tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/brain-structure-32968/articlesbrain structure – The Conversation2023-11-07T16:51:27Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168642023-11-07T16:51:27Z2023-11-07T16:51:27ZFrontotemporal dementia: we discovered a brain fold that may delay onset of symptoms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557829/original/file-20231106-270141-ib5avf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C5%2C3936%2C2854&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bruce Willis's frontotemporal diagnosis was revealed earlier this year.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bruce-willis-arriving-good-day-die-131400650">Featureflash Photo Agency/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Few people had probably heard of frontotemporal dementia until earlier this year, when the family of <a href="https://theconversation.com/bruce-willis-has-frontotemporal-dementia-heres-what-we-know-about-the-disease-200188">actor Bruce Willis</a> announced the 68-year-old had been diagnosed with the condition.</p>
<p>Frontotemporal dementia is a rare disease – thought to account for only <a href="https://www.alzheimersresearchuk.org/dementia-information/types-of-dementia/frontotemporal-dementia/#:%7E:text=Frontotemporal%20dementia%2C%20also%20known%20as,younger%20or%20older%20than%20this.">one in every 20</a> cases of dementia. Symptoms usually develop in a person’s late 50s, first affecting their behaviour, personality and language ability. Unlike other forms of dementia, memory only becomes impaired in the late stages of the disease.</p>
<p>People diagnosed with frontotemporal dementia usually die within eight years of their diagnosis. While around 30% of cases <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31119452">are inherited</a>, the cause of frontotemporal dementia is largely unknown. This also means there are no cures available or treatments to slow its progression.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://academic.oup.com/braincomms/article/5/5/fcad264/7303258">recent research</a>, I have published with colleagues at Lund University, may have brought us one step closer in our understanding of how frontotemporal dementia develops and progresses. We discovered that the way your brain looks may determine your resilience to the condition.</p>
<h2>Brain folds</h2>
<p>During pregnancy, as a foetus’s brain grows within the womb, it develops its distinctive folds while expanding within the skull. These brain folds play an important role in our later <a href="https://www.livescience.com/62892-why-brains-have-folds.html">cognitive function</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article-abstract/5/1/56/329572">folds that form</a> early in foetal development are found in both sides of the brain in every person. But there’s one fold that sometimes develops later on in the process. It’s called the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34192698/#:%7E:text=Apes%20and%20Humans-,The%20Paracingulate%20Sulcus%20Is%20a%20Unique%20Feature%20of%20the%20Medial,Brain%20Behav%20Evol.">paracingulate sulcus</a> – and not everyone has it. In those that do have it, it can either be present on just one side of the brain or both sides. </p>
<p>The paracingulate sulcus is interesting, as its presence can make a significant difference to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/32/18/3937/6509010">cognitive ability</a>. For example, research has shown that people with a left but not a right paracingulate sulcus have a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/14/4/424/286436">cognitive advantage</a> – performing better on tasks involving control and even memory. </p>
<p>Given the link between the paracingulate sulcus and cognitive function, our research team at Lund University – alongside colleagues in the US and Amsterdam – began studying this brain fold’s role in dementia. </p>
<p>To really understand what role the paracingulate sulcus plays, the team decided to focus on a type of dementia where brain damage occurs in the same region as this brain fold. The obvious choice for this research was frontotemporal dementia. This aggressive form of early-onset dementia primarily attacks the frontal lobes of the brain – particularly the central portions surrounding the paracingulate sulcus.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A picture of a brain made our of puzzle pieces. One piece is missing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557714/original/file-20231106-15-8e5xwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Only some people have a paracingulate sulcus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brain-shaped-white-jigsaw-puzzle-on-1944850117">mapush/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our team studied <a href="https://academic.oup.com/braincomms/article/5/5/fcad264/7303258">MRI brain images</a> of 186 people who had been diagnosed with frontotemporal dementia. We excluded participants who had frontotemporal dementia with a genetic cause. Around 57% of participants had a paracingulate sulcus on the right side of their brain.</p>
<p>We discovered that in participants who had this extra fold on the right side of their brain, their dementia symptoms began on average two and a half years later. This might mean that the paracingulate sulcus may delay the onset of symptoms. These findings were statistically significant – showing they weren’t due to chance or other factors. </p>
<p>This two-and-a-half-year delay in symptoms may not sound like much, but considering the poor prognosis of the condition and the burden of symptoms, this is an extremely meaningful amount of time for patients and their relatives. </p>
<h2>Cognitive reserve</h2>
