tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/braille-10581/articlesBraille – The Conversation2024-03-22T12:32:20Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259552024-03-22T12:32:20Z2024-03-22T12:32:20ZAn eclipse for everyone – how visually impaired students can ‘get a feel for’ eclipses<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583493/original/file-20240321-24-k7j1j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C1997%2C1398&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A solar eclipse approaching totality. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Total%20Solar%20Eclipse%20Photo%20Gallery/d4f2edfa2e47448980ce303f299063ae?hpSectionId=8053d9e3a7de4b25a8bccd33428f5964&st=hpsection&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=3429&currentItemNo=22">AP Photo/Richard Vogel, File</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people in the U.S. will have an opportunity to witness nearly four minutes of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-would-a-solar-eclipse-look-like-from-the-moon-an-astronomer-answers-that-and-other-total-eclipse-questions-81308">total solar eclipse</a> on Monday, April 8, 2024, as it moves from southern Texas to Maine. But in the U.S., over 7 million people are <a href="https://nfb.org/blindness-statistics">blind or visually impaired</a> and may not be able to experience an eclipse the traditional way. </p>
<p>Of course they, like those with sight, will feel colder as the Sun’s light is shaded, and will hear the songs and sounds of birds and insects change as the light dims and brightens. But much of an eclipse is visual.</p>
<p>We are a <a href="https://scnasaepscor.charleston.edu/contact-us/">planetary scientist</a> and <a href="https://www.edinboro.edu/academics/schools-and-departments/cshp/departments/geosciences/planetarium/director.php">an astronomer</a> who, with funding and support from NASA’s <a href="https://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/">Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute</a>, have created and published a set of <a href="https://sservi.nasa.gov/books/eclipses.html">tactile graphics</a>, or graphics with raised and textured elements, on the 2024 total solar eclipse. </p>
<p>The guide, called “Getting a Feel for Eclipses,” illustrates the paths of the 2017 total, 2023 annular and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/where-when/">2024 total solar eclipses</a>. In a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-would-a-solar-eclipse-look-like-from-the-moon-an-astronomer-answers-that-and-other-total-eclipse-questions-81308">total eclipse</a>, the Moon fully blocks the Sun from Earth view, while during an <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/annular-solar-eclipse">annular eclipse</a>, a narrow ring of sunlight can be seen encircling the Moon. </p>
<p>The tactile graphics and associated online content detail the <a href="https://theconversation.com/solar-eclipses-result-from-a-fantastic-celestial-coincidence-of-scale-and-distance-224113">specific alignment of the Earth, Moon and Sun</a> under which eclipses occur. </p>
<p>To date, we have distributed almost 11,000 copies of this book to schools for the blind, state and local libraries, the Library of Congress and more.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C3%2C2085%2C1553&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the US with three curved lines stretching across, indicating the eclipses of 2024, 2023 and 2017." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C3%2C2085%2C1553&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583257/original/file-20240320-20-10b7nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘The Getting A Feel for Eclipses’ guide helps blind and visually impaired people learn about the eclipse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://sservi.nasa.gov/books/eclipses.html">NASA SSERVI</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why publish a tactile book on eclipses?</h2>
<p>NASA has <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses">lots of explanatory material</a> that helps people visualize and understand rare phenomena like eclipses. But for people with visual impairments, maps and images don’t help. For tactile readers, their sense of touch is their vision. That’s where this guide and our other tactile books come in.</p>
<p>Over <a href="https://nfb.org/blindness-statistics">65,000 students in the U.S.</a> are blind or visually impaired. After working with several of our students who are totally blind, we wanted to find out how to make events like eclipses as powerful for these students as they are for us. We also wanted to help our students visualize and understand the concept of an eclipse. </p>
<p>These aims resulted in the three <a href="https://www.pathstoliteracy.org/tactile-graphics/">tactile graphics</a>, which are physical sheets with textures and raised surfaces that can be interpreted through touch, <a href="https://sservi.nasa.gov/books/eclipses.html">as well as online content</a>. </p>
<p>The first tactile graphic models the <a href="https://theconversation.com/solar-eclipses-result-from-a-fantastic-celestial-coincidence-of-scale-and-distance-224113">alignment of the Earth, Moon and Sun</a>. The second illustrates the phases of an eclipse as the Moon moves in between the Earth and Sun to full totality, and then out of the way. The third includes a map of the continental U.S. that illustrates the paths of three eclipses: the <a href="https://www.weather.gov/pah/TotalSolarEclipse2017">Aug. 21, 2017, total eclipse</a>, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2023/where-when/">Oct. 14, 2023, annular eclipse</a> and the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/where-when/">Apr. 8, 2024, total eclipse</a>. We used different textures to illustrate these concepts.</p>
<p>Each book includes a QR code on the front cover, outlined by a raised square boundary. The code links to <a href="https://sservi.nasa.gov/books/eclipses.html">an online guide</a> that leads the user through the content behind the graphics while also providing background information. With the online content, users may opt to print the information in large font or have it read to them by a device.</p>
<p>Although initially created to assist visually impaired audiences, these books are still helpful resources for those with sight. Some students can see but might learn better when able to explore the tactile parts of the guide while listening to the audio. Often it’s helpful for students to get the same information presented in different styles, with options to read or have the content information read to them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sheet of paper with raised textures labeled Sun, Umbra, Moon and Totality, with three students touching the textures." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583490/original/file-20240321-18-camylh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students at Florida School for the Deaf and Blind in St. Augustine explore tactiles 1 and 2.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Florida School for the Deaf and Blind</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How are the books made?</h2>
<p>We hand-make each book starting by identifying which science concepts the user will likely want to know, and which illustrations can support those concepts.</p>
<p>Once identified, the next step is to create a tactile master, or model, which has one or more raised textures that help to define the science concepts. We pick a set of unique textures to use on the master to signify different items, so the Sun feels different than the Earth. This way, the textures of the graphics become part of the story being shared. </p>
<p>For example, in a model of the Sun’s surface, we use <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/Spanish-moss">Spanish moss</a> to create the dynamic texture of the Sun. In past projects, we’ve used textures like doll hair, sand and differently textured cardboard to illustrate planet features, instruments on spacecraft, fine surface features and more. Then, we add <a href="https://www.afb.org/blindness-and-low-vision/braille/what-braille">Braille labels</a> for figure titles, key features and specific notes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A circle filled with moss." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583492/original/file-20240321-28-ku4w3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The tactile master – Spanish moss – used for the Sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cassandra Runyon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once we’ve finished making the masters and laying out each page, a small family print shop – McCarty Printing in Erie, Pennsylvania – prints the page titles and key feature labels on Brailon, a type of plastic paper. </p>
<p>Once printed, we place the masters and the Brailon sheets on a thermoform Machine, which heats up the sheets and creates a vacuum that forms the final tactile graphics. Then, we return the pages to McCarty Printing for binding. </p>
<h2>Viewing and experiencing the eclipse</h2>
<p>Like fully sighted people, people with partial vision should avoid looking directly at the Sun. Instead, everyone should <a href="https://theconversation.com/total-solar-eclipses-while-stunning-can-damage-your-eyes-if-viewed-without-the-right-protection-221381">use eclipse glasses</a>. If you don’t have eclipse glasses, you can use an indirect viewing method such as a <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/safety/">colander or pinhole projector</a>.</p>
