heat</a>. Exercising in heat and humidity poses a serious challenge to the body’s ability to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737080-00002">regulate body temperature</a> and running in such conditions can significantly decrease performance and lead to health issues such as exhaustion and heat stroke. </p>
<p>Managing the hazards posed by a changing climate will be necessary for all community event organizers going forward. </p>
<h2>A runner’s perspective</h2>
<p>Shaelyn’s first-person account is helpful in understanding what happened on the course during the cancelled Manitoba Marathon. Here is her experience:</p>
<p>Like other runners, I had trained in an extremely cold winter and spring and was not prepared for a hot run in the <a href="https://globalnews.ca/video/8930298/manitoba-marathon-expected-to-be-a-scorcher">record high temperatures that were forecast</a> for this late June race.</p>
<p>Event representatives <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-marathon-heat-advice-1.6493051">urged runners to stay hydrated and to adjust their goal given the anticipated heat</a>. I kept an eye on my email for an adjusted start time or cancellation. With no news, I headed to the start line. Once started, it didn’t take me long to feel the heat of the day but volunteers did a great job of keeping us hydrated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An arm offering three bottles of water to a group of runners who are out of focus in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478318/original/file-20220809-18-369wt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Runners can train for heat, wear appropriate clothing and hydrate, but these steps may not be sufficient to overcome the effects of heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, I could not escape the heat; several miles in, my heart rate was above the ideal range. With eight kilometres left, a volunteer told us the course was closed and that we could keep running if we wanted to, which left me confused. Was the course really closed? Should I trust one volunteer? If the course was closed, what were my options? </p>
<p>The course was not physically closed and the runners around me were still running. Aware of no alternative way of getting back other than on my own two feet, I kept running. </p>
<p>This response is not surprising. When faced with a crisis, the <a href="https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/manual/index.asp">Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication manual</a> put forward by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control presents four ways people process information: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>simplifying the message, </p></li>
<li><p>holding on to current beliefs, </p></li>
<li><p>looking for additional information and opinions and </p></li>
<li><p>believing the first message. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>When I crossed the finish line, there was no indication the course had closed. It wasn’t until I listened to the news that I was able to confirm the closure. After recovering, I read Twitter threads from participants. My sense of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-marathon-race-cancellation-heat-response-communication-1.6495410">confusion and uncertainty was not unique</a>. Conflicting information circulated about water station closures and traffic no longer being controlled. </p>
<p>Shutting down the course was understandable to protect the safety of runners. However, participants may have been hesitant to stop considering they had likely trained for months, and may have been using the race to try to meet a goal or qualify for another race.</p>
<h2>Lessons for future races</h2>
<p>Effective communication reduces injury and loss-of-life during an emergency by providing the public with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-06-2021-0054">information to make good choices</a>. A crisis can be the catalyst for organizations to <a href="https://www.workingwithcrowds.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/How_publics_use_social_media_to_respond-1.pdf">build trust</a> with their community or it can harm the relationship, depending on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3727/152599521X16106577965224">strategy used</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of cyclists participating in a road race" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477523/original/file-20220803-23-sm6bgj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hundreds of races — running, cycling, triathlon — and other endurance events take place in Canada during warmer months when extreme heat is a risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Quino al D)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Race organizers should provide runners with essential information regardless of the specific hazard. Runners should have advance knowledge of what to expect in case of race disruption or rerouting prior to setting off on the course. This way, whether there is a weather disruption, act of violence or other potentially catastrophic event, racers will be prepared to react. </p>
<p>Complicating the situation is the organizational structure of many events. Volunteers are essential for delivering many community events. While they bring skills and knowledge, they may not have specific training in emergency management nor be sufficiently prepared to help event participants navigate the challenges posed during a major disruption. Organization preparedness should include ensuring volunteer readiness to respond during an emergency. </p>
<p>Events like the Manitoba Marathon provide runners with the opportunity to reach a goal that took months of training. This year though, many runners hobbled away from the event with mixed feelings about whether the event should have gone ahead, and if so, how the situation should have been managed. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9018999/bc-heat-wave-temperature-records/">record high temperatures</a> continue <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/heat-wave-britain-1.6524808">across the world this summer</a>, investment in emergency preparedness is necessary to ensure communities can stay safe while sharing meaningful experiences together.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186021/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shaelyn Strachan receives funding from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Van Winkle receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</span></em></p>All event organizers should be prepared for emergencies and have a communication plan.Shaelyn Strachan, Professor, Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of ManitobaChristine Van Winkle, Professor, Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of ManitobaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1655592021-08-06T12:36:37Z2021-08-06T12:36:37ZBlood flow restriction training: how Olympians use it to boost performance<p>To be the best of the best, Olympians and Paralympians sometimes resort to using peculiar methods to achieve even the most minute gains in their fitness and performance. For example, things like ice baths and cupping are popular with elite athletes. More recently, many Olympians have been spotted wearing black cuffs around their muscles during workouts – a practice known as blood flow restriction training. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2012.00392/full">Blood flow restriction training</a> sees athletes strap a cuff or band around their muscles – not unlike the kind of cuff you might use when having your blood pressure measured – which is then inflated. This cuff reduces blood flow to the muscle, leading to less oxygen being transported to the muscle cells.</p>
<p>Since oxygen is needed to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-201X.1998.0331e.x?casa_token=4jXqZXhzrAgAAAAA:lZqkfJKCQkQA0vU6WqUIxzpI356FSkp65N0xnAWGvJiLXJzL0fDv9PisGtZWQ7ojKvFqDhmBCRZh">help the muscles recover</a>, when it’s limited, so is recovery during the workout. This means that it requires more effort for the body to work – so much so that even during a less intense workout, the exercises becomes harder <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/japplphysiol.00982.2020">because there is more fatigue</a>. Once the workout is finished, the cuff is removed – allowing blood to surge into the muscle cells. This is thought to accelerate recovery post-workout, and fitness levels. </p>
<p>This is an emerging area of research, so there’s still much to be learned about it. But the evidence we currently have is compelling and explains why it’s becoming a <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/japplphysiol.00982.2020">popular approach with elite athletes</a>. </p>
<p>For athletes for whom strength is important, such as hammer throwers or wrestlers, blood flow restriction training <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/sms.13632?casa_token=FC9Iy3UlZFAAAAAA%253ATqdZ1d1cJOT3vWkNvpJ6AW5YINxfiZ9HNpOeZq0ZAg3ihT7ND8Es0Wf1HdBRDD2APpoDyl_hgHQb">has been shown</a> to increase the maximum amount an athlete can lift by around 6-19%. It’s thought this happens because blood flow restriction training increases the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6553970/">amount of protein</a> the body uses, and protein is necessary for helping the body change and develop muscle and strength. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_RkL72SjFJ8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Olympic wrestler Kayla Miracle using blood flow restriction training during a workout.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Blood flow restriction training has also been shown to benefit endurance athletes. Endurance is all about being able to <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019">circulate enough oxygen</a> to the muscles that need it. Using blood flow restriction training during endurance training (such as while cycling or running) has been shown to lead to the body developing <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17461391.2017.1422281">additional blood vessels</a> – which ultimately helps increase the rate of blood flow to the muscles. </p>
<p>It is the <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1113/JP277657">stress on the blood vessels</a> that ultimately helps the body develop additional blood vessels. More blood vessels means more oxygen-rich blood going to the muscles, which is needed for recovery and also performance. This ideally means an athlete will perform better in competition.</p>
<p>Blood flow restriction training alongside endurance training also increases the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2018.01796/full">size and number of mitochondria</a> (which generates most of a cell’s energy) circulating in the body. This thereby improves the body’s use of stored glycogen (which acts a fuel to the body), ultimately leading to better endurance performance.</p>
<h2>Olympic effort</h2>
<p>For Olympic and Paralympic athletes, even the most minute gains in their performance can mean the difference between a gold medal and last place. </p>
<p>The problem is that the fitter a person becomes through years of accumulated training, the smaller their <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-201X.1996.483230000.x">improvements in fitness</a> become. An example of this can be seen in the slowing in athlete personal best performance as they get older. </p>
<p>For any athlete to become physically fit, they need to undergo physiological adaptations – like when the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-200737030-00004">size of a muscle increases</a> through strength training or the heart <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413117302310">increases in size from endurance training</a>. But these adaptations – which are affected by the intensity, frequency and duration of training – are fundamentally <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1113/jphysiol.1995.sp020533">impacted by the recovery after the training</a>. Recovery is where the adaptations occur. If recovery is not sufficient, the adaptation is reduced.</p>
<p>Training leads to fatigue – and the amount of fatigue that’s produced <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2012.00142/full">dictates the size of the adaptation</a>. But you also need to give the muscles time to adapt and recover. In other words, fatigue plus recovery equals fitness gains. Blood flow restriction training causes greater fatigue on the muscles – and more quickly – so as long as an athlete gives their muscles time to recover, it allows them to adapt more quickly than they might have otherwise.</p>
<p>For elite athletes, where gains in physiological adaptation are marginal because they’re approaching their genetic limits, the use of blood flow restriction training is used to push their training adaptations to the limit – and make these adaptations happen more quickly. And, as many athletes suffer from injuries during training, blood flow restriction training <a href="https://paulogentil.com/pdf/TREINO%20DE%20FORC%CC%A7A/Applications%20of%20vascular%20occlusion%20diminish%20disuse%20atrophy%20%28hypertrophy%29.pdf">can help to speed up the recovery</a> by encouraging gains from less demanding workouts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many athletes have been seen strapping cuffs around their muscles during workouts – but does it have any affect on their performance?Dan Gordon, Associate Professor: Cardiorespiratory Exercise Physiology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityJulien Desanlis, PhD Researcher, Sport Physiology, Université Paris-SaclayMarie Gernigon, Associate Professor, Sport Sciences, Université Paris-SaclayLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1638612021-07-20T13:05:58Z2021-07-20T13:05:58ZHow the COVID-19 delay of the Tokyo Olympics helped some athletes break records<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410648/original/file-20210709-23-akcrgs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C3880%2C2592&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This May, Olympian bronze medallist Damian Warner set three new Decathlon Bests in 100m, long jump, and 110m hurdles, earning a new Canadian record for overall points.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/David J. Phillip) </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After an unprecedented delay due to a once-in-a-century global health crisis, the Tokyo Games are finally ready to begin. Yet the athletes, like the Games themselves, have changed. </p>
<p>The year of lockdowns, isolation, and the threat — or reality — of catching COVID-19 and losing friends and loved ones has been daunting for athletes. Some, willingly or not, retired early, while others recalibrated and kept going. </p>
<p>And some are thriving.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/athletes-mental-health-at-risk-in-lockdown-as-coronavirus-puts-training-and-olympics-on-hold-136216">Athletes’ mental health at risk in lockdown as coronavirus puts training and Olympics on hold</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Last year sports psychiatrist Carla Edwards and I wrote about how <a href="https://theconversation.com/athletes-mental-health-at-risk-in-lockdown-as-coronavirus-puts-training-and-olympics-on-hold-136216">athlete mental health was front and centre during the pandemic</a>. Athletes aren’t immune to COVID-19 and its effects. </p>
<p>For more than a few, however, the extra year has been a chance to demonstrate their creativity and inspire us with their resilience.</p>
<h2>Evidence of improvement</h2>
<p>We are starting to see evidence of maintenance or improvement in performance emerge in sport and exercise medicine research (in countries <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.623885/full">like Norway</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33621997/">Italy</a> and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.666593/full">Spain</a>), and in the results as sport has resumed.</p>
<p>Despite the hardships, those of us in sport have noticed that the pandemic has provided many athletes the chance to recover, recharge and recommit. </p>
<p>Damian Warner, a Canadian track star and Rio 2016 Olympic bronze medallist, had said he was disappointed <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/sports/canada-s-damian-warner-wins-bronze-in-decathlon-at-worlds-1.4623200">with his results</a> at the 2019 world track and field championships after recovering from two sprained ankles. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man mid-run with his arms stretched out behind him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410486/original/file-20210708-19-e0ep3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Damian Warner crosses the finish line to win the men’s 110-metre hurdles final on June 26 at the Canadian track and field Olympic trials in Montréal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The world stopped</h2>
<p>By early 2020, Warner was once again in the best shape of his life, but then the world stopped. As talk of Olympic postponement became reality, Warner rallied to his training, embracing what he could not change.</p>
<p>“I think I’ll just be a little bit healthier with one more year,” <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/trackandfield/tokyo-olympics-postponed-damian-warner-1.5526737">Warner told CBC</a> last April. “From last year to this year my discus and shot put improved… so if I take another year to continue to hone and continue to improve those skills, I think they can be even better next year.” </p>
<p><a href="https://olympic.ca/2021/05/30/damian-warner-wins-hypo-meeting-with-canadian-record/">In May</a>, he set three new decathlon bests in the 100 metres, long jump and 110-metre hurdles — earning a new Canadian record for overall points (8,995), the third highest of all time.</p>
<h2>Remarkable improvements</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/30/sports/olympics/pandemic-olympics-training.html">year ago</a>, the <em>New York Times</em> reported on the phenomenon of athletes thriving through lockdown.</p>
<p>Their list of examples included four Olympians and Olympic hopefuls who all showed remarkable improvements during the lockdowns precipitated by the pandemic’s first wave in the spring of 2020: 2016 American Olympic champion shot-putter Ryan Crouser; the 16-year-old aspiring U.S. Olympic swimmer Claire Curzon; American discus thrower Valarie Allman; and Ugandan Olympic middle distance runner Joshua Cheptegei.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women throwing a discus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410487/original/file-20210708-17-wsgxog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Valarie Allman, seen competing in June, set the American women’s discus record with a throw of 70.15 metres last August, nearly three metres over her personal best.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the year since, all four have smashed national or world records in the lead up to what will surely be an Olympic Games for the ages.</p>
<p>The experience of these athletes has not been entirely unique. Rather than set performances back across the board, for a number of athletes at least, the pandemic has accelerated them — and in some cases reignited them. </p>
<h2>Nothing is impossible</h2>
<p>After four years of retirement, British rowing legend Helen Glover found herself in lockdown with three small children, a rowing machine and a desire to show her daughter that nothing is impossible.</p>
<p>A year later Glover <a href="https://www.espn.com/olympics/story/_/id/31597147/olympic-champion-helen-glover-qualifies-toyko-become-first-british-mother-row-games">made history</a> as the first British mother named to the British Olympic rowing squad. She will race in the women’s pairs, defending her two previous Olympic victories from the last in two Games in London and Rio. </p>
<p>“I have had quite a good change in perspective on things,” Glover said in an interview with <a href="https://worldrowing.com/2021/06/09/june-2021-helen-glover/"><em>World Rowing</em></a> when the international federation named her Rower of the Month in June.</p>
<p>“When I was rowing before, I was definitely quite outcome-orientated. Now I’m probably a bit more process-driven, which I think is actually quite a nice change. I feel like COVID has actually allowed me the opportunity to try doing it a different way.”</p>
<p>Fittingly, her new partner, Olympic silver medallist Polly Swann, is also returning to elite rowing after taking time away early in the pandemic to serve as a junior doctor in Britain’s national health service.</p>
<p>While athletic performances won’t bring an end to a pandemic that is far from over in most countries, their stories are glimmers of hope that shine in these dark times as examples of creativity and the resilience of the human spirit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Thornton is an Assistant Professor at Western University and Sport Medicine Physician at the Fowler Kennedy Sport Medicine Clinic. She receives funding as a Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health as well as through internal research grants and AMOSO funding. She receives an honorarium as Editor of the British Journal of Sports Medicine.</span></em></p>Some Olympic athletes have thrived in the year-long delay leading up to the Tokyo Games, using the extra time off to improve their performance and shatter national records.Jane Thornton, Clinician Scientist, Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health, Sport Medicine Physician, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1638602021-07-15T16:46:42Z2021-07-15T16:46:42ZWearable tech at the Olympics: How athletes are using it to train to win<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410869/original/file-20210712-70822-19nc18m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C51%2C4896%2C3202&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wearable technology can help elite athletes, but sometimes too much data can be a problem.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 250px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/wearable-tech-at-the-olympics--how-athletes-are-using-it-to-train-to-win" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>One of the joys of watching the Olympics is seeing the speed, strength and grace of the competitors. It’s amazing how the best athletes in the world make it look easy, but for anyone with personal experience in a particular sport, there’s an appreciation for the hard work, sacrifice and dedication that goes into producing medal-winning performances. </p>
<p>Given the high standards of Olympic competition, it’s not surprising that coaches and athletes look for any possible advantage — from dietary regimens to equipment innovations and novel training methods — to maximize the chances of success. </p>
<p>One of the more recent tools in the Olympic arsenal is wearable technology, which many of us are familiar. Devices such as Fitbit, Garmin, Polar and the Apple watch allow us to measure and track various aspects of our health and performance. </p>
<p>Wearable tech was especially useful to keep track of athletes when training grounds were shut down because of the pandemic. The English Premier League used it to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/05/tech/statsports-performance-tracking-spt-spc-intl/index.html">keep track</a> of their players during remote training after the country went into lockdown.</p>
<p>In simple terms, “wearable technology” refers to anything attached to the body that measures some aspect of performance during physical activities such as running, biking, walking or swimming.</p>
<h2>How sensors monitor movement</h2>
<p>Many of the current devices involve micro-electromechanical systems, which incorporate sensors that quantify some aspect of physical function or movement — such as heart rate, speed, force or acceleration. </p>
<p>One of the main advantages of wearable systems is that they’re relatively inexpensive and small enough to be attached to any part of the human body. As a biomechanics researcher, I typically analyze movement in a lab with expensive 3D cameras. While this provides a high degree of accuracy, it limits the types and quantity of movements that can be analyzed. </p>
<p>Wearable technology — my current research and consulting focus — provides exciting new opportunities to measure performance from entirely new perspective, from basic metrics such as step or stroke count to new and highly advanced metrics such as harmonic ratios (frequency analysis) and fractal (self-similar) pattern recognition.</p>
<p>Consequently, wearable tech has the capability to provide a vast array of metrics to coaches and athletes in many different sports — from stride rate and stroke rate in running, swimming and rowing, to ground contact time and force analysis in speed skating and jumping. </p>
<h2>Continuous data</h2>
<p>One of the most obvious benefits of wearable tech is its ability to provide information that wasn’t previously available. For example, force-sensing resistors placed in shoes, ski boots or bike pedals can provide a continuous stream of data for entire training sessions.</p>
<p>Similarly, volleyball coaches who want to track the number of jumps in a given period of time (at each practice or during a week) to monitor training volume for the prevention of knee injuries, previously had to watch hours of video to obtain this information. </p>
<p>Currently, a simple wearable device called <a href="https://www.myvert.com/">(VERT)</a> can automatically extract this information using an accelerometer. One of my <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/olympics/wearable-tech-designed-canadian-swimmers-spawns-swimlytics/">recent research projects</a> used the same sensor to determine stroke count and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14763141.2020.1760923">body roll in elite swimmers</a>, as both of these factors contribute to the mechanisms of shoulder injury.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Swimmer in swim cap treading water and holding onto swim rope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410658/original/file-20210709-15-17kh6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Canadian Olympian Penny Oleksiak at the 2019 World Swimming Championships in South Korea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Lee Jin-man)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Must be accurate and reliable</h2>
<p>To benefit performance, the data collected from wearable tech has to be both valid (accurate) and reliable (measured consistently).</p>
<p>This is not as easy as it sounds because the algorithms used to extract meaningful performance metrics are often finicky. For the information to be useful to coaches for evaluating performance and making training-related decisions (such as technique modifications), it has to be trustworthy. </p>
<p>The data also needs to be placed into the appropriate context to have meaning. For example, a sensor can tell a coach a swimmer’s average stroke rate for an entire race (or training session), but it’s not as meaningful as knowing how it varied or when it changed during the race. </p>
<p>Understanding the data in the appropriate context can provide insights into race tactics, pacing strategies and conditioning, but without this information the data is often meaningless. </p>
<h2>Quantity of data can be unmanageable</h2>
<p>An additional consideration for the implementation of wearable tech by Olympic athletes is the amount of data that’s generated.</p>
<p>Wearable tech produces large quantities of data that needs to be analyzed and contextualized with other types of information, such as sets, repetitions, intensities and interval times. The sheer quantity of data can easily become unmanageable when multiple athletes and training sessions are involved.</p>
<p>While challenging, the potential of wearable tech to provide new opportunities for Olympic athletes to optimize performance is unlimited, especially as sport science researchers continue to create new methods (such as AI) to explore what the technology is capable of. </p>
<p>It’s not unrealistic to imagine a not-too-distant future in which small unobtrusive sensors placed in a shoe or swim goggle will not only be able to enhance athletic performance, but be able to tell a recreational runner the amount of injury risk associated with a particular stride pattern or a physician the amount of risk associated with an elderly person’s gait.