<p>That said, after the symptoms do begin, patients with this extra brain fold became sicker at a faster rate and survived for a shorter length of time than patients who do not have the fold. So despite the delay in symptoms, patients with and without this extra brain fold still died at a similar age. </p>
<p>Although it may sound strange that a factor can both delay symptoms and later speed them up, this paradox is a key feature of a principle referred to in neuroscience as “<a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219?casa_token=NmBv2BCHXykAAAAA%3APLfoP3DZzMREV0rAmSyRjuMijmoQlKees7-dBYF9okesGGqWCW-62zefj_nUsKM9lRfpaub8pQdZUw">brain reserve</a>”. Brain reserve describes a structure in the brain which provides resilience to a disease before symptoms develop.</p>
<p>Critically, there becomes a point at which the disease overcomes these protective mechanisms, and the patient develops symptoms. After this critical point, people with high brain reserve decline rapidly – faster than people with low brain reserve. </p>
<p>For example, high brain reserve explains why <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/article/S1474-4422(12)70191-6/fulltext">Alzheimer’s disease</a> starts later in highly educated people – though the disease progresses faster for them when symptoms start. According to our research, the paracingulate sulcus operates by a similar principle – first protecting people from symptoms, then progressing rapidly when symptoms do start. </p>
<p>Our research is the first to identify a protective structure in the brain which delays the onset of symptoms in people with frontotemporal dementia. If we can now uncover a way of preserving this protective quality, it could lead to the development of treatments which can help keep symptoms – and the disease – at bay.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Harper receives funding from The Schörling foundation. and the Swedish federal government under the Avtal om Läkarutbildning och Forskning (ALF) agreement</span></em></p>Our study found that people born with a with a particular fold in their brain develop frontotemporal dementia symptoms on average two and a half years later than others.Luke Harper, PhD Student. Neurologist, Lund UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1222202019-08-23T12:48:42Z2019-08-23T12:48:42ZAlzheimer’s: carriers of risk gene show brain changes in their 20s – here’s why we shouldn’t worry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289065/original/file-20190822-170956-1sa2xi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=215%2C89%2C5434%2C3485&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hand-holding-paper-sheet-human-head-1221758086?src=RalI55W7sS9L68EwXctKvQ-1-5">StunningArt/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dramatic developments in genetics research and the availability of commercial genetics tests have put us in a very modern predicament – we can now find out (quickly, easily and cheaply) whether we <a href="https://theconversation.com/sequencing-your-genome-is-becoming-an-affordable-reality-but-at-what-personal-cost-36720">personally hold genetic risk factors</a> that put us at a substantially increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease. In addition, we have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197458018303348">recently shown</a> that brain changes can be identified in people holding these genetic risk variants as early as 20 years old.</p>
<p>Should we be testing ourselves? Should we worry? No. Here’s why:</p>
<p>Genetic research has revealed that some individuals carry variants of specific genes that confer an increased risk of developing <a href="https://youtu.be/wfLP8fFrOp0">Alzheimer’s disease</a> in later life. For example, carriers of the ε4 variant of the APOE gene are approximately <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8346443">three to eight times</a> more likely to be diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease after age 60 than individuals without this variant. The more variants, the greater the risk – with a maximum of one inherited from each parent.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197458018303348">recent research</a>, we looked at these genetic factors in young people (around 20 years old, on average). We split them into “higher-risk” and “lower-risk” groups depending on whether they did or did not carry the APOE-ε4 gene variant, respectively.</p>
<p>Using <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001094520800110X?via%3Dihub">advanced brain imaging techniques</a>, we were able to show that it is possible to detect subtle differences in particular brain networks for the “higher-risk” young adults, several decades before any clinical symptoms of Alzheimer’s emerge.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197458018303348">brain structure</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep16322">function</a> were significantly different between the risk groups on average, it is very important to point out that not all “higher-risk” individuals go on to develop Alzheimer’s disease. (Note that we say “higher” not “high” risk.)</p>
<p>The brains of many of these individuals were comparable to those at lower risk. This means carrying a higher-risk gene variant does not necessarily lead to early brain changes, or an Alzheimer’s diagnosis <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6148649/">later in life</a>.</p>