<p>As the eclipse approaches totality, take time to enjoy your surroundings, feel the changes in temperature and light, and note how the animals around you react to the remarkable event using another of your senses – sound.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225955/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Runyon receives funding from NASA's Office of STEM Engagment through the National Space Grant Program and the Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) as well as NASA's Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institure (SSERVI). She is the Director of both the NASA South Carolina Space Grant Consortium and NASA South Carolina EPSCoR program and Vice Chair of the National Council of Space Grant Directors.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Hurd receives funding from the NSF and NASA SSERVI.</span></em></p>Eclipses are rare, fantastic celestial events. Here’s how educators can help visually impaired students enjoy eclipses alongside their sighted peers.Cassandra Runyon, Professor of Geology & Environmental Geosciences, College of CharlestonDavid Hurd, Professor of Geosciences, Pennsylvania Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1296182020-06-22T12:17:12Z2020-06-22T12:17:12ZSelf-driving taxis could be a setback for those with different needs – unless companies embrace accessible design now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341897/original/file-20200615-65942-v457k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C7%2C5282%2C3529&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wheelchair advocates and taxi drivers protest lack of accessibility and surge pricing in New York City on Tuesday, January 19, 2016.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/wheelchair-advocates-joined-by-taxi-and-livery-drivers-news-photo/526663542">Richard Levine/Corbis via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Autonomous vehicles (AVs), like self-driving taxis, continue to garner media attention as industry and political stakeholders claim that they will <a href="https://www.boston.gov/departments/new-urban-mechanics/autonomous-vehicles-bostons-approach">improve safety and access to transportation for everyone</a>. But for people who have different mobility needs and rely on human drivers for work beyond the task of driving, the prospect of driverless taxis may not sound like progress. Unless accommodations are built in to autonomous vehicle designs, companies risk undermining transportation access for the very communities this technology is promising to include.</p>
<h2>The promise</h2>
<p>A January 2020 <a href="https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/2020-02/EnsuringAmericanLeadershipAVTech4.pdf">joint report</a> issued by the National Science and Technology Council and U.S. Department of Transportation paints a bright picture of an autonomous-enabled future. They predict autonomous vehicles will provide “improved quality of life, access and mobility for all citizens.” Replacing the driver with an autonomous system will create safer transportation by removing the “possibility of human error.” </p>
<p>In addition, synchronizing vehicle movement with distance and traffic patterns would not only result in more efficient service, but safer roadway navigation. These advances should mean fewer cars, less traffic, more economical fuel use and increased vehicle availability. </p>
<h2>More than driving</h2>
<p>If done right, autonomous vehicles could improve access to transportation for everyone. But by not accounting for the many other kinds of labor a driver performs, current AVs <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/josephcoughlin/2017/11/30/why-driverless-cars-alone-will-not-solve-transportation-in-older-age/#4fb1310b97ae">may present problems for people with different needs</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341901/original/file-20200615-65942-1rcysmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drivers perform work beyond driving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/142358175@N06/30487138402/">Justice Ender/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For older people, those with disabilities and even individuals in emergency situations, the driver bridges the gap between personal capability and vehicle accessibility.</p>
<p>Drivers help people to and from vehicles, as well as into and out of them. Drivers move and store luggage and mobility equipment like wheelchairs and walkers, and navigate emergency situations like cardiac arrest, allergic reaction or drug overdose.</p>
<p>Yet right now asking an AV interface for assistance would be like asking Siri to help you up if you’ve fallen down. </p>
<h2>Two unequal systems</h2>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/VB9xpUXPr-QC?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjD7_ae04TqAhUmhXIEHXJEBd8Q8fIDMA16BAgKEAQ">1970s and years thereafter</a>, Congress determined that redesigning transportation for accessibility was too costly. Instead they fitted assistive devices to old transportation networks and expected private sector taxi drivers to help. Some did, many didn’t.</p>
<p>Problems of discrimination led to the landmark <a href="https://www.ada.gov/2010_regs.htm">American with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>. The ADA made discrimination based on ability illegal – but access to transportation was still dependent on the driver. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341908/original/file-20200615-65934-xt227m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Taxi access is already problematic due to a two-tiered system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/handicapped-man-in-a-wheelchair-hailing-a-taxi-in-royalty-free-image/675780582">mokee81/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today, cities and companies are still struggling with accessibility. People with different needs remain vulnerable <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-41502984">to the whims and prejudices of the driver</a>. Too often people with different needs are denied <a href="https://ggwash.org/view/68138/without-accommodations-uber-and-lyft-are-leaving-customers-with-disabilities-at-the-curb">assistance or transportation altogether</a>. </p>
<p>It was only in 2016, for instance, that <a href="https://www.boston.gov/departments/disabilities-commission/wav-taxi-cabs-wheelchair-accessible-vehicles">Boston’s taxis</a>, <a href="https://medium.com/@tssurampudi/the-future-of-wheelchair-accessible-transportation-how-uber-and-lyft-and-maybe-waymo-are-8f9f7e9a82d4">Uber and later Lyft</a> began integrating a small number of Wheelchair Accessible Vehicles into their fleets, and other companies have emerged like SilverRide <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/nextavenue/2017/05/15/a-ride-service-geared-to-older-adults/#2f7401624114">offer specialty service</a> for people who are older. </p>
<p>But even with these additions, taxi, Uber and Lyft riders still experience cancellations and longer wait times in cities like <a href="https://ggwash.org/view/68138/without-accommodations-uber-and-lyft-are-leaving-customers-with-disabilities-at-the-curb">Washington, D.C.</a>, <a href="https://www.boston.gov/departments/disabilities-commission/wav-taxi-cabs-wheelchair-accessible-vehicles">Boston</a>, <a href="https://www.sfmta.com/sites/default/files/reports-and-documents/2019/05/tncs_and_disabled_access_report.pdf">Chicago, San Francisco</a> and <a href="https://www.nylpi.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Left-Behind-Report.pdf">New York</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342043/original/file-20200616-23231-1r9hmxt.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 2019 study comparing the wait times for Wheelchair Accessible Vehicles (WAVs) to inaccessible vehicles in New York City. The wait time for Uber WAV was more than two times as long and Lyft WAV was more than five times as long.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">New York Lawyers for the Public Interest, Still Left Behind whitepaper</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While specialized vehicles are a valuable step toward accessible transportation, they also mean more cars on the road. A 2017 study found <a href="https://itspubs.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/themes/ucdavis/pubs/download_pdf.php?id=2752">Uber and Lyft are increasing traffic congestion</a> in cities leading to increases in safety risks, transit times and pollution. To add to the traffic problem, the International Transportation Forum predicts that <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/15cpb_self-drivingcars.pdf">traffic will likely increase even more</a> as autonomous cars occupy the road alongside traditional ones.</p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>AV developers struggle with what accessibility should look like. Some leading AV companies focus on accessibility inside the car. <a href="https://letstalkselfdriving.com/about/mobility-accessibility.html">Waymo</a> and <a href="https://observer.com/2019/07/lyft-self-driving-cars-blind-passengers/">Lyft</a> are working to communicate information to passengers with disabilities. Nissan’s <a href="https://www.caradvice.com.au/803023/nissan-vr-avatar/">Virtual Reality avatars</a> may provide company, comfort and assistance to passengers in need.</p>
<p>Other AV companies approach accessibility by redesigning access. Startup <a href="https://maymobility.com/">May Mobility</a>’s low speed shuttle can <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2019/07/10/may-mobility-reveals-prototype-of-a-wheelchair-accessible-autonomous-vehicle/">deploy a wheelchair ramp</a>. Tesla’s <a href="https://www.tesla.com/modelx">gull wing doors</a> open vertically for easier access and their Smart Summons feature allows drivers to call their car to fetch them.</p>
