tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/cats-2157/articles
Cats – The Conversation
2024-02-06T13:29:24Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/216975
2024-02-06T13:29:24Z
2024-02-06T13:29:24Z
Perils of pet poop – so much more than just unsightly and smelly, it can spread disease
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571526/original/file-20240125-23-k5liyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C37%2C959%2C684&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Responsible pet owners are on diligent poop patrol.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hannah Sussman</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever been out on a walk and as you take that next step, you feel the slippery squish of poop under your foot?</p>
<p>It’s not just gross. Beyond the mess and the smell, it’s potentially infectious. That’s why signs reminding pet owners to “curb your dog” and scoop their poop have been joined in some places by posted warnings that pet waste can spread disease.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QiTnXH8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">As a small-animal primary care veterinarian</a>, I deal with the diseases of dog and cat poop on a daily basis. Feces represent potential <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/zoonotic-disease">zoonotic hazards</a>, meaning they can transmit disease from the animals to people.</p>
<p>The reality is that waste left to wash into the soil, whether in a neighborhood, trail or dog park, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28316698/">can spread life-threatening</a> <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/transmission/index.html">parasites</a> not just among dogs and cats, but also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02532-21">to wild animals</a> and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/transmission/index.html#animal">people of all ages</a>. A 2020 study found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04147-6">intestinal parasites in 85% of off-leash dog parks</a> across the United States.</p>
<p>While human diseases caused by soil-transmitted parasites are considered uncommon in the U.S., they infect as many as an <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/ascariasis/index.html">estimated billion people worldwide</a>. Signs that remind you to pick up after your pet are not just trying to keep public spaces clean; they’re urging you to help safeguard your community’s health.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="bottom of a child's foot showing open lesions by the toes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571223/original/file-20240124-27-qinn2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Parasites can enter your body through broken skin and set up shop, as in this hookworm infection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://phil.cdc.gov/Details.aspx?pid=5204">CDC</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>Abandoned poop’s impact on people</h2>
<p>Common dog poop parasites include <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/resources/roundworms_hookworms.html">hookworms, roundworms</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/coccidium">coccidia</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/whipworm">whipworms</a>. Hookworms and roundworms can thrive in a variety of species, including humans.</p>
<p>Their microscopic larvae can get into your body through small scratches in your skin after contact with contaminated soil or via accidental oral ingestion. Remember that next time you’re outside and wipe sweat from your face with a dirty hand and then lick your lips or take a drink – it’s that simple. After hose or rain water has rinsed contaminated poop into the soil, these parasite eggs can <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/epi.html">survive and infect for months or years</a> to come.</p>
<p>Once in the human body, both hookworm and roundworm larvae can mature and migrate through the bloodstream into the lungs. From there, coughs help them gain access to <a href="https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/parasitic-infections-nematodes-roundworms/hookworm-infection">the digestive tract of their host</a>, where they leach nutrients by attaching to the intestinal wall. People with healthy immune systems may show no clinical signs of infection, but in sufficient quantities these parasites <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/hookworm/disease.html">can lead to anemia and malnourishment</a>. They can even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revmed.2015.12.023">cause an intestinal obstruction</a> which may require surgical intervention, especially in young children.</p>
<p>Additionally, larval stages of roundworms <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2020.01.001">can move into the human eye</a> and, in rare cases, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/disease.html">lead to permanent blindness</a>. Hookworms can create a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/zoonotichookworm/disease.html">severely itchy condition called cutaneous larva migrans</a> <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/cutaneous-larva-migrans">as the larval worm moves</a> just under the skin of its host.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="about a dozen little white worms next to a wooden match" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571669/original/file-20240126-27-e6h7di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult hookworms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/adult-hookworms-of-a-dog-in-the-institute-for-parasitology-news-photo/162781943">Agency-Animal-Picture via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Once the parasite’s life cycle is complete, it may exit the host’s body as an intact adult worm, which looks like a small piece of cooked spaghetti.</p>
<h2>The impact on other animals</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0195-5616(87)50005-5">Dogs and cats can also develop</a> the same symptoms people do due to parasitic infections. In addition to risks of hookworms and roundworms, pets are also vulnerable to whipworm, giardia and coccidia.</p>
<p>Beyond parasites, unattended poop may also be contaminated with canine or feline viruses, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108760">such as parvovirus</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-72-160422-6/50016-4">distemper virus and canine coronavirus</a>, that can create life-threatening disease in other dogs and cats, especially in adult animals that are unvaccinated and puppies and kittens.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/pet-owners/petcare/canine-distemper">These viruses</a> <a href="https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/pet-owners/petcare/canine-parvovirus">attack rapidly dividing cells</a>, in particular the intestinal lining and bone marrow, leaving them unable to absorb nutrients appropriately and unable to produce replacement red and white blood cells that help defend against these and other viruses. Vaccination can protect pets.</p>
<p>Many species of local wildlife are within the canid and felid family groups. They, too, are susceptible to many of the same parasites and viruses as pet dogs and cats – while being much less likely to have received the benefit of vaccinations. Coyotes, wolves, foxes, raccoons, minks and bobcats are <a href="https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/parvovirus#:%7E:text=Parvoviruses%20are%20capable%20of%20infecting,infect%20domestic%20cats%20and%20dogs">at risk of contracting parvovirus</a>, coronavirus <a href="https://vtfishandwildlife.com/learn-more/living-with-wildlife/wildlife-diseases/canine-distemper">and distemper</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="person dropping a bag of dog poop into bin with dog watching" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571667/original/file-20240126-15-giuwd9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Be prepared to deal with poop on every walk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teenager-putting-a-filled-biodegradable-dog-poop-royalty-free-image/1335287112">Elva Etienne/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Responsible pet poop management</h2>
<p>So, wherever your dog or cat relieves himself – at the park, in the woods, on the sidewalk, or even in your yard – pick up that poop but always avoid contact with your skin. It’s safest to use a shovel to place the poop directly into a plastic bag, or put a baggie over your hand to grab the poop and then pull the plastic bag over it. While it’s tempting to leave the “soft-serve” or watery poops behind, these are often the more likely culprits for spreading diseases.</p>
<p>Tie up the bag and make sure to place it in a trash can – not on top – to avoid inadvertent contamination of a neighbor or sanitation worker. Promptly <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/handwashing/when-how-handwashing.html">wash your hands</a>, particularly before touching your face or eating or drinking. Hand sanitizers can take care of many viruses on your skin, but they <a href="https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2016.54.1.103">won’t kill parasite eggs</a>.</p>
<p>Other potential sources of poop – and parasite – exposure are the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/1994/786090">sandbox, beaches and park sand</a> found under and around playgrounds. Sand is comfortable to lounge on, fun to construct into castles, and softens the impact if you fall off a play structure. But cats and other small mammals love to use it as a litter box since it’s easy to dig and absorbs moisture. Covering sandboxes when not in use and closely monitoring your environment at the beach and playground are key steps toward minimizing the risks of exposure for everyone.</p>
<p>By <a href="https://capcvet.org/guidelines">keeping your pets on regular parasite prevention</a> protocols, with annual testing for intestinal parasites and routine removal of fecal material from the environment, you can help to minimize the potential for these diseases among all the mammals in your environment – human, pet and wild.</p>
<p>Key points to remember to avoid parasites and minimize the impact on your ecosystem:</p>
<ul>
<li>Pick waste up and safely throw it out regardless of where your pet poops. Sanitize your hands afterward.</li>
<li>Wash your hands before eating or touching your face while gardening or working in the yard.</li>
<li>Avoid rinsing poop into the soil. Using rain or a garden hose only removes the visible mess, not the microscopic issues.</li>
<li>Make sure sandboxes are covered when not in use.</li>
<li>Keep your pets on <a href="https://capcvet.org/guidelines">monthly intestinal parasite deworming</a> schedules.</li>
<li>Have your vet test your pet’s poop annually for intestinal parasites.</li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216975/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Wuerz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The signs that remind you to pick up after your pet are not just trying to keep public spaces clean; they’re urging you to help safeguard your community’s health.
Julia Wuerz, Clinical Assistant Professor of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, University of Florida
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/221536
2024-02-02T16:35:54Z
2024-02-02T16:35:54Z
There are benefits to sharing a bed with your pet – as long as you’re scrupulously clean
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573096/original/file-20240202-19-bguuni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C7%2C4848%2C3759&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Should your dog share your bed? Some owners have better quality sleep alongside their furry friends</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/small-boy-asleep-with-his-pet-dog-circa-1950-news-photo/110169318?adppopup=true">Keystone View/FPG/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When heading off for a night’s slumber, does your pet follow? Perhaps the cat curls up at the end of your bed. Maybe the dog dives under the duvet or pops their head on your pillow. Alternatively, your pet might have their own devoted sleeping space.</p>
<p>But if you do share your bed with Fluffy or Fido, what what does science suggest is best practice?</p>
<p>Pets increasingly have new roles and expectations in society. Dogs, cats and a multitude of other companion animal species have become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2019.1621516">family members</a>, a role far removed from their original purposes as <a href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/paij/vol1/iss1/6/">protectors, hunting partners</a>, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0171593">pest-exterminators</a> and in some cases, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10460-021-10272-4">food sources</a>.</p>
<p>Owners now spend much more time in close contact with their pets, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124300">confers many benefits</a>. Positive associations with pets are linked with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1295517/">improved health</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122085">social contact</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1196199">physical activity</a>, and decreased perceptions of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02332-9">loneliness</a>.</p>
<p>While people typically share living spaces with their pets, sharing beds is a much more intimate proposition. Nevertheless, <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/2/10-1070_article">research shows</a> that of the estimated 90 million European households who own a least one pet, 45% of dogs and 60% of cats are allowed on the bed – and 18% of dogs and 30% of cats sleep with their owner inside the covers. </p>
<p>While it might be enjoyable and relaxing to share resting time with your pet, it could come with risks to pet and human health, not to mention impacts on sleep hygiene and human relationships too.</p>
<h2>Disturbed Sleep</h2>
<p>One challenge of sharing your bed with your pet could be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.06.014">disturbed sleep</a>. The movement of sleeping partners (two or four-legged) may lead to reduced sleep efficiency, although a bed large enough to accommodate all can mitigate this. </p>
<p>Encouraging your pet to sleep elsewhere, but within the bedroom could also be beneficial if sleep disturbance is affecting your wellbeing. Our pets also need <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0163620">quality sleep</a>, so their own sleeping space might be good for them too.</p>
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<p>But shared sleeping areas can have positives. Many owners like to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352721820303053">sleep with their pets</a>, who can offer companionship, security and even warmth. More than 80% of dogs examined in studies preferred to be <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/7/1172#B3-animals-10-01172">close to people at night</a>, suggesting a mutual benefit. Different species of pets also appear to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0237822">spend time resting together</a>, so if you have a multi-pet household, all might enjoy shared sleeping.</p>
<h2>Bed bugs</h2>
<p>Pets sometimes bring unwanted guests into our homes such as fleas, ticks, mites and lice. These ectoparasites might <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/zph.12369">hop from our pets to us</a> and either cause transient or more prolonged irritation. In extreme cases, they can transmit other, potentially serious diseases such as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-abstract/136/4/489/2189513?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">plague</a> or <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jcm.34.8.1952-1956.1996">“cat scratch disease”</a>, an infection caused by bacteria in cat saliva.</p>
<p>Pets often also harbour <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/2/10-1070_article#r2">internal parasites</a> such as the roundworm Toxocara canis – a parasite that affects both cats and dogs – some of which can be passed to humans, resulting in illness. Microscopic eggs that can cause infection can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304401709002003?via%3Dihub">carried on the fur of our pets</a> and close contact increases the potential of spread between pets and people.</p>
<p>The potential for other disease-causing organisms including bacteria, viruses and fungi to spread between our pets and us is also of concern, especially <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/36/2/e26/317343?login=false">antibiotic-resistant bacteria</a> such as <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/10/1110">MRSA</a>. Indeed, we can even share infections with our pets – <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11357-020-00248-3">including COVID-19</a> – so it’s not all one-sided.</p>
<h2>Allergies and injuries</h2>
<p>Sharing intimate contact with pets does raise the potential for <a href="https://doc.woah.org/dyn/portal/index.xhtml?page=alo&aloId=36892">increasing allergic responses or injury risk</a>. Minor, unintentional injuries such as scratches can occur. Contact with dust and dander from pet hair can be prolonged when in close proximity. This material can also <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3164.2010.00882.x">accumulate in the environment</a>, potentially increasing the risk of allergic reactions.</p>
<p>Some pets may <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0168159195010084">develop behavioural concerns</a> such as separation-related behaviours as a result of sharing intimate spaces and prolonged contact with their human. Conversely, some owners choose to allow their pet access to sleeping areas to <a href="https://humanimalia.org/article/view/9930">reduce problem behaviours</a> such as door scratching or nighttime vocalising. Fair, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97743-0">consistent training</a> and expectations between a pet and their owner can go a long way to mitigate any such concerns, no matter where a pet sleeps.</p>
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<h2>Keeping it clean</h2>
<p>If you do share your bed with your pet, good hygiene and regular cleaning is a must. Advice suggests that at <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-61259074">least weekly washing</a> of bed sheets is good practice. If you share your bed with pets, washing bedclothes <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/best-sheets/how-to-wash-sheets">every three to four days</a> is suggested.</p>
<p>The fur and feet of our pets can be <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/10/1149">contaminated with dirt and pathogens</a> too. This leads to potential contamination “hotspots” in sleeping areas. Bacteria from faeces was <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/10/1149">isolated from the paws of 86% of dogs</a> in one study. Cleaning pet paws after being outdoors is a good strategy to reduce contamination risk. </p>
<p>Regular grooming and bathing (when appropriate) is <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2022.827348/full#B1">important for pet health monitoring</a> and wellbeing. It can also support a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195561695501263?via%3Dihub">positive human-pet bond</a> and reduce the potential for spreading potential infection.</p>
<p>The use of <a href="https://www.bsava.com/position-statement/parasite-control/">anti-parasitic treatments</a> under veterinary advice can also minimise the carriage and spread of internal and external parasites to pet owners and other pets.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-might-your-dog-live-new-study-calculates-life-expectancy-for-different-breeds-222446">How long might your dog live? New study calculates life expectancy for different breeds</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>It’s bedtime</h2>
<p>Whether you choose to share your bed with your pet depends on a number of factors, including lifestyle, health and even the relationship with your pet.</p>
<p>Balancing the potential downsides of sharing a bed with your pet, with possible benefits is important to assess whether it is a good choice for you or not. Indeed, sleep disruption due to bed-sharing with pets is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025619615006746">not as detrimental to sleep quality</a> as often thought.</p>
<p>With good hygiene and management, the choice to share your sleep with your pet might just give you both a great night’s sleep.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221536/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline Boyd is affiliated with The Kennel Club (UK) through membership, as Chair of the Activities Health and Welfare Subgroup and member of the Dog Health Group. Jacqueline is a full member of the Association of Pet Dog Trainers (APDT #01583) and she also writes, consults and coaches on canine matters on an independent basis, in addition to her academic affiliation at Nottingham Trent University.</span></em></p>
While some people blanch at the thought of bed-sharing bed with a pet, others can’t sleep without their animal companions – an expert explains the pros and cons of sharing a bed with a pet (or two).