<h1>Should I get tested?</h1>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289070/original/file-20190822-170951-k65352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oral swaps and saliva samples are used by Direct To Consumer commercial genetic tests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-putting-ear-stick-into-446399410?src=9EmiICl3YxqNCikbeGBPhg-1-7">B-DSPiotrMarcinsk/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Public interest in genetics and gene testing is <a href="https://www.statista.com/chart/17023/commercial-genetic-testing/">booming</a>. Recent times have also seen highly publicised incidences of people responding to their own genetic risk with drastic interventions. For instance, Angelina Jolie, who <a href="https://theconversation.com/angelina-jolie-pitts-surgery-is-just-one-option-for-women-at-risk-of-cancer-39329">has a faulty copy of the BRCA1 gene</a>, associated with breast cancer – and <a href="https://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2013/05/14/angelina-jolie-inherited-breast-cancer-and-the-brca1-gene/">had elective surgery</a> to remove both breasts and some of her reproductive organs. </p>
<p>“Direct to consumer” genetic testing kits sold by companies now provide people with convenient and affordable access to their personal genetic information, including their genetic risk for specific diseases, including Alzheimer’s.</p>
<p>But the relatively low cost of these tests reflects the fact that they typically only cover a fraction of the genome. The results, therefore, neglect the contribution of the rest of the consumer’s genetic code. This will include other genes with protective, as well as negative, effects.</p>
<p>Of other concern, these tests have been shown to frequently generate false positive results: indeed, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/gim201838">one study found</a> approximately 40% of variants in a variety of genes reported in raw commercial genetic test data were false positives. This could lead to unnecessary distress, treatment and lifestyle adjustments. These tests also come with <a href="https://theconversation.com/were-not-prepared-for-the-genetic-revolution-thats-coming-96574">privacy and social concerns</a>.</p>
<p>On the upside, the popularity of commercial genetic testing partly reflects consumers’ positive desire to be proactive about their health. Consumers concerned about commercial genetic test findings should, however, request confirmatory tests from their clinician. These consumers should also understand that the disease risk reports they have purchased <a href="https://theconversation.com/genetic-home-testing-why-its-not-such-a-great-guide-to-your-ancestry-or-disease-risk-79604">at best provide a partial answer</a> to the question they are trying to address, because disease risk is about much more than genetics alone.</p>
<h1>I am at ‘higher’ risk of Alzheimer’s – what now?</h1>
<p>The next step for our research is to find out what leads some people at “higher-risk” to go on to develop these early brain changes, but not others. Do these people exercise or sleep less, maintain a poorer diet, or have poorer social relationships? Many possible answers involve lifestyle factors that could potentially be altered to “buffer” individuals against their genetic risk.</p>
<p>The only way to properly understand which lifestyle factors may have such a protective effect, is to study large numbers of people with varying degrees of genetic risk over several decades.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289068/original/file-20190822-170935-14g1d9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Can lifestyle factors like reading, exercise and socialising protect us from our genetic risks as we age?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/old-father-reading-newspaper-his-son-407783782?src=x4nybLT4uGKUNNhWfSncQA-1-4">RomanSamborskyi/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We are part of an international team of scientists undertaking one such study, led by Professors <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/people/view/151224-graham-kim">Kim Graham</a> and <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/people/view/357091-lawrence-andrew">Andrew Lawrence</a> at Cardiff University. The project involves collecting advanced brain imaging and cognitive test data from a large group of approximately 240 young adults. These individuals are part of a <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/participants/">cohort</a> that has been studied since birth, so we can access a wealth of retrospective health and lifestyle data.</p>
<p>Smaller, isolated studies looking at lifestyle factors might currently be missing the big picture. Brain differences have been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3583203/">found</a> in these high risk groups between people who do and don’t exercise regularly. This could suggest exercise has a <a href="https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad091531">protective effect</a> on the brain, and may in turn mitigate Alzheimer’s risk. It could also be that exercisers engage in other “protective” behaviours like <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1586/ern.11.56">eating a healthier diet</a>. It is only with large-scale cohort studies that we can begin to disentangle the genetic and lifestyle contributions to cognitive performance, the brain and Alzheimer’s risk.</p>