<p>In my opinion, vehicle specialization should not be the path forward. A wheelchair ramp in one car and Braille in another will increase cars on the road, decrease availability and increase consumer cost. For AVs to fulfill the promise of accessibility and be environmentally efficient, all cars need to be similarly accessible – even if the mechanisms of accessibility are not always in use. This way AVs can more closely mirror the variety of tasks human drivers currently perform and do it reliably, without discrimination. Standard features could include push button or voice activated motorized doors with sliding ramps, an entry space instead of front seats and interior handrails.</p>
<p>A good place to start is for stakeholders to agree on what accessibility needs must be met and treat AV developments as pieces of an accessibility solution rather than separate niche markets racing toward minimum accommodations. The nonprofit research and community equity organization, <a href="https://cal.streetsblog.org/2020/05/04/california-readying-rules-for-automated-vehicle-ride-hailing/">The Greenlining Institute, suggests</a>, in addition to capability, accessibility should also include financial, cultural, technological, logistical, race, gender, age, class and geographic considerations. If autonomous vehicles are developed to handle the messiness and complexity taxi drivers currently deal with, society will be one step closer to real accessibility.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129618/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Lunsford does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In order to create an efficient future transportation system, autonomous vehicles need to accommodate people with different mobility needs.John Lunsford, PhD Candidate in Media, Technology and Society, Cornell UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1232252019-09-15T08:39:39Z2019-09-15T08:39:39ZNew copyright law will benefit South Africans with disabilities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291742/original/file-20190910-190061-16435p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Books should be easily available in accessible formats, like Braille.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa’s current copyright law was enacted 41 years ago. The <a href="http://www.cipc.co.za/files/5913/9452/7970/Copyright_Act.pdf">Copyright Act No. 98 of 1978</a> had no provisions for people with disabilities – and that hasn’t changed in more than four decades.</p>
<p>This means that every time a person who is blind, deaf, partially-sighted, dyslexic, or paralysed needs to access any information, the content has to be converted into an accessible format before they can read and understand it. </p>
<p>Students who have disabilities are <a href="http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/handle/10539/12525">particularly prejudiced and discriminated against</a> in this regard. They do not receive their learning material at the same time as other students. Whether it is a textbook, articles, chapters of books, mathematical problems, PDF documents, or images for study purposes, these have to be converted into an accessible format and often require editing and reformatting too. </p>
<p>Copyright permission has to be obtained before the works can be made accessible via Braille or other accessible formats. Rights-holders do not always respond timeously or at all, which means the students have to wait for their study material in accessible format. Sometimes it doesn’t come at all. They also have to pay high copyright fees for the conversions, which they do not always have in view of their limited budgets or resources. </p>
<p>There are <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/Research%20Coordination%20Monitoring%20and%20Evaluation/6_DHET%20Stats%20Report_04%20April%202018.pdf">thousands of people with disabilities</a> studying at South African universities. It’s crucial that these issues are taken seriously. People with disabilities worldwide battle what has been <a href="http://www.worldblindunion.org/english/news/Pages/The-Treaty-of-Marrakesh.aspx">described</a> as a “book famine”. The “famine” refers to the fact that <a href="http://www.worldblindunion.org/English/news/Pages/Millions-of-People-are-Denied-Access-to-.aspx">less than 10%</a> of published works, such as books and educational materials in developed countries, and less than 1% in developing countries are ever made into accessible formats, such as Braille, large print or audio.</p>
<p>South Africa’s new <a href="https://libguides.wits.ac.za/ld.php?content_id=47021252">Copyright Amendment Bill</a>, which is awaiting President Cyril Ramaphosa’s signature to become law, could help the country take an important step in tackling its own “book famine”. Section 19D of the Bill has a number of provisions for people with disabilities.</p>
<h2>Students’ struggles</h2>
<p>Currently, blind and partially-sighted students have to purchase the printed version of a textbook and then have it converted into Braille by personnel in their Disability Rights Units. </p>
<p>I am a member of the University of the Witwatersrand’s Disability Rights Forum, and have been involved in various disability fora in the higher education sector in the past. Issues of late receipt of study material, and lack of accessible formats being available in bookshops, are common problems experienced by students with disabilities. They would prefer to have textbooks available in an accessible format at the same time and at the same price as sighted students do. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, textbooks are not available in accessible formats in book stores, so students are at a disadvantage right from the start of their school or university lives. Some publishers provide the digital file to university disability rights units to make accessible formats. But this is not done by all publishers. </p>
<p>Another way in which the current law disadvantages blind and visually impaired people is that it prevents them from exercising their rights under “fair dealing”. “Fair Dealing” in Section 12(1) of the existing act allows reproduction for the following purposes, without permission from the rights-owner:</p>
<ul>
<li>Research or private study</li>
<li>Personal or private use</li>
<li>Criticism or review</li>
<li>Reporting current events (e.g. in a newspaper or broadcast)</li>
<li>Judicial proceedings or a report of judicial proceedings</li>
</ul>
<p>Quotation (a fair portion, with proper acknowledgement) and use of works “by way of illustration” for teaching purposes (e.g. in a PowerPoint presentation) is also permitted under fair dealing. </p>
<p>A sighted person can browse, copy and read a chapter of a book or a journal article for personal study, research or personal use. A blind or visually- impaired person would first need to loan the book from the library, then find someone to browse the chapters for them before they can decide what section to use, then find someone to convert that information into an accessible format – all at a cost and delay. </p>
<p>It takes several months and a lot of money to braille a chapter or whole book. There are limited outlets where accessible formats can be done: disability units at universities, the <a href="https://salb.org.za/">SA Library for the Blind</a> and a few printers in South Africa. </p>
<p>Because the current copyright law does not have any exceptions for people with disabilities, people who cannot afford these services will not be able to access that material. </p>
<h2>The Marrakesh Treaty</h2>
<p>South Africa’s Department of Trade and Industry <a href="https://www.thedti.gov.za/parliament/2017/Response_Copyright_AB_Subs.pdf#page=11">has committed</a> to ratifying the Marrakesh Treaty as soon as the Copyright Amendment Bill has been enacted. The treaty was adopted by member states of the World Intellectual Property Organisation in 2013. </p>
<p>The Treaty makes the production and international transfer of specially-adapted books for people with blindness or visual impairments <a href="https://www.wipo.int/marrakesh_treaty/en/">easier</a>. It does this by establishing a set of limitations and exceptions to traditional copyright law. </p>
<p>It’s time for South Africa to catch up. Once it ratifies the Marrakesh Treaty, it will be able to exchange accessible formats across borders. It will also reduce costs and duplication of effort by organisations and individuals who provide services to people with disabilities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Denise Rosemary Nicholson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>South Africa’s new Copyright Amendment Bill could help the country take an important step in tackling its own “book famine”.Denise Rosemary Nicholson, Scholarly Communications Librarian, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/997032018-07-23T14:30:22Z2018-07-23T14:30:22ZSouth Africa’s new higher education disability policy is important, but flawed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228177/original/file-20180718-142423-11yen9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C703%2C485&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Universities should be working to make spaces more accessible for students and staff with disabilities.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa finally has a disability policy that’s specific to the higher education sector. The new <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/SiteAssets/Gazettes/Approved%20Strategic%20Disability%20Policy%20Framework%20Layout220518.pdf">policy framework</a> should be celebrated as an achievement. Its value is that, because it’s specific to the sector, it gives institutions (such as universities) a common vision. It also enables monitoring and evaluation of progress that is context specific.</p>