Hopefully, in this way, wearable technology will provide many important benefits to society in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163860/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. John Barden provides sport science and data analytics consulting services to coaches and athletes through his company, Performance Insight. From 2015 to 2018 he received funding from Own the Podium to develop a sensor-based performance analysis system for Swimming Canada. </span></em></p>The future of wearable technology holds limitless potential for elite athletes to optimize and enhance their athletic performance.John Barden, Professor of Biomechanics, University of ReginaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1460682020-09-15T20:24:33Z2020-09-15T20:24:33Z4 lessons from the NBA bubble for the future of live arts performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358143/original/file-20200915-20-43zzwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C6%2C4377%2C2632&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Toronto Raptors' Norman Powell goes up for a shot with Boston Celtics' Kemba Walker in tow during an NBA conference semifinal playoff game, Sept. 11, 2020, in Lake Buena Vista, Fla. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mark J. Terrill)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“I’m so glad I saw it live!” </p>
<p>That’s what I said after the nerve-wracking Game 6 of the NBA Eastern Conference Playoff Series between the Toronto Raptors and Boston Celtics that I watched with socially distanced fans at a drive-in parking lot in Toronto. </p>
<p>The Raptors’ <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/toronto-raptors-outlast-boston-celtics-in-double-overtime-thriller-to-force-game-7-1.1521877">125-122 win at the end of two (two!) overtime periods was an instant classic.</a> </p>
<p>From within our respective cars, the shared excitement felt a lot like being back in Scotiabank Arena. Of course, I didn’t see the game “live.” But for a brief moment there was a palpable feeling of <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-the-north-the-toronto-raptors-playoff-success-represents-a-shift-in-canadian-identity-117962">“we” back in “We the North.</a>” </p>
<p>It’s been six months since COVID-19 emerged in North America, causing theatres to close. In the United States, Dr. Anthony Fauci, the now-familiar director of the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, recently predicted that <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CE7tWzinTI8">theatres may remain closed until a year after a vaccine is discovered</a>. Artists and arts organizations are asking: What is the future of live performance? The <a href="https://www.nba.com/article/2020/07/22/new-look-new-nba-game-experience">NBA’s #WholeNewGame</a> may provide important lessons for performing artists and their organizations. </p>
<h2>Sports: Much in common with the arts</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A basketball player shooting the ball." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1239&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1239&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358208/original/file-20200915-18-1ydpwx1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1239&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boston Celtics guard Marcus Smart shoots during Game 6 of the Raptors-Celtics semifinal playoffs, Sept. 9, 2020, in Lake Buena Vista, Fla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mark J. Terrill)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Decades of researching performance — and watching basketball — have taught me how much sports have in common with the arts: dedicated showings (game times), specific costumes (uniforms) and established conventions for both performer and audience behaviours. </p>
<p>One can point to any number of rivalries to see how professional sports blurs into drama. (As Raptor Norman Powell and Celtic Marcus Smart shouted at one another at the end of Game 6, an announcer remarked, “<a href="https://clutchpoints.com/nba-video-marcus-smart-norman-powell-jawing-at-each-other-nearly-causes-mosh-pit-celtics-raptors-game-6">This is great theatre!</a>”). </p>
<p>Theatre artists have often admired and emulated popular sports. German <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwmvd2p/revision/1">playwright Bertolt Brecht</a> <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780809005420">thought theatre should work like a boxing match</a>. British <a href="http://www.roh.org.uk/people/sarah-kane">playwright Sarah Kane</a> envied sports’ unpredictability, saying: “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2015/jan/12/sarah-kane-theatre-football-blasted">I’ve never left a football match early, because you never know when a miracle might occur</a>.” </p>
<p>Beyond sports fans, arts and entertainment enthusiasts miss <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-has-dimmed-the-lights-on-live-entertainment-what-now-for-event-managers-134374">attending public performances and wonder how they will evolve</a>. As someone who enjoys both basketball and theatre, I’ve watched carefully as the NBA re-opened its season.</p>
<h2>Weird, wonderful NBA bubble theatre</h2>
<p>Fans like me have followed with some degree of awe and fascination the details of the NBA bubble — a zone <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/29697975/the-nba-had-positive-test-bubble-guests-concern">for 22 teams on a campus at the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Fla.</a>.</p>
<p>The achievements of the enterprise became evident as the playoff games got underway. The bubble games blended theatre and sports to create a hybrid performance space that offered a great “live” experience while protecting performers and audiences. Curtains and video screens masked empty seats in the auditorium. Digital logos and ads, lighting effects on the court and amplified soundtracks with music, sound effects and fan noises mimicked the feel of live games both for the players and those watching at home. </p>
<p>The league also created “<a href="https://www.nba.com/article/2020/08/10/virtual-fans-help-restart-atmosphere">virtual fans,” people who could log onto a designated site and appear as a composite “crowd</a>” on the courtside screens. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1302779173157572609"}"></div></p>
<p>Due to the NBA’s excellent stagecraft, bubble games have felt a lot like watching games before COVID-19 closed arenas. Here are four lessons the arts can take away from the basketball bubble.</p>
<h2>1. The future is hybrid</h2>
<p>Theatre and media are often seen as competitors. Early filmmakers distinguished their new art form by rejecting theatricality. </p>
<p>Film artist Hans Richter described <a href="https://www.press.umich.edu/8532648/performance_and_media">theatre as a “contaminant” of film, yet today theatre and film are closer than ever</a>. Just ask anyone who has <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1125194">seen a Broadway stage version of a popular film</a> or the <a href="https://www.disneyplus.com/en-gb/movies/hamilton/3uPmBHWlO6HJ">film version of a popular show</a>. </p>
<p>The NBA used theatricality to replicate the essence of a live game — fans cheering, sound effects, music — and gave viewers the opportunity to be visible to both the players and to themselves in the live performance space. As performing arts venues make decisions about the future, creating hybrid events that include virtual presence and audience recognition will be important for developing investment in their work.</p>
<h2>2. Audience investment matters</h2>
<p>What Brecht and Kane envied among sports audiences wasn’t just their enthusiasm, but their deep and often emotional investment in the stakes of the game as something bigger and more important than the game itself. The <a href="https://www.sbnation.com/nba/2020/8/26/21403189/nba-boycott-player-strike-milwaukee-bucks-lakers-george-hill">NBA players</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/nba-playoffs-to-resume-after-boycott-over-jacob-blake-police-shooting-145150">became involved with the Black Lives Matter movement</a> and used their games as a platform for social justice.</p>
<p>This engagement was as integral to the sense of audience investment as the digital tools. How artists, like professional athletes, communicate the stakes of their work to dispersed audiences and give them meaningful opportunities to shape hybrid performance and its larger impact will be crucial.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358153/original/file-20200915-14-1shv56y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Los Angeles Clippers pay tribute to the Black Lives Matter movement prior to their NBA first round playoff game against the Dallas Mavericks on Aug. 30, 2020, in Lake Buena Vista, Fla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Ashley Landis)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Media is mobile</h2>
<p>As sports photographers know, the essence of any basketball game is movement. Memorable moments are replayed from many angles, circulating now on both TVs and mobile phones. </p>
<p>Creating both diverse social media perspectives and dynamic visuals is part of the successful formula. International <a href="https://www.blasttheory.co.uk">companies like the United Kingdom’s Blast Theory</a> have been experimenting with mobile device performances for over 20 years. </p>
<p>Live arts will need to innovate not only by using current social media platforms, but also by building novel and distinctive ones that capture the aesthetic and social dimensions of performances in motion. </p>
<h2>4. It’s better together</h2>
<p>The pleasure of the drive-in game — like <a href="https://www.driveinmovie.com/Canada">drive-in movie theatres across Canada</a> — isn’t about seeing the game on a larger screen, it’s about experiencing the game as part of an energetic, focused and horn-honking crowd. </p>
<p>Many speculate about <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/theatre-and-performance/article-will-canadian-audiences-return-to-the-theatre-this-fall-in-quebec">when audiences will return to theatres</a>, but both theatregoers and sports fans know the difference between sitting in a packed arena and an empty house. Even in a neighbourhood sports bar, the shared experience of a televised game can be worth the cost of over-priced beer. Theatres of the future will similarly facilitate audience connections with each other before and after the live event.</p>
<p>It’s likely that health and safety will remain challenges for live sports and the performing arts for years. But whereas a basketball game requires 10 people on the court, artistic performances can be staged in many ways: from <a href="https://www.folda.ca/event/podplays-2020-theatre-to-the-power-of-one">one-person shows</a> to <a href="https://www.foxla.com/news/see-saws-at-the-u-s-mexico-border-connects-two-nations-with-joy-and-excitement">art installations across borders</a> to <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2020-08-08/covid-live-theater-outdoor-godspell-berkshire">performers separated by Plexiglas partitions</a>. </p>
<p>Theatre, dance and music can do more than just adapt to current constraints; they can create new productions that rewrite the rules. The NBA has successfully learned how to put on a great digital show. Now, theatres can learn from this success to enhance and sustain the future of the performing arts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146068/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bay-Cheng is Dean of the School of the Arts, Media, Performance & Design at York University. </span></em></p>The successes of the NBA’s #WholeNewGame provide important lessons for performing artists about audience investment and hybrid digital-live events.Sarah Bay-Cheng, Dean of the School of the Arts, Media, Performance & Design and Professor of Theatre and Performance Studies, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1455082020-09-09T15:15:04Z2020-09-09T15:15:04ZOvertraining syndrome: what it is and how to avoid it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357163/original/file-20200909-20-1gcoch5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C0%2C3964%2C2664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Endurance athletes are most at risk.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tired-urban-jogger-making-pause-after-300224132">AstroStar/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s a thin line between working hard enough and working too hard. Pushing your body to reach new levels of fitness requires commitment, effort and a willingness to put yourself through intense, challenging workouts on a regular basis. </p>
<p>But more isn’t always better. Without the right balance of rest and recovery you could end up spiralling into a long-term fatigue condition called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23247672/">overtraining syndrome</a>. The condition results in long-term reduced physical performance, and may be accompanied by other physiological and psychological symptoms (such as low mood or poor sleep) – though this isn’t always the case. It can take weeks, months and even years to recover from this condition.</p>
<p>Though mainly caused by <a href="https://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13102-019-0132-x">excessive amounts of exercise</a>, it can be accelerated by other life stress, such as working long hours, difficult social relationships, dieting and not getting enough sleep. Recent research has shown that up to 93% of athletes suffering from unexplained performance decline also report the presence of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32679567/">non-training stressors</a>, so managing those stressors is important.</p>
<p>The frustrating thing about overtraining syndrome is that there’s no single measure or test that you can use to identify it. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3435910/#:%7E:text=An%20imbalance%20in%20the%20autonomic,fatigue%2C%20depression%2C%20and%20bradycardia.">Research</a> tells us that symptoms can vary wildly from one person to the next, meaning it can be a condition that’s hard to pinpoint. In fact, the only current, reliable method to assess if you have overtraining syndrome is to track how long it takes you to recover.</p>
<p>However, common symptoms include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Long-term decrease in sports performance,</li>
<li>Less motivation to exercise,</li>
<li>Low mood,</li>
<li>Muscle soreness, aches and pain,</li>
<li>Loss of good quality sleep,</li>
<li>General tiredness or fatigue.</li>
</ul>
<p>In reality, it’s very difficult to work hard enough to spiral into overtraining syndrome if you aren’t hitting the gym for hours each day. If you’ve ever felt tired or burned out but bounced back after a week or two, you probably weren’t overtraining, you probably just went a little too hard for a spell. </p>
<h2>Overreaching</h2>
<p>A similar condition <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL-MARKERS-OF-OVERREACHING-AND-IN-Bell-Ingle/59148644ede5d1878b36db2f05508609b8110e7e">known as overreaching</a> is also characterised by performance decline, but recovery takes several days to weeks to recover from. And feeling drained for a day or two after a tough workout is just a sign of fatigue and nothing to worry about. </p>
<p>Overreaching is often seen as a less severe form of overtraining syndrome, but because the symptoms are often the exact, the two are often confused. In fact, when under-performing, most average gym goers suffer from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32679567">fatigue</a> for days to weeks rather than months, suggesting acute fatigue or overreaching is much more of a realistic risk to the general population.</p>
<p>Endurance athletes appear to be most at risk of developing overtraining syndrome, with previous research showing as many as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-200434140-00003">60% of high-level runners</a> could experience overtraining syndrome in their career. Swimming and cycling have reported similar figures, but those that participate in strength-based sports, such as weightlifting, appear to be at <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2020.1763077">lower risk</a> of overtraining syndrome, with only one or two cases observed in the published literature. It’s not entirely certain why, but it may be because endurance sports are easier to participate in while fatigued. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Four long-distance runners running." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s less likely to affect the average exerciser.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/marathon-runners-running-on-city-road-544106977">lzf/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But even in high-level athletes who train for hours daily, only some of those will ever suffer from symptoms of overtraining syndrome. Hard and frequent training on a regular basis, coupled with poor sleep, high levels of stress and a low calorie, low-carb diet may all make someone more likely to develop overtraining syndrome.</p>
<p>If you think you might be suffering from the overtraining syndrome, the best and most important recovery tool is to manage your training. Take a break from challenging exercise and let your body heal and repair itself. Light activities, such as walking or stretching are fine, but anything that overloads your body should be stopped immediately, or else you may only prolong the time it takes to recover. Make sure you’re eating healthily (especially getting enough carbohydrates), and aim for plenty of undisturbed sleep each night. Though this is easier said than done, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17461390801954794">prioritising sleep and food</a> will help you bounce back. </p>
<p>But for the average person who may find they’re experiencing a bit of extra fatigue from over-exercising, taking a couple of weeks to recover before getting back into your regular routine may be needed. Either way, it’s important to manage symptoms, whether you’ve suffered from overtraining syndrome or not.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145508/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Bell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Those with the condition could take several weeks, months, or even years to properly recover.Lee Bell, Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1162522019-05-16T10:41:36Z2019-05-16T10:41:36ZStiff muscles are a counterintuitive superpower of NBA athletes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274739/original/file-20190515-60537-1oj3r9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=240%2C46%2C3667%2C2677&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What helps an athlete leap tall distances in a single bound?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Celtics-Bucks-Basketball/98ddfdb3d3274886a6ed57891de1a2c9/3/0">AP Photo/Tom Lynn</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For most people, the term “stiffness” has negative connotations. When you wake up in the morning complaining of a “stiff back,” the remedy might include taking a hot shower, doing some yoga, swallowing aspirin, or visiting a physical therapist to loosen up. Stiffness is typically viewed as unpleasant and can limit one’s physical activities. </p>
<p>Surprisingly, though, for elite athletes like professional basketball players, muscle stiffness is not only something that is necessary, you could say it’s their superpower. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=_AxjgecAAAAJ">As a physical therapist and researcher</a> who works with National Basketball Association players, I’m interested in understanding the key factors that help to minimize injury risk and maximize performance in elite athletes – and understanding stiffness is an important part of that.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274736/original/file-20190515-60545-1dh7uni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A pro player’s jump can seem otherworldly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Mavericks-Wizards-Basketball/49a79f69b907484283c2706c19181ba9/8/0">AP Photo/Nick Wass</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Spring in your step</h2>
<p>Physiologists think of muscles as being like biomechanical springs. Muscles contract to produce forces that help you move and stretch to allow enough range of movement. Stiffness is a way to talk about how springy a muscle is. It is a characteristic of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002283">how much it can lengthen</a> in response to an applied force. The spring of a muscle allows it not only to stretch but also to recoil during muscle contraction. This process allows for movements including walking, running and jumping.</p>