<p>Finally, if you are considering making lifestyle changes to offset your “genetic risk” for Alzheimer’s, taking regular exercise and maintaining a healthy lifestyle is seldom bad advice. Other drastic lifestyle changes, however, are likely unjustified.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122220/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Mark Postans is currently supported by funding from the Medical Research Council (grant MR/N01233X/1; awarded to Professor Kim Graham at Cardiff University)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl J Hodgetts receives funding from Wellcome.</span></em></p>Scientists explain why commercial gene testing should be used with caution.Mark Postans, Postdoctoral research associate, Cardiff UniversityCarl Hodgetts, Research Fellow in Cognitive Neuroscience, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1004212018-08-08T10:38:59Z2018-08-08T10:38:59ZWhat elephants’ unique brain structures suggest about their mental abilities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230916/original/file-20180807-1652-1fmdlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">African elephant bull.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/bDsWjD">Michelle Gadd/USFWS</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Conservationists have designated August 12 as <a href="http://worldelephantday.org/about">World Elephant Day</a> to raise awareness about conserving these majestic animals. Elephants have many engaging features, from their incredibly dexterous trunks to their memory abilities and complex social lives. </p>
<p>But there is much less discussion of their brains, even though it stands to reason that such a large animal has a pretty big brain (about 12 pounds). Indeed, until recently very little was actually known about the elephant brain, in part because obtaining well-preserved tissue suitable for microscopic study is extremely difficult. </p>
<p>That door was opened by the pioneering efforts of neurobiologist <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/staff/academic-a-z-listing/m/man/paulmangerwitsacza/">Paul Manger</a> at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa, who obtained permission in 2009 to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.01.001">extract and preserve the brains of three African elephants</a> that were scheduled to be culled as part of a larger population management strategy. We have thus learned more about the elephant brain in the last 10 years than ever before. </p>
<p>The research shared here was conducted at Colorado College in 2009-2011 in cooperation with Paul Manger, <a href="https://anthropology.columbian.gwu.edu/chet-sherwood">Columbia University anthropologist Chet Sherwood</a> and <a href="http://labs.neuroscience.mssm.edu/project/hof-lab/">neuroscientist Patrick Hof of the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a>. Our goal was to explore the shapes and size of neurons in the elephant cortex.</p>
<p>My lab group has long been interested in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KvCW9T0AAAAJ&hl=en">the morphology, or shape, of neurons in the cerebral cortex of mammals</a>. The cortex constitutes the thin, outer layer of neurons (nerve cells) that cover the two cerebral hemispheres. It is closely associated with higher cognitive functions such as coordinated voluntary movement, integration of sensory information, sociocultural learning and the storing of memories that define an individual. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These images illustrate the process of removing a small section of cerebral cortex from the right cerebral hemisphere of the elephant. This tissue is stained and placed on a glass slide so that, under the microscope, one can see individual neurons and trace them in three dimensions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robert Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The arrangement and morphology of neurons in the cortex is relatively uniform across mammals – or so we thought after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/11.6.558">decades of investigations on human</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs239">nonhuman primate brains</a>, and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.10-05-01407.1990">brains of rodents</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.902290404">cats</a>. As we found when we were able to analyze elephant brains, the morphology of elephant cortical neurons is radically different from anything we had ever observed before.</p>
<h2>How neurons are visualized and quantified</h2>
<p>The process of exploring neuronal morphology begins with staining brain tissue after it has been fixed (chemically preserved) for a period of time. In our laboratory we use a technique over 125 years old called the <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/golgi-staining-technique">Golgi stain</a>, named after Italian biologist and Nobel Laureate <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi-bio.html">Camillo Golgi</a> (1843-1926).</p>
<p>This methodology set the foundation of modern neuroscience. For example, Spanish neuroanatomist and Nobel Laureate <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/cajal-bio.html">Santiago Ramon y Cajal</a> (1852-1934) used this technique to provide a road map of what neurons look like and how they are connected with each other. </p>
<p>The Golgi stain impregnates only a small percentage of neurons, allowing individual cells to appear relatively isolated with a clear background. This reveals the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0023688/">dendrites</a>, or branches, that constitute the receptive surface area of these neurons. Just as branches on a tree bring in light for photosynthesis, the dendrites of neurons allow the cell to receive and synthesize incoming information from other cells. The greater the complexity of the dendritic systems, the more information a particular neuron can process. </p>
<p>Once we stain neurons, we can trace them in three dimensions under the microscope, with the help of a computer and <a href="http://www.mbfbioscience.com">specialized software</a>, revealing the complex geometry of neuronal networks. In this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0288-3">study</a>, we traced 75 elephant neurons. Each tracing took one to five hours, depending on the complexity of the cell. </p>
<p> </p>
<h2>What elephant neurons look like</h2>