<p>Australia is one country that’s taken this approach with its <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/disability-standards-education-2005">2005 Disability Standards for Education</a>. Most countries, though, favour more general policies; <a href="https://www.government.se/4a788f/contentassets/6732121a2cb54ee3b21da9c628b6bdc7/oversattning-diskrimineringslagen_eng.pdf">Sweden</a> and <a href="http://app.uio.no/ub/ujur/oversatte-lover/data/lov-20050401-015-eng.pdf">Norway</a> are two examples of this approach.</p>
<p>We have <a href="http://www.journals.ac.za/index.php/sajhe/article/viewFile/1596/760">been critical</a> about the absence of any policy in South Africa and welcome the development. But can a policy document lead to positive change? This is something that South Africans with disabilities will be wondering. Currently, about 7.5% of the country’s population have disabilities; <a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-03-01-59/Report-03-01-592011.pdf">about 20%</a> of that number are enrolled in higher education institutions.</p>
<p>It’s obviously too early to answer this question. But a critical examination of the policy framework – which has been gazetted into law and cannot easily be changed – reveals some concerns. Some of these include funding, the approaches taken to understand disability, how it will be integrated with existing national policies and what support is available to universities trying to implement it. </p>
<h2>The gaps</h2>
<p>The policy framework is intended to help higher education institutions provide sufficient services to students and staff with disabilities. It spells out the challenges around disability issues in South African higher education and the ways the government plans to respond to them.</p>
<p>But there are problems with the document. </p>
<p>For instance, there’s still enough room in the policy for universities to abdicate their responsibility when it comes to things like decent and properly equipped accommodation for students with disabilities. </p>
<p>For example, the framework states that all institutions should make adjustments to enable people with disabilities to be on par with everyone else. But there’s a contradiction. Institutions are not supposed to incur significant expenses when making these adjustments. The reality is that some alterations – like making lecture halls and residences accessible particularly to people in wheelchairs – will cost money.</p>
<p>This will be particularly challenging for South Africa’s poorer, less resourced and rural institutions. The national government will to need to source the bulk of funds for what’s proposed in the policy. Innovative funding mechanisms will be necessary.</p>
<p>And that leads to another issue. The department of education and training is responsible for carrying out most of the initiatives proposed in the framework, including implementation. But a single government department can only do so much. Explicit reference ought to be made to other departments that will help with things like planning, building and sourcing funding.</p>
<p>There’s also no mention of the private sector. That’s an oversight, since industry and businesses should be involved. They could fund some of the work, offer technological innovations to improve the lives of students with disabilities and even offer employment to graduates with disabilities.</p>
<p>Finally, there’s a particularly strange exclusion. There’s no mention of getting students and staff with disabilities involved in implementing the policy. Yet they are the experts on disability, and on how best the policy could be brought to life. They can also be powerful advocates for an end to stigma and discrimination, which is crucial if the policy to really work.</p>
<p>Another issue is that the policy framework views all disabilities as the same. But students with disabilities have varied and unique needs. They require individually tailored services based on what each person requires to be successful. </p>
<p>The risk with the framework is that some students may not get enough tailor made support for their specific disabilities.</p>
<h2>Going forward</h2>
<p>The first big win would be if this policy could be amended to cover some of its shortcomings. It needs to be adjusted if it’s going to improve the lives of students with disabilities and introduce a culture of inclusion and diversity at national, institutional, and individual level.</p>
<p>One change that’s imperative is that it should introduce a minimum threshold of support for each type of impairment. For example, students with visual impairments will be provided with accommodation on campus; those who use guide dogs will be accommodated in a dog-friendly space. They will be provided with study materials on time and in accessible formats like Braille or audio books. Assessments will be fair, offering alternative test methods such as oral exams. </p>
<p>The second area that needs special attention is implementation. It remains to be seen how the policy framework will be implemented, and whether it will bring real change for students with disabilities.</p>
<p>But, in the meantime, universities can take the initiative by looking at smaller systemic changes to improve these students’ lives. Providing reading materials in accessible formats doesn’t cost much money and neither does introducing a culture of inclusion through engaging students and staff with disabilities at the institutional and departmental levels. </p>
<p>The reality is that policy papers alone aren’t enough to engender change. Genuine political will and commitment is required to address disability challenges.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99703/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver Mutanga currently receives funding from the European Commission’s Horizon 2020 under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant number 609020. Previously, Oliver received funding from the SARChl of the DST & Technology and NRF of South Africa grant number 86540.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>I have received a Thuthuka Research Grant from the National Research Foundation in South Africa. I am currently holding an Open Distance Learning Research Support Programme grant from the University of South Africa Research Directorate.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bothwell Manyonga does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>South Africa has a new policy framework for students with disabilities but will it bring real change?Oliver Mutanga, Marie Curie Fellow, Center for International Climate and Environment Research - OsloBothwell Manyonga, Postdoctoral research fellow, University of South AfricaSindile Ngubane, Associate professor, University of South AfricaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/895502018-01-04T11:53:55Z2018-01-04T11:53:55ZHappy birthday, Braille: how writing you can touch is still helping blind people to read and learn<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200775/original/file-20180104-26142-12kwsd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cropped-image-child-using-braille-read-697698181?src=54Vr9Q4lc47GTY1_XBovmA-2-24">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Louis Braille, who was born on January 4, 1809, invented a tactile reading and writing system which transformed the lives of countless people with severe vision impairments or blindness. Braille was blind himself, and first came up with the idea for a form of writing you can read by touch while he was still at school.</p>
<p>Braille code is made up of 64 characters, based on a matrix of six raised dots, which were historically embossed on paper. Different formations of these dots can represent a single letter, a combination of letters or a word. For nearly 200 years, braille code has enabled people with vision impairments around the world to get an education.</p>
<p>But now, technology offers visually impaired people new opportunities to access information. Today’s computers and mobile devices are equipped with speech functions, which can read information aloud for blind users. So <a href="http://www.rnib.org.uk/braille-and-other-tactile-codes-portal-braille-past-present-and-future/future-braille">some are wondering</a> whether braille is still needed.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/9lMpMnzNt44?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Yet based on the research we’ve done at the University of Birmingham’s <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/education/research/victar/index.aspx">Vision Impairment Centre for Teaching and Research (VICTAR)</a>, we would argue that technology and braille are allies, rather than competitors. </p>
<h2>The evolution of braille</h2>
<p>The truth is, technology and braille code have always worked well together. After all, braille’s success is closely linked to the technological developments which enabled the code to be written and mass-produced. Braille writing frames, mechanical writing machines such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkins_Brailler">Perkins brailler</a>, and braille embossers (which are essentially braille printers) have all helped to make braille more accessible today than ever before. </p>