Jacqueline Boyd, Senior Lecturer in Animal Science, Nottingham Trent University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/208367
2024-02-02T13:19:41Z
2024-02-02T13:19:41Z
Training an animal? An ethicist explains how and why your dog − but not your frog − can be punished
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571993/original/file-20240129-15-anu9es.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C3%2C2114%2C1406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Only one of these guys deserves to be in timeout.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pekingese-and-bullfrog-first-meeting-royalty-free-image/538018993?phrase=frog+dog&adppopup=true">Wild Horse Photography/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People talk to their pets every day: offering praise when they’re good, reassurance when they’re confused and affection when they’re cuddling. We also speak to animals when they misbehave. “Why did you do that?” someone might ask their dog. Or we might scold the cat – “Don’t touch that!” – as we move a family heirloom across the room.</p>
<p>But is it ever appropriate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/05568641.2018.1563499">to punish or rebuke an animal</a>? </p>
<p>When people talk about “punishment,” this implies more than a loss of privileges. The term suggests someone <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2265412">is being asked to learn a lesson</a> after breaking a rule they can understand. But an animal’s understanding is different from a human’s, which raises questions about what lessons they can learn and what, if any, rebukes of animals are ethical.</p>
<p>These issues involve what researchers know about different animals’ cognition. But they also go beyond this by raising questions about <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/kant-and-animals-9780198859918?cc=us&lang=en&#">what kind of moral standing animals have</a> and how people who interact with animals should train them.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://philosophy.utk.edu/people/jon-garthoff/">an ethical theorist</a>, I’ve explored these and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683211065921">related questions</a>, including with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000200">some of my colleagues in psychology</a> and anthropology. I would argue it is important to distinguish three types of learning: conditioning, instruction and education.</p>
<h2>Conditioning</h2>
<p>One type of learning, called “classical conditioning,” <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/pavlovian-conditioning">was popularized by the psychologist Ivan Pavlov</a> just after the turn of the 20th century. By repeatedly ringing a bell while presenting food, Pavlov famously induced dogs to salivate from the bell ring alone. Such learning proceeds merely from associating two types of stimuli: a sound and a snack, in this case. </p>
<p>When scientists talk about punishment, they normally mean “operant conditioning,” which was <a href="https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.55072">popularized by the psychologists Edward Thorndike</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1939-00056-000">B. F. Skinner</a> shortly thereafter. In operant conditioning, positive or pleasurable stimuli are used to reinforce desired behavior, and negative or painful stimuli are used to deter undesired behavior. We may give a dog a treat, for example, to reward it for following a command to sit.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A girl with colorful bracelets and a white t-shirt holds a white mouse eating cheese." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572216/original/file-20240130-19-rahaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reward for a job well done.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-hamster-eating-cheese-in-a-girls-hands-royalty-free-image/695407204?phrase=mouse+cheese&adppopup=true">Sol de Zuasnabar Brebbia/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The kind of learning that operant conditioning aims to achieve, however, lacks a crucial ingredient of human punishment: responsibility. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1143080">When people punish</a>, it is not just to discourage an undesired behavior. They are trying to drive home that <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/monist196852436">someone has transgressed</a> – that <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/jphil197875114">the individual’s behavior merits punishment</a>.</p>
<p>But can nonhuman animals transgress? Do they ever deserve rebuke? I would argue they do – but with key differences from human wrongdoing. </p>
<h2>Instruction</h2>
<p>Training for many animals, such as horses and dogs, goes beyond conditioning. It involves a more sophisticated kind of learning: instruction.</p>
<p>One important way instruction differs from conditioning is that an instructor addresses their trainee. Pet owners and animal trainers speak to cats and dogs, and though these animals have no knowledge of grammar, <a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-your-dog-can-understand-what-youre-saying-to-a-point-173953">they can understand what many human words refer to</a>. Caretakers also often listen to their animals’ vocalizations in an attempt to understand their meaning.</p>
<p>To be sure, people condition cats and dogs – consider spraying a cat with water when it nibbles on a houseplant. The goal is for the cat to associate an off-limits snack with an unpleasant experience, and so to leave the plant alone.</p>
<p>But training pets can go beyond changing their behavior. It can aim to improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528272.003.0007">animals’ ability to reason about what to do</a>: a trainer teaches a dog how to navigate an agility course, for example, or how to get through a new pet door. Instruction involves understanding, whereas learning based on mere conditioning does not.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A fluffy orange cat sits on a coffee table, staring intently at a potted plant next to it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572210/original/file-20240130-29-qehghc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t do it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cute-ginger-cat-on-table-indoors-royalty-free-image/1793454702?phrase=cat+plant+eat&adppopup=true">Yuliia Kokosha/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An animal’s ability to be instructed stems from the nature of their mental life. Scientists do not know exactly which animals’ cognition <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/65.1.289">involves understanding</a>, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/5827/5827-h/5827-h.htm">genuine problem-solving and the ability to reason or infer</a>.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262514620/vision/">research on perception</a> – on how humans and other animals <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1520-8583.2007.00124.x">convert sensory information</a> into <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199581405.001.0001">mental representations of physical objects</a> – has helped philosophers and psychologists distinguish thought from more basic mental capacities such as vision and hearing.</p>
<p>It is extremely likely that some nonhuman animals – including dolphins, apes and elephants – do think, as <a href="https://liberalarts.tamu.edu/philosophy/profile/gary-varner/">philosopher Gary Varner</a> argued in the 2012 book “<a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/6454">Personhood, Ethics, and Animal Cognition</a>.” My research suggests the distinction between thinking and nonthinking animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/05568641.2018.1563499">tracks well with the distinction</a> between animals that can be instructed and those that can, at most, be conditioned. </p>
<p>This difference is crucial to how different pets should be treated. An owner <a href="https://jesp.org/index.php/jesp/article/view/52">should have concern for their pet frog</a>, of course, <a href="https://rintintin.colorado.edu/%7Evancecd/phil308/Anderson.pdf">and care for its needs</a>. But they do not need to recognize the frog the same way they should recognize a dog: by addressing it, listening to it and comforting it. </p>
<p>Though an owner may rebuke the dog to hold it responsible for its actions, they must also hold themselves responsible to the animal, including by considering how the pet has interpreted events.</p>
<h2>Education</h2>
<p>Some nonhuman animals have demonstrated <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/6454">impressive cognitive abilities</a> in experimental settings, such as recognizing their bodies in mirrors and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_743">recalling past experiences</a>. Some birds, for example, display sensitivity to details about food they have cached, such as its perishability and how long ago it was stored.</p>
<p>Still, scientists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012273965-1/50016-9">do not possess strong evidence</a> that animals have <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3131086">critical thinking abilities</a> or <a href="https://www.pdcnet.org/jphil/content/jphil_2011_0108_40701_0287_0315">a concept of self</a>, the key requirements for genuine education. Unlike conditioning and instruction, education aims to enable a learner to explain the world, to evaluate and debate rationales for decisions. It also prepares people to ask – and to try to answer – ethical questions like, “How should I live” and “Was that action justified?”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman with long black hair in shorts and a tank top sits as she talks and holds the hands of a young boy who also wears a tank top and shorts." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572207/original/file-20240130-21-8s9des.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning not just what not to do but why.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-teaches-her-son-a-difficult-lesson-royalty-free-image/1325618731?phrase=parenting+toddler+share+upset&adppopup=true">FatCamera/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A cat or dog cannot pose these questions. Much of the time, human beings do not concern themselves with these questions, either – but they can. In fact, caretakers pay great attention to these matters during child-rearing, as when they ask children, “How would you like it if someone did that to you” or “Do you really think it’s OK to act that way?” </p>
<p>Assuming that animals do not reflect and criticize, and therefore are not capable of education, I would say that they have no <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/jphil20111086/716">moral obligations</a>. It is fair to say a pet has transgressed, since animals such as dogs and cats can come to understand how to act better. But morally speaking, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198753858.001.0001">an animal cannot commit wrongdoing</a>, for it lacks a conscience: It may understand some of its behavior, but not its own mind.</p>
<p>In my view, addressing an animal and acting with an understanding of how it interprets events is central to the ethical training of pets. But if someone treats an animal as though it were responsible for justifying itself to us, as though it could offer excuses and apologies, they anthropomorphize the animal and ask too much of it. Pet owners often do this in a mock way, saying things like, “Now you know you shouldn’t have done that” – the same phrases they might use with a child. </p>
<p>Unlike a child, however, the animal’s transgression is not a failure to fulfill a moral obligation. In human relationships we aspire to relations of mutual justification, where reasons are exchanged and excuses and apologies evaluated. But that’s not the nature of our relationships with our pets – however tempted we may be to think otherwise.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208367/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jon Garthoff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Questions about how to ethically train different kinds of pets depend on the nature of those animals’ inner lives and their abilities to learn.
Jon Garthoff, Professor of Philosophy, University of Tennessee
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/220838
2024-01-16T20:51:12Z
2024-01-16T20:51:12Z
Remembered by our pets: More animals are getting a mention in obituaries
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569427/original/file-20240115-15-82sgl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C30%2C6700%2C5022&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Over the years, more obituaries have grown longer, providing more room to mention a person's pets, hobbies and passions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Animals occupy many different roles in our lives. Some consider them members of the family, while others appreciate the reminder to take daily walks.</p>
<p>From <a href="https://theconversation.com/service-dogs-play-vital-roles-for-veterans-but-canadas-lack-of-standards-makes-travel-and-access-difficult-219470">service dogs</a> and <a href="https://a-z-animals.com/blog/animals-that-have-been-made-into-service-animals/">emotional support animals</a> to the pet waiting to greet us at the front door, animals can bring joy, comfort and companionship to our lives. So naturally, these relationships that form throughout our lives would continue — or at least be commemorated — in death.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/this-humane-society-needs-a-bigger-home-what-happens-to-the-650-pets-buried-in/article_b25eba3a-99f7-11ee-a7f5-473bdce48588.html"><em>Toronto Star</em></a> recently reported on efforts to excavate and move over 600 animals from an Oakville, Ont. pet cemetery. As that story highlighted, and as <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/46086/">many others will note</a>, burying, embalming or cremating animals is hardly a new practice. These funerary practices offer ways to honour a pet and everything they meant to us.</p>
<p>But what about when the owner dies first? As it turns out, animals are more frequently getting mentioned in the obituaries of their human companions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A smiling woman carries a bulldog" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569423/original/file-20240115-67455-vfr8d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From service dogs and emotional support animals to the pet waiting to greet us at the front door, animals can bring joy, comfort and companionship.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How obituaries are changing</h2>
<p>Writing an obituary is one of the many practices people conduct when a loved one dies. Formerly, they were reserved for society’s elite, but the <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203015964">democratization of the obituary</a> has resulted in more people being memorialized in this way.</p>
<p>We write obituaries for different purposes. Some of these are purely practical; to announce that someone died, or invite family and friends to the funeral.</p>
<p>More importantly though, obituaries give the bereaved a chance to tell a story about someone they loved. Who were they? What did they enjoy? What were their values?</p>
<p>As one of the studies within the <a href="https://nonreligionproject.ca/">Nonreligion in a Complex Future</a> project, our team has <a href="https://nonreligionproject.ca/obituaries/">analyzed Canadian obituaries</a> over the last century to understand transformations in how people commemorate the dead. As it turns out, animals are appearing more frequently with each passing year.</p>
<p>As recently as 1990, not a single one of the 53 obituaries published on a given Saturday in the <em>Toronto Star</em> mentioned any pets. This steadily started to change, however. We learn that, in 1991, Harriet will be “sadly missed by all of her friends and animals.” Likewise, Berton — who died in 1998 — was “sadly missed by his ‘good boy Scamp.’”</p>
<p>By the mid-2000s, roughly one to four per cent of obituaries mentioned pets. Since 2015, this number has climbed as high as 15 per cent.</p>
<p>Granted, these figures are not exactly overwhelming. In a sample from 1980 to 2022 containing 3,241 obituaries, only 79 mention animals. However, this minor uptick points to a transformation in how people compose obituaries.</p>
<h2>Telling personal stories</h2>
<p>Our research shows that, since the early 1900s, obituaries have grown progressively longer. The old standard was short notices stating the deceased’s name, age and where they died — all in the space of about four lines. In recent years, the mean length has grown to around 40 lines, with some reaching over 100 lines.</p>
<p>This added space leaves room for more information about the deceased. For example, over 80 per cent of recent obituaries mention the deceased’s children. This is up from about 50 per cent prior to 1960.</p>
<p>Recent obituaries are also more likely to mention the deceased’s education, occupation or hobbies. Beyond just listing attributes, it is common to see rich, detailed descriptions. Rather than be defined by their job title, we read that one man was “a dedicated visionary who remained proud of and loyal to his many employees and colleagues.”</p>
<h2>Our furry friends</h2>
<p>As obituaries grow longer and more detailed, it only seems fair that animals get some attention. It has become more common to mention someone’s pet, or love of animals. Passages also grow more detailed. Beyond the pet’s name, we learn whether they were a “hoity-toity poodle,” a “loyal companion” or “the best dog ever.”</p>
<p>Occupation is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2015.1056562">another staple of obituaries</a>. For Mary, who died in 2019, a career highlight while working at Nestle Purina was “inducting various heroic pets and service dogs into the Purina Hall of Fame.” Not just a professional passion; Mary also had six black Labradors at home.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13576275.2020.1784122">Hobbies and interests</a> are becoming more common in death notices. For Bobby, these included “sitting in his garden with his dog, Chloe” and “being entertained by his beloved parrot, Pookie.”</p>
<p>Rather than send the family flowers, many obituaries now close by requesting <a href="https://www.lovetoknow.com/life/grief-loss/lieu-flowers-wording-ideas-etiquette">donations in the deceased’s memory</a>. Unsurprisingly, groups like the <a href="https://ontariospca.ca/">Humane Society</a>, the <a href="https://www.farleyfoundation.org/">Farley Foundation</a> and various nature conservancy groups are growing in popularity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A smiling golden retriever" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569428/original/file-20240115-67455-4xa2ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It has become more common to mention someone’s pet or their love of animals in their obituary.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The new ways we grieve</h2>
<p>This trend in death notices hints at a broader societal shift. Namely, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/socrel/article-abstract/78/1/9/3053446">people are placing greater value on nature</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00377686231170993">non-human animals</a>. The reasons behind this turn are varied and complex. But the evidence — in <a href="https://doi.org/10.2752/175303713X13636846944204">obituaries</a> and <a href="https://nonreligionproject.ca/trekking/">beyond</a> — suggests people are finding meaningful connection through the natural world and with other-than-human creatures.</p>
<p>Animals aside, obituaries also reveal important transformations in how we commemorate the dead. These were once brief, formulaic texts (and some still are). But more frequently, obituaries are windows into the life of a person. They can be <a href="https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/an-ontario-woman-s-scathing-obituary-for-her-dad-raises-questions-do-we-have-to/article_aaaf6d28-0224-5c9a-9eaa-c124482e04bc.html">sad or tragic</a>, but also <a href="https://www.lex18.com/news/he-up-and-died-on-us-sons-hilarious-obituary-goes-viral">funny, sarcastic and heartwarming</a>.</p>
<p>Above all, obituaries are now more personal. To commemorate the lasting memory of someone they loved, families want to share with the world what made that person special. This can be told through the activities, people or pets that brought them joy throughout their lives. For some, this means cheering for their favourite hockey team, or recalling the time they scored a hole-in-one, and, often, the furry friend they curled up with at the end of a long day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220838/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Miller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Writing an obituary is one of the many things people do when a loved one dies. And animals are more frequently mentioned in the obituaries of their human companions.
Chris Miller, Postdoctoral fellow, Nonreligion in a Complex Future project, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/218033
2024-01-15T00:27:05Z
2024-01-15T00:27:05Z
TikTok says orange cats are ‘dumb’, and tortoiseshell cats have ‘an attitude’. But how true is that?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560110/original/file-20231117-29-fv986f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C5048%2C3340&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve watched cat videos on social media lately, you may have encountered the idea a <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@shop2daybycbph/video/7227729130438069509?is_from_webapp=1&sender_device=pc&web_id=7311132537870452242">cat’s coat colour</a> tells us something about their personality. </p>
<p>Orange cats are supposedly “dumb”, always <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@winniegingercat/video/7235730348087299333?is_from_webapp=1&sender_device=pc&web_id=7311132537870452242">falling off beds</a> or getting themselves stuck in awkward places. Tortoiseshell cats are often said to have a strong-willed attitude (sometimes referred to as “<a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@shop2daybycbph/video/7227729130438069509?is_from_webapp=1&web_id=7311132537870452242">tortitude</a>”). <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@thisisdhayes/video/7167064678177295662?q=black%20cats%20smarter&t=1702356432918">Black</a> cats are “smarter”, if social media is to be believed.</p>
<p>The idea a cat’s personality is linked to their coat colour isn’t new. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/judging-a-cat-wrongly-by-the-color-of-its-coat-97549864/">In 2012</a> a study of human perceptions of cats reported people generally believe ginger cats are friendly, while tortoiseshell cats are seen as aloof and intolerant. </p>
<p>It’s important to note this is a reflection people <em>believe</em>, rather than how cats <em>are</em>. So what does the research actually say?</p>
<h2>Surveys on cat personality are filled out by people</h2>
<p>Research suggests that cats, like people, have different personality types. One study proposed the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0183455">“feline five”</a> personality traits for cats: neuroticism, extraversion, dominance, impulsiveness and agreeableness. </p>
<p>The researchers linked “neuroticism” in cats with being anxious, insecure, fearful of people and tense. Cats low in neuroticism were associated with being stable, trusting, calm and self-assured. </p>
<p>Cats categorised as impulsive scored highly for being erratic, reckless and distractible, while those low in impulsivity were considered to be predictable and constrained.</p>
<p>You might get a sense from these studies that these are not terms cats would choose for themselves, and you’d be right. </p>
<p>Surveys on cat personality are filled out by people. As such, results are affected by human perspectives, projections and biases. </p>
<p>Indeed, a review of methods used to define <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/9/1516">personality in cats</a> concluded studies reporting differences in personality due to coat colour were likely to be affected by owner bias. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three kittens - one orange, one grey and one calico - frolic in grass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Studies reporting differences in personality due to cat coat colour were likely to be affected by owner bias.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/three-kittens-different-colors-on-grass-2118477416">Irina Makushina/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Breed personality</h2>
<p>Instead of colour, it’s possible breed is more important when it comes to cat personality.</p>
<p>One <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44324-x">study</a> found British Shorthair cats were least likely to seek human contact, while Korat and Devon Rex cats were most likely.</p>
<p>Another study, however, found <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44324-x">substantial variation exists within breeds</a>, suggesting a cat’s breed may not fully explain personality.</p>
<p>Both of these studies were once again survey-based and so, again, human bias is likely affecting the results. </p>
<h2>If it’s not coat or breed, what else is it?</h2>
<p>Genetics is not the only factor influencing personality. The environment and how an animal is raised also has a big effect.</p>
<p>If kittens are not socialised with people by the age of <a href="https://vetfocus.royalcanin.com/en/scientific/feline-developmental-stages">around nine weeks</a>, they are more likely to be anxious and shy around humans and other animals. </p>
<p>Whether your cat was hand-reared, purchased from a breeder or found in a box, they will likely behave differently depending on time spent with their mother.</p>
<p>In reality, humans tend to ascribe certain meanings to particular behavioural traits.</p>
<p>For instance, if a cat is fearful, they may come across as lacking intelligence because they are less likely to interact with their environment in ways we recognise as “smart”. </p>
<p>On the flip side, confident cats comfortable in their environment may seem “dumb”, as they act in a carefree way that registers as “stupid” to the human eye. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange cat appears to be stuck inside a jar." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cat that is bold and confident may look ‘dumb’ to humans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/orange-tabby-cat-stuck-inside-glass-2109878690">perezoo/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Don’t judge a book by its cover – or a cat by it’s colour</h2>
<p>While funny social media videos linking personality with cat coat colour might be harmless, the biases they create can have more harmful results. For instance, black cats take longer to adopt <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/the-modern-heart/202010/3-reasons-people-dont-adopt-black-cats">from a shelter</a> than cats of other colours, and so are at higher risk of being euthanised. </p>
<p>Black animals are more difficult to photograph, meaning they may not look as attractive in adoption photos. Some people also believe black cats symbolise bad luck, or are associated with witchcraft or evil. Stereotypes of black cats being less friendly may also stem from facial expressions on darker fur being harder to read. </p>
<p>Before you dismiss this as speculation, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0033294119844982">a study</a> did confirm human bias against black cats using photos of cats of different colours.</p>
<p>We shouldn’t be surprised people make judgements about cats based on their coat colour. We also make judgements based on human hair colour – take the baseless “dumb blonde” and “fiery redhead” <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/speaking-in-tongues/202104/examination-stereotypes-about-hair-color#:%7E:text=Over%20time%2C%20specific%20hair%20colors,and%20redheads%20have%20fiery%20tempers.">stereotypes</a>, for example. </p>
<p>And just like with human stereotypes, putting our cats into arbitrary boxes isn’t useful for anyone.</p>
<p>Instead, it’s best to think of your cat, and any cat, as the individuals they are. </p>
<p>Cats are much more than their coats. People and cats <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(19)31086-3.pdf">form</a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/6/1601">close emotional bonds</a>.</p>
<p>A cat can be the reason somebody gets up in the morning. Cats can also be fiercely <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/cat-waiting-window-every-day-dead-owners-return-breaks-hearts-1736479">loyal</a>, unwavering companions, friends and family. Let’s not reduce their complex, wonderful individuality to just a colour or type.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Hazel receives funding from the Waltham FoundationTM and is a member of the Dog & Cat Management Board of South Australia, RSPCA South Australia and Animal Therapies Ltd. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Henning does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Surveys on cat personality are filled out by people. As such, results are affected by human perspectives, projections and biases.
