tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/brush-turkey-39594/articlesBrush turkey – The Conversation2022-11-14T00:35:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1930262022-11-14T00:35:22Z2022-11-14T00:35:22ZThey’re doing their best: how these 3 neighbourhood ‘pests’ deal with rainy days<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493996/original/file-20221108-18-x9ma6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C2700%2C1786&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you had a recent encounter with an animal you’d much rather avoid? As La Niña continues to give us rainy days, brush turkeys, bats, and cockroaches are emerging from their hide-outs. </p>
<p>We often think of them as pests, but these animals are just trying their best to cope in the heavy rain. They’re also crucial members of our urban ecosystems, and help keep the environment healthy. </p>
<p>Here’s what makes them so fascinating and important to your neighbourhood. </p>
<h2>Bats: heavy rain hinders echolocation</h2>
<p>Australia is home to multiple threatened species of <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-threatened-bats-need-protection-from-a-silent-killer-white-nose-syndrome-129186">fruit bats and microbats</a>, such as grey-headed flying foxes, large bent-wing bats, and spectacled flying foxes. </p>
<p>They’re typically considered nuisances for their noise, mess and potential spread of diseases. But bats are often forgotten for their ability to control insect pests, disperse seeds, and pollinate plants.</p>
<p>Bats face some serious threats in La Niña conditions. They can respond to periods of heavy rain by using a special physiological adaptation called torpor. In torpor, bats will sleep more and lower their body temperature so they can use less energy.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492061/original/file-20221027-20344-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Microbat sp. giving a smile (this bat was handled by a gloved, trained professional. Never pick up a bat yourself)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Image Credit Dieter Hochuli</span></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.ausbats.org.au/uploads/4/4/9/0/44908845/meet_sydneys_microbats.pdf">Microbats</a> are abundant throughout Australian cities. They use <a href="https://theconversation.com/fruit-bats-are-the-only-bats-that-cant-and-never-could-use-echolocation-now-were-closer-to-knowing-why-153721">echolocation to see</a>, but heavy rain likely <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/02/190206115623.htm">reduces</a> this ability. </p>
<p>In 2019, Smithsonian researchers played recordings of downpours near bat roosts, and found the bats delayed emerging from their roosts. Delayed emergence can lead to disorientated bats with a reduced capacity to find food. </p>
<p>In Australia, rain may affect microbats more than fruit bats because of where they live. Many species of microbats, such as the <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10534">large bent-winged bat</a>, live in culverts and under bridges, where higher water levels can rush through during heavy rain periods.</p>
<p>Fruit bats, such as flying foxes, <a href="https://theconversation.com/fruit-bats-are-the-only-bats-that-cant-and-never-could-use-echolocation-now-were-closer-to-knowing-why-153721">don’t use echolocation</a>, but rain can wet their fur and lower their body temperature. So they’ll often stay put in their roosts to keep warm during heavy rain.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fruit-bats-are-the-only-bats-that-cant-and-never-could-use-echolocation-now-were-closer-to-knowing-why-153721">Fruit bats are the only bats that can't (and never could) use echolocation. Now we're closer to knowing why</a>
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<p>It also <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0313">costs a lot more energy</a> for a bat to fly in the rain, making it harder to maintain a steady intake of food. If there is consecutive days of rain, bats may fall from their home due to starvation. </p>
<p>If you find a fallen bat, do not touch it. Instead, contact <a href="https://www.wires.org.au/wildlife-information/flying-foxes-and-microbats">WIRES</a>. Or, wait to see if they leave once the rain clears up.</p>
<h2>Brush turkeys: reshape their mounds</h2>
<p>Brush turkeys are a type of ground nesting bird found along Australia’s east coast, from Cape York in Queensland down to Wollongong in NSW. They’re particularly vulnerable to the effects of heavy rain, which can damage or wash out their nests. </p>
<p>To incubate their eggs, brush-turkeys build enormous mounds of leaf litter and mulch. These mounds can weigh several tonnes, and can be as wide as <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/plants-animals/animals/living-with/brush-turkeys">4 metres across and up to 1 metre high</a>. These mounds often cause <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-31/brush-turkeys-haunting-sydney-backyards/7287518">consternation among avid gardeners</a> and frustrated suburbanites.</p>
<p>But brush-turkeys can benefit the environment. As they <a href="https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/australian-brush-turkey">scratch for food and build mounds</a>, the birds help break down leaf litter and aerate the soil. This helps water and nutrients move throughout your soil, which ultimately helps your garden.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492062/original/file-20221027-12-3pyzmd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Brush-turkey on a mound.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image Credit Matthew Hall</span></span>