<p>The force required to deform or stretch a muscle is correlated to a degree of spring or stiffness and to the extent the muscle is <a href="https://kundoc.com/pdf-influence-of-leg-stiffness-and-its-effect-on-myodynamic-jumping-performance-.html">lengthened</a>. Strength is important, but stiffness can help an athlete generate even more power.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4547118/">Basketball is a vertical sport</a> that includes up to 46 jumping and landing activities for an individual player per game. That’s 2 to 4 times more jumping than in soccer or volleyball. It’s also a multi-directional sport – an average player changes direction or activity every 2 to 3 seconds, requiring constant acceleration and deceleration of movements.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1016&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1016&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274738/original/file-20190515-60537-5t60vn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1016&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Russell Westbrook demonstrates what a muscle with just the right balance of stiffness and flexibility can achieve.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Thunder-Trail-Blazers-Basketball/e84ffac6551749268489215f0d892b65/9/0">AP Photo/Craig Mitchelldyer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lower extremity stiffness is important for optimal basketball performance because athletes who appropriately use greater stiffness characteristics can take advantage of the elastic energy it creates. A muscle can only stretch so far because its length is limited by its degree of stiffness. So, like a spring or a rubber band, when the muscle is stretched, that stiffness helps to create <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2016.1561">elastic energy</a> that can then be used with a muscle contraction to help you run or jump on the court. </p>
<p>This helps someone like <a href="http://www.espn.com/nba/player/_/id/3468/russell-westbrook">Russell Westbrook</a> leap in the air, stop on a dime, then accelerate down court during a fast break. It takes him <a href="https://fadeawayworld.net/2018/11/08/ranking-the-top-10-fastest-nba-players-of-all-time/">just 3.36 seconds to run from baseline to baseline</a>.</p>
<h2>The sweet spot</h2>
<p>However, there is a point of diminishing returns. Too much muscle stiffness can lead to reduced joint motion and a decreased ability to absorb shock at the joints. This can place one at greater risk for stress fractures or even osteoarthritis, the wear and tear of cartilage that can cause joint pain. <a href="http://www.lbgmedical.com/media/journals/Running/Leg-Stiffness-Primary.pdf">Evidence</a> suggests that too much stiffness may lead to injury.</p>
<p>And on the other side of the spectrum, a player needs a certain degree of flexibility and joint mobility to support the proper elongation of muscle and tendons that allow for the appropriate range of motion.</p>
<p>So players need to balance these extremes, landing in the sweet spot of optimal lower extremity stiffness: not too much, which can lead to high levels of force and loading rates and a greater risk for bony injuries. And not too little, which is associated with an increased risk for <a href="http://www.lbgmedical.com/media/journals/Running/Leg-Stiffness-Primary.pdf">soft tissue injury and muscle strains</a>.</p>
<p>My research team is investigating these relationships in an attempt to help elite athletes minimize risk of injury and maximize performance. The first step is in understanding what “normal” clinical measurements are for elite athletes.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273092/original/file-20190507-103082-bvnnd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Philip Anloague measures the degree of ankle mobility, called dorsiflexion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philip Anloague</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Textbook values have been established for the general population but this information is lacking for NBA players. For example, a typical value of ankle flexibility for the average individual is about 50 to 55 degrees. Our research team has found that the typical NBA player is more stiff and averages 35 degrees. </p>
<p>When comparing elite basketball players to textbook norms it might appear that they are too tight and even dysfunctional. However, to be successful in their sport, this degree of stiffness is actually their superpower. If trainers start stretching Lebron James’ muscles to match the textbook values of the general population, he may start jumping like the general population. That tactic could very well be kryptonite to an NBA athlete.</p>
<h2>Training to minimize injury and maximize performance</h2>
<p>Physical therapists know that the so-called <a href="https://www.mensjournal.com/health-fitness/muscle-fiber-test/">fast twitch</a> muscle fibers – the ones responsible for jumping and sprinting – have a higher <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00124278-201904000-00028">propensity</a> for stiffness. With training the level of stiffness can be increased to improve performance.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272840/original/file-20190506-103053-vag55b.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A player demonstrates a plyometric jump – a powerful movement that lengthens then quickly shortens a muscle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philip Anloague</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evidence suggests that <a href="https://www.mensjournal.com/health-fitness/9-best-plyometrics-exercises-muscle/">plyometric and bounding exercises</a> that involve jumps, hops, or bounds, performed in a stretch shortened cycle do have a positive effect in the ability for muscle to have more spring. But overall, your own degree of stiffness versus springiness is a combination of nature and nurture, genetics and training.</p>
<p>Research related to better understanding the continuum between stiffness and compliance can help physical therapists and trainers when working with basketball players. They need to know dosage – how much to stretch or strengthen. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=_AxjgecAAAAJ">Work is underway</a> that contributes to this endeavor. There are also initiatives that aim to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0384">understand player load</a> and the cumulative physical demands that elite athletes undergo when generating fast and powerful movements. Researchers also need to understand what the best methods and technologies are for monitoring these loads. My colleagues and I theorize that there is an optimal level of compliance and stiffness that helps keep our basketball heroes super.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116252/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Anloague does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It probably sounds bad or uncomfortable to you. But stiffness is part of what gives elite athletes the spring in their muscles.Philip Anloague, Chair and Associate Professor of Physical Therapy, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1087092018-12-20T11:21:48Z2018-12-20T11:21:48ZChristmas Day: to be a winning host, prep like a sports pro<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251525/original/file-20181219-45419-1mteaa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Game time.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/smart-watch-sports-jogging-training-marathon-513000181?src=snkXTwy3PFSAmoqWPxRsaQ-1-13">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hosting a Christmas gathering can sometimes prove challenging, much like a critical sports game can for an athlete. And while they have prize money, world rankings and pride on the line, your festive spoils – happy guests, a tasty lunch – can feel just as important. </p>
<p>So borrowing some mental skills and strategies from the world of sport could be just the thing to help you succeed with your Christmas get together. </p>
<p>To begin with, ahead of a big competition, athletes make sure they train diligently. It’s not just about clocking up the hours – it’s the quality of those hours. So maximise the quality of your preparation time for cooking, wrapping and decorating, so that any remaining tasks on the day itself go as smoothly as possible. </p>
<p>One key strategy that athletes use to keep them focused and motivated on the route to competition is <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292703142_The_fundamental_goal_concept_The_path_to_process_and_performance_success">goal-setting</a> using “SMART goals” – targets which are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bound. </p>
<p>Following the SMART system helps you to keep on track to get those small wins. Many athletes will tell you that accomplishing small goals increases the likelihood of accomplishing big goals – for them, winning a game; for you, achieving a special, memorable and stress-free Christmas. </p>
<p>Before a big competition, athletes will also work on “game day” strategies. Start by reflecting on what was successful at past holiday gatherings as well as what didn’t go so well. That way, you can incorporate the more successful elements and be well prepared for the ones that didn’t work. </p>
<p>Sport psychologists sometimes use <a href="https://www.socmot.uni-konstanz.de/sites/default/files/09_Bayer_Achtziger_etal_subliminal_implementation_intent.pdf">“if–then” scenarios</a> to help athletes strategise for the big day. The idea is that you think about possible scenarios and how you would respond to them. You are then “action-ready” for potentially tough situations.</p>
<p>Developing your self awareness to play to your strengths and work on your weaknesses is another key strategy in preparing for sporting competition. In festive terms, this means that you might be a great entertainer but not such a great cook. </p>
<p>In this case, research and practice recipes beforehand so you’ll feel more confident about pulling them off on the day. According to <a href="http://t012.camel.ntupes.edu.tw/ezcatfiles/t012/img/img/171/Feltz1988_423-457_16_ESSR.pdf">research</a>, past successes can be a big boost to self-confidence so you’ll be feeling good about your food and you’ll be more relaxed about entertaining your guests. </p>
<p>After putting plenty of work in, game day is a chance for athletes to shine. It usually involves a heady mix of excitement and nerves, but some athletes deliberately interpret their nervousness and anxiety as signs of excitement to sink their teeth into the big day. </p>
<h2>Harness those nerves</h2>
<p>If you wake up on Christmas morning feeling a bit nervous, try employing this tactic, which is known as “arousal reappraisal”. <a href="https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/publications/the-effects-of-arousal-reappraisal-on-stress-responses-performanc">Research has shown</a> that reevaluating your nerves as positive rather than negative can lead to more positive outcomes like self confidence. It’s all about your interpretation, so try to see things in a good light. </p>
<p>Another option is the pre-performance routine – just like in rugby, penalty kickers engage in a very specific process of physical preparation before every single kick. Some <a href="http://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/jsep.24.4.359">sport psychologists suggest</a> that these routines may result in an optimal emotional state prior to performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251533/original/file-20181219-45408-1jbsgwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The spoils of Christmas victory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/roast-chicken-turkey-christmas-new-year-523895071?src=DWWry1c0bdfJqxxMaKjZ2g-1-69">Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Christmas morning can be one of the most stressful parts of the day. So what would your routine look like? Something as simple as taking a few deep breaths or doing a few invigorating yoga poses can really help set the tone of the day, and is something you can go back to later if you feel overwhelmed. </p>
<h2>Merry mindfulness</h2>
<p>If you don’t respond to the pre-performance routine then try positive “self-talk” – or use both. Many athletes employ several mental strategies to help them on game day, before and during their performance, and self-talk can be especially useful during play. Self-talk is your inner dialogue with yourself, and is used by athletes to <a href="http://www.academia.edu/345238/Hatzigeorgiadis_A._Zourbanos_N._Mpoumpaki_S._and_Theodorakis_Y._2009_._Mechanisms_underlying_the_self-talk_performance_relationship_The_effects_of_self-talk_on_self-confidence_and_anxiety._Psychology_of_Sport_and_Exercise_10_186-192.IF_2.15">achieve a number of positive outcomes</a> like reducing cognitive anxiety. </p>
<p>We are all constantly engaged in a neverending stream of internal dialogue and it can be on maximum volume and speed when we’re facing a game situation. Whether it’s your uncle bringing up Brexit or a distant cousin sulking, your thought stream can become incredibly overcrowded. </p>
<p>Simple cue words and phrases like “breathe” or “keep going” can give athletes a boost when they need it most. Start thinking about what cue words and phrases you can use and try them out to see what sticks.</p>
<p>Finally, successful athletes are usually a part of a larger team which offers support when needed. Even individual athletes have support staff, including coaches and physiotherapists, so think about who you can ask for a helping hand. </p>
<p>The social support provided by teammates may improve <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413209708415388">physical and emotional well-being</a> so think about how best to use the support around you. Simple tasks like making the music playlist, peeling sprouts, or sorting the dessert can be handled by one of your support team, freeing you up to focus on achieving your personal best.</p>
<p>So this Christmas season, take a page from the training books of successful athletes all around the world. Be sure to engage in meaningful training and use mental strategies before and during December 25 – and you’ll be well on your way to victory.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108709/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nadine Sammy received funding from the Commonwealth Scholarships Commission for her doctoral research.</span></em></p>Preparation. Focus. Positivity. Think like an athlete to win a Christmas medal.Nadine Sammy, Lecturer in Sports Psychology, University of ExeterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1064862018-12-18T12:46:46Z2018-12-18T12:46:46ZMorning lark or night owl? How our body clocks affect our mental and physical performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250954/original/file-20181217-185255-d2rgmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our study found that the performance of "night owls" and "morning larks" varied considerably on both cognitive and physical tasks. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-holding-clock-261086612?src=Cwq4fMOFtdH9OCDcy5n0nw-1-9">file404/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether you’re a morning person or love burning the midnight oil, we’re all controlled by so-called “body clocks”. These body clocks (which regulate <a href="https://global.oup.com/ukhe/product/circadian-rhythms-a-very-short-introduction-9780198717683?cc=gb&lang=en&">our circadian rhythms</a>) are inside almost every cell in the body and control when we feel awake and tired during a 24-hour period. But as it turns out, <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-018-0162-z">our latest study found</a> that our body clocks have a much bigger impact on us than we previously realised. In fact, our body clocks actually effect how well a person performs on both mental and physical tasks.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/sleep-topics/what-circadian-rhythm">circadian rhythms are controlled</a> by the brain’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10548871">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a>, which detects light. When cells in your eyes register that it’s dark outside, they send these signals to the suprachiasmatic nucleus. It then releases the hormone melatonin, which makes you feel tired. </p>
<p>Your <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-018-0162-z">chronotype is another factor</a> that determines how your biological clocks affect your daily behaviours. For example, early chronotypes (“morning larks”) rise early and are most active in the morning, but feel tired late in the afternoon or early evening. Late chronotypes (“night owls”) are tired during the morning, but feel awake in the evening.</p>
<p>These individuals differences may also be seen in multiple other <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3630920/">physiological, behavioural and genetic rhythms</a> that happen over a near 24-hour period. For example, chronotype determines the time melatonin is released. For morning larks, melatonin can rise around 6pm, making them feel tired by 9pm or 10pm. For night owls, melatonin can increase at 10pm/11pm or even later, meaning many aren’t tired until 2am or 3am. </p>
<p>Genetics can determine your body clock type, but it’s also largely influenced by schedule and lifestyle. It also changes over your lifetime. People tend to be larks during the first ten years of their life, then shift towards night owls during adolescence and their early twenties. By the time you’re 60, you’ll probably have similar sleeping patterns to when you were ten. However, even with these lifetime changes, the factors that determine your chronotype are unique to every individual. </p>
<h2>Peak performance and the body clock</h2>
<p><a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-018-0162-z">Our study</a> recruited 56 healthy people and asked them to perform a series of cognitive tasks (to measure reaction time and their ability to plan and process information), and a physical task to measure their maximum grip strength. The tests were completed at three different times between 8am and 8pm to see how an person’s performance varied throughout the day. Our results showed peak performance differed significantly between larks and owls.</p>
<p>Larks performed best earlier in the day (8am in cognitive tasks and 2pm in physical tasks), and were 7% to 8% better than night owls at these times. Night owls performed best at 8pm in both cognitive and physical tasks. Grip strength was found to be significantly better during the evening for owls by 3.7% compared to larks. </p>
<p>Peak performance was also related to the number of hours it takes for you to perform your best after waking up. Larks performed their best in cognitive tasks immediately after waking up, and seven hours after waking up in the physical task. Night owls performed best in all tasks around 12 hours after waking up.</p>
<p>When it comes to elite performance, athletes are striving for minute gains where a winning margin can be narrow. For example, at the 2016 Olympics, if the last placed competitor in the men’s 100m sprint <a href="https://www.olympic.org/rio-2016/athletics/100m-men">had run 0.25 seconds faster</a>, he would’ve beaten Usain Bolt.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250955/original/file-20181217-185249-64ldph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Understanding your body clock might help you determine your winning chances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rio-de-janeiro-brazil-15-august-526970299?src=N30ZOhSxLYBfD7Pku2T6tA-1-10">Shahjehan/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098221401639X">previous research found</a> that being a morning lark or a night owl is a key contributor in the timing of peak <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fneur.2015.00208/full">individual and team athletic performance</a>. </p>
<p>Our new study shows that compared to larks, night owls are significantly sleepier in the morning, making their reaction time slower by 8.4%. They’re also 7.4% weaker (using a maximum grip strength test) than their morning lark counterparts. </p>
<p>Night owls also seem to show a larger variation in peak performance throughout the day, suggesting they may be more sensitive to time-of-day changes than larks. For example, a night owl competing against a morning lark at 8am would be more impaired than a lark competing against a night owl at 8pm.</p>
<p>However, other things, like travelling, can also affect performance. Moving across time zones de-synchronises our body clocks, which need a chance to adjust. People that constantly change their sleeping patterns <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/06/170605085326.htm">may experience “social jetlag”</a>, which impairs performance too.</p>
<p>Since athletic success depends on the smallest margins, understanding precisely what time peak performance is likely could mean the difference between winning a gold medal or finishing in last place. Our study found that overall, morning larks tended to perform better earlier in the day, and night owls performed better later in the evening.</p>
<p>Knowing just how much our body clock affects us could be useful even in our everyday life. It can help us understand more about how we can gain <a href="https://www.rand.org/randeurope/research/projects/the-value-of-the-sleep-economy.html">maximum productivity in business</a> or the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00588/full">best academic performance</a> in school.</p>
<p>The typical structure of our society greatly favours larks over owls. Since our typical working day doesn’t let night owls follow their preferred sleep and wake patterns, maybe it’s time we start thinking about being more flexible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106486/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Elise Facer-Childs consults with/for Occupational Psychology Firm Team Focus Limited. She has previously consulted with Henley Business School, British Athletics, the Australian National Rugby League and the Australian Football League.