Susan Hazel, Associate Professor, School of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide
Julia Henning, PhD Candidate, University of Adelaide
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/214947
2024-01-02T20:16:40Z
2024-01-02T20:16:40Z
Are catnip and treats like it safe for cats? Here’s how they affect their minds and moods
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566729/original/file-20231219-23-kvv5j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C3316%2C2209&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cat-eats-grass-263516882">Morozova Olga/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cats kept indoors can <a href="https://safeandhappycats.com.au/">live a good life</a> when they get access to a variety of positive experiences. Examples include performing natural behaviours, feeling safe at home and using their full sensory capabilities, including their sense of smell. </p>
<p>Plants such as catnip, cat thyme and silver vine are potent smelly stimulants that can affect cat minds and moods. </p>
<p>Ever wondered if these mind-altering substances are safe gifts for our feline friends? And importantly, is it OK to provide these, or is offering catnip to a cat like offering alcohol to a child?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A ginger tabby cat stands on a path, sniffing the flowers in a garden." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565931/original/file-20231215-19-9p8s8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The sense of smell is key to how our cats experience the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-tabby-cat-smelling-plants-blooming-2278887409">keldridge/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wont-my-cat-get-bored-if-i-keep-it-inside-heres-how-to-ensure-its-happy-214562">Won’t my cat get bored if I keep it inside? Here's how to ensure it's happy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Catnip, cat thyme and silver vine, oh my!</h2>
<p>Owners who are concerned about their cats feeling bored and frustrated might offer them fresh or dried catnip (<em>Nepeta cataria</em>), silver vine (<em>Actinidia polygama</em>), cat thyme (<em>Teucrium marum</em>) or other plant materials such as valerian (<em>Valeriana officinalis</em>) and Tatarian honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera tatarica</em>). These last couple <a href="https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-017-0987-6">could offer an alternative</a> if your cat doesn’t respond to catnip.</p>
<p>Toys filled with the leaves or extracts of these plants can cause apparently euphoric behaviour in domestic cats (as well as big cats like leopards and jaguars). Not all cats respond this way to these smells, which is <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-022-01369-1">believed to have a genetic basis</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white cat lies with a catnip toy in her front paws and tongue out." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565747/original/file-20231214-21-j2zry2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When cats encounter smelly treats, they might behave playfully, rubbing or rolling around.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anne Quain</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Are these treats safe for cats?</h2>
<p>Cats have a highly developed sense of smell. Some plants release chemical compounds to deter insects or to attract predators of insects that might otherwise destroy them. This includes <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aba0721">nepetalactone</a>, an ingredient isolated from catnip and silver vine.</p>
<p>Indeed, <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/why-cats-are-crazy-catnip">it has been argued </a> that exposure to nepetalactone leads to an increase in feel-good hormones in cats. It may also act as a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abd9135">natural mosquito repellent</a> (note that it does not repel all mosquitoes and is not effective for flea or tick control).</p>
<p>This may be why sniffing catnip, silver vine and some other plants causes cats to roll on their backs and rub their chins, cheeks and bodies on the plants. Other <a href="https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-017-0987-6">observed behaviours</a> include: licking, shaking their head while carrying plant material in their mouth, drooling, kicking the plant material with their hind feet, and a “wavelike” motion of the skin over their backs as muscles contract and relax. </p>
<p>These responses <a href="https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-017-0987-6">generally don’t last long</a>, usually seconds to minutes, before cats relax or resume their normal behaviour. </p>
<p>Rather than becoming addicted to these substances, cats are more likely to become habituated and desensitised, with the plants having less effect over time. When sniffed, these plants <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(23)01925-9">appear</a> to have <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-022-01369-1">no adverse effects</a> on cats. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yNUz4zQTA1E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Cats (and a dog!) react to the active compound in catnip and silver vine, nepetalactone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-actually-is-catnip-and-is-it-safe-for-my-cat-160961">What actually is catnip and is it safe for my cat?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is it ethical to alter the minds of our cats?</h2>
<p>When considering how to improve the lives of animals we care for, we tend to focus on whether the benefits outweigh the potential harms. </p>
<p>Despite some marketing claims that these plants activates the brain’s opioid system, delivering a “natural high” for cats, there is no evidence these substances actually alter the minds of cats in the same way as alcohol or other drugs alter the minds of humans. </p>
<p>The marketing of these cat treats as “kitty crack” or “<a href="https://www.meowijuana.com/">meowijuana</a>” and silver vine sticks as “<a href="https://www.nekopiapets.com.au/product-page/joycat-cat-cigarettes-silvervine-stick">kitty cigarettes</a>” is likely to deter some people from offering their cats <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-022-01369-1">this kind of olfactory stimulation</a>. </p>
<p>Unlike offering alcohol to a child, though, the evidence suggests our cats are OK when given access to these treats. These items won’t induce psychosis and won’t lead to addiction or withdrawal symptoms. And we don’t need to worry about our cats operating heavy machinery or making important decisions under the influence of mind-altering substances! </p>
<p>Provided they can walk away at any time, it seems reasonable to let them opt in to a fun time. </p>
<p>In fact, we harness the power of cats’ sense of smell in other ways by using <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6435919/">synthetic feline facial pheromones</a>. This can help reduce fear, anxiety and distress in cats. These substances can come in useful in settings such as multi-cat households or when moving house.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A tabby and white cat sniffs a pine branch being held above her head. On the ground are a range of other items from the garden brought in for her to explore." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565935/original/file-20231215-17-luaw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Give cats the choice to interact with a range of positive experiences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/curious-cat-sniffing-pine-branch-leaves-2393598557">DimaBerlin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-unethical-to-give-your-cat-catnip-107774">Is it unethical to give your cat catnip?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How to make sure your cat has the purr-fect time</h2>
<p>Offering a range of smells (olfactory stimulation) is just one way to ensure your cat has a varied and interesting life. Here are some tips:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>offer cats choices to interact with treats and toys – don’t force them</p></li>
<li><p>rotate the toys and experiences on offer, so every day offers something fresh</p></li>
<li><p>offer items that cats can scratch – scratching posts and corrugated cardboard are popular items</p></li>
<li><p>if you are concerned your cat has swallowed part of a toy or seems unwell, check in with your vet.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Given the short-lived effects of these plant-based olfactory stimulants on cats, it is important that we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159119301054">optimise their environment, lifestyle and interactions</a> with humans to improve their welfare. We can’t just rely on catnip or silver vine to give our cats a good life indoors – it’s really up to us!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Quain is on the NSW Committee of the Australian Veterinary Association. She is also a committee member of the Humane Society Veterinary Medical Association, the Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists Animal Welfare chapter, the European College of Animal Welfare and Behaviour Medicine, and consults to veterinary and animal welfare organisations regarding Animal Welfare Science, Ethics and Law. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mia Cobb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Are plant-based treats like catnip, cat thyme and silver vine safe for cats? And it it ethical to use them?
Mia Cobb, Research Fellow, Animal Welfare Science Centre, The University of Melbourne
Anne Quain, Senior Lecturer, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/214562
2023-12-31T20:27:16Z
2023-12-31T20:27:16Z
Won’t my cat get bored if I keep it inside? Here’s how to ensure it’s happy
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558540/original/file-20231109-29-vwnjah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4209%2C2802&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-playing-her-cat-1091697740">Dora Zett/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.ava.com.au/policy-advocacy/policies/companion-animals-management-and-welfare/management-of-cats-in-australia/">Australian</a> and <a href="https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/avma-policies/free-roaming-abandoned-and-feral-cats">American Veterinary Medical Association</a>s recommend keeping cats indoors because <a href="https://catprotection.org.au/cat-care-factsheets/factsheet-indoor-cats/">they</a>, and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR19174">wildlife</a>, will be safer. </p>
<p>However, a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal-welfare/article/is-boredom-an-animal-welfare-concern/A5950E90CF0115371237B808901F08EE">boring indoor environment</a> may not meet a cat’s need for mental stimulation. So how can we keep cats indoors in a way that will keep them safe <em>and</em> happy?</p>
<p>When considering animal welfare, the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/10/1870">Five Domains Model</a> is a good place to start. The five domains are: </p>
<ol>
<li>nutrition – cats need the right type and amounts of food and water</li>
<li>physical environment, including temperature, flooring, noise, light</li>
<li>health – injury, disease, impairment</li>
<li>behavioural interactions with people and other animals, which includes the ability to exercise agency – choosing to engage, or not, in a particular activity at a given moment</li>
<li>mental state, including feelings such as hunger, pain, fear and comfort, which is an overall assessment of the animal’s subjective welfare state. </li>
</ol>
<p>Keeping a cat indoors denies it the choice of being inside or outside. The sense of control an animal has over its life is an <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/4/1148">important aspect of its welfare</a>, so how can we compensate for this loss of agency? </p>
<p>Several ways to help meet your cat’s needs are available at various price points. Most help meet the cat’s behavioural needs. Some also touch on other needs like environment or nutrition. All will contribute to your cat’s wellbeing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/herding-cats-councils-efforts-to-protect-wildlife-from-roaming-pets-are-hampered-by-state-laws-200266">Herding cats: councils' efforts to protect wildlife from roaming pets are hampered by state laws</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Free solutions</h2>
<p>If you’re feeling the pinch of the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/social/coping-with-the-cost-of-living-crisis.htm">cost-of-living crisis</a>, you can still provide your cat with plenty of enrichment for free, or at very low cost. There are multiple options.</p>
<p><strong>Cat music</strong> has some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016815911500060X">scientific evidence</a> behind it and is available on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCexE_buPudSvs09YuaanyMQ">YouTube</a>. This will help meet their environmental needs.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DHjK8Xp_qvw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An example of the cat music available on YouTube.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1098612X16643753">Puzzle feeders</a></strong>, which you can buy or make yourself. Cats are predators, so they are biologically wired to work for their food. Puzzle feeders can be a good way to help meet this biological need.</p>
<p>These feeders don’t have to be expensive. One homemade example is an egg carton with the cat’s food inside and the lid closed, so the cat must find a way to open the carton to obtain the food. </p>
<p>Start with a simple puzzle, and gradually build to more complex puzzles. Only do puzzle feeding if your cat is a good eater and not underweight, though. This will help meet their nutritional and behavioural needs.</p>
<p><strong>Boxes</strong>, which cats love to sit in. This hiding behaviour <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159114002366">appears to reduce stress</a> Cats will even sit in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159121001258">boxes that don’t technically exist</a> – such as outlines on a floor. This will help meet their behavioural needs.</p>
<p><strong>Clicker training</strong> uses a small noise-making device to indicate that the animal has performed a desired behaviour. While more commonly known for dogs, it <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/7/10/73">can also be used in cats</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-you-should-train-your-cat-and-how-to-do-it-188307">Why you should train your cat – and how to do it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pEGKQwV5xQ0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Cats can benefit from the interest and activities that clicker training can provide.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>“Do as I do” training</strong> is another option. In this training style, the cat <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-020-01428-6#Sec2">learns to mimic your behaviour</a>, but in a species-appropriate way. For instance, if you stood on your tiptoes and raised your arms, your cat would stand on its hind legs and lift the front paws. This will be good for their behavioural needs.</p>
<p><strong>Playing</strong> with a pet cat for at least five minutes at a time has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787814000884?casa_token=lsGfCLMWlq4AAAAA:lrPRfggYHZ3HXBEue4DIgzL9pfMGcUNvg6IF_3dgy-qKWTkYim0zjH5FAmr8UdsLiedfEKdpHnp5">associated with reduced behaviour problems</a>, so play with them to help meet their needs.</p>
<p><strong>New objects/scents</strong> will help meet their environmental needs. Cats enjoy novelty as long as there is also plenty of predictability in their environment. Regularly bringing new things or scents like catnip into your home <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159122000430">may be interesting for your cat</a>.</p>
<p>For more ideas about enriching your cat’s life indoors, check out <a href="https://www.aspcapro.org/resource/5-free-or-darn-close-feline-enrichment-ideas">this website</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-catnip-and-treats-like-it-safe-for-cats-heres-how-they-affect-their-minds-and-moods-214947">Are catnip and treats like it safe for cats? Here's how they affect their minds and moods</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Moderate outlay</h2>
<p>If you’re tightening your belt but still have a little to invest in cat enrichment, there are lots of choices within the $10–$50 range to help meet the cat’s behavioural needs.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/2/258"><strong>Harness walks</strong></a> (perhaps after some patient training) let your cat spend time outdoors in a safe way and get exercise. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A girl walks her cat on a harness down a path" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558542/original/file-20231109-15-pz2e5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Using a harness is a way to safely walk your cat outdoors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/charming-white-british-cat-walks-spring-2165822391">Natasha Zakharova/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635716303424?via=ihub"><strong>Toys that move erratically</strong></a> are preferable to static toys. These can be toys that you move yourself such as a toy mouse that you move around on the floor. The movement may appeal to the cat’s predatory nature.</p>
<p><strong>Puzzle feeders</strong> can be made very cheaply (see above), but you can buy one too. It can provide interesting variety for cats, especially after they’ve had some puzzle experience. Again, only do this with cats who are good eaters and are not underweight.</p>
<p><strong>A scratching post</strong> should <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159120300800#tbl0015">ideally be vertical or inclined</a>, which are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/1098612X17733185">generally preferable</a> to horizontal surfaces. Chenille, rope or cardboard appear to be the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159122000430">preferred materials</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-my-cat-pee-on-the-rug-are-they-trying-to-tell-me-something-208935">Why does my cat pee on the rug? Are they trying to tell me something?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Bougie options</h2>
<p>If money is no object, you could consider these pricier options. Both help meet their environmental needs.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.bunnings.com.au/diy-advice/outdoor-living/pets-wildlife/build-your-own-diy-cat-wall-shelves"><strong>Cat shelves</strong></a> make use of vertical space so don’t take up a lot of floor space. They provide cats with elevated places to sit, which <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159116300661">they like</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cat sits on a cat shelf inside a room" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558541/original/file-20231109-24-kojsc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats like to survey their surroundings from on high.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-persian-cat-waiting-her-owner-2142636909">Boyloso/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat_enclosure"><strong>Cat enclosures</strong></a>, or “catios”, are enclosed, outdoor spaces where cats can safely spend time outside. They may <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2020.599284/full">increase cats’ quality of life</a>.</p>
<p>Remember, every cat is an individual. What works for some cats may not work for yours. Try <a href="https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/valaexp/2/">preference testing</a> – which require the cat to choose between different options or environments – to figure out your own cat’s favourite things.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214562/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tiffani J. Howell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Keeping your cat indoors is safer for your pet and wildlife. There are some simple steps you can take to ensure its quality of life doesn’t suffer.
Tiffani J. Howell, Senior Research Fellow, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/219726
2023-12-21T16:07:15Z
2023-12-21T16:07:15Z
Cats like to play fetch, as long as it’s on their terms – new research
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565558/original/file-20231213-19-gdxrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C53%2C5973%2C3934&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Surprised that cats like to play fetch too? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-cute-scottish-fold-cat-sitting-1466349110">Tzido Sun/Shuttestock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cats have a reputation <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185599">for being aloof</a> (some may even say lazy) – but our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-47409-w">new research</a> has found they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982219310863?via%3Dihub">interact with their owners</a> in surprising ways. What we discovered also shows how important this <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2021.650143/full">kind of interaction</a> can be for cats’ wellbeing.</p>
<p>Fetching behaviour in domestic cats has been <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/cat/psychology/1996-voith.pdf">reported to be</a> more common than coming when called, meowing on command, or playing games. There may also be breed differences in fetching (at least among purebreds). For example, <a href="https://tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&id=1227:the-siamese-breed&catid=48">Siamese cats</a> and their crossbreed variations are known for being proficient fetchers.</p>
<p>We wanted to know more about how and why cats fetch. In an online survey, we asked owners of cats who play fetch about this behaviour. Almost all of these cats (94.4%) had not been trained to fetch, and most were young (less than one year old) when their owners first noticed they could fetch.</p>
<p>At the time of our survey, these cats had on average fetched for approximately four years. But there was a lot of variation – some were new fetchers, while others had played fetch for their whole lives. </p>
<h2>What we learned</h2>
<p>We discovered that cats prefer to be in control of their fetching sessions. According to their owners, the cats that usually initiate fetching sessions seem more enthusiastic about it. These cats both had more fetching sessions per month and retrieved the object more times in a single play session.</p>
<p>Most of the cats in our sample were mixed breed (86%). Out of the purebreds, Siamese were the most common (22.5%), supporting their reputation as fetchers.</p>
<p>Fetching cats preferred to play fetch with toys such as imitation mice and catnip toys. But they also made the most of their surroundings and would opportunistically fetch items such as crumpled paper, hair ties or bottle caps.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tabby long-haired kitten playing in a paper bag with crumpled paper, peeking out" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some cats prefer to play with crumpled paper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-cheeky-tabby-longhaired-kitten-playing-1724286601">Pocket Canyon Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, the owners reported lots of differences in fetching behaviour. Some cats bring the object to their owner first, while others respond to their owner throwing an object first. Some cats only bring the object back halfway. Some are fussy with the objects they want to play with, and some will only fetch at certain times or in particular areas of the house (like up and down the stairs).</p>
<h2>Playful cats</h2>
<p>When cats play, they look similar to when they hunt. For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0003347279901295">chasing, biting, leaping</a> and stalking their prey or object of choice. Hunting is a natural behaviour for cats, so they need an outlet for it. </p>
<p>Play has important benefits for pet cats in terms of preventing aggression towards humans, and acting as a <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(20)31896-0">substitution for predation on live animals</a>.</p>
<p>Owners can also learn about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787822000533">the needs of their cats through play sessions</a>, such as how long they like to play for, and thus help strengthen their bond. Young cats are most likely to be playful, both with objects and littermates. But we don’t know much about how play in adult cats differs from play in kittens or young cats, because there is only limited <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159118304556">research into how adult cats play</a>. </p>
<p>While there also hasn’t been a lot of research into the bond between cats and their owners, some studies have shown this relationship is an important one. For example, a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185599">2017 study in Sweden</a> found that cats sought more social contact with their owner after being left alone for 30 minutes – they coped well on their own, but their behaviour changed when their owner returned home. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black cat stares down toy mouse" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Playtime is good for cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cat-hunting-toy-mouse-home-burmese-1957926694">Viacheslav Lopatin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s important for owners to put time aside to play with their cat each day. Short periods of play a few times a day are enough – and it doesn’t have to be a game of fetch. If cats enjoy playing fetch on their own terms, that probably applies to all kinds of play. Generally, they prefer toys that have features of prey – for example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159118304556">toys that can break or pull apart</a>, or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635716303424">that move erratically</a> (like toys on a rod).</p>
<p>Owners can learn and understand what their cat’s behavioural signals mean during a play session. When a cat wants their owner to play with them, they might bring a toy to their owner or sit next to a toy and stare expectantly at their owner. Examples of behaviour that shows a cat wants to end the play session include lying down, walking away from the area, or no longer chasing after a toy when it’s thrown. </p>
<p>If owners can read and interpret the body language of their cat and know when to start or end a play session, the cat will enjoy this experience and may open up more playing opportunities in the future – perhaps even building up to fetch!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219726/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
There hasn’t been a lot of research into adult cat play, but a new study shows it’s not just dogs who like to play fetch.