<p>Even after doing this kind of research for years, it remains exciting to look at tissue under the microscope for the first time. Each stain is a walk through a different neural forest. When we examined sections of elephant tissue, it was clear that the basic architecture of the elephant cortex was different from that of any other mammals that have been examined to date – including its closest living relatives, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000445495">manatee</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05991.x">rock hyrax</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tracings of the most common neuron (the pyramidal neuron) in the cerebral cortex of several species. Note that the elephant has widely branching apical dendrites, whereas all other species have a more singular, ascending apical dendrite. The scale bar = 100 micrometers (or 0.004 of an inch).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Here are three major differences that we found between cortical neurons in the elephant and those found in other mammals.</p>
<p>First, the dominant cortical neuron in mammals is the pyramidal neuron. These are also prominent in the elephant cortex, but they have a very different structure. Instead of having a singular dendrite that comes off the apex of the cell (known as an apical dendrite), apical dendrites in the elephant typically branch widely as they ascend to the surface of the brain. Instead of a single, long branch like a fir tree, the elephant apical dendrite resembles two human arms reaching upward.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A variety of cortical neurons in the elephant that are seldom if ever observed in the cortex of other mammals. Note that all of them are characterized by dendrites that spread out from the cell body laterally, sometimes over considerable distances. The scale bar = 100 micrometers (or 0.004 of an inch).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, the elephant exhibits a much wider variety of cortical neurons than do other species. Some of these, such as the flattened pyramidal neuron, are not found in other mammals. One characteristic of these neurons is that their dendrites extend laterally from the cell body over long distances. In other words, like the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells, these dendrites also extend out like human arms uplifted to the sky. </p>
<p>Third, the overall length of pyramidal neuron dendrites in elephants is about the same as in humans. However, they are arranged differently. Human pyramidal neurons tend to have a large number of shorter branches, whereas the elephant has a smaller number of much longer branches. Whereas primate pyramidal neurons seem to be designed for sampling very precise input, the dendritic configuration in elephants suggests that their dendrites sample a very broad array of input from multiple sources. </p>
<p>Taken together, these morphological characteristics suggest that neurons in the elephant cortex may synthesize a wider variety of input than the cortical neurons in other mammals. </p>
<p>In terms of cognition, my colleagues and I believe that the integrative cortical circuitry in the elephant supports the idea that they are essentially contemplative animals. Primate brains, by comparison, seem specialized for rapid decision-making and quick reactions to environmental stimuli. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nK7n1EqX1NQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A tuskless matriarch elephant shows kindness toward young orphan elephants trying to find their way in the Kenyan bush.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Observations of elephants in their natural habitat by researchers such as <a href="https://elephantvoices.org">Dr. Joyce Poole</a> suggest that elephants are indeed <a href="http://www.natgeotv.com/int/mind-of-a-giant">thoughtful, curious and ponderous creatures</a>. Their large brains, with such a diverse collection of interconnected, complex neurons, appear to provide the neural foundation of the elephant’s sophisticated cognitive abilities, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20251">social communication</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2001.1815">tool construction and use</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023251">creative problem-solving</a>, <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/jcs/2008/00000015/f0020010/art00008">empathy</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608062103">self-recognition, including theory of mind</a>. </p>
<p>The brains of all species are unique. Indeed, even the brains of individuals within a given species are unique. However, the special morphology of elephant cortical neurons reminds us that there is certainly more than one way to wire an intelligent brain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100421/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Jacobs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cells that transmit nerve impulses in the part of elephants’ brains responsible for functions such as learning and memory are structured differently from those of any other mammal.Bob Jacobs, Professor of Neuroscience, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/718262017-01-25T06:06:26Z2017-01-25T06:06:26ZWhat your brain structure says about your personality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154050/original/image-20170124-26971-1b1cty9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research can help explain why we get more chilled out as we age.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ruslan Guzov/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/wellbeing/5125678/Foot-reading-what-your-toes-say-about-you.html">toe length</a> to <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/what-handwriting-says-about-your-personality-2015-1?r=US&IR=T">handwriting</a> and <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3112170.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3112170.stm">sleeping position</a>, there have been countless studies linking various features with specific personality traits. But these are of course just associations between incidental features – which toe length we happen to have does not, after all, shape who we are as individuals.</p>