<p>Many products have braille embossed on their packaging, including <a href="https://unseen-beauty.com/2017/05/04/co-op/">groceries</a>. And it is now a legal requirement to have <a href="https://www.pharmabraille.com/pharmaceutical-braille/introduction-to-pharmaceutical-braille/">braille labels on all medicine packaging</a>. Indeed, our own research underpins this <a href="http://impact.ref.ac.uk/CaseStudies/CaseStudy.aspx?Id=38874">international standard</a>.</p>
<p>This trend also reflects the improvements in national and international laws regarding disability. But there is no doubt that better technology has played a crucial role in opening up opportunities for people with vision impairment to enjoy greater access to information. </p>
<p>For example, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display">refreshable braille display</a> arrived on the scene in recent decades. These braille displays link up to computers, and present text in a line of braille characters, which are refreshed as the user reads each line. This portable technology <a href="https://nfb.org/blog/vonb-blog/future-braille-refreshing-how-national-federation-blind-making-refreshable-braille">has transformed</a> the way that many vision impaired people use braille, enabling them to read online information and communications anywhere, anytime. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200715/original/file-20180103-26142-relsj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A refreshing display.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display#/media/File:Plage-braille.jpg">Sebastien.delorme/Wikimedia commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Braille was actually <a href="http://www.duxburysystems.org/downloads/library/history/lorimer.htm">adopted very gradually</a> around the world, and has undergone many changes to its rules and conventions since Louis Braille’s death. The latest technology is merely part of this evolution. Indeed, there’s <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0264619615591866">evidence to suggest</a> that new technologies are actually making access to braille easier, faster and cheaper. </p>
<p>This has certainly been true for participants in our ongoing <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/education/research/victar/research/longitudinal-transitions-study/index.aspx">longitudinal transitions study</a>, who have benefited from using braille at university for following notes during a lecture, or proofreading an essay. It’s one of several vital learning tools; they also wield technology such as computers and smart phones with impressive skill. </p>
<h2>A different threat</h2>
<p>In fact, the real threat to the future of braille stems not from the emergence of new technology, but from a lack of educational resources and guidance. In the UK, as in many other countries around the world, teachers must have a specialist qualification to teach children with vision impairment; and this includes learning how to teach braille as a route to literacy. </p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.rnib.org.uk/knowledge-and-research-hub/research-reports/education-research/lit-review-braille">several UK studies</a> suggest that there is considerable variation when it comes to the way braille is taught. When we reviewed these studies in 2011, we found no evidence to support the view that technology has an adverse effect on the development of literacy through braille. </p>
<p>We did discover that there is limited information for teachers about how to teach braille literacy in mainstream schools. Although more teaching resources have been developed since then, there’s still a great need to redevelop a standardised braille reading test. The <a href="https://www.rnibbookshare.org/cms/nara">previous test was created in the 1990s</a>, but is based upon an outdated print reading test.</p>
<p>In the current climate, where teaching services are under a great deal of <a href="http://www.rnib.org.uk/local-authority-vision-impairment-services-national-picture">financial pressure</a>, we must ensure that braille teaching is not neglected. Louis Braille’s invention remains a potent symbol of disabled people’s independence and empowerment. It is still a hugely important route to literacy for blind people. Braille can and should be used together with other technologies, so that people with vision impairments can access the great wealth of information available in the digital era, and learn independently.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89550/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graeme Douglas has received research funding from a variety of research funding organisations, including: Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), The Nuffield Foundation, Thomas Pocklington Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike McLinden has received funding from a variety of research funding organisations, including: Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), The Nuffield Foundation, Thomas Pocklington Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Hewett has received funding from a variety of research funding organisations, including: Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), The Nuffield Foundation, Thomas Pocklington Trust.</span></em></p>Some thought technology would make braille redundant – but the real threat is a lack of education and resources.Graeme Douglas, Professor of Education, University of BirminghamMike McLinden, Professor of Education, University of BirminghamRachel Hewett, Research Fellow in Disability and Inclusion, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/867632017-11-22T19:06:26Z2017-11-22T19:06:26ZStandardised tests limit students with disability<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193911/original/file-20171109-11989-1t2m8lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For a student who is blind, the obvious test adjustment is providing a braille test if they are proficient in braille.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><hr>
<p><em>Since it was introduced in the 1800s, standardised testing in Australian schools has attracted controversy and divided opinion. In this <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/standardised-testing-series-46310">series</a>, we examine its pros and cons, including appropriate uses for standardised tests and which students are disadvantaged by them.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Educational assessment provides evidence of what students have learned and are able to do. Standardised educational assessments, such as Australia’s <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/">NAPLAN</a>, are often used to judge and compare student achievement. They assess all students on the same content under standardised conditions. </p>
<p>The assumption is that this is fair, providing a <a href="http://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/My_School_FAQs.pdf">level playing field</a> for all students. Frequently, the focus of standardised administration becomes maintaining a test’s “<a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/national-protocols-for-test-administration-2017.pdf?sfvrsn=2">integrity</a>”.</p>
<h2>What is “fair” for students with disability?</h2>
<p>A major challenge in assessment is how to obtain evidence about learning from students with disability. We cannot know how these students are faring with their learning if assessments or tests are structured in ways that create barriers for them. We would not expect a student who is blind, for example, to complete a paper and pencil test. </p>
<p>Fairness can be thought of in <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ133723">two ways</a>. It can mean procedures that treat everyone the same, or it can mean treating individuals according to their needs, to ensure a fair outcome for everyone. </p>
<p>For students with disability, the second way means removing assessment barriers that prevent them from achieving their best results. For a student who is blind, the obvious solution is a braille test, if they are proficient in braille, or a person or technological aid to read the test aloud, and record their response. This is known as an assessment adjustment (in Australia) or accommodation (in the US). </p>
<h2>Reasonable adjustment protocol</h2>
<p>Australian and international <a href="https://www.ag.gov.au/RightsAndProtections/HumanRights/Pages/Australias-Anti-Discrimination-Law.aspx">anti-discrimination law</a> requires that <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1034912X.2013.846467?src=recsys">reasonable adjustments</a> are provided for students with disability to enable <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0969594X.2012.730499">equal access</a> to assessments as other students. </p>
<p>The law also protects the “integrity” of an assessment or certification so that a student with disability is not reported as achieving something that they have not. An underlying assumption of adjustments is that the effect of the disability and assessment barriers are “<a href="http://www.springer.com/us/book/9789400729346">neutralised</a>”, and the students participate in the assessment on the same basis as students without disability.</p>
<p>Standardised test adjustments often <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/national-protocols-for-test-administration-2017.pdf?sfvrsn=2">provide</a> common options. For example, these might be the use of a scribe, reading questions (unless a test of reading) or instructions aloud, a support person, assistive technology, braille form, extra time, and rest breaks. </p>
<p>A major concern that policymakers, teachers, and some students have regarding assessment adjustments is that they should not provide <a href="https://www.ombo.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/9789/HSC-Disability-provisions.pdf">unfair advantage</a> for students with disability. Extra time is one of the most contentious areas. Guidelines are usually stringent. </p>