Elizabeth Renner, Lecturer of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle
Jemma Forman, PhD Candidate in Psychology, University of Sussex
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/216871
2023-11-06T18:10:14Z
2023-11-06T18:10:14Z
Wildcats lived alongside domestic cats for 2,000 years but only started interbreeding 60 years ago – new study
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557489/original/file-20231103-21-h3kcvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4487%2C2980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are very few wildcats like this one left in their natural habitat in Scotland. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scottish-wildcat-77377831">Mark Bridger</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You are unlikely to have seen one, but wildcats are still clinging on by a claw in Scotland. Most of the cats living in the wild in Scotland are hybrid cats with a mix of wildcat and domestic cat ancestry or feral domestic cats. But my team’s new study showed they lived alongside domestic cats for almost 2,000 years before interbreeding. </p>
<p>One of our rarest and most elusive mammal species, European wildcats <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36089455.pdf">have been in decline</a> across across Europe and Britain for the past few hundred years. Wildcats were lost completely from England and Wales by the end of the 19th century and today are <a href="https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/natural-sciences/scottish-wildcat/">only found in the Scottish Highlands</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/98399/1/38_156_2_PB.pdf">Habitat loss</a> and hunting are two of the biggest threats facing this species across its range, but in Scotland, <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/355602095/Final_Copy_2022_01_25_Howard_McCombe_J_PhD.pdf">hybridisation with domestic cats</a> is now the biggest threat to this population. Interbreeding between the two species is frequent now. </p>
<p>This gradual erosion of the wildcat genome (<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genome">the DNA instructions</a> for everything that makes a wildcat a wildcat) may lead to the complete extinction of this species in Britain. Among scientists, this is known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4947151/">genetic swamping</a>.</p>
<h2>How long has this been going on?</h2>
<p>Although domestic cats and wildcats are different species, genetically more different than dogs and wolves, they look similar. Domestic cats, <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/446464/cat-adna">descended from the African-Asian wildcat</a>, became widespread in Britain in Roman times. </p>
<p>Wildcats in Scotland are a subpopulation of European wildcats, and have been present in Britain <a href="https://savingwildcats.org.uk/about-saving-wildcats/wildcat-conservation-in-scotland/#:%7E:text=Wildcats%20in%20Scotland&text=European%20wildcats%20crossed%20from%20the,brink%20of%20extinction%20in%20Scotland.">since the end of the last ice age</a>, around 10,000 years ago. Our research, which used the genomes of ancient cats from prehistoric Britain (around 6,000BC) until the present, shows that the two species kept themselves separate until very recently. </p>
<p>This may be expected for two species such as these, which have different patterns of behaviour and habitat preference. Wildcats keep away from people and prefer natural, forested areas – unlike domestic cats which thrive in human-modified environments. </p>
<p>My team’s study showed that around 60 years ago, however, there was a sudden shift to increasingly frequent interbreeding, which quickly overwhelmed the remaining wildcats in Scotland.</p>
<h2>What changed?</h2>
<p>The recent history of hybridisation between the two species strongly suggests that hybridisation is a symptom, rather than the cause, of wildcat declines in Britain. </p>
<p>Wildcats have been hunted for sport, and are also <a href="https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/managing-domestic-and-wildcats-is-likely-to-remain-fraught-new-research-warns/">persecuted as a pest species</a> which keeps their numbers down. Modern land management has involved the felling of <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/into-the-forest/habitats-and-ecology/human-impacts/deforestation/">large swaths of Scottish forests</a> (often for timber or agriculture), potentially forcing wildcats into more human-dominated environments, where they are more likely to meet a domestic cat. </p>
<p>The 20th century also saw a rise in domestic cat ownership, which is now at an all-time high <a href="https://www.cats.org.uk/media/10005/cats-2021-full-report.pdf">in the UK</a>. While it can be hard to keep track of feral domestic cat numbers, the population size is likely to significantly outnumber the wildcat population.</p>
<p>Our study highlighted the pressure that disease transmission is putting on wildcat populations. Domestic cats are a known source of feline diseases, such as <a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center/health-information/feline-health-topics/feline-immunodeficiency-virus-fiv">feline immunodeficiency virus</a>, <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/feline-calicivirus-infection">feline calicivirus</a> and <a href="https://www.langfordvets.co.uk/media/1748/feline-haemoplasma.pdf">haemoplasma infection</a>, which can be passed to wildcats, and can be deadly.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Wildcat kittens play on the forest floor." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557490/original/file-20231103-25-a24sfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildcats look similar to domestic cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wild-cat-kittens-fighting-406815661">Libor Fousek/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our study compared the genomes of hybrid, wildcat and domestic cats. The hybrid population showed genetic patterns suggesting they are developing immunity to these diseases, with the help of genes inherited from domestic cat parents. While this may bring short-term protection from cat diseases, it results in domestic cat DNA hitching along for the ride, perhaps accelerating the effect of genetic swamping. </p>
<p>Without intervention, the few wildcats that remain will interbreed with domestic cats and the wildcat genome will contribute a fraction of a percent to the domestic cat genome. The biological and behavioural adaptations that evolved in the European wildcat will be lost.</p>
<h2>Does this matter?</h2>
<p>Human behaviour (such as transporting species around the world, encroachment on wild habitats and climate change) is driving an increase in hybridisation globally. Conservationists are debating the level of risk this poses to wildlife populations, and the best course of action for conservation management.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hybrid-future-interbreeding-can-make-heat-averse-species-more-resilient-to-climate-change-198877">Hybrid future? Interbreeding can make heat-averse species more resilient to climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In some cases hybridisation can be beneficial, bringing new genetic diversity that can help species survive in increasingly human-dominated environments. However, the consequences of hybridisation are unpredictable, and it is hard to come up with a solution that works for every case. </p>
<p>For the wildcat, hybridisation is a double-edged sword. It brought disease resistance that aided the population’s short-term survival, but at the cost of threatening the genetic adaptations that made the species unique.</p>
<h2>What next for wildcats?</h2>
<p>My team’s study highlights the value of the <a href="https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/reintroductions-key-species/key-species/wildcat">captive wildcat population</a> in the UK. First established in 1960, founders of this population largely predate the onset of hybridisation in Scotland. The captive population now provides an important lifeline to reestablish this species in Britain. </p>
<p>A wildcat conservation breeding for release programme is conducted by <a href="https://savingwildcats.org.uk/">Saving Wildcats</a>, a partnership led by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland. The first releases into the wild started this year, with 19 cats released in the Cairngorms Connect area of the Cairngorms National Park. </p>
<p>Monitoring the newly released cats will give us vital insights about how to protect species like the wildcat. The more we understand about the effects and history of hybridisation, the more we’ll understand about how best to manage wildlife conservation in the future. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216871/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Howard-McCombe received funding from NERC, the RZSS and the People's Trust for Endangered Species. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Beaumont received funding from NERC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel J. Lawson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
And a recent history of wildcat hybridisation.
Jo Howard-McCombe, Research scientist, University of Bristol
Daniel J. Lawson, Associate Professor in Data Science, University of Bristol
Mark Beaumont, Professor of Statistics, University of Bristol
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/215003
2023-10-24T15:43:45Z
2023-10-24T15:43:45Z
Concerns over pet food and vet costs affordability are as old as pet keeping itself
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555323/original/file-20231023-23-j8sgs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/two-guinea-pigs-eating-carrot-MUcxe_wDurE">Bonnie Kittle|Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ever since domestic companion animals first became popular in the west, people’s ability to provide for their healthcare needs has been closely linked to their own economic situation. In October 2022, the British animal charity, the RSPCA, <a href="https://www.rspca.org.uk/-/news-figures-show-more-animals-in-shelter-rehoming-slows">reported</a> a massive 31% drop from 2019 in so-called “rescue” animals being rehomed from its centres. At the same time, the number of animals being surrendered was increasing. Between 2021 and 2022, there was a 11.9% rise in the number of dogs relinquished by their owners and rescued by the charity.</p>
<p>The RSPCA’s animal kindness index for 2023 <a href="https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/latest/kindnessindex/petowners">shows</a> that 81% of pet owners were worried about the increased costs of pet care. Up from 68% in 2022, this is a direct consequence, the charity says, of the cost of living crisis. The rising costs of pet food (32% increase for dog food in April 2023) outstripped inflation at the time (8%), leading to 23% of pet owners expressing concern about being able to feed their pets. </p>
<p>The report also highlights that, in April 2023, there were 45,000 internet searches for “Can I give my pet paracetamol?”, an increase of 13%, compared to April 2022. The British government has since <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-66733077">launched a review</a> of veterinary services in the UK, over concerns that pet owners face prohibitively high costs for animal healthcare.</p>
<p><a href="https://reaktionbooks.co.uk/work/pet-revolution">Our research</a> looks at how and why human and pet lives have become entangled in the UK. People, of course, have invested emotionally in animals for thousands of years. But, as we show in our recent book, Pet Revolution:
Animals and the Making of Modern British Life, it was in the 19th century that larger numbers of people in Britain (and other western countries) had the financial resources to keep pets. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A historic painting of two dogs chasing a cat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555325/original/file-20231023-21-forj5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Briton Riviere, A Blockade Runner, 1888.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/riviere-a-blockade-runner-n01518">Presented by Sir Henry Tate 1894. Photo © Tate</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The emergence of pet keeping</h2>
<p>Victorian culture celebrated the advent of the companion animal. British artists including Edwin Landseer and Briton Riviere painted <a href="https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/riviere-a-blockade-runner-n01518">cats</a> and <a href="https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/landseer-low-life-a00702">dogs</a>. King Edward VII commissioned Maud Alice Earl to do <a href="https://www.rct.uk/collection/401472/jack-king-edward-viis-irish-terrier">portraits of his favourite pooches</a>. And the commercial artist Louis Wain garnered broad popularity for his anthropomorphic illustrations of wide-eyed <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/see-louis-wains-exuberant-cat-art-at-the-bethlem-hospital-180979287/">cats</a>. </p>
<p>Countless contemporaneous novels – with characters including Rochester’s dog Pilot in Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre, Count Fosco’s pet mice in Wilkie Collins’s The Woman in White and the children’s story, <a href="https://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00086490/00001/5">Peeps into Petland</a> – show how central pet ownership became to domestic life. This led to new markets emerging. </p>
<p>With vets, at the time, mainly concerned with horses and farm animals, pet owners were encouraged to treat animals themselves. There was a boom in <a href="https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/subjects/pets-in-the-archives/">instructional literature</a> on how to care for cats, dogs, wild birds, squirrels and hedgehogs. Prolific pet health advisor Gordon Stables argued, in his 1876 book, <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Domestic_Cat.html?id=30oDAAAAQAAJ&redir_esc=y">The Domestic Cat</a>, that cat owners should take scalpels into their own hands. “Cats,” he wrote, “stand operations of all sorts well.”</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A vintage advertisement for Spratts dog cakes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=840&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=840&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=840&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555327/original/file-20231023-23-21xt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Victorian entrepreneurs homed in on the nascent pet food and healthcare market.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.rawpixel.com/image/11493591/image-dog-art-cartoon">Rawpixel</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By the 1890s, pet-food manufacturer Spratts was selling dog treatments including cooling powders, cough pills, ear-canker lotion and worm powders. It also marketed “Canarydyne” for asthmatic canaries. </p>
<p>From the late 19th century, vets started to cater to pets, largely targeting the elite owners of pedigree animals. In 1884, the London Royal Canine and Feline Surgery proudly advertised its wares in the Kennel Club Show Catalogue. The advert features a long list of international royalty who had consulted the surgery. </p>
<h2>Unequal access to animal healthcare</h2>
<p>As veterinary treatment for pets became widespread, however, inequalities quickly emerged. Poorer pet owners continued to rely on home remedies. This sometimes meant watching helplessly as a much-loved pet died in agony. </p>
<p>While recognising the potential for exploiting a growing market, vets were mindful of this inequality in accessing animal healthcare. From 1879, the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons in London ran free clinics for animals of the poor. </p>
<p>In 1900, the Blue Cross animal welfare charity, known at the time as Our Dumb Friends League, made grants available for poorer people to access treatment and seven years later, opened a National Animal Hospital in London. By 1921, this clinic employed three dedicated veterinary surgeons, treating an estimated 10,000 animals a year. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A vintage illustration of anthropomorphic cats." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555330/original/file-20231023-17-6k4ha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Louis Wain, Marketing, 1900.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://picryl.com/media/marketing-by-louis-wain-064a50">Picryl</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In early 1900s Liverpool, meanwhile, the RSPCA launched a scheme distributing grants for veterinary treatment. In 1917, it opened the first provincial animal hospital. By 1920, the hospital had moved to a larger site and by 1930, two further hospitals had opened across the city. </p>
<p>The People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals launched in London’s East End in 1917. It would go on to treat an estimated 1 million British pets a year by the mid-1930s. And in 1925, the Dogs Trust inaugurated canine clinics, making grants to poorer pet owners that guaranteed the charity would cover veterinary bills. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QmNxItb6LC0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>By the mid-20th century, veterinary care for pets was widely established. Increasingly complex treatments were available. Those who could afford it faced the new dilemma of how much they would pay to save their pets. Distressed over the condition of her increasingly immobile Alsatian, Dinah, London-based diarist Florence Turtle <a href="https://pethistories.wordpress.com/2019/01/08/living-flesh-to-clothe-these-bones-the-diaries-of-florence-turtle/">wrote</a> in 1957 that she paid £9 for specialist treatment. </p>
<p>Turtle reflected that she would not have spent that much money on herself. Indeed, £9 for her was the <a href="https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation/inflation-calculator">equivalent</a> of around £180 today, a sum most working-class families simply could not have afforded.</p>
<p>Today, spending on veterinary and other pet services totaled <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/308276/consumer-spending-on-veterinary-pet-services-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/#:%7E:text=This%20statistic%20shows%20total%20consumer,billion%20British%20pounds%20in%202005.">£5.3 billion in 2022</a>. By 2026, gross written premiums for UK pet insurance is currently projected <a href="https://www.globaldata.com/store/report/uk-pet-insurance-distribution-and-marketing-analysis/">to reach £1.9 billion</a>, a rise driven partly by increasing medical and pharmaceutical costs. </p>
<p>The RSPCA is clear that the cost of living is one of the greatest threats to animal welfare. Addressing unaffordable animal healthcare costs is vital to ensure owners are not, as the charity <a href="https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/latest/kindnessindex/petowners">puts it</a>, “only one unexpected bill away” from having to give up their pets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215003/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie-Marie Strange received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council for this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Hamlett receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council</span></em></p>
People have invested emotionally in animals for thousands of years, but their financial situation directly impacts their ability to properly care for for their pets.
Julie-Marie Strange, Professor of Modern British History, Durham University
Jane Hamlett, Professor of Modern British History, Royal Holloway University of London
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/213356
2023-09-14T00:10:12Z
2023-09-14T00:10:12Z
Is it really safe to feed your cat a vegan diet?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548193/original/file-20230914-29-z5w8xs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=98%2C62%2C5854%2C3900&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/research-check-25155">Research Checks</a> interrogate newly published studies and how they’re reported in the media. The analysis is undertaken by one or more academics not involved with the study, and reviewed by another, to make sure it’s accurate.</em></p>
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<p>Recently there’s been a trend of people wanting to feed their pets a diet that follows their own dietary preferences – which often means a meat-free diet.</p>
<p>Vets have long maintained that feeding cats a meat-free diet is a big no-no. But a new <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0284132">study published</a> in the open-access journal PLOS ONE challenges this assumption. The researchers write in the abstract:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[…] cats fed vegan diets tended to be healthier than cats fed meat-based diets. This trend was clear and consistent. These results largely concur with previous, similar studies.</p>
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<p>So, are vegan diets really more healthy for cats? When we start to pick apart the findings, we see the evidence is far from conclusive.</p>
<h2>What the study involved</h2>
<p>The authors of the study surveyed 1,369 cat owners, who fed their cats either a vegan or meat-based diet, about their cats’ health. Respondents were mostly female (91%) and represented a range of ages. Most lived in the UK, with others residing in Europe, North America or Oceania.</p>
<p>Most (about 65%) had themselves adopted some form of diet to reduce meat consumption – being either vegan, vegetarian, pescatarian (fish only), or reducing their meat consumption. A small portion (9%) fed their cats a vegan diet in spite of their own dietary choices. </p>
<p>The owners were asked about their cat’s health, including specific health conditions, medication use and how often they saw a vet. They were also asked their opinion on how healthy their cat was, and what they believed their vet would say about their cat’s health. </p>
<h2>What did the study find?</h2>
<p>Overall, the study found no evidence of detrimental health effects in cats fed a vegan diet. In fact, the authors suggest a vegan diet actually leads to health benefits for cats.</p>
<p>The researchers looked at seven indicators of illness and found non-significant reductions in all of them in cats on a vegan diet. These included reduced veterinary visits, reduced use of medications and fewer instances of owners thinking their cats were in poor health.</p>
<p>Non-significance means the researchers didn’t find <em>strong enough</em> evidence to say there was a meaningful difference between the groups – but it doesn’t mean there was no effect (especially since some of the trends were strong).</p>
<p>They found 15 diseases were more common in cats fed meat, while only seven diseases were more common in cats on a vegan diet. Examples of less common diseases for cats on a vegan diet included dental disease, skin disease and hormonal diseases. But again, the differences between the two diet groups were not statistically significant.</p>
<p>There was only one disease for which a significant statistical difference was observed: cats fed a vegan diet were slightly more likely to have kidney disease. </p>
<h2>Putting the findings in context</h2>
<p>Compared to similar past studies, this study included a relatively large number of cats. That said, only 127 of these cats were on a vegan diet. </p>
<p>Most of the health benefits reported for this group also did not reach statistical significance, which may be the result of simply not having enough animals in the study.</p>
<p>The authors reported a tendency towards positive effects of vegan diets. This means there was a general trend (which was sometimes strong), but doesn’t necessarily mean there is a very predictable relationship. </p>
<p>As a survey study, it’s not possible to confirm exactly what the cats were eating. Many of them went outside and may have <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-cat-one-year-110-native-animals-lock-up-your-pet-its-a-killing-machine-138412">hunted down meaty treats</a> even while on a vegan diet. Some owners also fed their cats treats and essential nutrient supplements, so any beneficial effects (or a lack of harmful effects) may not be due to diet alone. </p>
<p>Another missing piece of information is how long the cats were kept on the diet. We might assume one year – but this isn’t specifically stated. This is important information since deficiency diseases can take time to develop.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547959/original/file-20230913-17-su4cro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cats in the study may have gone out hunting for meaty treats without their owners’ knowledge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, any study assessing animal health will have inherent limitations if it’s designed as a survey. Pet owners usually aren’t medically trained and their “opinions” can be subjective and therefore biased.</p>
<p>Owners who had removed or reduced meat in their own diet were over-represented in the study. These people may already anticipate vegan diets are better for health, and this thinking could influence their responses.</p>
<p>It’s also worth noting the study was funded by ProVeg International – a food awareness organisation that promotes plant-based products. While this might not have impacted the validity of data, it could have influenced the stance taken when reporting on the results. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-cat-one-year-110-native-animals-lock-up-your-pet-its-a-killing-machine-138412">One cat, one year, 110 native animals: lock up your pet, it's a killing machine</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>So, is a vegan diet good for my cat?</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1992.tb09872.x">Only a handful of studies</a> have looked at health outcomes in cats fed vegan diets. This study adds to a growing body of evidence that, contrary to long-held beliefs, it <em>may</em> be possible for cats to stay healthy on a vegan diet. </p>
<p>However, we’ll need much more research before we can conclude vegan diets are better for cat health than diets containing meat.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-vegan-pet-diets-as-unhealthy-as-theyre-claimed-to-be-heres-what-the-evidence-says-197409">Are vegan pet diets as unhealthy as they're claimed to be? Here's what the evidence says</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>To obtain really strong evidence on the safety and health benefits of vegan diets, we’d need clinical trials involving a large cat population and direct measurements of health through veterinary exams and lab tests.</p>
<p>One challenge that isn’t really addressed in this paper is how a vegan cat diet should be safely put together. We know plant-based diets typically lack a range of nutrients cats need and which their bodies can’t make. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1992.tb09872.x">Previous</a> <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpn.13510">studies</a> have shown cats on vegan diets to have severe deficiency disorders affecting the muscles.</p>
<p>It may be possible for owners to provide these nutrients through supplements, but this would require an understanding of cat nutrition, or some sound advice from an animal health professional. For most of us, achieving a well-balanced diet for our felines in this way will be tricky. And let’s not forget cats are natural hunters and may well <em>like</em> the taste of meat!</p>
<p>It’s probably wise to wait before letting Felix go completely meat-free. If you feel very strongly about not feeding your cat meat, make sure to choose a commercial vegan pet diet and ask your vet about proper nutrient supplementation.</p>
<hr>
<h2>Blind peer review</h2>
<p>This article is a fair analysis of the study. It importantly clarifies the study can’t conclude that it is safe or beneficial to feed a solely vegan diet to cats in the long term.</p>
<p>The details of the diets fed to these cats were very vague; cats on a predominately vegan diet may have been receiving non-vegan foods as well, which could have provided essential nutrients, such as taurine, that may have been deficient in fully vegan diets. It also gave no detail about wet versus dry diets, which is another dietary factor that can impact health. </p>
<p>As a feline specialist veterinarian, I know too well how good cats are at hiding signs of illness until they are very advanced; owner-reported health status simply isn’t good enough to determine a cat’s health. </p>
<p>For example, one concern with vegan diets is a lack of taurine, which is essential for cats. Taurine deficiency can cause retinal degeneration and cardiac disease, both of which would not be evident to owners until the conditions were very advanced. Nutrient deficiencies can take a long time to develop and the study didn’t report on long-term feeding of a solely vegan diet. </p>
<p>I also disagree that fewer vet visits and less medication indicate better health. The authors point out that part of the study was performed during COVID lockdowns, which we know had significant effects on veterinary visits and also on some health conditions. </p>
<p>To assess health impacts of vegan diets, much longer-term studies would be needed with more complete health assessments including examination of the back of the eye, blood tests and ultrasound examination.</p>
<p><strong>– Andrea Harvey</strong></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-let-them-out-15-ways-to-keep-your-indoor-cat-happy-138716">Don't let them out: 15 ways to keep your indoor cat happy</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213356/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A new study has reportedly found benefits to feeding cats a vegan diet. We got an expert to look at whether the evidence stacks up.