Elise Facer-Childs has received funding for her research from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), the Wellcome Trust Institutional Strategic Support Fund and Birmingham University Imaging Centre (BUIC).</span></em></p>The old saying ‘the early bird catches the worm’ might be especially fitting when it comes to peak mental and physical performance.Elise Facer-Childs, Research fellow in sleep, circadian rhythms and neuroimaging, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1040992018-10-29T10:37:59Z2018-10-29T10:37:59ZCan Seabiscuit’s DNA explain his elite racing ability?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242559/original/file-20181026-7044-1b62eh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eighty years ago, Seabiscuit trounced Triple Crown winner War Admiral. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Sports-Maryland-United-States-/8bc6921beee6da11af9f0014c2589dfb/2/0">AP Photo </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.americanclassicpedigrees.com/seabiscuit.html">Seabiscuit</a> was not an impressive-looking horse. He was considered quite lazy, preferring to eat and sleep in his stall rather than exercise. He’d been written off by most of the racing industry after losing his first 17 races. But Seabiscuit eventually became one of the most beloved thoroughbred champions of all time – voted 1938 Horse of the Year after winning <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2013/nov/01/seabiscuit-war-admiral-horse-race-1938-pimlico">his legendary match race</a> as an underdog against Triple Crown winner War Admiral in 1938.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=SZ6ySPUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">As a molecular physiologist</a>, the concept of understanding how specific gene variants can affect performance, whether in athletics, learning or even how an organism develops, has always intrigued me. Thoroughbred racing seemed a promising arena to study this idea, since successful racehorses need not only elite physical attributes, but also the mental makeup of a champion, sometimes referred to as the “will to win.”</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/harpur/ieg/index.html">Institute for Equine Genomics</a> here at Binghamton University, we try to better understand the genetic components associated with breeding success in thoroughbreds and other horse breeds. We are also interested in finding gene variants that could help horses before and after their racing careers. We’ve successfully run tests for horse farms across the U.S. and in South Africa and New Zealand to assist with breeding decisions and help them identify early which horses were probably not suited for the track.</p>
<p>A few years back, Jacqueline Cooper from the <a href="http://www.seabiscuitheritage.org">Seabiscuit Heritage Foundation</a> got in touch. She wanted to genetically test a fifth-generation descendant of Seabiscuit, named Bronze Sea, for breeding purposes. Jacqueline asked if any genetic information about Seabiscuit could be obtained from sequencing Bronze Sea. But since Seabiscuit was so far back in the pedigree, our lab really couldn’t be sure which of Bronze Sea’s genes came from his famous great-great-great grandsire. It would only work if comparison tissue from Seabiscuit still existed – an unlikely proposition since he died in 1947 and is buried in an undisclosed grave at Ridgewood Ranch in Northern California.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242560/original/file-20181026-7062-l50sfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seabiscuit as a retired 7-year-old, with some of his offspring at Ridgewood Ranch in California.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Sports-California-United-State-/ad6ebd302ee4da11af9f0014c2589dfb/1/0">AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During a group phone call between me, Jacqueline and Michael Howard, the great-grandson of Seabiscuit’s owner, he mentioned that Seabiscuit’s hooves had been removed and preserved after the champion died. Now this piqued my interest; my lab group has had great success extracting reasonably intact DNA from ancient bone samples.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242341/original/file-20181025-71011-1y5nf0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of Seabiscuit’s silvered hooves. The lower portion is the hoof wall, while the top and middle sections are silver.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jacqueline Cooper</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It turned out that Seabiscuit’s silvered hooves – think of a baby’s booties coated in metal – were on display at the California Thoroughbred Foundation. Although not common practice today, historically it was customary to remove the hooves of a champion racehorse as a keepsake prior to burial. The silvered hooves often served as decorative mementos, sometimes even being used to hold cigarettes and matches.</p>
<p>When our lab received two of Seabiscuit’s hooves, though, the most noticeable thing about them was how deteriorated they were. A great portion of each hoof had pulled away from the silver shoe. The best word to describe them was ragged. And the hollowed out top was so deep into each hoof, we were afraid the bones had been completely removed from the samples during the silvering process. We decided to push forward and see what we could find.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1014&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1014&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242353/original/file-20181025-71029-1uvo07l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1014&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kate DeRosa extracts what she can from the bottom of the hoof.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Tammariello</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ph.D. student <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kate_Derosa2">Kate DeRosa</a>, with assistance from <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=AQXtjD0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">Andy Merriwether</a>, who directs the Ancient DNA and Forensic Laboratory on campus, drilled into the hooves, hoping to find what’s called the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffin_bone">coffin bone</a>, the bottom-most bone <a href="http://triplebarhoofcare.com/what-is-barefoot-hoof-care/equine-hoof-anatomy/">inside of an equine hoof capsule</a>. As Kate drilled, the resulting powder turned from dark brown, signifying it was a non-bone substance, to white, suggesting the coffin bones were indeed still there.</p>
<p>Our team went on to extract DNA from the powdered bone. The <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-differences-between-mitochondrial-and-nuclear-DNA">nuclear DNA</a> was somewhat degraded, which didn’t surprise us given the age of the samples and the harsh chemical treatment the hooves had been exposed to during the silvering process. The mitochondrial DNA, though, was intact. We used it to verify the maternal lineage of the samples and confirm that the hooves were indeed from Seabiscuit.</p>
<p>Although the nuclear DNA from the hoof sample was not intact, Kate was still able to partially sequence specific genes associated with optimal racing distance in thoroughbreds. We found that Seabiscuit had gene variants that are often found in horses that are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-11-552">good distance runners</a>. Interestingly, though, underlying this were variants in minor racing genes that are usually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02126.x">found in sprinting horses</a>.</p>
<p>This somewhat rare genetic combination of stamina and speed seems to be reflected in the champion’s race record, as he won races from as short as 5 furlongs (sprint) to as long as 1¼ miles (distance). Further, horses of today that we’ve identified with this genotype tend to be late bloomers, winning their first race almost three months later, on average, than horses with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/age.12622">genotype associated with precocity</a>. Sounds like Seabiscuit’s race record: He didn’t become a true racing star until his 4-year-old racing season.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242342/original/file-20181025-71032-13m10ns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The bottom of Seabiscuit’s silvered hoof, pre-drilling. The two drill sites were on either side of the point of the triangular ‘frog,’ which is analogous to a person’s fingertip.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jacqueline Cooper</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our lab will continue to examine Seabiscuit’s genome, focusing on genes linked to other physical attributes, as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00335-005-0021-3">genes that control temperament traits</a> such as aggression, curiosity and trainability. Perhaps Seabiscuit had variants in these behavioral genes that gave him the incredible desire to win despite his less-than-ideal physical attributes. </p>
<p>Through this study, the collaborating partners hope to get an idea of what genetic components made Seabiscuit the great racehorse that he was. We know that racing thoroughbreds in the early 20th century looked quite different than today’s horses, so it will be interesting to see if Seabiscuit’s DNA is noticeably different than that of his modern counterparts. For now, the prospect of cloning Seabiscuit is not possible, due to the insufficient quantity and poor quality of the nuclear DNA we could recover.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct the name of Seabiscuit’s descendant, Bronze Sea.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104099/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Tammariello does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The US went crazy for Seabiscuit when he won his famous 1938 match race against War Admiral. Now researchers are investigating the thoroughbred’s DNA to see what made him such an unlikely success.Steven Tammariello, Associate Professor of Biological Sciences and Director of the Institute for Equine Genomics, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/923662018-02-26T11:57:04Z2018-02-26T11:57:04ZCan coffee improve your workout? The science of caffeine and exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207827/original/file-20180226-120971-1b6j9ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/resting-runner-260897984?src=XTj1Xdt-nA15eRNsMggkmg-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Caffeine is one of the most researched substances reported to help athletes perform better and train longer and harder. As a result, professional and amateur sportspeople often take it as a performance-enhancing “ergogenic” aids for a wide range of activities. These include intermittent exercise such as football and racket sports, endurance exercise such as running and cycling, and resistance exercise such as weightlifting.</p>
<p>But while most research looks at the effects of pure caffeine consumed as tablets with water, in the real world most people get their caffeine from coffee, energy drinks or other products like special gels or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0848-2">chewing gum</a>. So will drinking a cup of joe before your workout actually make a difference? The answer could depend as much on your genes as what kind of coffee you’re drinking.</p>
<p><a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-7-5">Scientists think</a> caffeine affects the body chemical adenosine, which normally promotes sleep and suppresses arousal. Caffeine ties up the receptors in the brain that detect adenosine and so makes it more alert.</p>
<p>But it may also increase stimulation of the central nervous system, making exercise seem like it involves less effort and pain. In high-intensity activities such as resistance training or sprinting, it may increase the number of fibres used in muscle contractions, meaning movements can be more frequent and forceful. </p>
<h2>Faster, higher, stronger</h2>
<p>Research has shown that pure caffeine can help endurance athletes <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0257-8">run faster</a> and <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/7/7/5219/htm">cycle for longer</a>. It can help footballers to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279366/">sprint more often and over greater distances</a>, and basketball players to <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/9/1033/htm">jump higher</a>. It can help <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/jcr.2012.0019?journalCode=jcr">tennis players</a> and <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2016/01000/Effect_of_Caffeine_on_Golf_Performance_and_Fatigue.18.aspx">golfers</a> to hit the ball with greater accuracy. And it can help <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2876999/pdf/1550-2783-7-18.pdf">weightlifters lift more weight</a>.</p>
<p>The evidence for caffeine’s effects on sprinting is more mixed. Limited improvements <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/4/3/45">have been found</a> for events lasting under three minutes. But for races of around ten seconds,
caffeine can improve peak <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-12-S1-P57">power output, speed, and strength</a>.</p>
<p>An increasing number of studies have also shown that coffee can be used as an alternative to caffeine to <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">improve cycling</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&">competitive running</a> performance, and produce similar results similar to pure caffeine. In fact, coffee may even be more effective at <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">improving resistance exercise than caffeine alone</a>. Similarly, drinking <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-10-1">energy drinks</a> containing caffeine before exercise can improve mental focus, alertness, anaerobic performance and endurance performance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Total weight lifted when performing back squats to failure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But drinking coffee isn’t like taking a measured dose of caffeine. The amount of stimulant in a cup, and so how it affects you, will depend on the blend of coffee and how it is brewed. Studies have shown consuming either <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">0.15g</a> or <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed">0.09g</a> of caffeinated coffee per kilogram of body weight can improve performance. So a dessert spoon of coffee granules rather than a traditional teaspoon is probably best. </p>
<p>It’s also worth bearing in mind that each piece of research shows caffeine improves athletic performance of a group of people as a whole. But we also know that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5752738/pdf/40279_2017_Article_776.pdf">genetic factors</a> have a big influence on our responses to caffeine and not everyone reacts in the same way. This means consuming caffeine won’t necessarily improve your performance.</p>
<h2>Potential downsides</h2>
<p>In fact, you could end up feeling nauseated and jittery at a time when, if you are competing, you are already feeling anxious. And, as caffeine’s effects can linger for up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/">five hours</a>, taking it too late in the day could disrupt your sleep, which is a big factor in health and fitness in general. This means it’s important to practice with caffeine during training sessions or friendly fixtures before using it for an important event. </p>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.mysportscience.com/single-post/2017/06/18/Do-you-need-to-refrain-from-coffee-to-get-the-maximal-effect-of-caffeine">have also suggested</a> that you should abstain from caffeine in order to enjoy a better effect on your performance when you consume it for exercise. But maintaining your normal intake will prevent any <a href="https://theconversation.com/caffeine-withdrawal-drives-need-for-more-but-are-we-addicts-17380">possible withdrawal symptoms</a> and still provide benefits if caffeine is taken before exercise. Its effects peak between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4898153/pdf/ictx-54-308.pdf">30 and 75 minutes after ingestion</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, it’s a a commonly held belief that caffeine is a diuretic that will lead to dehydration because it makes you produce more urine. But a <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0084154">number of studies</a> have shown that this isn’t the case with moderate amounts of coffee, cola or any other caffeinated beverage, which help keep you hydrated like any other drink.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92366/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Clarke receives funding from The Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. </span></em></p>Drinking coffee before exercising could make you run faster and lift heavier - if you’ve the right genes.Neil Clarke, Principal Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science at Coventry University, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/922732018-02-23T20:12:42Z2018-02-23T20:12:42ZThe selfie Olympics: What’s the impact of social media on performance?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207557/original/file-20180222-152366-15u3xuk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australian cross country skier Phil Bellingham takes a selfie during a welcoming ceremony at the Pyeongchang Olympic Village ahead of the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, Thursday, Feb. 8, 2018. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There has always been a symbiotic relationship between media, sports and athletes. Sports provides content for media, which in turn promotes the performances of athletes. But the advent of social media has disrupted this traditional connection.</p>
<p>Rather than relying solely on media to be the gatekeeper of sports news and information, athletes are now controlling their own narratives through Twitter, Instagram and Facebook.</p>
<p>At the Olympic Games, this has become the new normal for keeping up with athletes. But does the use of social media help or hinder an athlete’s performances at the Olympics? </p>
<p>Social media offers a host of benefits for athletes. They are able to stay connected with friends and family, interact with fans, allow spectators to feel part of the action, while also capturing invaluable memories.</p>
<p>Most of the research concerning athletes’ use of social media centres on its marketing advantage. In <a href="https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/podzim2013/ZUR589b/um/SM_W8_Twitter_Sports_Marketing.pdf"><em>Sport Marketing Quarterly</em></a>, researchers recommended athletes engage more with fans and share information about their lives to better leverage marketing opportunities. Similarly, Ryerson University professor <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijsc.5.4.461">Katie Lebel and her colleague</a> examined how athletes presented themselves on Twitter and determined it to be an extension of the athlete’s brand, providing a means for them to build and promote themselves. </p>
<h2>Social media is a marketing tool</h2>
<p>While social media may assist athletes with sports marketing, ultimately performance is the most important factor for any Olympian. What is the relationship between social media and performance? Currently, little research exists to help answer this question.</p>
<p>As an Olympian, researcher and consultant in sport psychology, I am intrigued by this phenomenon and am currently conducting a study in this area on the Pyeongchang Games. </p>
<p>The field of sport psychology is concerned with understanding the psychosocial factors that positively and negatively influence performances of athletes, as well as the strategies that will promote excellence.</p>