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<p>Winter rainfall is the trigger for males to start building their mounds, as the increased soil moisture provides the heat that incubates their eggs. However, research shows males <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1071/MU9880210">avoid constructing their nests</a> during long periods of heavy rain.</p>
<p>Flood waters can sweep away existing mounds and, after multiple weeks of rain, mounds can become waterlogged. Floods can drown eggs or reduce mound temperatures below the levels necessary for incubation, preventing the chicks from developing properly. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492065/original/file-20221027-25221-sv6gb2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A brush-turkey chick.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image Credit John Martin</span></span>
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<p>Brush-turkeys are known to protect their mounds from heavy rain. Much anecdotal evidence suggests brush-turkeys can predict the weather in advance, and <a href="http://www.climatekelpie.com.au/index.php/1999/08/01/the-brush-turkeys-are-never-wrong/">reshape their mound accordingly</a>. </p>
<p>During light rain, male brush-turkeys <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2011/11/23/3374445.htm">open up their mound</a>, letting much-needed moisture soak in to speed up decomposition of the leaf litter. But as strong rainfall approaches, they instead <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4385974">pile extra material on top of their mound</a>, providing an extra layer of protection and creating a more conical shape so water can run off the sides. </p>
<p>Next time, consider tuning into your local brush turkeys for a weather forecast. If you see them doing a bit of extra raking in your garden on dismal grey days, it might be a scramble to protect their nests from approaching heavy rain. </p>
<p>When you spot one, use the opportunity to snap a photo and upload it to the <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation-and-science/current-research/big-city-birds">Big City Birds app</a>. This app tracks where birds such as brush-turkeys occur, and how they’re adapting to city life.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sad-and-distressing-massive-numbers-of-bird-deaths-in-australian-heatwaves-reveal-a-profound-loss-is-looming-190685">‘Sad and distressing’: massive numbers of bird deaths in Australian heatwaves reveal a profound loss is looming</a>
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<h2>Native cockroaches: evacuate to drier areas</h2>
<p>As we settle into another wet spring, our homes are becoming perfect breeding grounds for cockroaches. The humidity of a moist house combined with warmer weather, allows for cockroaches to grow quicker and thrive. </p>
<p>Only a small handful of cockroach species will survive in the average house, and they are all introduced species. After rain, it’s vital to make your house a little less cockroach friendly. Reduce humidity by keeping the house well ventilated, and make sure to remove any food scraps.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the waterlogged soil in your local green spaces are likely home to some of <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/cockroaches-order-blattodea/">Australia’s 450 native species of cockroaches</a>, so you might see some around your backyard after rain. Cockroaches play important roles in the ecosystem, breaking down nutrients in the soil.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494376/original/file-20221109-22-y2eyjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Native Australian <em>Ellipsidion sp.</em> cockroach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image Credit Elise Oakman</span></span>
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<p>Burrowing cockroaches can be spotted because they don’t have wings. Many of our other native cockroaches are obvious due to their <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2018/04/our-native-cockroaches-arent-as-gross-as-you-think/">beautiful colours and patterns</a>.</p>
<p>One amazing example is the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2022/10/01/extinct-wood-eating-cockroach-rediscovered-after-80-years.html">Lord Howe Island wood-feeding cockroach</a>. Thought to be extinct for some 80 years due to rats, they have only recently been rediscovered. This species is important, because it recycles nutrients and is food for other animals.</p>
<p>While native cockroaches may enter your home in an attempt to find warm dry ground, they won’t thrive indoors. If you find a native cockroach inside your house, instead of reaching for the bug spray, it’s best to catch them and put them back outside. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-large-cockroach-thought-extinct-since-the-1930s-was-just-rediscovered-on-a-small-island-in-australia-191847">A large cockroach thought extinct since the 1930s was just rediscovered on a small island in Australia</a>
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<p>So during wet weather, take the time to remember that these animals are trying their best. All have amazing ways of adapting to heavy rain, and we should cut them some slack – the environment, including our backyards, need them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elise Oakman receives funding from the Ecological Society of Australia, the Department of Planning and Environment, and the Australian Wildlife Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caitlyn Forster receives funding from the Australian Research Council. She is affiliated with the Australasian Society for the Study of Animal Behaviour and Invertebrates Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Hall has previously received research funding from The Australian Citizen Science Association and Birding NSW. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mei-Ting Kao does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Brush turkeys, bats, and cockroaches are crucial for the environment – including our gardens. Each have fascinating ways of coping in wet weather.Elise Oakman, PhD Candidate, University of SydneyCaitlyn Forster, PhD Candidate, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of SydneyMatthew Hall, Casual Academic, University of SydneyMei-Ting Kao, PhD student, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1723912021-11-25T04:05:03Z2021-11-25T04:05:03ZCurious Kids: how do birds make their nests?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433857/original/file-20211125-13-1p1fiu3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=74%2C67%2C4419%2C2930&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>I would please like to know how birds make their nests? How do they know how to weave the twigs together and what makes the twigs stick together? – Miguel, age 10, Brisbane</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Hi Miguel, thanks for this great question!</p>
<p>The first thing to know is not all birds make nests. For example, emperor penguin fathers carry their precious egg on their feet (to keep it off the frozen ground). </p>
<p>Some birds, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo">cuckoos</a>, will lay their eggs in someone else’s nests. Others lay them on the ground among leaves or pebbles, or on cliffs with very little protection.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Eggs among pebbles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433852/original/file-20211125-25-1be6ny0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some birds will lay their eggs among pebbles on the ground, which doesn’t offer them much physical protection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>For the birds that do build nests, there is one main goal: to keep their eggs and chicks safe. </p>
<h2>Many places to build a nest</h2>
<p>Many birds also make their nests in tree hollows, including parrots. That’s just one reason it’s important to not cut trees down! </p>
<p>Meanwhile, kookaburras use their powerful beaks to burrow into termite nests and make a cosy nest inside. And the cute <a href="https://www.birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/spotted-pardalote">spotted pardelote</a> will dig little burrows in the side of earth banks – with a safe and cosy spot for its eggs at the end of the tunnel.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433827/original/file-20211125-19-1en7ivf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The tiny spotted pardalote is one of the smallest Australian birds, and measures about 8 to 10 centimetres in length.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Some birds, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_brushturkey">brush turkeys</a>, spend months building huge mounds on the ground which can heat up from the inside. The male turkey makes sure the ground is exactly the right temperature inside the mound, and then lets the female lay the eggs inside. He’ll take big mouthfuls of dirt surrounding the eggs to check it’s not too hot or cold. </p>
<h2>What materials do they use?</h2>
<p>Birds construct many different types of nests. There are floating nests, cups, domes, pendulums and basket-shaped nests. They can be made out of sticks, twigs, leaves, grasses, mosses or even mud. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/white-winged-chough">Magpie-larks</a> (also called “peewees”), <a href="https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/apostlebird">apostlebirds</a> and <a href="https://www.birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/white-winged-chough">choughs</a> make mud bowl nests that look like <a href="http://www.birdway.com.au/corcoracinae/apostlebird/source/apostlebird_100486.php">terracotta plant pots</a>. To do this, they gather mud and grasses in their beaks and shake it around to mix it with their saliva. They can then attach it to a branch and build upwards until the nest is complete. </p>
<p>In fact, bird saliva is a really strong and sticky material to build nests with. Birds will often mix saliva and mud to make a type of glue. And some swiftlets make their nests entirely out of solidified saliva. People will even eat these nests in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-12/birds-nest-soup-bird-blown-to-australia/11953830">bird’s nest soup</a>! </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433823/original/file-20211125-23-7mufq4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some swiftlets will make their nest entirely out of solidified saliva.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Willie wagtails use another type of glue - sticky spiderwebs. They “sew” grasses together using spider webs and the webs help keep the nests strong against wind and water, too. They have to perfect the technique of gathering the spiderweb though, otherwise it can get tangled in their feathers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433824/original/file-20211125-19-3ejs71.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Willy wagtail’s nest is a neatly-woven cup of grasses, covered with spider’s web on the outside and is lined with soft grasses, hair or fur.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Magpies and crows, both common visitors to our gardens, are also clever nest builders. Not only can they expertly layer their sticks into a bowl, but they also use many human-made materials in their nests. You might find them using fabric, string or a wire to hold a nest together. </p>