Alexandra Whittaker, Senior Lecturer, School of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/204730
2023-09-11T12:34:41Z
2023-09-11T12:34:41Z
Can animals give birth to twins?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535718/original/file-20230705-25-ey6m80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some animals, including goats, regularly give birth to two babies at once.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/two-kid-goats-in-field-royalty-free-image/71919552?phrase=baby+goats&adppopup=true">Image Source via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Can animals give birth to twins? – Mia C., age 10</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Ask any parent – welcoming a new baby to the family is exciting, but it comes with a lot of work. And when the new addition is a pair of babies – twins – parents really have their work cut out for them.</p>
<p>For many animal species it’s the norm to have multiple babies at once. A litter of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean-Pierre-Bidanel/publication/249324578_An_overview_of_twenty_years_of_selection_for_litter_size_in_pigs_using_hyperprolific_schemes/links/54525ccd0cf2cf51647a125b/An-overview-of-twenty-years-of-selection-for-litter-size-in-pigs-using-hyperprolific-schemes.pdf">piglets can be as many as 11</a> or more! </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A mother pig lying on hay in a barn surrounded by multiple piglets" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538767/original/file-20230721-6326-u8u6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pigs are one species that gives birth to large litters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-pig-with-piglets-royalty-free-image/164283190?phrase=pig+litter&adppopup=true">Arthur Dries/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.vetmed.msstate.edu/directory/mhj95">We are</a> <a href="https://www.vetmed.msstate.edu/directory/tj1232">faculty members</a> at Mississippi State University College of Veterinary Medicine. We’ve been present for the births of many puppies and kittens over the years – and the animal moms almost always deliver multiples.</p>
<p>But are all those animal siblings who share the same birthday twins?</p>
<h2>Twins are two peas in a pod</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/multiple-birth">Twins are defined as two offspring</a> from the same pregnancy.</p>
<p>They can be identical, which means a single sperm fertilized a single egg that divided into two separate cells that went on to develop into two identical babies. They share the same DNA, and that’s why the two twins are essentially indistinguishable from each other.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/dizygotic-twin">Twins can also be fraternal</a>. That’s the outcome when two separate eggs are fertilized individually at the same time. Each twin has its own set of genes from the mother and the father. One can be male and one can be female. Fraternal twins are basically as similar as any set of siblings.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="diagram of two sperm fertilizing two eggs yielding two embryos, and one sperm fertilizing one egg that divides into two separate embryos" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=156&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=156&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=156&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=196&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=196&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538761/original/file-20230721-25-9rs8a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=196&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fraternal twins originate in two eggs fertilized separately, while identical twins originate in a single fertilized egg that divides to create two embryos.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/dizygotic-and-monozygotic-twins-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/1042127200?phrase=fertilization+of+twins+identical+vs+fraternal+diagram&adppopup=true">Veronika Zakharova/Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493200/#:%7E:text=Twin%20births%20account%20for%20approximately,percent%20of%20all%20twin%20gestations.">3% of human pregnancies in the United States produce twins</a>. Most of those are fraternal – approximately <a href="https://alphabiolabsusa.com/learning-center/identical-vs-fraternal-twins/">one out of every three pairs of twins</a> is identical.</p>
<h2>Multiple babies from one animal mom</h2>
<p>Each kind of animal has its own standard number of offspring per birth. People tend to know the most about domesticated species that are kept as pets or farm animals.</p>
<p>One study that surveyed the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.10.034">size of over 10,000 litters among purebred dogs</a> found that the average number of puppies varied by the size of the dog breed. Miniature breed dogs – like chihuahuas and toy poodles, generally weighing less than 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) – averaged 3.5 puppies per litter. Giant breed dogs – like mastiffs and Great Danes, typically over 100 pounds (45 kilograms) – averaged more than seven puppies per litter.</p>
<p>When a litter of dogs, for instance, consists of only two offspring, people tend to refer to the two puppies as twins. Twins are the <a href="https://doi.org/10.4141/cjas95-022">most common pregnancy outcome in goats</a>, though mom goats can give birth to a single-born kid or larger litters, too. Sheep frequently have twins, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2013.05.018">single-born lambs are more common</a>.</p>
<p>Horses, which are pregnant for 11 to 12 months, and cows, which are pregnant for nine to 10 months, tend to have just one foal or calf at a time – but twins may occur. Veterinarians and ranchers have long believed that it would be financially beneficial to encourage the conception of twins in dairy and beef cattle. Basically the farmer would get two calves for the price of one pregnancy.</p>
<p>But twins in cattle may result in <a href="https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2007-0210">birth complications for the cow and undersized calves</a> with reduced survival rates. Similar risks come with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2021.09.018">twin pregnancies in horses</a>, which tend to lead to both pregnancy complications that may harm the mare and the birth of weak foals.</p>
<h2>DNA holds the answer to what kind of twins</h2>
<p>So plenty of animals can give birth to twins. A more complicated question is whether two animal babies born together are identical or fraternal twins.</p>
<p>Female dogs and cats <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.001035">ovulate multiple eggs at one time</a>. Fertilization of individual eggs by distinct spermatazoa from a male produces multiple embryos. This process results in puppies or kittens that are fraternal, not identical, even though they may look very much the same.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A mother cat lying down on a blanket and nursing her kittens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538776/original/file-20230721-6732-s8he64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Though born from the same litter, these kittens all have different sets of genes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-cat-nursing-baby-kittens-royalty-free-image/1070428270?phrase=litter+of+kittens&adppopup=true">bozhdb/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Biologists believe that identical twins in most animals are very rare. The tricky part is that lots of animal siblings look very, very similar and researchers need to do a DNA test to confirm whether two animals do in fact share all their genes. Only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/rda.12746">one documented report</a> of identical twin dogs was confirmed by DNA testing. But no one knows for sure how frequently fertilized animal eggs split and grow into identical twin animal babies.</p>
<p>And reproduction is different in various animals. For instance, nine-banded armadillos normally <a href="https://doi.org/10.1656/1528-7092(2002)001%5B0287:PVWABL%5D2.0.CO;2">give birth to identical quadruplets</a>. After a mother armadillo releases an egg and it becomes fertilized, it splits into four separate identical cells that develop into identical pups. Its relative, the seven-banded armadillo, can give birth to anywhere from <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3650">seven to nine identical pups at one time</a>.</p>
<p>There’s still a lot that scientists aren’t sure about when it comes to twins in other species. Since DNA testing is not commonly performed in animals, no one really knows how often identical twins are born. It’s possible – maybe even likely – that identical twins may have been born in some species without anyone’s ever knowing.</p>
<hr>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Animals often give birth to litters of more than one offspring at a time. But are those babies twins?
Michael Jaffe, Associate Professor of Small Animal Surgery, Mississippi State University
Tracy Jaffe, Assistant Clinical Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/212976
2023-09-08T00:01:19Z
2023-09-08T00:01:19Z
10-year feral cat plan brings us a step closer to properly protecting endangered wildlife
<p>Federal Environment Minister Tanya Plibersek has <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/threat-abatement-plans/drafts-open">released a draft</a> feral cat <a href="https://consult.dcceew.gov.au/draft-updated-threat-abatement-plan-for-predation-by-feral-cats">management plan</a>. </p>
<p>Its aim is to reduce the devastating impact of cats on Australian wildlife, with a focus on protecting the most at-risk species from extinction. </p>
<p>Cats kill <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ddi.13497">over 6 million native animals</a> in Australia each day, and are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/mam.12080">challenging to manage</a>. </p>
<p>The plan released for public consultation has a ten-year horizon with an estimated cost of A$60 million in the first five years. It could be a major step towards achieving Australia’s <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/threatened-species-action-plan-2022-2032.pdf">global commitments</a> to end extinctions. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1699606075677593806"}"></div></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-wrenching-and-infuriating-why-australia-is-the-world-leader-in-mammal-extinctions-and-what-to-do-about-it-192173">'Gut-wrenching and infuriating': why Australia is the world leader in mammal extinctions, and what to do about it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why manage cats?</h2>
<p>Unless we control the impact of cats, many native wildlife populations will continue to decline. Some will be driven to extinction, a sad and irreversible outcome for future generations and the ecosystems these species are part of. </p>
<p>Cats are versatile and highly effective predators. A large male cat can kill animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2012.00915.x">up to about 4kg</a> – nearly as big as the cat itself. </p>
<p>Since they arrived in Australia with Europeans, cats have spread across <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716309223">99% of the country</a>. Only some islands and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr17172">specially constructed fenced conservation</a> areas are cat-free. </p>
<p>Many native animal populations can’t cope with sustained hunting pressure from cats. Impacted species include <a href="https://storage.googleapis.com/files-au-climate/climate-au/p/prj28f46a2682a26dead11c2/public_assets/TAP_Predation-feral%20cats_for%20public%20consultation.pdf">more than 200</a> of Australia’s nationally listed threatened species and <a href="https://storage.googleapis.com/files-au-climate/climate-au/p/prj28f46a2682a26dead11c2/public_assets/TAP_Predation-feral%20cats_for%20public%20consultation.pdf">37 migratory species</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A soft small brown mammal looking through grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546834/original/file-20230907-15-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A burrowing bettong in the cat-free fenced area of Newhaven Wildlife Sanctuary where it has been reintroduced. Cats drove this species to extinction on the mainland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brad Leue/Australian Wildlife Conservancy</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1417301112">One in ten</a> of the mammal species present when cats arrived are now extinct. Cats played a major role in most of those 34 extinctions. And they continue to <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.12323">drive population declines and regional extinctions</a> of susceptible species. </p>
<p>Cats also <a href="https://theconversation.com/cats-that-are-allowed-to-roam-can-spread-diseases-to-humans-and-wildlife-173613">carry and spread</a> a range of diseases. One of these, <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/toxoplasmosis">toxoplasmosis</a>, can cause sickness, behavioural impairment and death in other <a href="https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Portals/0/Documents/FactSheets/Mammals/Toxoplasmosis_of_Australian_Mammals.pdf">mammals</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/104063879100300213">birds</a>. This disease, which is entirely dependent on cats, can also have serious consequences for <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr20089">livestock</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/cats-carry-diseases-that-can-be-deadly-to-humans-and-its-costing-australia-6-billion-every-year-147910">human health</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/toxoplasmosis-how-feral-cats-kill-wildlife-without-lifting-a-paw-32228">Toxoplasmosis: how feral cats kill wildlife without lifting a paw</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A strategic response</h2>
<p>The government’s new <a href="https://consult.dcceew.gov.au/draft-updated-threat-abatement-plan-for-predation-by-feral-cats">Threat Abatement Plan</a> aims to co-ordinate national efforts to reduce the impacts of feral cats on native wildlife. It follows extensive consultation with Indigenous ranger groups and First Nations organisations around the country, with members of the national <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/invasive-species/feral-animals-australia/feral-cats/feral-cat-taskforce">Feral Cat Taskforce</a>, and with threatened species and cat management experts. </p>
<p>Since cats occur just about everywhere, affect so many species and are elusive and hard to control, the plan is strategic: it prioritises the places and species for which controlling cats will have the greatest benefits. </p>
<p>Some significant successes have been achieved over the past decade or so, and the plan builds on those.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A grey and white bird flying over waves" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546881/original/file-20230907-27-5571rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The population of threatened blue petrels that breeds on Macquarie Island is recovering since cats were eradicated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Halobaena_caerulea_in_flight_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg">JJ Harrison/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What are the priorities?</h2>
<p>The plan’s objective is to improve outcomes for threatened and cat-susceptible native species, including <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr18008">numbats, bettongs, bandicoots</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02464.x">island-nesting</a> seabirds.</p>
<p>Building from recent successes, it includes priorities for eradicating cats from islands and from within <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12611">fenced conservation areas</a>, because cats cannot quickly recolonise these areas. These projects are critical for native species, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR19021">stick-nest rats</a> and <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/pubs/88019-conservation-advice-31082023.pdf">mala</a> (rufous hare-wallaby), that <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/Fulltext/WR18008?subscribe=false">can’t persist</a> even with a very low density of cats. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange small furry animal sitting on dark red sand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546836/original/file-20230907-24-4eei38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Populations of many native mammals, like mala, can’t survive with even low numbers of cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wayne Lawler/Australian Wildlife Conservancy</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The plan also prioritises ongoing cat control in areas with important populations of threatened species that are highly vulnerable to cats, but which can persist as long as cat numbers are kept low. </p>
<p>This approach is valuable for species such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02315-3">rock wallabies</a>, which live in relatively small, well-defined areas, and for mammals of south-west Australia, which can be protected from cats and foxes by <a href="https://www.dbca.wa.gov.au/management/threat-management/western-shield/western-shield-fox-and-feral-cat-baiting-locations">annual poison baiting</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A numbat face with bright green plants behind it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546882/original/file-20230907-18-17py3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The numbat is one of many native animals in south-western Australia with a natural tolerance of poison baits, as the active ingredient is found in local plants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Numbat_Face.jpg">Helenabella/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-critically-endangered-marsupial-survived-a-bushfire-then-along-came-the-feral-cats-185133">This critically endangered marsupial survived a bushfire – then along came the feral cats</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Improving habitat management can also help reduce cat impacts across very large areas. For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320720306960?via%3Dihub">improving habitat</a> in northern Australian tropical savannas, through better management of <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.52">fire and livestock</a>, can reduce cat impacts and increase native mammal populations. Cats <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0133915">hunt most efficiently</a> in sparsely vegetated areas, so better cover provides more shelter for native wildlife.</p>
<p>In southern Australia, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12684">reducing rabbit populations</a> also reduces cat numbers by removing an easy food source. This then relieves some of the predation pressure on native animals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange cat with grass and tree behind it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546853/original/file-20230907-21-mnm8ig.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A feral cat detected by a camera trap in tropical savanna in Northern Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Northern Territory Government</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mystery-of-the-top-ends-vanishing-wildlife-and-the-unexpected-culprits-143268">The mystery of the Top End's vanishing wildlife, and the unexpected culprits</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What else is in the plan?</h2>
<p>The plan proposes reforms of laws and regulations for pet and feral cats in all states and territories. For example, the plan includes actions to make laws on pet cat management more consistent across the country and to <a href="https://biodiversitycouncil.org.au/media/uploads/2023_6/pet_cat_impacts_fs_june_2023.pdf">encourage responsible pet ownership</a>. This means desexing cats and keeping cats contained so they can’t <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR19174">harm wildlife</a> or produce kittens that end up as feral cats.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="a long-haired cat stalks across green grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546852/original/file-20230907-23-m1kr8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pet cats can be highly effective hunters if allowed to roam outdoors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/herding-cats-councils-efforts-to-protect-wildlife-from-roaming-pets-are-hampered-by-state-laws-200266">Herding cats: councils' efforts to protect wildlife from roaming pets are hampered by state laws</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many of Australia’s last strongholds for threatened species that are vulnerable to cats, such as <a href="https://www.indigenousdesertalliance.com/stories/desert-rangers-are-saving-the-great-desert-skink-from-extinction">great desert skinks</a>, <a href="https://www.kj.org.au/threatened-species-management">bilbies</a> and <a href="https://nit.com.au/16-05-2023/5979/indigenous-rangers-play-key-role-in-protecting-worlds-most-elusive-bird">night parrots</a>, are in Indigenous Protected Areas and other Indigenous-managed land. The plan outlines practical support that Indigenous rangers want to help them manage cats.</p>
<p>Over the past few decades, we have learned much about the <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7784/">impacts of cats and how best to manage them</a>. But we are still a long way from cost-effective, continent-scale solutions to protect native wildlife. The plan identifies the need for <a href="https://wabsi.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/WABSI_Mitigating-cat-impacts_FINAL.pdf">new applied research</a> and the development and testing of effective control tools. </p>
<h2>Who’s responsible?</h2>
<p>Success will depend on focusing and enhancing the already significant efforts of governments, Indigenous and non-Indigenous land managers, environmental non-government organisations, industry, community groups, researchers and the public.</p>
<p>The Australian government will help to deliver the plan by co-ordinating actions and making strategic investments in management and research activity.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-cat-one-year-110-native-animals-lock-up-your-pet-its-a-killing-machine-138412">One cat, one year, 110 native animals: lock up your pet, it's a killing machine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Be part of the solution</h2>
<p>Every Australian who cares about our unique wildlife has an interest in cat management. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.safecat.org.au/">Cat owners</a> can help by desexing their pet and keeping it indoors or in a cat run at all times. </p>
<p>Landowners can help by removing refuse that helps support <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR19174">feral cat colonies</a> and by managing habitat so native animals can thrive. </p>
<p>And make sure your local, state and federal government members know how much you care about native wildlife.</p>
<p>The plan is <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/threat-abatement-plans/drafts-open">available for public comment</a> until December 11. Have a look, and have your say.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212976/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Legge receives funding from the Australian Research Council. In the past she has received funding for cat research from the Australian Government. She is a member of the Australian Government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee, and the Feral Cat Taskforce, and contributed to the drafting of the new cat threat abatement plan. She is a scientific advisor to the Invasive Species Council, and to several on-ground cat management projects (e.g. Christmas Island cat eradication project; Wild Deserts Project). She is a member of the Biodiversity Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaana Dielenberg is part of the Biodiversity Council and is employed by The University of Melbourne. She is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and Invertebrates Australia. Many of the findings reported in this article came from research by the National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub, which Jaana Dielenberg was a part of. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Woinarski is a Director of the Australian Wildlife Conservancy, and has undertaken research on the impacts of cats, in part funded by the Australian government. He is also a member of the national Feral Cat Taskforce, and the BIodiversity Council.</span></em></p>
The Australian government has at last produced a serious plan to control an introduced predator that is a big reason this country has one of the world’s worst records for species extinctions.