<p>Specifically, researchers have been able to identify the characteristics, which distinguish successful Olympians from those less successful. In a study examining the development of Olympic champions, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241673552_Psychological_Characteristics_and_Their_Development_in_Olympic_Champions">Daniel Gould, Kristen Dieffenbach and Aaron Moffet</a> found athletes to have a high degree of confidence, mental toughness, optimism, and were goal oriented and students of their sport. These athletes were also able to block out distractions and control their level of anxiety. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207559/original/file-20180222-152375-1c2d5uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The United States team team pose for a selfie on the podium after their third place finish in the figure skating team event at the 2018 Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Julie Jacobson)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Comparatively, many studies have found media exposure to be an Achilles’ heel for sport performance, negatively affecting athletes at the Olympics. For example, a survey of Winter Olympians <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/026404100365090">published in the <em>Journal of Sports Sciences</em></a> found media to be one of four major sources of stress. Likewise, athletes competing in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11282646_A_Survey_of_US_Atlanta_and_Nagano_Olympians_Variables_Perceived_to_Influence_Performance">Atlanta Summer Games and Nagano Winter Games</a> identified media as a factor which negatively impacted their performance. </p>
<h2>The negative impact on performance</h2>
<p>One of a few <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303501475_Facebook_use_and_its_relationship_with_sport_anxiety">studies exploring the use of social networking sites by athletes</a> found a large majority of athletes used Facebook two hours before their sport competition, with many using it during the competition. More importantly, they determined sport anxiety to increase when athletes spent time on Facebook prior to competition. Elevated sport anxiety can bring a wide array of other negative consequences like fear of failure and choking. </p>
<p>In an effort to combat the negative effect media can have on performance, some athletes will engage in a “media diet” or a blackout period. This may involve decreasing interaction with the media or directing all media requests to a team manager.</p>
<p>This is what I did when I competed at the Olympic Games and other major events. It allowed me to control my environment and my emotions. It is very easy for an athlete to shift their focus to the thoughts and opinions of others, taking them away from what it is they should be focusing on.</p>
<p>For example, self-efficacy — the belief one has in their ability — can be easily influenced by what others tell an athlete.</p>
<h2>The impacts of positive and negative feedback</h2>
<p>If an athlete is receiving positive feedback, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-olympians-train-their-brains-to-become-mentally-tough-92110">their self-efficacy</a> can be elevated. If they are receiving negative commentary, their belief in their ability can be compromised. This means fans and those trolling social networking sites have the subtle power to influence the mental state of an athlete.</p>
<p>However, in this new era of social media perhaps this new generation of athletes are developing skills that enable them to better manage social media’s negative impact.</p>
<p>U.S. snowboarder Chloe Kim, tweeted her frustration of not finishing her breakfast sandwich and <a href="http://ftw.usatoday.com/2018/02/chloe-kim-tweets-shes-hangry-halfway-through-halfpipe-competition">feeling hangry during</a> the halfpipe competition. She ended up winning gold. On the other hand, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4349738/Cate-Campbell-reveals-text-caused-choke.html">Cate Campbell</a> from Australia was not so fortunate in the 100m freestyle at the Rio Olympics. The world record holder would finish sixth in the finals after receiving a message from a friend. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BfAkxvMlIQM/?hl=en\u0026taken-by=adaripp","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>For athletes like U.S. figure skater <a href="https://www.elitedaily.com/p/adam-rippons-tweets-during-the-olympics-have-been-so-so-hilarious-8217296">Adam Rippon</a>, social media can allow them to win the hearts of spectators. For others like Canada’s <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/olympics/olympic-athletes-discover-it-doesnt-take-much-to-burst-the-social-media-bubble/article38047185/">Gabrielle Daleman </a>(who violated her own social media diet at the Olympics), it can be a gateway for bullies.</p>
<p>The verdict is still out as to whether most athletes can use social media during the Olympic Games and still perform well. For now, I would recommend athletes go on a media diet to control their environment and feelings as much as possible. Why give anyone the opportunity to have power over you after years of training for this one moment in time?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92273/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole W. Forrester research is receiving funding from Ryerson University's FCAD grant.</span></em></p>What harm could a simple Tweet possibly have on the performance of an Olympian? More than you might think. Social media can be a distraction that impacts the performance of some athletes.Nicole W. Forrester, Assistant Professor, School of Media, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/920182018-02-19T23:57:38Z2018-02-19T23:57:38ZWhy Olympic athletes ‘choke’ at the Winter Games<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206855/original/file-20180218-75990-eg3uxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=89%2C175%2C2201%2C1318&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nathan Chen of the United States, considered a gold medal contender, falls while performing during the men's short program figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/David J. Phillip)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s easy to get lost in the magic of the performances of Olympians. We have come to expect perfection for things difficult and even impossible for the mere mortal to perform — especially when an Olympic gold medal is up for grabs.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/feb/16/yuzuru-hanyu-nathan-chen-figure-skating-olympics">as we’ve seen in these Winter Games</a> — and <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/more-sports/patrick-chan-needed-time-to-get-over-sochi-disappointment/article19143936/">at every Olympics</a> — the athlete favoured to win doesn’t always make it to the top of the medal podium. Why is it that throughout a season an athlete can demonstrate domination in their respective sport, but fail to perform when it counts most at the Olympic Games?</p>
<p>The easiest answer is to assume that athlete has choked and is not a clutch performer. The elite athlete is a complex machine, further compounded by the infinite factors that influence their performances. As complex as that athlete is, so is the answer to the question about why top athletes come up short at the Olympics.</p>
<p>As an Olympian and a registered mental performance consultant, I’m aware of the many factors that can influence an athlete’s performance under the glare of the world spotlight.</p>
<h2>Changes in normal routine</h2>
<p>Elite athletes lean on routines as a foundation for consistently great performances. Routines involve specific actions the athlete uses to prepare for both practice and competition.</p>
<p>Consider, for example, an athlete’s warm-up, eating habits and bedtime. All of these may appear minor to the non-athlete, but they are instrumental in preparing the athlete for competition.</p>
<p>Disrupting this process can interfere with an athlete’s sense of confidence and readiness. Being away from their normal environment invokes changes in these routines. Now magnify the environment that comes with the Olympic Games — well, any hope of maintaining a routine has just become almost impossible. </p>
<p>U.S. alpine skier Mikaela Shiffrin has developed a reputation as being one of the best racers. She is almost equally known for loving her sleep, taking strides to go to bed by 8:30 p.m. while at the Games. However, after winning her first gold medal, the medal ceremony kept her from going to bed until much later.</p>
<p>She took to the slopes the next day in her best event, the slalom, and failed to defend her gold medal, finishing fourth. She later explained that she was more upset with how she felt on her skis than her placing.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BfTDAn5l1fI/?hl=en\u0026taken-by=mikaelashiffrin","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Shiffrin arrived at the Games favoured to win five medals, but due to the scheduling, she later pulled out of one of her races.</p>
<p>In addition to the excitement of the Olympic Games, researchers
Christy Greenleaf, Daniel Gould and Kristen Dieffenbach have found that <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.2209&rep=rep1&type=pdf">arriving to the Olympics, or a venue, too early</a>, experiencing unexpected nervousness, being forced to change a performance plan as well as different time zones for competition are all factors that take an athlete out of their normal routine.</p>
<p>They also found team coaches acting differently than an athlete’s personal coach, who isn’t always able to come to the Games, can also play a role in distracting them from normal routines.</p>
<p>Ultimately, even though it is the Olympic Games, athletes want to keep things as close to normal as possible. As soon as athletes depart from their normal routine, they invite an opportunity for inferior performances. </p>
<h2>Pressure and media distraction</h2>
<p>For some athletes, the Olympic Games feel like a fishbowl. They are catapulted from minimal attention to intense media focus, which can make the athletes feel like they’re being scrutinized and judged.</p>
<p>This new attention can shift their focus on the need to win and away from what will allow them to be successful — the process. </p>
<p>The advent of social media makes the ability to manage media distraction even more challenging. Twitter gives fans direct access to the athletes. Fans can even interact with athletes between rounds of competition. Whether they are cheering them or jeering them, it can be distracting and disruptive for an athlete preparing to compete.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C12%2C4109%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206854/original/file-20180218-75997-13zg2dd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">American skier Mikaela Shiffrin talks to the media after her first run of the women’s slalom at the 2018 Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Injury</h2>
<p>You can never plan for an injury. However, when an injury happens, it can be a daunting battle. Often, a greater component of battling injury is controlling those around you.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.uky.edu/%7Eeushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html">Self-efficacy</a>, the belief that an athlete has the ability to meet a challenge head on, is influenced by four factors. One of those factors is called verbal persuasion — what the athlete or others say about the athlete.</p>
<p>In professional sports, teams are required to declare injuries that athletes may be managing. However, this rule doesn’t apply in amateur sports. Athletes can be battling an injury and choose not to discuss it for fear that it may provide an edge to their competitor, or cause doubt in those that they look to for support. </p>
<p>I can relate all too well. Three days before competing in the high jump at the Beijing Olympic Games, I tore all the ligaments in my ankle while warming up in practice. </p>
<p>Suddenly all my performance goals seemed impossible, but I was still hopeful and determined to compete to the best of my abilities. I was not ready to concede defeat. To keep up an environment of support and optimism, no one knew of my injury except for the medical staff and my teammates.</p>
<p>So when watching your favourite athletes compete, it’s important to know they may be battling something physically or mentally that they haven’t disclosed. What might appear as an unexplained poor performance may in fact be the best performance they could summon on that day given whatever injury they were battling.</p>
<h2>Expect the unexpected</h2>
<p>The Olympic Games is arguably the greatest test for any athlete. The ability to perform when it counts most, with the weight of a nation on your shoulders, is no small feat.</p>
<p>Athletes can equip themselves for performing in the fishbowl with mental-skills preparation and by establishing a support system. Mental-skills preparation can help athletes block out distractions, maintain their routine, control their nerves and elevate their confidence. </p>
<p>A solid support system can further assist by keeping routines as normal as possible and encouraging confidence by providing positive feedback.</p>
<p>Finally, preparing for the unexpected can serve as a life preserver when you are swimming in the ocean of the Olympic Games. When working with super elite athletes, I encourage athletes to do so.</p>
<p>Through this process, athletes identify various scenarios that could occur and establish a game plan for how they should respond in those instances. If you can expect the unexpected, the unexpected ceases to exist. Through this multi-faceted process, I have found athletes not only feel prepared but also have an elevated level of confidence. </p>
<p>Ultimately, just because an athlete does not perform as well as expected does not mean they’ve choked. Athletes are like an iceberg — what we see may only be 10 per cent of what’s really going on.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92018/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole W. Forrester does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why can an athlete dominate their sport, but fail to perform when it counts most at the Olympic Games? A number of factors the viewing audience can’t see can explain poor performances.Nicole W. Forrester, Assistant Professor, School of Media, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/908102018-02-12T23:15:59Z2018-02-12T23:15:59ZThe agony of defeat: How Olympians can deal with failure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205835/original/file-20180211-51731-1gk64mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canada's Andi Naude, who came into the Olympics ranked No. 2 in the world in women's mogul skiing, reacts after failing to complete her final run at the 2018 Winter Olympic Games. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been said there’s nothing worse than <a href="https://www.si.com/olympics/2016/08/18/2016-rio-olympics-fourth-place-finishers">finishing fourth at the Olympics</a>.</p>
<p>There have been some <a href="http://nationalpost.com/sports/olympics/canadas-mikael-kingsbury-wins-gold-medal-in-mens-moguls">amazing performances so far from the athletes who have won medals at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics</a>. But behind those who take gold, silver or bronze are stories of personal failures and setbacks for the athletes who never make it to the medal podium.</p>
<p>For many, coming up short at the Olympics will present some of the most difficult emotional experiences of their careers.</p>
<p>When athletes experience failures and setbacks, not only are they often harsh and self-critical, but there can be other consequences, <a href="https://olympic.ca/programs/athlete-excellence-fund/">such as loss of funding</a> and support systems. Even the fear of experiencing failures and setbacks can prevent athletes from delivering their best performances when they are needed the most.</p>
<p>Finding resources that athletes can use to help them navigate through difficult emotional experiences — whether they occur before, during or after an event like the Olympics — is essential to their success.</p>
<h2>Learning self-compassion</h2>
<p>One such resource for the athletes’ toolbox might be something called self-compassion.</p>
<p>Being self-compassionate means athletes recognize they are experiencing an emotionally difficult time and want to do something to help themselves through it.</p>
<p>Research suggests self-compassion can be a useful resource to deal with failures and setbacks if athletes can treat themselves kindly rather than be harsh and self-critical, are able to balance their thoughts and emotions and recognize that other competitors experience similar hardships.</p>
<p>Two other commonly used “self” terms in sport are self-confidence and self-esteem.</p>
<p>Self-confidence typically refers to athletes’ general beliefs that they can be successful. Self-esteem refers to an overall evaluation of self-worth. Self-confidence and self-esteem are often linked — if athletes feel competent in sport, that competence can be an important part of high self-esteem.</p>
<p>On the other hand, being self-compassionate does not require feelings of competence or worth. It simply requires the recognition of suffering and a desire to help yourself through that suffering.</p>
<p>Sport psychology researchers and practitioners are also increasingly exploring ways to teach athletes to be self-compassionate. Amber Mosewich, an assistant professor at the University of Alberta, developed a seven-day sport-specific self-compassion intervention for self-critical female athletes.</p>
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<p>The athletes in Prof. Mosewich’s research were introduced to self-compassion at an introductory session, followed by <a href="http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Mosewich_intervention.pdf">five self-compassion writing exercises completed over the following week</a>.</p>
<p>One exercise asked athletes to write a note to themselves expressing understanding, kindness and concern in the same way they would talk to a friend experiencing the same situation. Athletes who took part in the intervention reported a significant increase in self-compassion, as well as significant decreases in concerns over mistakes, rumination and self-criticism.</p>
<p>From <a href="http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/AthletesWellbeing.pdf">our</a> and <a href="http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Ferguson_etal_2015.pdf">our colleagues’ research</a> with athletes from a range of sports and levels of competition, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2159676X.2013.766810">the types of failures and setbacks athletes often report</a> include feeling responsible for a team loss, injury, failing to meet personal goals and expectations, making errors, social comparison and performance plateaus.</p>
<h2>Emotional safety</h2>
<p>Rather than reacting to these types of challenges with harsh self-criticism, self-compassion offers a resource that allows athletes the emotional safety and mental strength to deal with these potentially negative experiences in a healthy and effective way.</p>
<p>You might be wondering when self-compassion is useful for athletes — before, during or after competition. </p>
<p>Intervention work with athletes has typically encouraged them to recall a setback they recently experienced in sport and to respond to that situation with self-compassion.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/AthletesWellbeing.pdf">our research with female athletes</a>, they have explained it may also be useful to be self-compassionate during a setback — such as when they make mistakes in competition and in the immediate moment of realizing they are being harshly self-critical.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205811/original/file-20180210-51727-1l56q00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Canada’s Samuel Girard reacts to finishing fourth in the men’s 1500-metre short track final at the 2018 Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Paul Chiasson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our mental-skills consulting work, we work with athletes to be self-compassionate so they have the skills to successfully manage failures and setbacks before they even occur.</p>
<p>The field of self-compassion has been led by <a href="http://self-compassion.org/">Dr. Kristin Neff</a>. You can complete the <a href="http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Self_Compassion_Scale_for_researchers.pdf">Self-Compassion Scale</a> to gain insight into your own level of self-compassion.</p>