<p>For example, the NAPLAN guide for students who need testing in braille <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/national-protocols-for-test-administration-2017.pdf?sfvrsn=2">suggests</a> an extra ten minutes per half hour for a writing test, an extra 15 minutes per half hour for a reading test, and an extra 20 minutes per half hour for numeracy, with more time if needed. For other disabilities, the protocol guidelines state:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>it is recommended that no more than five minutes of extra time per half hour of test time be granted; however, in some cases, up to an additional 15 minutes per half hour of published test time may be provided. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Three issues with adjustments for students with disability</h2>
<p>The first important issue is the goal of test adjustments. Do test adjustments, given their restrictions, only need to enable students to get a pass? Are they able to do their best?</p>
<p>The second, equally important, issue is the lack of empirical research evidence regarding the appropriateness of common test adjustments. For example, one <a href="https://nceo.info/Resources/publications/OnlinePubs/archive/AssessmentSeries/MnReport9.html">US study</a> identified optimal time extensions for all students with disability, on average, as one and a half to two times the standard test time. For students with visual or hearing impairments, two to three times the standard time is necessary. This creates another disadvantage for students with disability if the test has to be completed in one sitting. Other researchers have <a href="https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/effects-of-using-modified-items-to-test-studentswith-persistent-a">shown</a> that simplification of standardised tests can improve results for students with disability, without losing validity or reliability. </p>
<p>The third issue is that disability discrimination can take many forms. It also occurs when no adjustments are available and students with disability are not able to participate in assessments. However, students with disability <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10349120802268321">want to be treated the same</a> as other students, even to the extent that some students <a href="https://www.ombo.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/9789/HSC-Disability-provisions.pdf">do not want adjustments</a>. </p>
<p>For example, in international tests such as <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">PISA</a> or <a href="https://www.acer.org/timss">TIMSS</a>, students with intellectual or functional disabilities in mainstream schools who “<a href="http://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2015/2/">would be very difficult or resource intensive to test</a>” are excluded. In the last round of TIMSS in 2015, 2.1% of Australian students in mainstream schools were excluded. However, an <a href="http://www.educationcouncil.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/Accessible%20version%20of%20Improving%20educational%20outcomes%20report.pdf">estimated 18%</a> of Australian students receive some form of adjustment in their education. Potentially, 16% of students who complete these tests may need test adjustments. What adjustments were provided, and how this impacted on their performance, and Australia’s overall performance are not known.</p>
<h2>Three ways standardised testing can be improved for students with disability</h2>
<p>First, research is urgently needed on the impact of test adjustment restrictions on how well students with disability are able to do. </p>
<p>Second, the extent to which conditions such as time restrictions affect all students, not just students with disability, needs to be reconsidered. As US researchers have noted, time and speed of response are not usually identified as components of what is being tested. The <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-04134-001">best solution</a> is to eliminate <a href="http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/standards.aspx">the role of speed</a> in testing. When more time is available, all students do better, but students with disability <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/00346543075004457">improve more</a>. </p>
<p>Third, alternative forms of assessment should be provided, as allowed under <a href="http://www.springer.com/us/book/9789400729346">US legislation</a>, rather than tinkering with standardised tests.</p>
<p>Assessment should provide information on what a student has learned and is able to do. It should not focus on the integrity of a test to the extent that limits equitable participation by students with disability. Often, the outcome of standardised tests is reinforcement for students with disability that there are things they can’t do that students without disability can. Everyone should be given the opportunity to show what they know regardless of disability.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86763/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This article reports research supported by the Australian Research Council Discovery Projects Funding scheme (Project numbers DP110104319, DP150101679). </span></em></p>Standardised tests restrict how well students with disability can do, which reinforces the idea that there are things they can’t do that children without disability can.Jacqueline Joy Cumming, Research Director, Assessment, Evaluation and Student Learning Research, Learning Sciences Institute Australia, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/706722017-01-17T17:11:41Z2017-01-17T17:11:41ZSouth Africa’s universities can do more to make disabled students feel included<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/153007/original/image-20170117-23075-10d9rmu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's not enough just to enroll disabled students at universities. They need particular support.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been a decade since South Africa signed and ratified the <a href="http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a>. The convention is an international human rights treaty that’s supposed to protect the rights and dignity of people with disabilities. But not much seems to have changed for South Africans with disabilities since 2007. </p>
<p>About <a href="http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/2014/09/09/2.9-million-South-Africans-are-disabled-Stats-SA1">2.9 million</a> South Africans – around 7.5% of the total population – live with some form of disability. Those with disabilities make up <a href="http://www.dhet.gov.za/Research%20Coordination%20Monitoring%20and%20Evaluation/6_DHET%20Stats%20Report_04%20April%202018.pdf">less than 1%</a> of the total student population.</p>
<p>A group that is still struggling to enjoy fairness and justice in how they’re treated are university students with disabilities. I conducted <a href="http://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/xmlui/handle/11660/3870">research</a> to understand more how such students cope. As part of my study, I interviewed 14 students from two South African universities. I wanted to hear about their daily experiences and to find out how they’re included – or not – in making decisions about their education and opportunities. </p>
<p>My research shows that the few students that are admitted at South African universities still feel excluded within these institutions.</p>
<h2>Understanding “inclusion”</h2>
<p>One of the things I wanted to unpack was how “<a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19452829.2015.1101410">inclusion</a>” is understood and defined. </p>
<p>It is often assumed that including people with disabilities in public projects is good; excluding them is bad. But this approach fails to question and capture the subtle dynamics within an agenda of “inclusion”. Proper inclusion implies multidimensional support that is financial, social and academic in nature and extends to policies. It is not enough to consider physical access and the very presence of students with disabilities “inclusive”.</p>
<p>My research <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Oliver_Mutanga2/publications">showed</a> that very few students with disabilities feel “included” at South African universities. </p>
<p>The other challenge with the current notion of inclusion within South Africa’s higher education system is that students with disabilities are all lumped together as a homogeneous group. Authorities adopt a “one size fits all” approach to disability rather than seeing that there’s a difference between a wheelchair user and someone who is visually impaired. Students with disabilities are not all the same. They have some things in common, of course. But they also have different needs and preferences. </p>
<p>Universities are reluctant to change any of their systems or structures. The sense from university authorities appears to be that students with disabilities must “fit in” to existing structures rather than institutions changing to accommodate them.</p>
<p>Education authorities seem to think it’s enough to offer financial support. One example of this is the National Student Financial Aid Scheme’s (NSFAS) <a href="http://www.nsfas.org.za/content/DisabilityBursary.html">bursary</a> for students with disabilities.</p>
<p>But money is not enough to guarantee inclusion. The students I interviewed said that universities’ day to day operations and systems perpetuated structural and ideological barriers. At one of the universities, only one of the halls of residence, which catered for postgraduates, could accommodate students with wheelchairs. This left wheelchair-bound undergraduate students feeling isolated from their peers.</p>