Sarah Legge, Professor of Wildlife Ecology, Australian National University
Jaana Dielenberg, University Fellow, Charles Darwin University
John Woinarski, Professor of Conservation Biology, Charles Darwin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/210898
2023-09-04T20:05:24Z
2023-09-04T20:05:24Z
Is it okay to kiss your pet? The risk of animal-borne diseases is small, but real
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545229/original/file-20230829-19-r94gri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C314%2C4886%2C3197&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our relationship with pets has changed drastically in recent decades. Pet ownership is at an all-time high, with <a href="https://animalmedicinesaustralia.org.au/media-release/more-than-two-thirds-of-australian-households-now-own-a-pet/">a recent survey</a> finding 69% of Australian households have at least one pet. We spend an estimated A$33 billion every year on caring for our fur babies.</p>
<p>While owning a pet is linked to numerous <a href="https://www.onehealth.org/blog/10-mental-physical-health-benefits-of-having-pets">mental and physical health benefits</a>, our pets can also harbour infectious diseases that can sometimes be passed on to us. For most people, the risk is low.</p>
<p>But some, such as pregnant people and those with weakened immune systems, are at <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/specific-groups/high-risk/index.html">greater risk</a> of getting sick from animals. So, it’s important to know the risks and take necessary precautions to prevent infections.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-bugs-can-you-catch-from-your-pets-40954">Health Check: what bugs can you catch from your pets?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What diseases can pets carry?</h2>
<p>Infectious diseases that move from animals to humans are called zoonotic diseases or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/basics/zoonotic-diseases.html">zoonoses</a>. More than <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3668296/#B18">70 pathogens</a> of companion animals are known to be transmissible to people.</p>
<p>Sometimes, a pet that has a zoonotic pathogen may look sick. But often there may be no visible symptoms, making it easier for you to catch it, because you don’t suspect your pet of harbouring germs.</p>
<p>Zoonoses can be transmitted directly from pets to humans, such as through contact with saliva, bodily fluids and faeces, or indirectly, such as through contact with contaminated bedding, soil, food or water. </p>
<p>Studies suggest <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500695/">the prevalence of pet-associated zoonoses is low</a>. However, the true number of infections is likely <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/11/3789">underestimated</a> since many zoonoses are not “<a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/notification-of-illness-and-disease">notifiable</a>”, or may have multiple exposure pathways or generic symptoms. </p>
<p>Dogs and cats are major reservoirs of zoonotic infections (meaning the pathogens naturally live in their population) caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. <a href="https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/rabies">In endemic regions in Africa and Asia</a>, dogs are the main source of rabies which is transmitted through saliva. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-rabies-virus-28654">Explainer: the rabies virus</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Dogs also commonly carry <em>Capnocytophaga</em> bacteria <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/capnocytophaga/index.html">in their mouths and saliva</a>, which can be transmitted to people through close contact or bites. The vast majority of people won’t get sick, but these bacteria can occasionally cause infections in people with weakened immune systems, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/capnocytophaga/signs-symptoms/index.html">resulting</a> in severe illness and sometimes death. Just last week, such a death <a href="https://thewest.com.au/news/wa/tracy-ridout-perth-mum-dies-11-days-after-rare-bacterial-infection-from-minor-dog-bite-c-11748887">was reported in Western Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Cat-associated zoonoses include a number of illnesses spread by the faecal-oral route, such as giardiasis, campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and toxoplasmosis. This means it’s especially important to wash your hands or use gloves whenever handling your cat’s litter tray.</p>
<p>Cats can also sometimes transmit infections through bites and scratches, including the aptly named <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/diseases/cat-scratch.html#:%7E:text=Cat%20scratch%20disease%20(CSD)%20is,the%20surface%20of%20the%20skin.">cat scratch disease</a>, which is caused by the bacterium <em>Bartonella henselae</em>.</p>
<p>Both dogs and cats are also reservoirs for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10122942/">methicillin-resistant bacterium <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a> (MRSA), with close contact with pets identified as an important risk factor for zoonotic transmission.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman with curly hair being licked in the face by a Staffordshire terrier" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545415/original/file-20230829-27-mpgatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dog saliva hosts a bacterium that can cause serious illness and even death in some people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-kissing-dog-breed-staffordshire-terrier-200987354">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cats-carry-diseases-that-can-be-deadly-to-humans-and-its-costing-australia-6-billion-every-year-147910">Cats carry diseases that can be deadly to humans, and it's costing Australia $6 billion every year</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Birds, turtles and fish can also transmit disease</h2>
<p>But it’s not just dogs and cats that can spread diseases to humans. Pet birds can occasionally transmit <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/pneumonia/atypical/psittacosis/">psittacosis</a>, a bacterial infection which causes pneumonia. Contact with <a href="https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/pet-turtles-source-germs">pet turtles</a> has been linked to <em>Salmonella</em> infections in humans, particularly in young children. Even pet fish have been linked to a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/pets/fish.html">range of bacterial infections</a> in humans, including vibriosis, mycobacteriosis and salmonellosis.</p>
<p>Close contact with animals – and some behaviours in particular – increase the risk of zoonotic transmission. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19398275/">A study from the Netherlands</a> found half of owners allowed pets to lick their faces, and 18% allowed dogs to share their bed. (Sharing a bed increases the duration of exposure to pathogens carried by pets.) The same study found 45% of cat owners allowed their cat to jump onto the kitchen sink.</p>
<p>Kissing pets has also been linked to occasional zoonotic infections in pet owners. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3298380/">In one case</a>, a woman in Japan developed meningitis due to <em>Pasteurella multicoda</em> infection, after regularly kissing her dog’s face. These bacteria are often found in the oral cavities of dogs and cats.</p>
<p>Young children are also more likely to engage in behaviours which increase their risk of <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthypets/specific-groups/high-risk/children.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhealthypets%2Fspecific-groups%2Fchildren.html">getting sick</a> from animal-borne diseases – such as putting their hands in their mouth after touching pets. Children are also less likely to wash their hands properly after handling pets.</p>
<p>Although anybody who comes into contact with a zoonotic pathogen via their pet can become sick, certain people are more likely to suffer from serious illness. These people include the young, old, pregnant and immunosuppressed.</p>
<p>For example, while most people infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite will experience only mild illness, it can be life-threatening or <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/common-health-questions/pregnancy/what-are-the-risks-of-toxoplasmosis-during-pregnancy/">cause birth defects in foetuses</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A little blonde girl lying on the floor kissing a large blonde dog" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546103/original/file-20230904-27-lzhdw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young children under 5 years old are more at risk of zoonotic diseases, and also more likely to engage in behaviours that increase their chances of catching something from their pet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What should I do if I’m worried about catching a disease from my pet?</h2>
<p>There are a number of good hygiene and pet husbandry practices that can reduce your risk of becoming sick. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li>washing your hands after playing with your pet and after handling their bedding, toys, or cleaning up faeces</li>
<li>not allowing your pets to lick your face or open wounds</li>
<li>supervising young children when they are playing with pets and when washing their hands after playing with pets</li>
<li>wearing gloves when changing litter trays or cleaning aquariums</li>
<li>wetting bird cage surfaces when cleaning to minimise aerosols</li>
<li>keeping pets out of the kitchen (especially cats who can jump onto food preparation surfaces) </li>
<li>keeping up to date with preventative veterinary care, including vaccinations and worm and tick treatments </li>
<li>seeking veterinary care if you think your pet is unwell.</li>
</ul>
<p>It is especially important for those who are at a higher risk of illness to take precautions to reduce their exposure to zoonotic pathogens. And if you’re thinking about getting a pet, ask your vet which type of animal would best suit your personal circumstances.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-in-three-people-are-infected-with-toxoplasma-parasite-and-the-clue-could-be-in-our-eyes-182418">One in three people are infected with _Toxoplasma_ parasite – and the clue could be in our eyes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210898/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Animals, including the ones that live in our homes, can carry all kinds of illnesses. Most of the time it’s not a problem, but here’s what you should do to avoid getting sick.
Sarah McLean, Lecturer in environmental health, Swinburne University of Technology
Enzo Palombo, Professor of Microbiology, Swinburne University of Technology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/212420
2023-09-04T17:37:53Z
2023-09-04T17:37:53Z
Dogs don’t see life through rose-coloured glasses, nor in black and white
<p>For a few months now, I’ve been treating six-year-old Samuel, who has the beginnings of myopia. He’s very quick for his age and often asks me questions about tests I give him, and about what I see inside his eyes. </p>
<p>But the last question surprised me. </p>
<p>Samuel knows that some people, like his father, don’t see colours well. But what about his little poodle, Scotch, he asked?</p>
<p>I’m not a veterinarian and don’t want to intrude on their domain of expertise. However, as an optometrist, I can offer some insights that might help answer Samuel’s question. </p>
<h2>Cones and rods</h2>
<p>Ambient light is composed of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/photon">particles (photons)</a>, which line up in rays. Light rays travel and strike objects. Some rays are absorbed, while others are reflected, depending on the characteristics of their surfaces and the composition of their materials. The wavelengths of the reflected rays determine the colour of the object as it is perceived by the eye. </p>
<p>Like everything about human vision, colour perception is complex. The retina, the sensitive part that lines the back of the eye, has two types of photon receptors: cones and rods. The cones, in the centre of the retina (fovea), perceive bright light and are <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/rods-and-cones">responsible for colour perception</a>.</p>
<p>There are three types of cones. Each type contains a specific photo-pigment called opsin, which defines its nature. The opsin is produced under the influence of specific genes. The shortest opsin (“Cone S” for <em>short</em>) reacts mainly to blue light (420 nm). The longer one (“Cone L”) is more sensitive to orange-red light (560 nm) and the one in between (“Cone M” for <em>middle</em>) <a href="https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/17-5-vision/">is activated in the presence of green (530 nm)</a>.</p>
<p>However, each cone reacts to each of the rays entering the eye. For example, a red ball will produce a weak response from the S cone (3/10), a slightly stronger response from the M cone (5/10) and a <a href="https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/17-5-vision/">strong response from the L cone</a> (8/10). </p>
<p>The brain combines the signals emitted by each of these cones to form the colour it perceives. So, in the previous example, the perceived colour would be coded 3-5-8, corresponding to what we know as red. A pink colour might have the code 4-6-6, and blue, 8-6-3. Each combination of the 3-cone signals is unique, which allows us to appreciate different hues in all their variations. </p>
<p>That is, as long as the genetic code is intact. </p>
<p>The genes associated with colour vision can be mutated or defective, in which case the person will be partially or completely impaired. The best known of these anomalies is colour blindness (red-green deficiency or daltonism).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="perception of a plant according to a colour-blind person" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544341/original/file-20230823-249-j6j8jf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colour blindness is associated with difficulty in perceiving red and green.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>And what about animals?</h2>
<p>Colour vision, in humans as in animals, <a href="https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/animal-vision-how-do-animals-see/">has developed throughout evolution</a> and results from the needs of each species according to their environment, the prey they hunt and the threats they need to avoid.</p>
<p>For example, birds have a fourth opsin that allows them to see ultraviolet (UV) light. Humans cannot perceive this light because our crystalline (internal) lens <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Magazines/National-Wildlife/2012/AugSept/Animals/Bird-Vision">filters UV rays</a>. UV rays influence birds’ behavioural decisions, including foraging and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0065345408601059#:%7E:text=Publisher%20%20Summary,light%2C%20depending%20on%20the%20species.">their choice of a mate</a>.</p>
<p>So the colour vision of birds is more complex, with the result that the pigeon, which can perceive a myriad of colours, wins the <a href="https://nuscimagazine.com/the-world-through-the-eyes-of-a-pigeon/#:%7E:text=Though%20this%20range%20of%20vision,is%20one%20of%20these%20animal">award for best color vision among all species</a>.</p>
<p>Insects also perceive UV light. This function is essential for them to spot pollen, although their colour vision is very poor. Their eyes are made up of multiple lenses (ommatidia) that perceive <a href="https://www.mpg.de/14337047/how-flies-see-the-world">more movement than colour</a>. That’s much more practical while in fast flight.</p>
<p>Most forest-dwelling mammals have only two opsins. That’s because they lost the one associated with orange-red over the course of evolution. This explains why, unlike humans, these animals don’t perceive the orange bibs of hunters. </p>
<p>Snakes, on the other hand, are more sensitive to red and infrared light, thanks to their infrared receptors. This is an advantage when it comes to spotting prey, as <a href="https://phys.org/news/2006-08-snakes-vision-enables-accurate-prey.html">they can distinguish their heat even at night</a>. </p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, it’s the monkey that’s closest to the human, with its three opsins. It is said to be trichromatic. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="close-up of a black dog's eyes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544344/original/file-20230823-19-pd8rjz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dogs only perceive yellow-green and violet-blue. Colours are perceived as paler, like pastels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Back to Scotch</h2>
<p>The vision of dogs — such as our friend Scotch — is <a href="https://ophtalmoveterinaire.com/maladies_oculaires/vision-comment-voit-mon-chien/#:%7E:text=For%20r%C3%A9sumer%2C%20the%20vision%20of,for%20his%20life%20of%20dog.">quite different</a>. </p>
<p>Unlike humans, dogs’ eyes are located on the side of the skull. As a result, dogs have a wider field of vision (250 to 280 degrees), but less simultaneous vision. </p>
<p>So Scotch’s vision of movement is well developed throughout his visual field. But his central vision is actually six times weaker than ours. This is equivalent to the vision of a very myopic person not wearing glasses. Why? Because the dog’s retina contains no fovea, and therefore fewer cones. </p>
<p>But while dogs eyes have fewer cones, they have more rods. And as an added bonus, they have an extra layer of the retina, called the tapetum lucidum — or carpet. When combined, these ingredients mean dogs see better in dim light and at night. This layer receives light and reflects it back onto the retina for a second exposure. This explains why your dog’s eyes seem to glow at night.</p>
<p>When it comes to colours, dogs are dichromats. They perceive only yellow-green and violet-blue. Colours are perceived paler, like pastels. And some colours don’t contrast: that’s why a red ball on green grass will appear to them as pale yellow on a grey background, with little contrast.</p>
<p>So it’s possible, depending on the colour of the ball, that Scotch will not see it, and as a result, will gaze up at Samuel with a lost look. As for the infrared, he perceives heat through his nose, not through his eyes.</p>
<p>Cats are also dichromats. Their vision is therefore similar to that of dogs, but their colour palette is different — more oriented towards violet and green. Having no perception of red-green, they are essentially colour-blind. They are also very short-sighted. Their clear vision is limited to a few meters in front of them.</p>
<p>Throughout cats’ evolution, other senses came to compensate for this. Among other things, although they only perceive certain contrasts, they are <a href="https://www.wired.com/2013/10/cats-eye-view/">formidable at perceiving movement</a>. Mice move quickly! </p>
<p>Every species adapts to its environment, and humans are no exception. Who knows what our colour vision will be like 500 years from now, after we’ve been exposed to more and more electronic devices and artificial colours? </p>
<p>But that’s a question for Samuel to answer when he’s older.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212420/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Langis Michaud ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
Your faithful companion sees the world differently than you do, but it’s a mistake to assume dogs only see black, white and shades of grey.