<p>A number of <a href="http://self-compassion.org/category/exercises/#guided-meditations">self-compassion practices</a>, including guided meditations, writing activities and other exercises, have been developed. Many of these practices teach people how to be kind towards themselves through increasing awareness of their current thoughts and changing inner dialogues by reframing a self-critical voice in a way that is more positive and friendly.</p>
<h2>Beyond self-esteem</h2>
<p>While still in its relative infancy, there is a growing body of research that shows self-compassion is clearly relevant to the lives of athletes and has benefits beyond self-esteem. Athletes with greater levels of self-compassion have greater autonomy (the freedom to make and act on one’s own choices) and body appreciation, as well as lower reported levels of fear of failure, shame and negative self-evaluation.</p>
<p>Self-compassion also seems to increase an athlete’s perseverance and decrease passivity when they face failures and setbacks.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=907&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=907&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=907&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205814/original/file-20180210-51694-1l9xwen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Former gold medallist Martina Sablikova of the Czech Republic reacts after finishing fourth at the women’s 3,000-metres speed skating race at the 2018 Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Vadim Ghirda)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the biggest challenges to athletes becoming more self-compassionate in the face of failures and setbacks might actually be their resistance to it.</p>
<p>Female athletes <a href="http://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Sutherland_etal_2014-1.pdf">have expressed hesitation</a> about being too self-compassionate for fear of becoming complacent or passive in the pursuit of their sporting goals. Male athletes in particular might face threats to their masculinity by taking a self-compassionate approach to sport. </p>
<p>The evidence to date, both within and outside of sport, would suggest athletes’ concerns about being self-compassionate are likely not warranted. For many athletes who will inevitably encounter failures and setbacks, embracing self-compassion might be a vital part of a positive and successful Olympic experience.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90810/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kent Kowalski's research has been funded through the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Saskatchewan Health Research Foundation (SHRF), and the Canadian Breast Cancer Research Alliance (CBCRA). He is a mental training consultant with the Sport Medicine & Science Council of Saskatchewan and an Assistant Coach with the University of Saskatchewan Men's Soccer team.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leah Ferguson's sport psychology research is funded through the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) to explore women athletes' self-compassion, well-being, and performance outcomes. Her larger program of research is also funded through the Saskatchewan Health Research Foundation (SHRF) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). She is a mental training consultant with the Sport Medicine & Science Council of Saskatchewan.</span></em></p>Failure is something all athletes need to deal with, especially when competing on the world stage that is the Olympics. Learning self-compassion can help athletes rebound from setbacks.Kent Kowalski, Professor of Kinesiology, University of SaskatchewanLeah Ferguson, Assistant Professor in Kinesiology, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/822122017-08-10T20:06:46Z2017-08-10T20:06:46ZIs Usain Bolt the greatest athlete of all time? That’s not what the numbers say<p>Usain Bolt has finally hung up his running shoes, retiring from athletics amid plaudits hailing him as the <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/more-sports/world-athletics-championships-twice-banned-justin-gatlin-makes-sure-usain-bolt-has-no-fairytale-ending/news-story/e90514a60f1f5de0c429fd51ce4d7db3">greatest athlete</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/aug/05/bolts-time-runs-out-greatest-athletics-champion-of-them-all">greatest champion</a> of all time.</p>
<p>While it wasn’t quite the fairy tale ending in <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/more-sports/usain-bolt-runs-his-final-ever-100m-final/news-story/2b2f8df4ebefb0aed1b0538c369b150c">Bolt’s final race</a> – he came third and claimed only bronze in the 100m final at the IAAF World Athletics Championships in London – his overall career results are certainly fit for the record books.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The final sprint race for Usain Bolt saw him bring in the bronze.</span></figcaption>
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<p>He is the fastest runner in history over 100m and 200m, as well as winning the “<a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-20/rio-2016-usain-bolt-claims-triple-triple-at-olympics/7769198">triple triple</a>” at the Olympics: gold in the 100m, 200m and 4x100m relay at three consecutive games, in Beijing, London and Rio. (The Beijing 2008 4x100m relay gold <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/jan/25/usain-bolt-jamaica-olympic-relay-gold-nesta-carter-drugs">was later revoked</a> after his team mate Nesta Carter was disqualified for failing a drug test.)</p>
<p>Bolt also held the world championship title over these distances between 2009 and 2015, with the exception of <a href="http://www.bbc.com/sport/athletics/14698558">one false start in the 100m</a> in 2011. </p>
<p>But is the Jamaican athlete the greatest of all time, as is <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/olympics/we-name-the-greatest-athletes-of-all-time-in-the-wake-of-usain-bolts-remarkable-feats-at-rio-olympics/news-story/65b3f82a2e13c88d14a3104929419df3">often claimed</a>? </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-secret-to-usain-bolts-speed-may-lie-in-synchronicity-37897">The secret to Usain Bolt's speed may lie in synchronicity</a>
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<h2>How to compare athletes</h2>
<p>This is an interesting question given how the athletics world has changed over time. </p>
<p>Athletes today have access to cutting-edge training methods, nutrition plans and <a href="https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/knowledge_base/organised_sport/sports_and_sports_organisations/sport_technology">scientific and technological advancements</a> in equipment such as <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18735617">track composition</a> and <a href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/adventure/sports/g1101/the-evolution-of-athletic-shoe-tech/">footwear</a>. There have also been improvements in measuring an <a href="https://www.sporttechie.com/track-and-field-technology-is-rapidly-advancing/">athlete’s performance during a race</a>. </p>
<p>The performance of past 100m winners could be influenced by a number of things such as race conditions and scientific advantages that were available at the time.</p>
<p>For Bolt to truly deserve the title of “greatest of all time”, we need to compare his results to those of previous athletes over the 100m. We also need to compare his track performances to the fastest times over the other track distances. We can do this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/jqas-2012-0047">using statistics</a>.</p>
<p>If we look at the fastest 100m race times for each year, we see there has been a large decrease in fastest times for both men and women. </p>
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<p>This pattern of decreasing times is observed for race times across all distances. A key reason in the decrease in race times is due to advances in modern training and scientific knowledge. In our statistical model, we include a changing trend in time so we can compare athlete performances in different years. </p>
<p>We also need to include adjustments in our statistical model for environmental and political factors that influence the population from which athletes are. During World War I and World War II, for example, the pool of athletes was depleted by men away fighting for their country.</p>
<p>The statistical model that we used, that includes both the trend in time and adjustment for population influences, is called a <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Weibull_distribution">Weibull distribution</a>.</p>
<p>This distribution is perfect for calculating the probability of rare events occurring in a given year, such as the fastest race times, and is ideal for estimating the probability of breaking world records.</p>
<h2>Crunch the numbers</h2>
<p>We use this distribution to model the fastest race times each year over the distances 100m, 200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m, 5000m and 10,000m. Using the statistical properties of the distribution, we can then rescale to compare different athletes’ performances over different distances. This means we can answer the question: is Usain Bolt the greatest athlete of all time?</p>
<p>The top 10 rankings from the statistical model are given below. These rankings account for the advantage of racing in different years and account for performances over different distances. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/e5b0u/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="466"></iframe>
<p>Bolt is the world’s fastest man of all time over 100m and 200m but the title of world’s greatest athlete goes to <a href="https://www.biography.com/people/lee-evans-38545">Lee Evans</a> of the United States, who broke the world record in the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/lee-evans">mens 400m at the Olympics in 1968</a> in Mexico City.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sBQdA5CbSFM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Lee Evans wins the race and a new world record.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For women, the greatest athlete of all time is <a href="https://www.biography.com/people/florence-joyner-9542053">Florence Griffith-Joyner</a> of the United States for her performance in the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2012/apr/11/olympic-florence-griffith-joyner-seoul">100m in the US Olympic Trials in 1988</a>. Her records for both 100m and 200m remain unbroken today.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1cDjB/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="466"></iframe>
<p>Griffith-Joyner’s 100m world record time of 10.49s was suspected to be wind-assisted. But she also ran the second- and third-fastest official times in history for the women’s 100m, at 10.61s and 10.62s, so the title is well deserved.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Florence Griffith-Joyner, also known as ‘Flo Jo’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The study of extremes</h2>
<p>All this number crunching might seem like just a bit of fun, but statistical modelling of minima and maxima is actually really important and commonly used in fields of engineering, finance and earth sciences.</p>
<p>For example, we use distributions like this one to model the wettest day of the year and estimate the amount of rainfall we expect on average once every 100 years – the 1-in-100-year prediction.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-was-the-sydney-storm-once-in-a-century-40824">Explainer: was the Sydney storm 'once-in-a-century'?</a>
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</em>
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<p>This allows us to build infrastructure to cope with extreme rainfall events, like drainage and levee banks, and protect against rainfall events that we may not have even seen yet.</p>
<p>But the statistical modelling also gives us a useful method of checking to see if claims of athletic greatness or champion uphold to scrutiny of the numbers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate R Saunders receives scholarship funding from the ARC through the Laureate Fellowship FL130100039, top funding from CSIRO and is a student with the Australian Centre of Excellence in Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers (ACEMS).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alec G Stephenson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Jamaican Usain Bolt is often hailed as the greatest athlete of all time. But when you crunch the numbers, his name doesn’t come top of the list.Kate R Saunders, PhD Student, The University of MelbourneAlec G Stephenson, Senior Data Scientist, Data61Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/638002016-08-17T01:38:30Z2016-08-17T01:38:30ZDon’t run (and don’t laugh): The little-known history of racewalking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134176/original/image-20160815-13003-1oda60r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Racewalkers turn a corner – keeping one foot on the ground – during the women's 20-km event at the 2012 London Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/maureen_barlin/7772813382/in/photolist-cQRGBQ-pgzaqe-pgP7Jf-oZmkBC-pePjQW-pgzArg-oZmRAn-q1eNxw-pgzs2R-obyYzb-ooaLNH-rzzwjV-ri6VWd-pePBS1-pgQZE4-ooqApC-kHoZFc-pgQY2V-5HKxt3-oZnjbh-dwyBkT-oZmF5n-o3kA46-q1e5WJ-oZiNUi-oos8YR-ouPpAx-or2GbE-8BxoH3-oZjNVX-ouPx8B-nLacdt-ot4B62-rzEYXZ-q38gWw-peM6bL-aUcmte-oZmFYj-oZmrEj-ot3eAN-pgR8xt-aUc8av-kHomRT-pv1wsF-pgMfi7-pgRyBg-aUckUp-a9eDYP-oZjXP9-a9emYt">Maureen Barlin/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While it was a huge sporting event in the United States in the years after the Civil War and was an early Olympic event, racewalking has been regarded for decades as something of a joke – at least in America. An episode of the sitcom “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HUxbnadlIz4">Malcolm in the Middle</a>” was devoted to poking fun at it. The NCAA doesn’t hold a racewalking championship. Sports broadcaster Bob Costas once <a href="http://www.nbcolympics.com/news/nbcolympics-interviews-bob-costas">compared it</a> to a contest to see who could whisper the loudest.</p>
<p>Still, racewalking is an Olympic event, with three medal events held at every Summer Games – and each of the golds counting just as much as the ones that adorn the neck of Michael Phelps. </p>
<p>Today, the races contested at the Olympics are 20 kilometers for both men and women and a 50-kilometer race just for men. The 20-kilometer men’s race was won on August 12 by China’s <a href="http://www.nbcolympics.com/news/chinas-zhen-wang-wins-20km-race-walk">Wang Zhen</a> with a time of 1 hour, 19 minutes, 14 seconds – a 6:20 mile pace that would win a fair number of 5-kilometer running races in the United States. The other two events take place August 19.</p>
<p>It may look odd, but racewalking has an interesting past and a controversial present, along with quirky rules that make it unique among track and field events. </p>
<h2>And the crowd goes wild for pedestrianism</h2>
<p>The precursor to racewalking was a 19th-century sport with the aptly Victorian name “pedestrianism.” </p>
<p>Journalist Matthew Algeo, who wrote <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00IQY2PVO/ref=dp-kindle-redirect?_encoding=UTF8&btkr=1#navbar">a book on pedestrianism</a>, describes how walking contests in which competitors kept going for hundreds of miles over the course of many days were a popular attraction in late 19th-century America.</p>
<p>Algeo writes that competitive walking had many of the attributes we associate with major sports today: crowded arenas, big purses for the winners, gambling and even some eyebrow-raising performance enhancers. (Champagne, for instance, was seen as a restorative and was a preferred drink among competitors.)</p>
<p>As track and field became an organized sport in England toward the turn of the century, racewalking was one of the events. It made its first Olympic appearance in 1904 as part of the all-around, or decathlon, championship. Racewalking was its own event at <a href="http://www.racewalkingassociation.org.uk/PottedHistory.html">the 1908 London Games</a> and, for men, has been held at the current distances since 1956. Winners have come from England, Italy, Mexico, Russia and Spain, to name a few.</p>
<h2>Why does it look like that?</h2>
<p>Let’s face it: What makes racewalking stand out is not just that the competitors are walking, but how they are walking – a swiveling motion that, to some, can seem about as nerdy as shooting a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tU88dxJKTHI">basketball free throw underhanded</a>. </p>
<p>The reason racewalkers look as they do is a result of the two key rules of the sport. </p>
<p>The first is that, as viewed by the human eye, one foot must be touching the ground at all times. After all, that’s what makes walking walking. When people run, there’s a moment when both feet are off the ground. </p>
<p>The second, slightly more confusing rule is that the front leg must not bend <a href="http://racewalk.com/howTo/basicTechnique.php">until it has gone under the body</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gzgy1jY_Ukw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The one-mile 2014 boys racewalking national championship.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After that, the racewalker may bend the leg, “otherwise you’d be walking like you were on a pair of stilts,” said Tom Eastler, a highly regarded racewalking coach from Maine and the author of a <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Racewalking-Fun-Tom-Eastler/dp/1934452076">children’s book</a> on the sport.</p>
<p>Judges, unaided by replay, watch the competitors in action to make sure they are following the rules. In international competitions, if a walker is deemed to be in violation, a judge will issue the walker a red card. Three red cards and the walker gets disqualified. </p>
<p>This can create tension at the end of a race, even if the result seems well in hand. At the 2000 Summer Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia’s Jane Saville <a href="http://corporate.olympics.com.au/aocMedia/video/B4580B80-2FB2-11E3-A7D0005056A37760">was disqualified</a> just moments from winning the gold medal.</p>
<p>The reason? Two feet off the ground.</p>
<h2>Drugs and jokes cause a headache</h2>
<p>These days, getting anywhere near the podium in an Olympic racewalk takes an incredible effort.</p>
<p>Top athletes in the 20-kilometer race, for instance, will put in 100 miles to 125 miles of distance work in a week, with drills focused on technique and speed work thrown in the mix, said Dave McGovern, one of America’s top racewalking coaches and a former national champion. (McGovern boasts a personal best of walking a mile in six minutes even.) </p>
<p>Elite competitors actually have the same cadence rate – meaning strides per minute – as top-tier 800-meter runners, McGovern told me.</p>
<p>Racewalking also has been forced to come to grips with same scourge facing the rest of track and field: performance-enhancing drugs.</p>
<p>Italian racewalker and 2008 50-kilometer gold medalist Alex Schwazer lost his final appeal on an eight-year ban for steroid use <a href="http://bigstory.ap.org/article/55bae629f1b140f58ec586b4c8a6fae7/some-racewalkers-cloud-doping-most-frustrating">just a day before last week’s race</a>. And even though Russia’s been a dominant player in racewalking dating back to the Soviet era, no Russian competitors were in this year’s 20-kilometer field: The International Association of Athletics Federations banned the country’s track athletes from the Rio Olympic Games because of a state-sponsored doping program.</p>
<p>Such problems are an added burden to racewalkers, who already have to put up with smirks, chuckles and a decidedly unhip spot in pop culture. Example: A few years ago, someone posted on the forum of the website Let’s Run <a href="http://www.letsrun.com/forum/flat_read.php?thread=4411132">posing the question</a>: “Anyone think RACE WALKING is cool?”</p>
<p>To McGovern, that’s unfair. </p>
<p>“Good runners respect racewalking,” he said in a message via Facebook. “As long as we avoid training courses that veer near junior high schools, we generally don’t get much verbal abuse. The vast majority of comments are positive when we train where runners train because they recognize how fast we’re moving.</p>