<h2>Students feel undervalued</h2>
<p>The students I interviewed reported feeling undervalued and somehow “impaired”. What can be done to ensure such students feel genuinely included?</p>
<p>Universities must move beyond measuring inclusion based only on the numbers of students with disabilities they’ve enrolled each year. Instead they must work to create more equitable, just education for students with disabilities. To do so, each institution will need to undertake a careful, rigorous process of enquiry into how different barriers emerge and are reproduced. Without a broader understanding of disability, it will be difficult to engage with the complex ways in which inequalities emerge and are sustained. </p>
<p>This can be achieved. One of the institutions on which I based my research, the University of the Free State, has put in place several initiatives to help students with disabilities. Its <a href="http://www.ufs.ac.za/supportservices/departments/student-affairs-home/center-for-universal-access-and-disability-support-(cuads)/overview-home">Centre for Universal Access and Disability Support</a> provides specialised support services including an amanuensis (scribe) service during tests and exams, accommodating extra time and individual tutor sessions. </p>
<p>Other universities are also improving their systems for students with disablities: the University of Venda <a href="http://www.univen.ac.za/index.php?Entity=Univen%20Disability%20Unit">offers</a> Braille printing and computer training to students with disabilities. </p>
<p>Genuinely including students with disabilities provides for the development of appropriate attitudes towards diversity and the creation of environments where every student, including those without disabilities, will have the opportunity to flourish in their university endeavours.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70672/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Data from this article is taken from the author's project that was supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation of South Africa, grant number 86540 when the author was doing his doctoral research at the Centre for Research on Higher Education and Development, University of the Free State. The author is now based in Norway where he is affiliated with Institute of Health and Society, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo.</span></em></p>Many students with disabilities feel excluded from daily university life and the assumption is that they, not the institutions, must change.Oliver Mutanga, Marie Curie Fellow, University of OsloLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/397392015-04-21T10:25:42Z2015-04-21T10:25:42ZFrom braille to iPad: a new app enables the blind to learn online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78508/original/image-20150418-3256-1t2enkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A new iPad app is helping blind students learn online.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/s/ipad+student/search.html?page=2&thumb_size=mosaic&inline=268455590">iPad image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine you are a sixth grader. </p>
<p>Each of your classmates is going to the computer lab for a math lesson on ratios and proportions. They sit down at their computers, launch the tutoring program and get to work. </p>
<p>Everyone but you – because you can’t see the screen: you’re blind. </p>
<p>You’ve tried screen reading software but it hasn’t worked very well. Your teacher has tried to help but no one in the school really knows how to set up, maintain and trouble-shoot <a href="https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#inbox">assistive technologies</a>. </p>
<p>The program isn’t available in braille, so you end up doing some basic worksheets instead of participating with your classmates.</p>
<p>The growth of online learning has thrown up new challenges for those with visual impairment as the learning tools are often not available. It’s also been a challenge for those working on making websites accessible to the visually impaired. It takes extra work and testing. </p>
<p>Now, the <a href="http://awvis.arizona.edu/">Animal Watch Vi Suite (AWViS) project</a> based at The University of Arizona, is developing a math tutoring program for middle school students who have mild, moderate or severe visual impairments. </p>
<p>I am part of a group of researchers combining the software program with more traditional resources such as large print or braille books, to enable visually impaired students access new technology.</p>
<h2>A new app for visually impaired</h2>
<p>We have developed an iPad app that is supplemented with print and braille materials. We decided on an iPad app when we realized that tablet devices were starting to become a potential alternative to the desktop computers that are typically found in schools. </p>
<p>Students who are blind can touch the left side of the iPad screen to hear the math problem, or the right side to hear a description of the picture illustrating the problem. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78511/original/image-20150418-3245-1a7q9z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Problem sets use endangered species for additional learning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=xx1I9e5ctvbpBSH55FmqsQ&searchterm=endangered%20animals%20technology&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=186162452">Animal image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The good thing is that most students with visual impairment have some vision. </p>
<p>Students with low vision can double-tap to enlarge the print to the size that is right for them. </p>
<p>The app provides students with support for their math problem solving. Students get three attempts on each word problem. Those with some vision can use an integrated Scratch Pad for working out the solution. </p>
<p>If a student is unable to solve a problem, he or she can watch a screen-capture, fully-narrated video showing the solution, turning a failure point into a learning opportunity. The narrator describes each step so that the explanation can be understood by a student who is blind.</p>
<p>Students always have the option to “give up” on a problem if it is too difficult, but they rarely do.</p>
<h2>Why an animal app works well</h2>
<p>Problem sets involving endangered or invasive species, such as the Snow Leopard, California Condor, Poison Frog and Burmese Python, among others, are used to cover different math topics. The reason we used animals to create word problems is to provide additional science learning.</p>
<p>For example, the module on unit conversion focuses on the Burmese Python. Students learn that these snakes are endangered in their native Asia but are becoming an invasive pest in Florida. </p>
<p>People who bought the snakes as pets because of their beautiful patterned skin often did not realize that the snakes could grow to be the size of telephone poles. When released illegally into the Everglades, the massive snakes thrived, and are displacing native species. </p>
<p>In this unit, students solve word problems about the length and girth of the snakes, the distance that they can travel and the value of their skin for leather goods.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/78512/original/image-20150418-3212-15p5pzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students learn through charts and graphics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=tF5vgaky1XQO3_cejJSacA&searchterm=ipad%20charts&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=163535906">Graph image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Providing this background information is especially important for students who do not always have the opportunity to learn about the world through pictures. The animal sounds have proved to be especially popular.</p>
<p>Because math problems with graphics often appear on math achievement tests, we designed 20% of the word problems to involve maps, charts or graphs that contain information the student needs to find in order to solve the problem. </p>
<p>For example, on one problem in the Polar Bear unit, the student must use a line graph to identify the change in sea ice in the summer from 40 years ago to today. Students can view the graphics on the iPad and listen to an audio description by touching the tablet surface, or they can refer to hard copies with embossed lines, textures and print or braille labels. </p>
<p>Many students do find it hard to view the graphics on the tablet screen. Most rely on the hard copies while listening to the audio on the iPad. </p>
<p>Elsewhere too, researchers are developing new tools to fill this emerging need. <a href="http://blog.al.com/breaking/2013/06/uah_professor_helps_blind_visu.html">Ed Summers</a>, who is himself blind, is leading a team of developers at the <a href="http://www.sas.com/en_us/company-information.html">SAS Institute</a> in North Carolina to make software more accessible for the visually impaired. </p>
<p>Derrick Smith at the University of Alabama in Huntsville is leading a <a href="http://blog.al.com/breaking/2013/06/uah_professor_helps_blind_visu.html">project</a> to develop online professional development training to help math teachers understand the needs of students with visual impairment. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tsbvi.edu/math">Susan Osterhaus</a> at the <a href="http://www.tsbvi.edu/">Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired</a>, serves as a national resource for best practices in math instruction for students with visual impairments. </p>