Langis Michaud, Professeur Titulaire. École d'optométrie. Expertise en santé oculaire et usage des lentilles cornéennes spécialisées, Université de Montréal
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/211722
2023-08-21T12:29:03Z
2023-08-21T12:29:03Z
Want to help Maui’s animals after the wildfires? Send cash, not kibble
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543371/original/file-20230818-19-6ttzir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=95%2C65%2C1877%2C1173&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Thousands of Maui's cats, dogs and other companion animals went missing or were injured.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photos.google.com/share/AF1QipP6ZxDvC7tepKhGO2UWy5cLDmL0L5PV6wfDlY0WSkbsRY3_OiNgumDCk393f2YDyA/photo/AF1QipMr5LqFGyjcNOYUv31VXiSCOOvZVZZp_OtKlidz?key=djlQUUZEY01KbkdMMnNRRnhHWkY5Y1N0a0NtclNB">Maui Humane Society</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>An estimated 3,000 pets were still missing more than a week after <a href="https://apnews.com/article/hawaii-maui-wildfire-pets-829c40f3d0bd05ed3587bab620f04474">deadly wildfires ripped through Maui</a> in August 2023 and left thousands of people – many of whom had companion animals – homeless. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sarah-Deyoung">The Conversation asked Sarah DeYoung</a>, who has conducted research in Hawaii and studies what happens to pets after disasters, to explain why rescuing companion animals is a high priority following wildfires and how donors can help animals and pet owners recover from this disaster.</em></p>
<h2>What happens to pets after a catastrophic fire?</h2>
<p>When disasters strike, people often evacuate with their pets, as long as it’s possible for them to quickly grab their dogs, cats or other kinds of companion animals. However, you may not have time to gather your animals during a quick-onset event like a wildfire, or your animals might be hiding.</p>
<p>This is especially true for <a href="https://www.pressdemocrat.com/article/specialsections/sonoma-county-volunteers-reunite-cats-with-their-owners-after-tubbs-fire/">cats, because they can be skittish</a>. There are other complications, such as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-03/navy-starts-bushfires-evacuations--in-mallacoota/11838424">evacuation by boat</a> – which makes it harder to bring animals along. When owners flee without a leash or carrier, their animals might bolt at any stopover or shelter. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, companion <a href="https://www.sfgate.com/california-wildfires/article/Camp-Fire-cat-rescue-Foster-City-firefighters-Bay-13393478.php">animals can become injured</a> or <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2020/01/08/australian-bushfires-more-than-one-billion-animals-impacted.html">perish during fires</a>. Many animals will also be lost and displaced.</p>
<p>Owners will spend weeks, months or even years after a fire searching for their missing cats and dogs. It can be challenging to identify and match pets with their humans because burn injuries can change the animal’s appearance, they may not have a microchip, or the owners themselves may have died in the fire.</p>
<p>Like people, animals that survive fires may experience <a href="https://now.tufts.edu/2020/01/31/animals-under-extreme-stress">trauma and stress symptoms</a>, such as regressing on housetraining or other issues for days and weeks after the fire. The pets may need quiet time and support to recover from their stress. They may also need to be treated for burn injuries or <a href="https://www.avma.org/resources/pet-owners/emergencycare/wildfire-smoke-and-animals">lung damage from inhaling smoke</a>. Some animals may not <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6383809/Heartbreaking-images-animals-injured-California-wildfires-killed-44.html">survive their injuries</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1691494571287490570"}"></div></p>
<h2>What are the extra challenges on an island?</h2>
<p>Islands have limited space for the boarding and care of displaced animals. For example, during the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale">2018 lava flows</a> on Hawaii’s Big Island, in which over 2,000 people evacuated, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000383">logistics for people and animals presented unique challenges</a>. </p>
<p>People who lose their housing for any reason may need to board their pets. Unfortunately, nearly all of Hawaii’s animal shelters are already at full capacity due to the state’s <a href="https://www.hawaiianhumane.org/helpie_faq/pet-animal-overpopulation/">pet overpopulation</a>, leaving little space available during emergencies.</p>
<p>Smaller animal sanctuaries may take in animals temporarily, but they also have limited space and staffing. Because of these challenges, <a href="https://stepuptosave.org/foster/">animal-foster networks</a> become key during and after disasters. Truly stray animals – cats, dogs and other animals that belong in homes but live on the streets – can also be <a href="https://www.delawarepublic.org/delaware-headlines/2022-10-03/local-animal-shelter-rescues-animals-affected-by-hurricane-ian">flown to other places</a> for adoption. </p>
<p>But before that happens, it’s critical to first make every effort to reunite lost companion animals with their owners. </p>
<h2>Is aid for animals worth it when people are suffering?</h2>
<p>Many people love their animals and see them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2019.1598661">as part of their family</a>.</p>
<p>In Hawaii, during the 2018 lava flows, I heard many people call their pets their “keiki” – the Hawaiian word for children. Losing pets is often devastating.</p>
<p>Improving animal welfare will ultimately also help people because of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-023-00496-9">bond between humans and animals</a>. People experience <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/175303708X305765">psychological distress</a> when their pets are killed, injured or lost. Additionally, if people cannot safely evacuate with their pets, <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/11/8/20950253/wildfires-hurricane-katrina-pet-evacuation">they might refuse to leave</a> during disasters. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dog standing on a cot in a makeshift shelter." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543372/original/file-20230818-17-6ttzir.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some shelters allow people who have been forced to leave their homes or who have been left homeless to stay with their pets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photos.google.com/share/AF1QipP6ZxDvC7tepKhGO2UWy5cLDmL0L5PV6wfDlY0WSkbsRY3_OiNgumDCk393f2YDyA/photo/AF1QipPWGGszZmPE1LMPcHCy1Q7OmJsynUdpfOcU_wok?key=djlQUUZEY01KbkdMMnNRRnhHWkY5Y1N0a0NtclNB">Maui Humane Society</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That’s why emergency shelters should allow people to stay with their pets if possible. Hotels or other providers should also consider temporarily waiving pet fees and relaxing their restrictions on companion animals to reduce barriers for displaced people and their pets. </p>
<p>People who lose their animals in a fire may experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjts.20403">depression and other mental health issues</a>, which is one of the many reasons why mental health care is essential for the communities that experience disasters.</p>
<p>If a companion animal has died in a fire, it helps the owners to get confirmation that the death occurred because of their need for closure. Some pet owners and community members construct shrines, memorials or other structures to memorialize the pets that died in the disaster. After the 2018 Camp Fire in California, people in the scorched town of <a href="https://www.actionnewsnow.com/news/pet-memorial-unveiled-in-paradise-to-remember-thousands-of-animals-lost-in-the-camp-fire/article_e39a265c-c438-11ec-9d0b-77491c7bcd55.html">Paradise constructed a memorial for the animals they lost</a>.</p>
<h2>Are there long-term problems for animal recovery?</h2>
<p>In a place like Maui that gets many visitors and has a high percentage of vacation rentals, there will likely be challenges in terms of displaced local people finding rental units that accept pets. Many available housing units might have <a href="https://www.avma.org/javma-news/2021-10-01/pet-friendly-rental-housing-comes-restrictions-hard-find">restrictive pet policies</a>.</p>
<p>In my <a href="https://tupress.temple.edu/books/all-creatures-safe-and-sound">research</a> with <a href="https://criminaljustice.illinoisstate.edu/faculty-staff/profile/?ulid=akfarme">Ashley Farmer</a> of <a href="https://tupress.temple.edu/books/all-creatures-safe-and-sound">Illinois State University</a>, we found that people sometimes surrender their pets after disasters because they can’t find temporary housing that allows dogs or cats, or due to <a href="https://www.redfin.com/blog/apartment-pet-policy-breed-restrictions/">breed restrictions</a>. A wave of animal surrenders causes already full shelters to become overcrowded.</p>
<p>There will be a need for some of those surrendered animals to be adopted or fostered for a longer period of time to ensure that there is enough room in local shelters. People will also need help as they continue searching for their missing animals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two purple pet bowls amid burnt-up rubble" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543328/original/file-20230817-33902-72rx4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Animal rescue teams leave bowls of food and water out as they search for missing pets after wildfires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/bowls-of-food-and-water-are-left-out-for-missing-pets-in-a-news-photo/1228499994?adppopup=true">David Ryder/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s the best way to help?</h2>
<p>In the college classes I teach regarding disaster response and recovery, I often emphasize the difference between intentions and impacts when it comes to volunteering, donations and other relief efforts. </p>
<p>Animal lovers in other places will often want to donate big bags of kibble, canned food, chew toys, dog crates and other physical items. As an animal lover myself, I can appreciate their great intentions and eagerness to help.</p>
<p>But shipping those <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/video/disaster-relief-donations-that-dont-bring-relief-1/">items may not be helpful after disasters</a>, and in fact, those donations may even be harmful. While conducting research in disaster zones, I’ve seen animal shelters get inundated with donated pet food that expired before it could be consumed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=329%2C261%2C7256%2C4583&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man hands a big bag of pet food to someone wearing a 'volunteer' t-shirt." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=329%2C261%2C7256%2C4583&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543346/original/file-20230817-13257-nxwazt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Volunteers sort donated pet food at the Maui Humane Society on Aug. 15, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/volunteers-sort-out-donated-pet-foods-at-the-maui-humane-news-photo/1601916118?adppopup=true">Yuki Iwamura/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unless local animal shelters have robust distribution systems, the logistics of dealing with massive amounts of donated supplies can become overwhelming. It’s much more effective for donors who want to help companion animals and their owners after disasters to give organizations like the <a href="https://www.mauihumanesociety.org/">Maui Humane Society</a> money. Those funds can pay for urgently needed goods and services, including spay and neuter surgeries and flea treatments. </p>
<p>My research team has seen that people in locations far away sometimes want to adopt a “disaster pet.” While some animals might be relocated from the islands eventually, the best way to immediately help is to give money to groups supporting people and their pets. This increases the chances that the people and animals who are already bonded to one another can stay together. </p>
<p>Keep in mind that animal shelters and other organizations that support pets and their owners after disasters will still need help months after the media has moved on. In other fire events, such as the Tubbs and <a href="https://www.alleycat.org/six-months-after-camp-fire-hundreds-of-cats-rescued">Camp fires in California</a>, animal organizations used the recovery phase as a time to trap and neuter feral cats, and then return them to the communities where they were living. Simultaneously, those organizations can keep on helping to reunite missing pets with their owners. </p>
<p>Finally, I believe it’s important to be compassionate toward people who lost pets in the Maui fire since they may be in mourning for quite a while. Losing a beloved cat, dog, rabbit, goat or turtle <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-losing-a-dog-can-be-harder-than-losing-a-relative-or-friend-68207">can be devastating</a> at any time. During a disaster, the loss of a pet amplifies the overall horror of the event. Similarly, reuniting with a missing disaster pet can also be a symbol of hope and recovery.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211722/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah DeYoung received funding from the National Science Foundation to study companion animal evacuation from 2017-2019. </span></em></p>
Animal shelters and other organizations that support pets and their owners after disasters will still need help months after the media has moved on.
Sarah DeYoung, Disaster Researcher and Associate Professor of Sociology and Criminal Justice, University of Delaware
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/210724
2023-08-06T20:00:22Z
2023-08-06T20:00:22Z
How climate change will affect your pet – and how to help them cope
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540802/original/file-20230802-27-obu6yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=139%2C399%2C2301%2C2041&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earth has just experienced its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/jul/27/scientists-july-world-hottest-month-record-climate-temperatures">hottest month</a> since records began and Australia is now gearing up for an El Niño-fuelled summer. Extreme heat isn’t just challenging for humans – it brings suffering to our beloved pets, too.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabireviews.2023.0020">Research</a> I was involved in examined how climate change affects the welfare of animals, including pets. My colleagues and I used a concept for assessing animal welfare known as the “<a href="https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-are-the-five-domains-and-how-do-they-differ-from-the-five-freedoms/">five-domains model</a>”. It’s a science-based structure for examining an animal’s:</p>
<ul>
<li>nutrition </li>
<li>environment </li>
<li>physical health </li>
<li>behaviour</li>
<li>mental state.</li>
</ul>
<p>The model evaluates the complete physiological and behavioural responses of animals to environmental stressors. While the effects of climate change on animals have been studied before, ours is the first study to apply the model to animal welfare specifically. </p>
<p>We examined the academic literature and found climate change will harm animals across all five welfare domains. This applies to both wild and domesticated animals, including pets. So let’s take a look at how various types of pets will fare in a warming world – and how we can help them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="cat stands in front of fan" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540810/original/file-20230802-25-fbsq5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Extreme heat isn’t just challenging for humans – our pets may suffer, too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fish</h2>
<p>Fish are “ectotherms” – that is, they use external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. So pet fish are vulnerable to changes in the water temperature of your home aquarium, which may occur during a heatwave.</p>
<p>Extreme water temperatures can cause physical harm to fish. For example, it can increase a fish’s metabolic rate – meaning it <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/feeling-the-heat-warming-oceans-drive-fish-into-cooler-waters">needs more oxygen</a> to breathe . It can also <a href="https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/ON/article/view/4331">cause changes</a> such as slowed growth and reduced feeding.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/livestock-and-animals/animal-welfare-victoria/other-pets/caring-for-your-pet-fish">official advice</a>, water in an indoor aquarium should generally be kept at between 20°C and 25°C (unless you are keeping tropical fish).</p>
<p>Depending on your budget and aquarium size, you could opt to use a device to control the water temperature. Either way, it’s important to monitor the water temperature regularly. </p>
<p>Also make sure the aquarium isn’t located near a window where it’s exposed to direct sunlight.</p>
<p>Leaving your aquarium unattended for days or weeks in summer can be dangerous, due to the risk of heatwaves. If you’re going on a summer holiday, consider organising a <a href="https://www.thesprucepets.com/holiday-and-vacation-fish-care-and-feeding-1378525#:%7E:text=If%20you%20are%20going%20on,aquarium%20and%20can%20prove%20lethal">fish sitter</a> to check on the animal regularly.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="aquarium in lounge room" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540804/original/file-20230802-17-t69u4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Consider hiring a ‘fish sitter’ while you’re holidaying.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Birds</h2>
<p>Heat stress can change the <a href="https://www.vetexotic.theclinics.com/article/S1094-9194(16)00003-7/fulltext">physiology</a> of birds. For example, research into a wild population of small Australian robins showed during a heatwave, the birds <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jav.02355">lost body mass</a> and abandoned their nests, and some died. </p>
<p>Heat stress can also cause <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327604jaws0101_5">abnormal behaviour in pet birds</a> such as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1828051X.2016.1195711?src=recsys">feather picking</a>, when one bird repeatedly pecks at the feathers of another.</p>
<p>In hot weather, regularly check your bird’s cage to make sure it’s clean and stocked with food and water. If the bird is in an outdoor cage or aviary, ensure it is shaded. And a shallow bird bath will help your feathered friend cool off. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wild-bird-feeding-surged-worldwide-during-lockdowns-thats-good-for-people-but-not-necessarily-for-the-birds-210628">Wild bird feeding surged worldwide during lockdowns. That's good for people, but not necessarily for the birds</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="four green birds perch on branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540807/original/file-20230802-17-3m546p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ensure aviaries are shaded from the sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dogs</h2>
<p>Dogs and cats can suffer on hot days. That’s especially true if they are:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.ejmanager.com/mnstemps/100/100-1626960667.pdf?t=1657722662">older or overweight</a></li>
<li>have thick coats</li>
<li>have short snouts/flat faces (which restricts air flow and makes it harder for them to cool down).</li>
</ul>
<p>Heat stress can cause <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2021.742926/full?&utm_source=Email_to_ae_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e2_editor&utm_campaign=Email_publication&journalName=Frontiers_in_Veterinary_Science&id=742926">canine hyperthermia</a>, which means the dog’s body temperature becomes dangerously hot. </p>
<p>Watch for <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/small-animal-vet/teaching-and-research/fact-files/heatstroke-in-dogs-and-cats#:%7E:text=Early%20signs%20of%20heatstroke%20in%20pet%20animals&text=Panting%2C%20this%20can%20progress%20to,Red%20gums%20or%20tongue">early warning signs</a> of heat stress such as excessive panting and erratic movements. These symptoms can quickly escalate, leading to heat stroke and possible death.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34828033/">More than 80%</a> of dog owners report exercising their dogs less vigorously, or for shorter periods, during hot weather. That can help avoid heat-related illness. But don’t reduce your dog’s activity levels too much, as that may lead to other health problems. Just time the walks to avoid the heat of the day. </p>
<p>Refrain from leaving dogs unattended in vehicles, because they can easily overheat. In fact, it’s better to leave your dog inside home on a hot day, as long as they have a cool place to rest and plenty of water – perhaps even with ice cubes in it. And dogs love to cool off in a kiddie pool or under a sprinkler.</p>
<p>If you take your dog out on a hot day, <a href="https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/livestock-and-animals/animal-welfare-victoria/dogs/health/heat-and-pets#:%7E:text=Be%20aware%20of%20the%20signs,not%20icy%20water%20and%20fanned">carry</a> a container of fresh, cool water for them. And don’t forget to slip-slop-slap: apply a sparing amount of pet sunscreen to your dogs’ exposed pink skin such as ear tips and nose.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="dog lies in large bucket" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540805/original/file-20230802-25-wqyian.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Watch for early signs of heat stress in your pet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cats</h2>
<p>Like other animals, cats can overheat in hot weather. Symptoms include panting heavily, drooling and a rapid pulse. Like with other animals, if you suspect your cat is suffering from heatstroke, call a vet immediately.</p>
<p>Climate change and associated heat and floods is likely to aid the spread of parasites and illness <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2022/12/31/guess-whos-loving-climate-change-mosquitos-and-the-pathogens-they-carry/?sh=50654683174a">including</a> tick-borne diseases, <a href="https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70213352">flea</a> infestations and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32145530/">heartworm</a>. This puts both cats and dogs at risk.</p>
<p>In hot weather, the advice for cat owners is similar to that of dog owners: ensure your cat has plenty of shade and water, and put pet sunscreen on their ear tips and noses, especially if the cat is white.</p>
<p>If possible, keep the cat inside during the hottest part of the day. Ensure at least one room is cool and ventilated. And in a heatwave, play with your cat either in the early morning or evening, when the temperature has cooled.</p>
<h2>A helping human hand</h2>
<p>While humans have the capacity to understand and prepare for climate change, pets will need our help to cope. This includes not just the pets listed above, but others too, including reptiles, guinea pigs and rabbits.</p>
<p>As heatwaves and other extreme weather events become more common, the onus is on us to keep our pets safe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cats-and-dogs-affect-the-climate-and-what-you-can-do-about-it-206812">How cats and dogs affect the climate -- and what you can do about it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210724/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Edward Narayan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
New research shows climate change will harm animal welfare – including your pet.