<p>"Besides, when you do it properly it doesn’t look weird! It looks athletic,” he added. “I think it looks <em>a lot</em> less weird than a swimmer doing the breast stroke.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63800/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Affleck is a lifelong distance runner, having competed at everything from the 400 meters to the Boston Marathon. At one time, he was a USATF Cetrified Level One coach. He's never racewalked. </span></em></p>Racewalking has been part of the Olympic Games since 1904, but gets little respect in the United States. That might change if Americans knew a little more about it.John Affleck, Knight Chair in Sports Journalism and Society, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/550932016-02-24T19:01:15Z2016-02-24T19:01:15ZThe mysterious biomechanics of riding – and balancing – a bicycle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112735/original/image-20160224-18284-pk3lrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Easy to remember how to do, hard to figure out how it's working.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/robbertholf/20644312269">Rob Bertholf</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1174&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1174&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112625/original/image-20160223-16422-1qd5kbj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1174&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Man on a velocipede, circa 1870.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/state_library_south_australia/14142359224">State Library of South Australia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Humans have been riding bicycle-like machines for <a href="http://yalebooks.com/book/9780300120479/bicycle-history">close to 200 years</a>, beginning with the Draisine or “velocipede” in 1817. </p>
<p>While riding and balancing a bicycle can seem simple and effortless, the actual control process used by a human rider is <a href="http://doi.org/10.1080/00423114.2013.793365">still somewhat of a mystery</a>. Using mathematical equations, researchers have explained how a <a href="http://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2007.1857">bicycle without a rider can balance itself</a> and have identified the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201959">bicycle design features critical</a> for that to happen.</p>
<p>However, the stability – that is, the ability to remain balanced – of a bicycle <em>with</em> a rider is more difficult to quantify and describe mathematically, especially since rider ability can vary widely. My colleagues and I brought expert and novice riders into the lab to investigate <a href="http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149340">whether they use different balancing techniques</a>.</p>
<h2>The physics of staying upright on a bicycle</h2>
<p>A big part of balancing a bicycle has to do with controlling the center of mass of the rider-bicycle system. The center of mass is the point at which all the mass (person plus bicycle) can be considered to be concentrated. During straight riding, the rider must always keep that center of mass over the wheels, or what’s called the base of support – an imaginary polygon that connects the two tire contacts with the ground.</p>
<p>Bicycle riders can use <a href="http://doi.org/10.1080/00423114.2013.793365">two main balancing strategies</a>: steering and body movement relative to the bike. Steering is critical for maintaining balance and allows the bicycle to move to bring the base of support back under the center of mass. Imagine balancing a broomstick on one hand – steering a bicycle is equivalent to the hand motions required to keep the broomstick balanced. Steering input can be provided by the rider directly via handlebars (steering torque) or through the self-stability of the bicycle, which arises because the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2007.1857">steer and roll of a bicycle are coupled</a>; a bicycle leaned to its side (roll) will cause a change in its steer angle.</p>
<p>Body movements relative to the bicycle – like leaning left and right – have a smaller effect than steering, but allow a rider to make balance corrections by shifting the center of mass side to side relative to the bicycle and base of support.</p>
<p>Steering is absolutely necessary to balance a bicycle, whereas body movements are not; there is no specific combination of the two to ensure balance. The basic strategy to balance a bicycle, as noted by Karl von Drais (inventor of the Draisine), is to steer into the undesired fall.</p>
<h2>Newbies versus pros</h2>
<p>While riders have been described using mathematical equations, the equations are not yet useful for understanding the differences between riders of different ability levels or for predicting the stability of a given rider on a given bicycle.</p>
<p>Therefore, the goal of my colleagues’ and my <a href="http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149340">recent work</a> was to explore the types of control used by both novice and expert riders and to identify the differences between the two groups. In our study, expert riders identified themselves as skilled cyclists, went on regular training rides, belonged to a cycling club or team, competed several times per year, and had used rollers for training indoors. Novice riders knew how to ride a bicycle but did so only occasionally for recreation or transportation and did not identify themselves as experts.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112525/original/image-20160223-16447-1etqb15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A subject riding the instrumented bicycle on training rollers in our experimental setup.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149340">Cain SM, Ashton-Miller JA, Perkins NC (2016) On the Skill of Balancing While Riding a Bicycle. PLoS ONE 11(2): e0149340</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We conducted our experiments in a motion capture laboratory, where the riders rode a typical mountain bike on rollers. Rollers constrain the bicycle in the fore-aft direction but allow free lateral (left-right) movement. They require a bicycle rider to maintain balance by pedaling, steering and leaning, as one would outdoors.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1202&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1202&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1202&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112762/original/image-20160224-21372-1j6x2ww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A subject preparing to ride the instrumented bicycle in our experimental setup.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stephen Cain</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We mounted sensors and used a motion capture system to measure the motion of the bicycle (speed, steering angle and rate, roll angle and rate) and the steering torque used by the rider. A force platform underneath the rollers allowed us to calculate the lateral position of the center of mass relative to the base of support; that let us determine how a rider was leaning.</p>
<p>We found that both novice and expert riders exhibit similar balance performance at slow speeds. But at higher speeds, expert riders achieve superior balance performance by employing smaller but more effective body movements and less steering. Regardless of speed, expert riders use smaller and less varying steering inputs and less body movement variation.</p>
<p>We conclude that expert riders are able to use body movements more effectively than novice riders, which results in reducing the demand for both large corrective steering and body movements.</p>
<h2>Mysteries remain</h2>
<p>Despite our work and that of others in the field, there is still much to be learned about how humans ride and balance bicycles. Most research, including ours, has been limited to straight line riding, which only makes up a fraction of a typical bicycle ride.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112737/original/image-20160224-16444-t71c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Out in the world, expert riders know how to control the bike with subtle movements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/blmoregon/20552483755">Bureau of Land Management Oregon and Washington</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our work reveals measurable differences between riders of different skill levels. But their meaning is unclear. Are the differences linked to a higher risk of crashing for the novice riders? Or do the differences simply reflect a different style of control that gets fine-tuned through hours and hours of training rides?</p>
<p>Ideally, we would like to identify the measurements that quantify the balance performance, control strategy and fall risk of a rider in the real world. </p>
<p>With such measurements, we could identify riders at high risk of falling, explore the extent to which bicycle design can reduce fall risk and increase balance performance, and develop the mathematical equations that describe riders of different skill levels.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55093/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Cain receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development & Engineering Center.</span></em></p>What does it take to keep a bicycle upright and moving, without crashing?Stephen Cain, Assistant Professor of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/385302015-06-10T10:17:40Z2015-06-10T10:17:40ZTo excel in youth sports, kids need couch time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/84012/original/image-20150604-3387-ncq2s6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Does training relentlessly and regularly lead to greatness?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=143344159121521050000&search_tracking_id=eu_LRgBcADdY4V0kBpuO2w&searchterm=young%20athletes&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=282272846">"Nine" via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…</em></p>
<p>Charles Dickens could easily have been writing about the present state of sports. The speed, strength and explosiveness of the modern athlete is mind-blowing. </p>
<p>Accordingly, there’s a growing enthusiasm (and a huge market) for training, teaching and supporting young athletes. Elite sports performance and medicine services are available to all with a credit card, and if a family desires, a passionate and competent coach and advisor can be hired.</p>
<p>This may not be a good thing. Forget the popular (yet very real) concern that pushing a young athlete toward athletic excellence can lead to burnout, dropout and even mistreatment or abuse. </p>
<p>Surprisingly, research has shown that encouraging youth to achieve athletic excellence can also lead to young athletes <em>not</em> fulfilling their athletic potential. </p>
<h2>Out-of-balance bodies and minds</h2>
<p>Many are now familiar with <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Ym0clGUAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">Anders Ericsson’s findings</a> that ten years or 10,000 hours of deliberate practice are key to achieving mastery. Likewise, Angela Duckworth’s <a href="https://sites.sas.upenn.edu/duckworth/pages/research">concept of “grit”</a> as a predictor of success in classroom settings has begun to seep into discussions outside of the walls of academia. </p>
<p>In both cases, the message is loud and clear: train relentlessly and regularly and greatness is within grasp. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, this is an example of society and sports being deaf to nuance.</p>
<p>Failure to understand Ericsson’s entire conception of deliberate practice can make much athletic striving time ill-spent. Even if one is fortunate enough to have found excellent coaches and a sufficient number of competitive opportunities, striving toward excellence requires regular rest. </p>
<p>Physical and mental breaks during practice sessions, throughout seasons, and over the course of the year are necessary for an athlete to rebuild and return to play stronger and stronger. In the realm of physical conditioning, <a href="http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2008/05000/Recovery_From_Training__A_Brief_Review__Brief.49.aspx">the science of recovery is well documented</a> and continues to be studied; in many regards, it’s seen as something that can be managed and monitored by teams of sport scientists. </p>
<p>In terms of mental rest in sport, the science is less robust, but its importance has been <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413200290103473">noted in examination of elite athletes</a> for quite some time. Neuroscientist Vincent Walsh has been outspoken about the growing body of evidence showing mental breaks in our days are key to performance and creativity. </p>
<p>Failure to sufficiently recover from bouts of training can turn into <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/23247672">overtraining syndrome</a>, a state of physical and mental exhaustion that persists even after periods of rest. Poor performance and depressed mood states can be exhibited because the entire body has been jarred so significantly out of homeostasis. </p>
<p>Yet despite a wealth of evidence showing the consequences of overtraining, warning signs go relatively unheeded. It’s quite rare for an athlete to hear, “Great job sitting on the couch today, getting away from the playing field, and thinking about something other than sports.” </p>
<p>In competitive sports, rest doesn’t seem gritty and it’s rarely praised, making the wisdom behind it slow to gain traction.</p>
<h2>Messages sent versus messages received</h2>
<p>Only a small part of communication is what’s actually said out loud; nonverbal messages carry huge weight. </p>
<p>Parents regularly say, “I want the best for my child” and can be heard musing, “I will give my kid every opportunity possible.” These are loving parental desires, but what are the costs if one is not careful?</p>
<p>Kids are exceptionally adept at reading into the actions of their parents and coaches, who send powerful messages in the decisions they make and the opportunities they offer. </p>
<p>For young athletes, are “opportunities” supportive? Or can they cause undue stress? </p>
<p>The parent regularly says, “Just try your best and I’ll be proud.” But how are kids supposed to react when they notice the multiple team registrations, the checks written to private coaches, the off-field conditioning work, the visits to the sports medicine clinic and the hiring of the sport psychology consultant? </p>
<p>Most likely, they think: “This is a really big deal. I better not blow it.” </p>
<p>“Support,” then, can inadvertently turn into stress, which can stunt the growth of a young athlete on – and sometimes off – the playing field.</p>
<p>There’s another potential pitfall when providing a range of opportunities and support systems: it can actually mitigate challenges. </p>
<p>A young athlete who has the “best” equipment and is always is on the “best” team with the “best” coach fails to develop perhaps the most important athletic skill: the ability to thrive when challenged. Providing everything for a young athlete does not allow the softer skills of perseverance and resilience to thrive. Just as psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470514498.ch12/summary">found</a> in the early 1990s, individuals who are both challenged and supported thrive at the highest levels. Too often in our bountiful sporting society, smothering support does not allow the young athlete to fully experience healthy challenges.</p>
<p>The children of parents who pursue every avenue of athletic training and development are not always primed to reach their athletic potential, nor is likelihood of lifelong physical activity improved.</p>
<p>Hours of practice and participation in hyper-focused sports environments can saddle athletes with unnecessary expectations, where mistakes on the playing field are failures and stumbles feel like letting coaches and families down. At the end of the day, sports is “play.” When adults enthusiastically provide these opportunities but remove “play” from the equation, something is amiss.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is part of our youth sports series. To read the others in the series, click <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/youth-sports">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/38530/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Naylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents want to simultaneously support and push their kids. But when it comes to sports, this mentality can backfire in subtle ways.Adam Naylor, Clinical Assistant Professor of Counseling Psychology and Applied Human Development, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/389732015-05-18T20:02:47Z2015-05-18T20:02:47ZGames by numbers: machine learning is changing sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81809/original/image-20150515-25444-1bbhyb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=310%2C0%2C2253%2C1328&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's hard for a human to keep an eye all the players' performance in any game, such as this typical AFL match at the MCG in Melbourne. So let the machines do all the work.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sufw/5917585651/">Flickr/Sascha Wenninger </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The drive to improve performance means elite sport is inundated with data from wearable technologies such as GPS, computer vision and match statistics.</p>
<p>So professional clubs are constantly on the lookout for tools that can help turn these data into usable and meaningful information.</p>
<p>One such tool gaining popularity is machine learning. Put simply, machine learning is a form of artificial intelligence, whereby computers are able to learn without being explicitly programmed by a human operator.</p>
<p>What makes machine learning algorithms so useful is their ability to be trained on large pre-existing data sets. These trained algorithms can be used to identify potentially complex yet meaningful patterns in the data, which then allows us to predict or classify future instances or events. </p>
<p>Machine learning approaches often outperform traditional statistical techniques, which are largely incapable of accounting for the dynamic and almost random patterns in so much of the data obtained from sport.</p>
<h2>A game of footy</h2>
<p>Consider a typical game of elite Australian Rules football. During any match played in the Australian Football League (AFL), sources of information relating to player movement and performance are available in near real time to coaches and support staff.</p>
<p>Despite access to this information, the ability of coaches to observe, process and evaluate the actions of 18 players on different areas of the field is limited. And that doesn’t even include the opposition. As humans, coaches simply do not possess the capacity to undertake such a task successfully.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.jnd.org/about.html">Don Norman</a> summarises this predicament in his book <a href="http://www.jnd.org/books/things-that-make-us-smart-defending-human-attributes-in-the-age-of-the-machine.html">Things That Make Us Smart: Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine</a>. He says the power of the unaided human mind is overrated. This is due partly to our inability to overcome inherent limitations in areas such as memory and conscious reasoning:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Human memory is well tuned to remember the substance and meaning of events, not the details […] Humans can essentially attend to only one conscious task at a time. We cannot maintain attention on a task for extended periods. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the sporting context, coaches are therefore limited with respect to their cognitive abilities. This can only be improved by developing external aids, such as machine learning, to enhance these skills.</p>
<p>Suppose we consider a short five-second period of play within an AFL match, featuring multiple players each undertaking different movement patterns and performing various skilled actions.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gF6c7Eex0Yc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Try and keep your eye on all the action in the grand final highlights.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This brief section of the game could potentially be construed differently by multiple coaches working within a single team, depending on <a href="http://us.macmillan.com/thinkingfastandslow/">cognitive biases</a>, including previous experience, prejudices and individual personality traits.</p>