<p>Some birds such as red kites have even been seen “decorating” their nests with human rubbish. And Australian babblers line the inside of their nests with a thick wall of kangaroo poo, followed by soft fluff, to keep their chicks warm.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433851/original/file-20211125-23-ljn8ga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The chestnut-crowned babbler lives in the desert and can have up to 23 birds roosting in one nest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/headphones-saw-blades-coat-hangers-how-human-trash-in-australian-bird-nests-changed-over-195-years-164316">Headphones, saw blades, coat hangers: how human trash in Australian bird nests changed over 195 years</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<h2>The building process</h2>
<p>To actually weave the nests, birds will usually create a base by layering sticks or twigs in the place they want it. Then they use their beaks and feet to weave a chosen materials through, to hold the sticks in place. </p>
<p>They can pull strips of material with their beaks over and under, just like weaving a rug. They can even tie knots! Nests can take a really long time to make, so they’re often reused year after year. Weaver birds are so good at weaving, they can build complex nests that <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/08/absurd-creature-of-the-week-the-bird-that-builds-nests-so-huge-they-pull-down-trees/">cover entire trees</a> and have several chambers.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kVlyUNRtQmY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Check out this baya weaver bird build an incredible hanging nest using the weaving method. These birds are found across the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To summarise, birds are really intelligent animals. They use their intelligence, along with their beaks and feet, to find the most clever ways to make nests with whatever materials are available. And they get better at this by learning from others, such as their parents or peers.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-birds-eggs-colourful-new-research-shows-its-linked-to-the-shape-of-their-nests-169095">Why are birds' eggs colourful? New research shows it's linked to the shape of their nests</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172391/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kiara L'Herpiniere does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The heaviest bird nest ever discovered weighed more than 2,000kg. It was built by bald eagles. The tiniest nest, built by a bee hummingbird, was just over 2cm wide.Kiara L'Herpiniere, PhD Candidate, Wildlife Biologist, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/791112017-06-14T00:49:28Z2017-06-14T00:49:28ZTall turkeys and nuggety chickens: large ‘megapode’ birds once lived across Australia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173094/original/file-20170609-20883-u9fj1r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hypothetical reconstruction of the largest extinct megapode, _Progura gallinacea_ (right), with a modern Brush-turkey and a Grey Kangaroo</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Artwork by E. Shute, from photos by Tony Rudd, Kim Benson and Aaron Camens</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Pleistocene-Epoch">Pleistocene</a> epoch (2.5 million years ago to 12,000 years ago) was a time of ecological upheaval in Australia. The climate fluctuated between warmer/colder and wetter/dryer periods, humans made their entrance around 50,000 years ago, and many giant marsupials became extinct for reasons that are still being debated.</p>
<p>In our <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/6/170233">new paper</a>, we describe five related species of extinct <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/megapode">megapodes</a> – a group of stocky, medium-large chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet – from various parts of Australia. We think at least one of these bird species was still around when humans arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago. </p>
<p>All were chunky relatives of living megapodes such as the shy <a href="http://www.birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/malleefowl">Malleefowl</a> and the bold-as-brass <a href="http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Alectura-lathami">Brush-turkey</a>. They were heavy, ranging from three to eight kilograms, while a modern Malleefowl only weighs around two kilograms.</p>
<p>Two were long-legged species in the genus <em>Progura</em> – the “tall turkeys”, and two were short-legged, stout-bodied species in the genus <em>Latagallina</em> – the “nuggety chickens”. There aren’t enough remains of the fifth species, in the genus <em>Garrdimalga</em>, to know how it was built.</p>
<p>Unlike some other large extinct birds like the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/dodo-extinct-bird">dodo</a>, all five of the large megapodes had a strong flight apparatus, and they probably flew into trees to roost and to escape danger as living megapodes do.</p>
<p>One of the “tall turkeys”, <em>Progura campestris</em>, had an upturned pygostyle – the tail bone that sits inside the “parson’s nose” – indicating it sported a large, ornamental tail. This species also had a long, narrow tip to its beak, while <em>Latagallina</em> and <em>Garrdimalga</em> had wide, wedge-shaped beaks, so perhaps they were adapted to different diets.</p>
<h2>Widespread fossils</h2>
<p>The bones we studied come from widespread sites in Australia – from the Darling Downs in south-eastern Queensland, to caves in eastern New South Wales, the Naracoorte Caves in south-eastern South Australia, Curramulka Quarry on South Australia’s Yorke Peninsula, the Warburton River in northern South Australia, to the Thylacoleo Caves on the Nullarbor Plain, Western Australia.</p>