<h2>Students have found the app useful</h2>
<p>Such apps are finding a wide reach. This year, 65 students with visual impairment are using the AWViS materials in their schools in 22 states. Feedback from both students and teachers has been very positive. </p>
<p>One theme is that the technology seems to promote students’ independence. One said, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“When [I worked on paper] my teacher had to help me once in awhile. When I used the app she didn’t help me as much. With the app I didn’t really have to ask for her to help me.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Teachers said students seemed more engaged with the app and less likely to ask for help or reassurance. </p>
<p>Almost every student reported preferring the app to his or her typical learning medium. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I liked the app better. I was able to use the hints which you don’t get in the print. It was easy once I figured it out.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The scratch pad was really helpful.“ "I used the hints and solution videos. They helped me understand it better.” “I liked knowing if I got the answer right with the app.”</p>
<p>With the growth of new technologies, there is an increasing demand for knowledge. Just recently, the <a href="https://www.edx.org/">online education provider edX</a> <a href="http://www.wandtv.com/story/28710684/national-federation-of-the-blind-applauds-doj-settlement-with-edx">settled</a> with the US Justice Department, agreeing to make its Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) accessible to students with disabilities. </p>
<p>There is an urgent need to work on more technologies to ensure that everyone has a way of accessing knowledge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39739/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research described here has been supported by the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences (R324A120006). The views expressed here are not necessarily those of the sponsoring agency.</span></em></p>With the emergence of online technologies, the visually impaired can no longer depend on braille alone for their learning needs. App developers are stepping up to the challenge.Carole R Beal, Professor of Education, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/270022014-05-30T05:15:47Z2014-05-30T05:15:47ZGood vibrations bring braille into the 21st century<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49032/original/z8pg2jfv-1400600790.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Learning braille is liberating so it's time to modernise.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thetrouseredape/6881366056/in/photolist-dFSWx-4t6QwA-bu5Nom-8j5S7-adgz3L-66yv1u-6cGow9-2J4Wvo-d36a9-qiT6b-69tQaf-4viidC-6UrsC5-d36ER-66yyKG-6Tb2su-6xLwdc-d39xt-4kCV4R-6HZHVd-5AN8df-bhreu-oE2GZ-5Kwhpm-6Tb2fJ-bg5Eg-3isWs-bhreh-kEpw-6o7NHy-9jVrKV-7kD6Bn-p3bUC-8BbysA-f2g1tv-dTm4t-9HpCZ6-8hHis-hKW1d-4yXYnn-6Tb1Yw-cv7igQ-5f25BG-4gxt8N-6o3P1n-76iJWf-gr8q-b5JYjX-cRH8uw-d37YG/">Dave Halberstadt</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even in a world of digital devices, braille continues to be a vital part of life for blind people. For nearly 200 years, this versatile writing system has allowed them to learn, work and live in a more independent way.</p>
<p>Technology undoubtedly has a role to play in enabling blind people to live independent lives. The news that the world’s first <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-27437770">braille mobile phone</a> has gone on sale is a step in the right direction but it is also clear that more people need to learn braille in the first place.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/fr/fr18/issue2/f180213.htm">1998 study</a> of 74 blind adults found that among those who had not learnt braille, 77% were unemployed while the figure dropped to only 44% among braille readers.</p>
<p>Despite this, a report by the National Federation of the Blind in 2009 revealed that fewer than 10% of legally blind people in the US are braille readers.</p>
<p>We are looking at how learners can make use of the touchscreen and keyboard devices that have become part of most people’s daily lives to learn braille, which, in turn, could help them gain better access to work and education.</p>
<h2>Getting to grips with braille</h2>
<p>The classic method of mastering braille involves a braille typewriter called a Perkins Brailler. But this can be an expensive piece of equipment to pick up so isn’t an option for many.</p>
<p>In an attempt to make braille more accessible, the Georgia Institute of Technology has developed an app called <a href="http://brailletouchapp.com/">BrailleTouch</a>. This transposes the six-figure braille keyboard to the smartphone.</p>
<p>The user holds the phone with the screen facing away from them, then using the same fingers as they would on the Perkins Brailler (index, middle and ring fingers) they can perform braille chords on the touchscreen. Different combinations of fingers produce different characters. Placing the left index and middle fingers on the screen will enter the character “b”, for example.</p>
<p>However, there is lack of feedback to the fingers because touchscreen devices have flat, featureless surfaces. It isn’t clear which fingers have been recognised by the device because the user will only receive feedback once the chord has been entered. So if they attempt to enter the character “b” but the touchscreen fails to recognise the presence of the middle finger on the keyboard, the device will recognise the character “a” instead. This can lead to errors.</p>
<p>In partnership with INESC-ID at the Technical University of Lisbon and LaSIGE at the University of Lisbon’s Department of Informatics, we are developing a system called <a href="http://web.ist.utl.pt/hugo.nicolau/publications/2013/uist13.pdf">HoliBraille</a> that combines chord input with a series of vibrations that notify the user of what the system is registering. The HoliBraille case can be attached to a Samsung Android phone, and feeds information to the user in the form of vibrations felt through the fingers before the chord is committed and an error has been made.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49122/original/wn72v5th-1400662232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The HoliBraille in action.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We use an <a href="http://www.arduino.cc/">Arduino</a>, an open source micro-controller, to talk to the phone case via Bluetooth. The case then passes on the information by activating individual vibro-tactile motors next to the fingers that make up the chords.</p>
<p>Preliminary results indicated that the system is 100% accurate for single finger vibrations, and 82% accurate on chord input. Because it works using Bluetooth, it’s conceivable that you could pass on messages between a range of devices, such as cash machines or desktop computers.</p>
<h2>The learning curve</h2>
<p>Motivation is undoubtedly an issue for people when it comes to learning braille and technology can play a part here too. Working with a user centre in Portugal called the <a href="http://www.fundacao-sain.pt/">Raquel and Martin Sain Foundation</a>, we are developing three applications which make this learning more entertaining through gaming.</p>
<p>One of these is a game called BazingaBraille, which is designed to teach someone braille from scratch by speaking a word and sending a vibration to their fingers at the same time. We have also developed games such as BrailleHero, a variation on the popular GuitarHero series that encourages a user to input braille chords to keep the music going. Chord-based text entry is a fast and effective way of inputting text, even compared to QWERTY keyboards. </p>
<p>Our aim is now to continue reducing errors. We’re also developing an “autocorrect” system for multi-touch braille on touchscreens called <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8Xa0udKIVw">B#</a>, which uses an algorithm to correct chord errors, in much the same way as a standard smartphone corrects spelling errors. When the wrong chord is tapped in, B# draws on a list of chords that are similar to the chord in question, and substitutes the one that fits best with the sentence around it.</p>
<p>At the moment, this system provides correct suggestions for 72% of words, compared to the 38% achieved by the Android spellchecker. And we’re making all of this work open-source so that it can be adapted and improved even further.</p>
<p>The touchscreen has become ubiquitous remarkably quickly, but being able to use it effectively is something that sighted people often take for granted. The aim now is to refine the technologies that are available to us so that they can be used to empower blind and partially-sighted people worldwide.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27002/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kyle Montague receives funding from RCUK Digital Economy Research Hub EP/G066019/1 – SIDE: Social Inclusion through the Digital Economy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>We thank all participants from Raquel and Martin Sain Foundation and Dr. Carlos Bastardo for his support. </span></em></p>Even in a world of digital devices, braille continues to be a vital part of life for blind people. For nearly 200 years, this versatile writing system has allowed them to learn, work and live in a more…Kyle Montague, Post-doctoral Research Assistant, University of DundeeHugo Nicolau, Post-Doctoral Research Assistant, University of DundeeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.