<p>Machine learning thus has a place in providing rapid, objective evidence obtained from data in order to help inform coach decision-making.</p>
<h2>The science in sport</h2>
<p>But what about the scientific evidence for this approach? The peer-reviewed sports science literature is actually full of successful applications of machine learning to sport.</p>
<p>Examples from biomechanics, in particular, show extensive use of machine learning. Notably, pattern recognition algorithms have been developed to identify individual athlete movement sequences in a variety of different sports.</p>
<p>In soccer, machine learning <a href="http://www.disneyresearch.com/publication/assessing-team-strategy-using-spatiotemporal-data/">match analysis</a> has been used to identify the conservative strategies of away teams competing in the English Premier League. It has also been used to discover the <a href="http://eprints.qut.edu.au/78738/">optimal methods</a> by which teams obtain a shot on goal, or return the ball in tennis. </p>
<p>Machine learning has been used to predict the behaviour of individual athletes, <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/uwic/ujpa/2012/00000012/00000001/art00008">such as cricket bowlers</a> in the Indian Premier League, and <a href="http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/june2011/full/rad6.pdf">team performance in the Asian Games</a> based on factors varying from athlete age and experience levels to national social-cultural factors.</p>
<p>Researchers from the University of Coimbra, in Portugal, <a href="http://www.jssm.org/research.php?id=jssm-10-458.xml">successfully implemented</a> a suite of machine learning algorithms to identify talented basketball players based on their psychological characteristics and practice history.</p>
<p>A team from Deakin University <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1440244014001455">developed a set of rules</a> to explain the physical characteristics most strongly linked with Australian Rules football draft success.</p>
<p>A body of work focusing on automated classification of human movements including kicking, running and jumping using wearable technologies has also emerged.</p>
<p>Machine learning is also being used to help predict the <a href="http://sharp.cs.ucl.ac.uk/work.html">return-to-play time</a> for soccer players following an injury and in selecting the appropriate <a href="http://js.sagamorepub.com/ajess/article/view/2803">balance of batsmen and bowlers</a> in a cricket match. </p>
<h2>Machine learning vs human coaching</h2>
<p>Improvements in technology and machine learning continue to progress the field towards artificial intelligence and real-time use in sport. But is it possible that computers will ever replace the coach?</p>
<p>Well, in some ways, they already have. Many elite sporting clubs already set specific thresholds for athletes during training. These are based on perceived reductions in performance or increases in injury risk if this threshold is overcome.</p>
<p>The judgement on what is appropriate treatment of the athlete is made solely by a computer-based analysis of data collected in the field. For the moment, at least, the decision on whether to act or not on this information still remains with the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042814052720">coach</a>.</p>
<p>But in future that may well change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/38973/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Robertson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When it comes to keeping an eye on all the action in sport a coach can only see so much. But machine learning can crunch all the data and look for improvements.Sam Robertson, Senior Research Fellow Victoria University/Western Bulldogs, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/359622015-01-21T19:10:16Z2015-01-21T19:10:16ZBeyond the line call: how Hawk-Eye can improve performance<p>The evolution of professional tennis has always been linked to the changing technology of the day. For example, the decline of the wooden racket lead to the whole new power-based style of play we enjoy today.</p>
<p>One of the more recent introductions to have significant impact is <a href="http://www.hawkeyeinnovations.co.uk/page/sports-officiating/tennis">Hawk-Eye</a> ball tracking.</p>
<p>It’s certainly transformed the way we watch and adjudicate tennis. But can we go further and utilise this truly awesome technology to improve the on-court performance of the competitions elite?</p>
<h2>The traditional use of Hawk-eye</h2>
<p>Hawk-Eye is a computer vision based technology that allows the trajectory of a ball and players to be tracked purely from video. The advantage of such a system is that it’s completely un-intrusive, you don’t need to put sensors in anything.</p>
<p>It’s mostly used to make line-calls, as a back-up when players object to the call made by a lines referee. It’s also used by broadcasters to provide a general overview of a game, set or match.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XhQyVnwBXBs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Its introduction has seen <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-Hawk-eye-for-detail-how-accurate-is-electronic-judging-in-sport-8136">some debate</a>, but it was nonetheless approved for use at tour level by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) in 2005, after the 2004 US Open Women quarter-final – when Serena Williams lost to Jennifer Capriati – was marred by a series of <a href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/open/2004-09-08-replay_x.htm">dubious line calls.</a>.</p>
<p>In this application, it solves a real problem. It eliminates the human element of line-calling, Hawk-Eye doesn’t feel pressure on big points. It doesn’t come cheap, <a href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2011-03-09-bnp-paribas-open-hawkeye_N.htm">one report from 2011</a> putting the cost between US$60,000 and US$70,000 per court to operate, <a href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/01/08/tech-israel-tennis-idUKL6N0U20TX20150108">another report this year</a> put that figure at US$100,000 a court.</p>
<p>It’s hard to argue the cost isn’t worth it just for line calls, it would be hard to see us going back to a world where we don’t use ball tracking. But Hawk-Eye isn’t just good for line-calls. </p>
<h2>More to Hawk-Eye than line calls</h2>
<p>Fans only ever really see the brief interaction between ball and court, but Hawk-Eye sees far more.</p>
<p>By collecting data over the entire trajectory of every shot played on Australian show-courts this summer, Tennis Australia (TA) is amassing richer data sources than ever.</p>
<p>At this year’s Australian Open, Hawk-Eye based insights as a tool for pre-match opposition analysis will be greater utilised than ever before by Tennis Australia’s High-Performance unit.</p>
<p>Hawk-Eye has been deployed on multiple courts at the Australian Open and AO series events (Brisbane and Sydney for example) since 2007, and as such we have tracking data for some 250 tennis players.</p>
<p>Thanks partially to funding from an Australian Institute of Sport (<a href="http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais">AIS</a>) grant, an app (like the ones on your favourite smart-phone) has been constructed using <a href="http://www.r-project.org/">open source technologies</a> with Hawk-eye data at its core.</p>
<p>Coaches can log-in from anywhere in the world, and interactivity sort and visualise data, tapping into their unique expertise without the need to consult the performance analysis team every time they want to delve deeper into the data.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Partial typical output of coaching app. º Spread is standard-deviation.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The above shows part of a typical output for the applet. In this case, only serves hit (from right to left) by Rafael Nadal during tie-breaks are selected. We can see clearly in this case where Rafa’s favourite serve to the deuce side is down the middle, rather than to the side.</p>
<p>The app is essentially a “Google for tennis coaches”, a tie breaker if you will. Ever wondered who hits off-forehands faster, Nadal or Roger Federer? (Nadal by 4kmph) Or who gets a higher net-clearance on serves to the advantage side of the court? (Nadal by half a centimeter), or who hits backhands deeper at 30-40? (Federer by 60cm).</p>
<p>These aren’t debates anymore, and TA coaches can definitively answer questions like these and more at the tap of an app. These insights can be used in a multitude of situations, from planning for a grand-slam opponent to goal-setting for developing athletes.</p>
<p>For example, a coach may suspect a developing athlete is too cautious serving on break point 2nd serves. The coach can use the app, on court from a tablet or phone, to quickly derive typical serve speeds under that exact scenario for a multitude of top players.</p>
<p>Such data quickly eliminates any debate that the hypothetical athlete just doesn’t measure up to the competition, and that they should work on that area of their game.</p>
<h2>Moving beyond ‘stats’</h2>
<p>There’s more to analytics than just stats though, much more. Stats are great but they can often be miss-leading and are almost always misinterpreted. (As Homer Simpson so <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PTiBU-1Ji_8">eloquently put it</a>: “You can use facts (stats) to prove anything that’s even remotely true”.)</p>
<p>A growing area of data-science is <a href="http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/machine-learning">Machine Learning</a>, where you quite literally build simple Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms inside computers, which commit large sets of observations to memory and find patterns within, essentially by trial and error.</p>
<p>These algorithms mimic the way we learn, to the extent that one of the most historically successfully algorithms – the artificial neural-network – has structure heavily inspired by that of our own brains.</p>
<p>Machine learning algorithms have been adapted to use Hawk-Eye data in an attempt to uncover trends within matchplay. The result is a “little black book” of potential match-day strategies, which could provide an edge in competition. TA coaches are able to draw on such insights where they see fit as part of the preparation for an opponent.</p>
<p>The system is still very much in development, but has been implemented in some top-level competition. For example, insights derived from data were presented to the player-group prior to Australia’s 2014 Davis cup <a href="http://www.daviscup.com/en/draws-results/tie/details.aspx?tieId=100021096">win over Uzbekistan</a>.</p>
<p>So whether you like it or not, we are heading rapidly into the information age and how we collect and use data is taking over every aspect of our lives.</p>
<p>Sport – and tennis – is no exception.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>See also:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-hawk-eye-for-detail-how-accurate-is-electronic-judging-in-sport-8136">A Hawk-Eye for detail: how accurate is electronic judging in sport?</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35962/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Bane received funding from the Australian Institute of Sport Research into Action Fund (2014). Michael Bane's position is co-funded by Tennis Australia</span></em></p>The evolution of professional tennis has always been linked to the changing technology of the day. For example, the decline of the wooden racket lead to the whole new power-based style of play we enjoy…Michael Bane, Research officer, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/242382014-03-13T06:18:58Z2014-03-13T06:18:58ZAnabolic steroids a serious global health problem amid boom in cosmetic use<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43733/original/7cyvxv72-1394640097.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How many sit-ups you doing then?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A competitive spirit is an indispensable aspect of human life, where it could be argued that a failure to compete only results in participating in a competition to fail. Over a very long period of time, humans have relied <a href="http://www.drugfreesport.com/drug-resources/performance-enhancing-drugs-steroids.asp">on various kinds</a> of performance-enhancing substances. It has been suggested, for example, that the ancient Greeks <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/pf/63532314.html">turned to potions</a> to improve performance. </p>
<p>Today, these substances range from “soft” or legal substances such as energy drinks to “hard” substances such as steroids and amphetamines, and other more “natural” methods, including blood doping to increase the number of rich red blood cells in the bloodstream.</p>
<p>In the exercise or athletic world, anabolic-androgenic steroids or anabolic steroids are a very popular performance-enhancing substance. But over the past 40 years they have increasingly been used for aesthetic or “beauty” reasons. This is what we found in a recent study, <a href="http://www.annalsofepidemiology.org/article/S1047-2797%2814%2900039-8/abstract">published in Annals of Epidemiology</a>, that suggested that 3.3% of the world’s population have used anabolic steroids at least once, most of whom were male (around 6.4% of males and 1.6% of females). </p>
<p>The biggest users were in the Middle East, followed by South America, Europe, North America, Oceania, Africa, and Asia. Use was highest among recreational sportspeople followed by athletes, prisoners and arrestees, drug users, high school students, and non-athletes.</p>
<p>Our finding suggests that use of anabolic steroids is now a serious global public health problem. Not confined to athletes, the spread of their use into the general population means millions of individuals across the world, many of whom have no athletic ambitions, are using them to increase and improve their physical strength and appearance. </p>
<p>A recent Australian survey suggested that two thirds of young men who began injecting drugs in the past three years <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-young-men-using-steroids-but-do-they-know-the-harms-3021">were using steroids</a> (rather than methamphetamine or heroin). </p>
<h2>Previous work</h2>
<p>Anabolic steroids are a group of hormones that include the natural male sex hormone testosterone and a set of synthetic versions. Early scientific forays into the effects of testosterone included one Harvard professor <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2800%2964118-1/fulltext">injecting himself</a> with a “rejuvinating elixr” that included extract from dog and guinea pig testicles in 1889. It wasn’t until the mid-1930s, however, that human testosterone was first “discovered” and then synthesised by Adolf Butenandt and Leopold Ruzicka (independently of each other) in 1939. Both were <a href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1939/butenandt-bio.html">awarded the Nobel Prize</a> for their work.</p>
<p>All anabolic steroids – natural and synthetic – have two essential results: a “muscle building” effect that results in muscle growth, and an androgenic or virilising effect that results in masculinising characteristics such as deepening of the voice. Anabolic steroids increase the production of protein within cells, which decreases body fat as well as increasing muscle growth beyond natural limits.</p>
<p>Steroids are used in medicine for several purposes including the treatment of male <a href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/male-hypogonadism/basics/definition/con-20014235">hypogonadism</a>, a condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone and which can limit the production of sperm. It is also used to treat delayed puberty, enhance appetite and stimulate growth. </p>
<p>Many “steroids” prescribed by medics are not anabolic, but <a href="http://my.clevelandclinic.org/drugs/corticosteroids/hic_corticosteroids.aspx">corticosteroids</a> which have neither anabolic nor addictive potential. But other people who use these steroids for fitness or aesthetic purposes clearly do it outside of these health reasons. </p>
<h2>Spread to general population</h2>
<p>Around the 1960s and 1970s, anabolic steroids were mainly used by elite athletes and bodybuilders motivated by the desire to develop bigger muscles and enhance their athletic performance. In the past three or four decades however, millions of non-competitive athletes such as recreational sportspeople and adolescents have been using them, motivated by the desire to look more attractive. This means their use has spread from the athletic community into the general population. While it has been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15525553">suggested that athletes</a> comprise the smallest group of anabolic users, in our study they were the second biggest. </p>
<p>Until recently, several questions over the global use estimates were largely unanswered. The aim of our study was to estimate the global prevalence of use. Putting together findings from 187 studies (and subject to some limitations such as the paucity of anabolic steroid prevalence research in especially Africa and Asia), we estimate the problem is gradually increasing. Between 1990 and 1999 prevalence was about 2.9% but post 2000, this has risen to 3.2%.</p>
<h2>Harmful effects</h2>
<p>These findings should attract the attention of global public health officials because of the associated serious harmful effects of long-term use. These include high blood pressure, heart attack, stroke, acne and skin infections, liver damage, tendon rupture, premature baldness, stunted bone growth in adolescents, syringe exchange infections such as HIV and hepatitis, and death. There are psychosocial implications too. Users <a href="https://theconversation.com/muscling-up-are-steroids-an-emerging-criminal-threat-21636">can become violent or aggressive</a>, cause mood syndromes, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3062678/">and addiction</a>. </p>
<p>There are also other gender-specific effects. In males, these include low sperm count, shrunken testicles, infertility and growth of breasts. In females, these include roughening of the skin, decreased breast size, deepening of the voice, growth of body hair, changes to the menstrual cycle and enlargement of the clitoris. </p>
<p>It has to be noted that the effects and harms of anabolic use are dose-dependent. So higher and longer term use leads to bigger muscles but more harmful effects. </p>
<h2>Laying down the law</h2>
<p>Since the 1990s there has been increasing legislation to combat the problem. Anabolic steroid use is illegal in the US, the UK, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Portugal, and <a href="http://www.arabnews.com/node/265116">Saudi Arabia</a>. Though the US passed their Anabolic Steroid Control Act in 1990, and Sweden the Act Prohibiting Certain Doping Substances in 1991, other countries have been a bit slower – Norway only banned use in 2013. In many places they are unregulated and can be bought in some pharmacies. </p>
<p>An amendment to the US act in 2004 also added <a href="http://muscleandbrawn.com/are-prohormones-worse-than-steroids/">prohormones</a> to the list of controlled substances. These substances, a kind of precursor to a hormone (rather than a hormone itself), can amplify the effect of existing hormones. </p>
<p>But as the internet makes obtaining substances easy, even if illegal, it’s clear that better ways of dealing with the problem – and the probable harmful effect on population health – will need to be found.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/24238/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dominic Sagoe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A competitive spirit is an indispensable aspect of human life, where it could be argued that a failure to compete only results in participating in a competition to fail. Over a very long period of time…Dominic Sagoe, PhD Research Fellow in Social Psychology, University of BergenLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.