<p>For that, we need to look at the brain and its complex anatomy. Now we have discovered striking structural differences in the brains of people with different personality types. We believe that the structural changes – seen as variations in the thickness, area and folding of the brain – may result from differences in development in early life.</p>
<p>I led the international team of researchers behind the study, published in Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. We analysed the brains of over 500 healthy people aged 22 to 36 years. The structural brain scans were provided by the <a href="http://www.humanconnectomeproject.org/">Human Connectome Project</a>, a US project funded by the National Institutes of Health. </p>
<p>We evaluated personality traits using a questionnaire called the <a href="http://www.sigmaassessmentsystems.com/assessments/neo-five-factor-inventory-3/">NEO five factor inventory</a>. By doing this, we were able to divide the participants into the so-called <a href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html">“big five” personality traits</a>: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness.</p>
<p>We found that neuroticism, a personality trait underlying mental illnesses such as anxiety disorders, was linked to a thicker cortex (the brain’s outer layer of neural tissue) and a smaller area and folding in some brain regions. Conversely, openness, a trait reflecting curiosity and creativity, was associated to thinner cortex and greater area and folding in the brain. The other personality traits were linked to other differences in brain structure, such as agreeableness, which was correlated with a thinner prefrontal cortex (this area is involved in tasks including processing empathy and other social skills). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The folding of our brains seems to play a role in personality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">_DJ_/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is the first time the big five personality traits have been clearly linked to differences in brain thickness, area and folding in a large sample of healthy individuals. However we have <a href="http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/map-of-teenage-brain-provides-strong-evidence-of-link-between-serious-antisocial-behaviour-and-brain">previously found</a> that the brains of teenagers with serious antisocial behavioural problems differ significantly in structure to those of their peers who do not display such disruptive behaviour.</p>
<p>The relation between differences in brain structure and personality in healthy people suggests that brain changes may be even more pronounced in people with mental illnesses. Linking the brain structure to basic personality traits is a crucial step to improving our understanding of mental disorders. In the future, it may even give us the opportunity to detect those who are at high risk of developing mental illnesses early, which has obvious implications for prompt intervention. </p>
<h2>Stretching the brain</h2>
<p>The differences are likely to stem from “cortical stretching”, a developmental process that shapes our brain in a way that maximises its area and amount of folding while minimising its thickness. In other words, as we grow up in the womb and throughout our life, the brain cortex – including the prefrontral cortex and all other parts of it – becomes thinner while its area and folding increase. It’s like stretching and folding a rubber sheet – this enhances its area, but, at the same time, the sheet gets thinner. </p>
<p>This supports the observation that we are often <a href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug03/personality.aspx">more neurotic when we are young</a>. As we age, we learn how to deal with emotions and become more conscientious and agreeable.</p>
<p>The new study suggests that personality is strongly rooted in core principles that govern brain evolution. Indeed, cortical stretching is a key evolutionary process that has enabled the human brain to grow rapidly while still fitting into the skull.</p>
<p>The fact that there are such pronounced differences in brain structure between people with different personality types suggests personality is at least partly genetic. However, brain scans alone cannot get to the bottom of the causes of differences in personality. The next step will be to run studies that follow up people from young ages, to understand how their genes and the environment they are brought up in affect their brain maturation and personality.</p>
<p>Studies like this provide new pieces to the puzzle that is understanding human behaviour. While the fact that brain maturation plays an important role in shaping our personality is an important piece of research, it’s important that we don’t lose sight of the fact that genes aren’t everything. We should always nurture what’s good about our personalities and strive to become better people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71826/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luca Passamonti receives funding from Medical Research Council.
Luca Passamonti is also affiliated with the National Research Council (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche) in Italy (a government-funded research council in Italy).