<p>It seems megapodes once thrived in diverse climatic and habitat zones.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173095/original/file-20170609-26099-1r2z8kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map of megapode fossil sites.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">E. Shute</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The largest fossils, belonging to the eight kilogram “tall turkey” <em>Progura gallinacea</em> from Queensland, were first described in 1888 by naturalist <a href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/de-vis-charles-walter-3406">Charles De Vis</a>, who thought they belonged to a giant ancestral pigeon.</p>
<p>Fossils belonging to the “nuggety chicken” <em>Latagallina naracoortensis</em>, come from various sites, but most of its remains – around 500 bones – are from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/naracoorte-where-half-a-million-years-of-biodiversity-and-climate-history-are-trapped-in-caves-78603">Naracoorte Caves</a>. Originally described in the 1970s as a slightly smaller relative of <em>Progura gallinacea</em>, and later considered to be the same species, our analysis instead shows that these bones belong to a bird in a separate new genus.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GUgGWLZsBwM">Thylacoleo Caves</a>, beneath the Nullarbor Plain, have yielded two brand new species, <em>Progura campestris</em> and <em>Latagallina olsoni</em>. While their fossils are fewer in number, they include two near-complete associated skeletons of individual birds – <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-biggest-cuckoos-once-roamed-the-nullarbor-plain-54050">more treasures</a> from this remarkable site. </p>
<p>The remains of <em>Garrdimalga mcnamarai</em> from Curramulka Quarry are somewhat scrappy by comparison – but are well enough preserved to show that this was a fifth large species different from all the others. </p>
<h2>Extinctions</h2>
<p>The five extinct megapodes lived during the Pleistocene, alongside Australia’s extinct “<a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/water_and_ice/ice_age">ice age</a>” <a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160208-the-lost-giants-that-prowled-the-australian-wilderness">giant marsupials</a> such as diprotodon, marsupial lions and short-faced kangaroos.</p>
<p>We also know that they lived alongside the Malleefowl that are still alive today, because we have found ancient fossilised Malleefowl bones in the Naracoorte Caves and the Thylacoleo Caves, in the same sediment layers as bones of the extinct giants.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1652&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173096/original/file-20170609-20873-zggjkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1652&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wing bone of a living Brush-turkey <em>Alectura lathami</em> (left) versus that of an extinct giant megapode, <em>Latagallina naracoortensis</em></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">E. Shute</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Why did the large megapodes die out along with the marsupial megafauna while the smaller birds survived?</p>
<p>We don’t know for sure, but larger animals usually reproduce more slowly than smaller ones, making them vulnerable to changes in climate or to new predators.</p>
<p>There is circumstantial evidence that at least one of these large megapodes was still around by the time people arrived on the continent, only to go extinct within a few thousand years of their arrival.</p>
<p>Fossil eggshell has been discovered in sandy environments in various parts of Australia, and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027737911530192X">microscopic analysis</a> shows it matches the structure of megapode eggshell. Scorch marks show that the eggs, which were larger than those of living megapodes, were cooked and eaten by people, perhaps contributing to the demise of the birds.</p>
<p>The short, deeply curved claws of the extinct megapodes show that they were not specialised for raking together huge nest mounds like Malleefowl and Brush-turkeys. </p>
<p>Rather, they probably scraped a hole in the sand or soil, and laid their eggs directly in the warm ground like the <a href="http://www.arkive.org/maleo/macrocephalon-maleo/">Maleo</a> from the Moluccas. This would explain how the fossil eggshell accumulated in <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-case-of-mistaken-identity-for-australias-extinct-big-bird-52856">sandy places</a>.</p>
<h2>Dropping off the twig</h2>
<p>Our phylogenetic analysis shows that the “tall turkeys” and the “nuggety chickens” were each other’s closest relatives, and were also some of the most recently-evolved species of megapode.</p>
<p>While they belong to the same major branch of the megapode family tree as Malleefowl and Brush-turkeys, they weren’t ancestral to any living species.</p>
<p>Rather, they were an unlucky side branch that was forever pruned from the tree.
How many birds species died out in Australia during the late Pleistocene extinctions? Perhaps more than we thought. All the more reason to <a href="http://www.nationalmalleefowl.com.au/">protect what’s left</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79111/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elen Shute received funding from Flinders University and Birdlife Australia for this project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gavin Prideaux receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevor Worthy received funding from Australian Research Council DE130101133 and Flinders University, SA for this project. </span></em></p>Large birds once lived across Australia, only to become extinct around the time that giant marsupials and other megafauna died out during the Pleistocene “ice ages”.Elen Shute, PhD candidate, Flinders UniversityGavin Prideaux, Associate professor, Flinders UniversityTrevor H. Worthy, Associate professor, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.