Data were provided by the Human Connectome Project, WU-Minn Consortium (Principal Investigators: David Van Essen and Kamil Ugurbil; 1U54MH091657) funded by the 16 NIH Institutes and Centers that support the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research; and by the McDonnell Center for Systems Neuroscience at Washington University. Data collection and sharing for this project was provided by the MGH-USC Human Connectome Project. The HCP project is supported by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).. HCP is also the result of efforts of co-investigators from the University of Southern California, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), Washington University, and the University of Minnesota.</span></em></p>Are you neurotic? This may be due to a thick cerebral cortexLuca Passamonti, Clinical Research Associate, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/683192016-11-07T11:00:57Z2016-11-07T11:00:57ZStressed by election results? Try neuroscience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144732/original/image-20161106-27911-1yvth96.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Stressed woman at computer. Via Shutterstock.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">From www.shuttterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The vitriolic presidential campaign left many of us feeling anger, and the election of Donald J. Trump as President hasn’t erased it. Many of us feel a deep, fire in the belly anger that it has come to this. We may feel like caged lions, spitting mad, but told to quiet down, be civil and act nice.</p>
<p>That seems like excellent advice, given the harm caused by rage, hostility, aggression, but, in reality, the <a href="http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/10/presidential-election-stress.aspx">stress we feel</a> from the campaign is not likely to fade and that ongoing political climate could become a continuing assault to our well-being. </p>
<p>Hearing about or seeing vicious personal attacks, criticism of parents who have lost a child to war, accusations of fraud and talk of sexual assault have affected our psyches, souls and bodies. </p>
<p>Stress is the number one worldwide epidemic and threat to health. It is outstripping our capacity to process that stress effectively, so increasingly the brain’s stress switch (hypothalamus) is flipping. That takes our thinking brain with its wise judgment and oversight off line and puts the reptilian brain, which is given to fight or flight extremes, in charge. Emotionally, our first response is anger, if we don’t completely dissociate and turn off feelings altogether.</p>
<p>And yet, maybe this election stress is perfect in its own way, as given the likely pile up of charges and counter charges and avalanches of stresses post-election, we will pause for long enough to upgrade our brain’s capacity to process stress, in the spirit of changing the world by changing ourselves.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I at University of California San Francisco have developed <a href="http://www.hypothesisjournal.com/?p=955">emotional brain training</a> (EBT) as a <a href="http://www.ebt.org">set of skills</a> to improve the brain’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4260341/">effectiveness</a> in processing stress. Our hunter-gatherer brain adapted to the Paleolithic life of physical stress and sameness, yet we live in a world of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977/">emotional stress</a> and overwhelming speed of change. As <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3341916/">more than 80 percent of health problems</a> are rooted in chronic stress, we have explored four ways to update our brain’s capacity to process our anger and boost our resilience.</p>
<h2>The upside of anger</h2>
<p>The first concept in updating how we respond to stress is to stop judging our anger. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9599445">It is the only negative emotion in the brain </a> associated with approach and power, the one emotion that says, “Cut it out!” It’s our protest emotion that mobilizes us to do something that helps us survive. </p>
<p>Without a robust skill to express anger, we turn that anger in on ourselves, and open the door to depression, anxiety, shame, numbness and false highs. The internalized, suppressed anger causes a rumbling of chronic stress that rears its head as stress symptoms. Those backaches, late night munchies, work stalls, and sleepless nights all add to our health care burden and cause <a href="http://wws.princeton.edu/faculty-research/research/item/rising-morbidity-and-mortality-midlife-among-white-non-hispanic">emotional diseases to overtake chronic diseases</a> in mortality rates.</p>
<p>In short, we need to honor our right to feel and express anger effectively, which takes understanding the neurobiology of anger.</p>
<h2>Knowing your number</h2>
<p>Breakthrough research at <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22365542">New York University Emotional Brain Institute</a> has proposed a new way to think about emotions based circuitry activated at varying levels of stress. When our stress levels are low, we activate emotional circuits that help us take wise actions that protect ourselves and others. When the fight or flight response is spewing stress chemicals through every cell of our being, we activate circuits that takes us to unhealthy extremes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144740/original/image-20161106-27934-1i3bqxc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain state and anger levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These new learnings suggest a needed update in how we approach emotions. </p>
<p>EBT uses a five point system of stress in which we do not ask ourselves “How do I feel? but instead we ask ourselves, "What number am I?” that is, we check our stress level or brain state. That gives the thinking brain more power to determine how best to process our emotions, rather than our diving right into our feelings and potentially finding ourselves in a rage or in other destructive emotions, such as depression, panic, anxiety or numbness.</p>
<p>If you like, try using that tool now by taking three deep breaths and asking yourself, “What number am I?”, then using the technique for that stress level that turns destructive emotions into constructive feelings. The emotional technique for Brain State 5 is the damage control tool, that is, taking three deep breaths, then saying repeatedly (sometimes 5 to 20 times) “do not judge, minimize harm, know it will pass.” That calms down the reptilian brain so your thinking brain can be on line and running the show again.</p>
<h2>The power of compassion and humor</h2>
<p>Once we’re thinking in terms of brain states, it’s natural to start wondering about the brain states of others. Problems in relationships at home or at work are most apt to happen when both people are in the lower brain states.</p>
<p>The reptilian brain is in charge, so not only are emotions extreme, but the brain activates circuits of relationship dysfunction. Our thinking brain remains offline, so <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2907136/">analyzing the situation </a> rapidly devolves into catastrophizing, obsessing or ruminating.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144635/original/image-20161104-27939-1r5mvxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Humor helps. Via Shutterstock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-142809292/stock-photo-cute-couple-both-with-an-afro-posing.html?src=iaT7Gqnh9eEzCzWyFG7TlA-1-41">From www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>The solution is to appreciate that the root cause of all this intense emotion is stress. During stress nobody is “relationship material,” and so compassion and humor (e.g., “I’d like to discuss that but my reptilian brain is in charge right now.”) can go a long way toward melting that stress and hastening a healing moment of reconnection.</p>
<h2>Updating your emotional tools</h2>
<p>The third idea is to appreciate that there are new tools that can turn negative destructive emotions into positive, constructive feelings. Part of EBT includes <a href="http://www.ebtconnect.net">learning tools</a> to update our emotional skill set, that you can use internally – so nobody else knows how furious you are or how shut down you feel – that rapidly reduce stress. </p>
<p>Try the flow tool, which is effective at Brain State 3, and easy to learn. Just say the first four words of each sentence, pause so your brain connects and words “bubble up” into your conscious mind to complete the sentence. Express 1 to 10 anger statements, using words that come from your gut – release that anger, and when you do, sadness will arise. Complete one sentence for sadness and each of the other feelings. </p>
<p>The EBT Flow Tool</p>
<p>I feel angry that … I can’t stand it that … I feel furious that . . I hate it that … (up to 10)</p>
<p>I feel sad that … I feel afraid that … I feel guilty that …</p>
<p>I feel grateful that … I feel happy that …I feel secure that … I feel proud that …</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145480/original/image-20161110-25055-9sbodn.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mike DeSocio/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Here’s my flow tool in this moment: I feel angry there this election is such a mess. I can’t stand it that I don’t like either candidate. I hate it that the stress of this has taken its toll on me. I feel guilty that I can’t stop thinking about it … I feel grateful that we have elections. I feel happy that it is a sunny day. I feel secure that I can handle whatever comes and I feel proud that I used this tool. Ahhh . . now I have a smile on my face and a calm in my body. Perfect!</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144638/original/image-20161104-27904-6aho8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Sunny day via Shutterstock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-403034113/stock-photo-defocused-bokeh-background-of-garden-with-blossoming-trees-in-sunny-day-backdrop.html?src=Pxgr-Bx_NhmAfzqE6fRJVw-1-10">From www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<h2>Rewiring unreasonable expectations</h2>
<p>The fourth concept is to address why we are so angry. Of course there are logical reasons for being upset, but what is happening in the brain? It’s the clash between our unconscious expectations that were encoded in the past and the realities of our daily lives. When our expectations are out of date and discordant with current realities, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3079864/">stress chemicals</a> surge as if hungry lions were chasing us, even though the threat is posed by dueling circuits within our own emotional brain. The greater the discord, the greater the chemical response, hence explaining why the deeply offensive, divisive election process has been so stressful.</p>
<p>On the bright side, emerging research has shown that these circuits can be aroused, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3640262/">reactivated and updated</a>, so we can revise our out-dated unconscious emotional expectations that is the root cause of the amplification of our normal daily stress. This brain reset has traditionally been the work of psychotherapists in group or individual sessions, but health care is becoming neuroscience-based, so new accessible options are emerging. The EBT approach is to learn a self-directed technique (<a href="https://www.ebtconnect.net/science">“cycle tool”</a>) we can use when stressed, that both rapidly reduces our stress and updates our circuitry. Attention to accessible techniques like this one will probably grow as our concern about health care expenditure increases. </p>
<h2>Trying a little tenderness</h2>
<p>How can we boost our spirits after this election? Let’s remind ourselves that the stress of the situation is perfect in its own way. It gives us opportunities to try a little tenderness, becoming more sophisticated in how we approach our emotions, thereby discovering a new zest for life. That zest becomes our gift to ourselves – and to our nation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68319/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurel Mellin owns shares in EBT, Inc., an organization for public information and professional certification in emotional brain training.</span></em></p>This election season has brought more anger and name-calling than any in recent history, and it has affected many of us. Here are some ways you can ward off some of the stress associated with it.Laurel Mellin, PhD, Associate Clinical Professor of Family & Community Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.