Edward Narayan, Senior Lecturer in Animal Science, The University of Queensland
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/208909
2023-08-03T18:01:18Z
2023-08-03T18:01:18Z
Cats first finagled their way into human hearts and homes thousands of years ago – here’s how
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541015/original/file-20230803-19-fmuwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C6647%2C4626&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who run the world? Cats!</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/black-cat-stretches-on-rug-in-bedroom-royalty-free-image/1402118614">Grace Cary/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A few years ago, I had the opportunity to go on safari in southern Africa. One of the greatest thrills was going out at night looking for predators on the prowl: lions, leopards, hyenas.</p>
<p>As we drove through the darkness, though, our spotlight occasionally lit up a smaller hunter – a slender, tawny feline, faintly spotted or striped. The glare would catch the small cat for a moment before it darted back into the shadows.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="long-legged, striped cat peeks out of scrubby greens" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540798/original/file-20230802-25-fqa49r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An African wildcat doesn’t look so different from a domestic cat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-wildcat-falbkatze-felis-lybica-african-wild-royalty-free-image/494894455">pum_eva/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Based on its size and appearance, I initially presumed it was someone’s pet inexplicably out in the bush. But further scrutiny revealed distinctive features: legs slightly longer than those of most domestic cats, and a striking black-tipped tail. Still, if you saw one from your kitchen window, your first thought would be “Look at that beautiful cat in the backyard,” not “How’d that African wildcat get to New Jersey?”</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=G4Np3c0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">As an evolutionary biologist</a>, I’ve spent my career <a href="https://www.jonathanlosos.com/research">studying how species adapt to their environment</a>. My research has been reptile-focused, investigating the workings of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-selection">natural selection</a> on lizards.</p>
<p>Yet, I’ve always loved and been fascinated by felines, ever since we adopted a shelter cat when I was 5 years old. And the more I’ve thought about those African wildcats, the more I’ve marveled at their evolutionary success. The species’ claim to fame is simple: The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1139518">African wildcat is the ancestor</a> of our beloved household pets. And despite changing very little, their descendants have become among the world’s two most popular companion animals. (Numbers are fuzzy, but the global population of <a href="https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-018-01018-0/d41586-018-01018-0.pdf">cats</a> and <a href="https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/wbn/vol2/iss5/1/">dogs</a> approaches a billion for each.)</p>
<p>Clearly, the few evolutionary changes the domestic cat has made have been the right ones to wangle their way into people’s hearts and homes. How did they do it? I explored this question in my book “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/610619/the-cats-meow-by-jonathan-b-losos/">The Cat’s Meow: How Cats Evolved from the Savanna to Your Sofa</a>.”</p>
<h2>Why the African wildcat?</h2>
<p>Big cats – like lions, tigers and pumas – are the attention-grabbing celebrities of the feline world. But of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_felids">41 species of wild felines</a>, the vast majority are about the size of a housecat. Few people have heard of the black-footed cat or the Borneo bay cat, much less the kodkod, oncilla or marbled cat. Clearly, the little-cat side of the feline family needs a better PR agent.</p>
<p>In theory, any of these species could have been the progenitor of the domestic cat, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1139518">recent DNA studies demonstrate unequivocally</a> that today’s housecats arose from the African wildcat – specifically, the North African subspecies, <em>Felis silvestris lybica</em>.</p>
<p>Given the profusion of little pusses, why was the North African wildcat the one to give rise to our household companions?</p>
<p>In short, it was the right species in the right place at the right time. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia">Civilization began</a> in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Fertile-Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> about 10,000 years ago, when people first settled into villages and started growing food.</p>
<p>This area – spanning parts of modern-day Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iran and more – is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_felids">home to numerous small cats</a>, including the caracal, serval, jungle cat and sand cat. But of these, the African wildcat is the one that to this day enters villages and <a href="https://www.saveacat.org/african-wildcats.html">can be found around humans</a>. </p>
<p>African wildcats are among the friendliest of feline species; raised gently, they <a href="https://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/john-bradshaw/cat-sense/9780465064960/">can make affectionate companions</a>. In contrast, despite the most tender attention, their close relative the European wildcat <a href="https://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/john-bradshaw/cat-sense/9780465064960/">grows up to be hellaciously mean</a>.</p>
<p>Given these tendencies, it’s easy to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790555/">envision what likely happened</a>. People settled down and started raising crops, storing the excess for lean times. These granaries led to rodent population explosions. Some African wildcats – those with the least fear of humans – took advantage of this bounty and started hanging around. People saw the benefit of their presence and treated the cats kindly, perhaps giving them shelter or food. The boldest cats entered huts and perhaps allowed themselves to be petted – kittens are adorable! – and, voilà, the domestic cat was born.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mummy of a cat wrapped in material with an X-ray image of the skeleton inside" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1294&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1294&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541018/original/file-20230803-15-fpyrml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1294&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Egyptian mummified cat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mummified-cat-from-egypt-dated-2493-bc-news-photo/590674867">Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Where exactly domestication occurred – if it was a single place and not simultaneously throughout the entire region – is unclear. But <a href="https://mymodernmet.com/cats-in-ancient-egyptian-art/">tomb paintings and sculptures</a> show that by 3,500 years ago, domestic cats lived in Egypt. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-022-00568-4">Genetic analysis</a> – including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0139">DNA from Egyptian cat mummies</a> – and archaeological data chart the feline diaspora. They moved northward through Europe (and ultimately to North America), south deeper into Africa and eastward to Asia. Ancient DNA even demonstrates that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0139">Vikings played a role in spreading felines</a> far and wide.</p>
<h2>What cat traits did domestication emphasize?</h2>
<p>Domestic cats possess many colors, patterns and hair textures not seen in wildcats. Some <a href="https://cfa.org/">cat breeds</a> have distinctive physical features, like <a href="https://www.tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&id=857:munchkin-breed&catid=79">munchkins’ short legs</a>, <a href="https://cfa.org/siamese/">Siameses’ elongated faces</a> or <a href="https://cfa.org/persian/">Persians’ lack of muzzle</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="closeup of a fluffy gray cat's face with a flat smooshed face" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541021/original/file-20230803-19-s56je1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fluffy, flat-faced Persian cat has changed a lot in looks from its wildcat ancestor.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/flossie-a-persian-cat-is-groomed-during-the-shropshire-cat-news-photo/1463247867">Shirlaine Forrest via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet many domestics appear basically indistinguishable from wildcats. In fact, only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1410083111">13 genes have been changed by natural selection</a> during the domestication process. By contrast, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11837">almost three times as many genes changed</a> during the descent of dogs from wolves.</p>
<p>There are only two ways to indisputably identify a wildcat. You can measure the size of its brain – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-70877-0_13">housecats</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3998/jar.0521004.0068.201">like other domestic animals</a>, have evolved reductions in the parts of the brain associated with aggression, fear and overall reactivity. Or you can measure the length of its intestines – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0469.2009.00537.x">longer in domestic cats</a> to digest vegetable-based food provided by or scavenged from humans.</p>
<p>The most significant evolutionary changes during cat domestication involve their behavior. The common view that domestic cats are aloof loners couldn’t be further from the truth. When lots of domestic cats live together – in places where humans provide copious amounts of food – <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266757891_Group-living_in_the_Domestic_Cat_Its_Sociobiology_and_Epidemiology">they form social groups very similar to lion prides</a>. Composed of related females, these cats are very friendly – grooming, playing with and lying on top of each other, nursing each other’s kittens, even serving as midwives during birth.</p>
<p>To signal friendly intentions, <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/cat/psychology/2000-bradshaw.pdf">an approaching cat raises its tail straight up</a>, a trait shared with lions and no other feline species. As anyone who has lived with a cat knows, they use this “I want to be friends” message toward people as well, indicating that they include us in their social circle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="orange cat stretches toward tabletop where woman grates cheese" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541024/original/file-20230803-29-bnot80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats use plenty of tools and tricks to get you to hand over what they want.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/ginger-cat-begs-food-in-the-kitchen-while-cooking-royalty-free-image/1219723659">Nail Galiev/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Evolution of a master manipulator</h2>
<p>Household cats are quite vocal to their human companions, using <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/cat/psychology/2003-nicastro.pdf">different meows to communicate different messages</a>. Unlike the tail-up display, however, this is not an example of their treating us as part of their clan. Quite the contrary, <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/cat/psychology/2000-bradshaw.pdf">cats rarely meow to one another</a>.</p>
<p>The sound of these meows has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.118.3.287">evolved during domestication</a> to more effectively communicate with us. Listeners rate the wildcat’s call as more urgent and demanding (“Mee‑O‑O‑O‑O‑O‑W!”) compared with the domestic cat’s more pleasing (“MEE‑ow”). Scientists suggest that these shorter, higher-pitched sounds are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.118.3.287">more pleasing to our auditory system</a>, perhaps because young humans have high-pitched voices, and domestic cats have evolved accordingly to curry human favor.</p>
<p>Cats similarly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.033">manipulate people with their purrs</a>. When they want something – picture a cat rubbing against your legs in the kitchen while you open a can of wet food – they purr extra loudly. And this purr is not the agreeable thrumming of a content cat, but an insistent chainsaw br-rr-oom demanding attention.</p>
<p>Scientists digitally compared the spectral qualities of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209011683#app2">two types of purrs</a> and discovered that the major difference is that the insistent purr includes a component very similar to the sound of a human baby crying. People, of course, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02554.x">innately attuned to this sound</a>, and cats have evolved to take advantage of this sensitivity to get our attention.</p>
<p>Of course, that won’t surprise anyone who’s lived with a cat. <a href="https://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/john-bradshaw/the-trainable-cat/9780465093717/">Although cats are very trainable</a> – they’re very food motivated – cats usually train us more than we train them. As the old saw goes, “Dogs have owners, cats have staff.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208909/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Losos recently published a book, "The Cat's Meow," on the topic of this essay.</span></em></p>
Natural selection changed just 13 genes to separate your Felix and Fluffy from their African wildcat ancestor.
Jonathan Losos, William H. Danforth Distinguished University Professor, Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/208288
2023-08-02T01:47:13Z
2023-08-02T01:47:13Z
Leaving dog and cat poo lying around isn’t just gross. It’s a problem for native plants and animals, too
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537986/original/file-20230718-7854-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C485%2C6000%2C3502&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dodging dog poo along the local path has become something of an Olympic sport of late. I thought I’d count path-side dog poo on my bike ride the other day and gave up after counting 30 piles in the first kilometre. It really does feel a bit out of control at the moment.</p>
<p>We know leaving dog poo lying around is <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-leaving-dog-poo-in-the-street-really-so-bad-the-science-says-its-even-worse-than-you-think-207416">bad for human health</a>. But have you ever wondered what all this mess means for native wildlife? </p>
<p>It turns out pet poo – including both dog and cat poo – can have a number of negative effects on native plants and animals. And some of these might surprise you. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-owls-are-losing-their-homes-so-were-3d-printing-them-new-ones-133626">Urban owls are losing their homes. So we're 3D printing them new ones</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1. Unwelcome fertiliser</h2>
<p>Just like adding manure to the garden, pet poo left on the ground is a fertiliser. But not all plants thrive on excess.</p>
<p>Australian soils are <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/bt/bt03047">naturally nutrient-poor</a> and native plants and fungi are incredibly well-adapted to these conditions.</p>
<p>Yes, wildlife go to the toilet in nature too. But the difference is they also <em>eat</em> in nature – they’re part of the system.</p>
<p>Our pets, on the other hand, are fed nutrient-rich meals in our backyards and kitchens and then deliver these outside nutrients into the ecosystem. <a href="https://www.swan.wa.gov.au/files/21e456d7-3636-446e-946c-a46500940b30/Waterways_and_wetlands_brochure_2015.pdf">Pet poo</a> can quickly find its way into waterways, which can drive <a href="https://www.swan.wa.gov.au/files/21e456d7-3636-446e-946c-a46500940b30/Waterways_and_wetlands_brochure_2015.pdf">algal blooms</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12128">Researchers in Berlin</a> estimated that if nobody picked up after their dogs, more than 11kg of nitrogen and 4kg of phosphorous per hectare would be added to urban nature reserves each year – levels that would be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/feb/07/dog-pee-and-poo-harming-nature-reserves-study">illegal for most farms</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537988/original/file-20230718-25-svvszk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dog poo might signal to wildlife that predators are about and they should stay away.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Lurking disease</h2>
<p>Pet cats aren’t off the hook. If you have a roaming kitty, they could be <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-09/toxoplasmosis-killing-tasmanian-wildlife/10093038">spreading</a> toxoplasmosis – a disease that can cause serious illness and even death in <a href="https://theconversation.com/toxoplasmosis-how-feral-cats-kill-wildlife-without-lifting-a-paw-32228">native mammals</a>. </p>
<p>Symptoms include blindness and seizures, and have been observed in kangaroos, <a href="https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Portals/0/Documents/FactSheets/Mammals/Toxoplasmosis_of_Australian_Mammals.pdf">wallabies, possums, wombats, bandicoots and bilbies</a>. The disease even increases “risky” behaviours, with infected animals more prone to wandering around the open or <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.0608310104">being unafraid of predators</a>.</p>
<p>It’s morbidly fascinating. The parasite causing the disease, <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em>, has two phases to its lifecycle. In the first phase, it’s happy hanging out inside pretty much any warm-blooded animal. But to complete the second phase, it has to jump to a cat. The easiest way to do this is to make your current host easy prey, hence the symptoms that debilitate native wildlife or make them <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-brain-parasite-toxoplasma-manipulating-your-behavior-or-is-your-immune-system-to-blame-116718">prone to dangerous decisions</a>. </p>
<p>Infected cats shed the parasite in their poo. So whenever native animals can come into contact with cat poo, they’re at risk. Researchers from the University of British Columbia <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/11/211110104303.htm#:%7E:text=One%20infected%20cat%20can%20excrete,particularly%20dangerous%20for%20pregnant%20people">found</a> “wildlife living near dense urban areas were more likely to be infected”, citing domestic cats as the most likely culprit. </p>
<p>Worse, the parasite can lay dormant in poo for <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/MED/1098494">as long as 18 months</a>, waiting for a host to jump into. </p>
<h2>3. Eau de predator</h2>
<p>Finally, and probably the most obvious: dog poo might signal to wildlife that predators are about and they should stay away. </p>
<p>Even though dogs are a new predator to Australian wildlife, our native species have had enough experience existing alongside dingoes to consider your pooch a threat.</p>
<p><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2018.0857#d1e476">Recent research shows</a> that in 83% of tests, Australian native mammals recognised dogs as a threat – with dog poo being a common trigger. </p>
<p>This means the signs and smells your dog leaves out and about can affect the behaviour of native wildlife. </p>
<p>For example, bandicoots in Sydney were less likely to visit backyards that had <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0031804#s3">a resident dog</a>, even if it was kept inside at night.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537991/original/file-20230718-23-qyquvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The signs and smells your dog leaves out and about can affect the behaviour of native wildlife.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘What wildlife? What nature? We live in the city!’</h2>
<p>It might surprise you to know we share our cities and towns with a huge range of native animals – <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2021/09/10-threatened-species-living-in-our-cities/">even rare and endangered ones</a>. </p>
<p>And as people have paid more attention to the nature in their local neighbourhood in recent years, we’re becoming more aware of the wildlife living right <a href="https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/nurturing-nature-our-towns-and-cities">beneath our noses</a>. </p>
<p>These species often depend on a seemingly rag-tag collection of urban green patches such as nature strips, utility easements, sports ovals and public gardens.</p>
<p>If these are all littered with smelly signs for wildlife to stay away, places safe for wildlife become even rarer in our cities. Reining in the pet poo problem is an easy way to reduce our impact.</p>
<p>The old adage “take only photographs, leave only footprints” is a good rule of thumb. Pick up after your pet and, importantly, take it with you to the nearest bin – don’t leave plastic bags dangling from fences like ornaments on the world’s worst Christmas tree. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-39-endangered-species-in-melbourne-sydney-adelaide-and-other-australian-cities-114741">The 39 endangered species in Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide and other Australian cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208288/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kylie Soanes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
It might surprise you to know we share our cities and towns with a huge range of native animals. But dog and cat poo can signal to wildlife that predators are about and they should stay away.
Kylie Soanes, Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of Melbourne
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/208935
2023-07-13T01:11:11Z
2023-07-13T01:11:11Z
Why does my cat pee on the rug? Are they trying to tell me something?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535190/original/file-20230703-132952-82o4mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5422%2C3612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cute-fluffy-red-cat-on-soft-plaid-5921743/">Pexels/Helena Lopes</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As cat researchers, one of the most common complaints we hear is:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My cat is a jerk! Whenever I do something he doesn’t like, he pees on my bed or the rug.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Often this complaint is based on an assumption the cat is seeking revenge or trying to send a message, The Godfather-style. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, a rhetoric has developed that cats are manipulative, vengeful, uncaring or even psychotic. This rhetoric means when cats do something we don’t like, it’s easy to reach for the idea they did it deliberately to hurt or annoy us.</p>
<p>But cats don’t behave the way humans do and their motives are not the same. They aren’t trying to irritate or punish us. So let’s forget the human rhetoric and delve into five reasons your cat might be peeing on your rug, bed or clothes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A blue-eyed cat looks into a camera." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats don’t behave the way humans do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-of-a-blue-eyed-cat-16622468/">Pexels/Anya Juárez Tenorio</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-my-dog-eat-grass-and-when-is-it-not-safe-for-them-205658">Why does my dog eat grass? And when is it not safe for them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1. It could be a medical issue</h2>
<p>First, ask yourself: are they sick?</p>
<p>Many illnesses or injuries – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X19831202">including</a> urinary tract infections, cystitis, diabetes and chronic pain – can cause a cat to have unusual urination behaviour.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2022.900847/full">Feline idiopathic cystitis</a> occurs in approximately 2-4% of cats worldwide. The exact causes are not known, although having an anxious or stressed cat increases the risk. </p>
<p>It’s often difficult to tell when a cat is sick. They are incredibly adept at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X15578725">hiding pain</a>. </p>
<p>One clue is cats experiencing discomfort will want to pee somewhere they feel comfortable, often a place they associate with safety – such as your bed, your clothes or the rug. </p>
<p>One reason they may feel comfortable there is because it smells like you, someone they associate with positive feelings. </p>
<p>So if your cat pees somewhere odd, your first instinct should be to wonder if it’s time to contact your vet. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A patterned cat sits on a human bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats hide pain well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cat-lying-on-bed-10418616/">Pexels/Vikki</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. It could be short-term stress</h2>
<p>Has something changed in your household lately? Are you renovating? Are there loud noises? Did a new cat move in next door? Did your friend bring their dog to visit?</p>
<p>Situations like these could lead to your cat feeling stressed and peeing in an unexpected place. </p>
<p>Log the days your cat pees somewhere unusual and see if a pattern emerges.</p>
<p>If it correlates with something in particular – such as a friend visiting with their dog – try to adapt the house set-up to make your cat more comfortable.</p>
<p>For instance, keep the dog outside or put your cat in your room with their food, water and a litter tray. </p>
<p>Think about how to make your cat more comfortable (or remove the stressor itself). </p>
<h2>3. It could be chronic stress</h2>
<p>Unlike a short-term stressor, chronic stress is an ongoing issue that can’t simply be stopped or removed. </p>
<p>This could be an ongoing stress from living in a multi-cat household or with a dog, or it could from a condition such as anxiety.</p>
<p>While chronic stress can be trickier to handle, it’s important to identify it and seek help. </p>
<p>Ongoing stress can lead to serious health issues such as cystitis, which can cause a urinary blockage and be <a href="https://www.pdsa.org.uk/pet-help-and-advice/pet-health-hub/conditions/stress-cystitis-feline-idiopathic-cystitis-in-cats">life threatening</a>. If your cat visits the litter tray and is straining without any result, this is an emergency. They need to see a vet as soon as possible.</p>
<p>Keep a short daily log and try to identify areas that may be causing ongoing stress for your cat. </p>
<p>Adjust the environment to limit these stressors and if needed, seek a veterinary behaviourist’s advice about treating potential anxiety in your cat. </p>
<p>And if you are very stressed, this might make your cat <a href="https://www.fearfreehappyhomes.com/stressed-you-might-be-stressing-your-cat-as-well/#:%7E:text=If%20we're%20stressed%2C%20our,other's%20physical%20and%20emotional%20states">feel stressed</a>. Sometimes you both need to take a deep breath!</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cat on a couch looks worried." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chronic stress can be tricky to handle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cute-tabby-kitten-on-a-sofa-2194261/">Pexels/Tranmautritam</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-cats-and-dogs-get-the-zoomies-197790">Why do cats and dogs get the zoomies?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. It could be the litter</h2>
<p>Your cat’s “accidents” may be as simple as them not liking the substrate, tray or positioning of the litter they are given. </p>
<p>Cats want to feel comfortable and safe when they toilet. So they may not want to use it if:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>the substrate you’re using hurts their paws or is too deep and makes them slide around</p></li>
<li><p>the tray is too small or too covered or</p></li>
<li><p>the litter is positioned somewhere that is disturbed easily.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Each cat is an individual; what works for one may not work for another. That said, here are some general rules for providing a pleasant litter experience for your cat: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>provide one litter tray per cat plus an extra one for the household</p></li>
<li><p>litter depth should be enough to cover the bottom of the tray well but not so much that the cat’s weight makes them slip down into it </p></li>
<li><p>go for unscented litter (cats are very sensitive to smells)</p></li>
<li><p>place the tray in an area that has privacy and is away from any potential stressors such as children, dogs or loud noises</p></li>
<li><p>if possible, place the trays around the house in appropriate areas so your cat always has easy access when needed </p></li>
<li><p>scoop regularly and keep the tray clean.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>5. It could because your cat is a jerk</h2>
<p>Just kidding. This is never the reason.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208935/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Hazel is affiliated with the Dog and Cat Management Board of South Australia, RSPCA South Australia and Animal Therapies Ltd. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Henning does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Unfortunately, a rhetoric has developed within public discourse that cats are manipulative, vengeful, uncaring or even psychotic. But it’s unlikely they’ve deliberately peed on your rug to annoy you.
Susan Hazel, Associate Professor, School of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide
Julia Henning, PhD Candidate, University of Adelaide
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/203906
2023-07-03T20:07:05Z
2023-07-03T20:07:05Z
What is the story of maneki-neko, the Japanese beckoning cat?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523549/original/file-20230501-3657-ulrlnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5444%2C3610&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Maneki-neko, translated as beckoning cat but also known as lucky cat or welcome cat, is recognisable internationally, often found behind cash registers of restaurants and retail outlets – and also in your phone. </p>
<p>But how did the cat come to be, and what does it mean in Japan?</p>
<p>Cats, great companions and pets, probably arrived in Japan as early as a <a href="http://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/wp-content/uploads/bulletin15_3.pdf">few thousand years ago</a>, and by the <a href="https://crd.ndl.go.jp/reference/modules/d3ndlcrdentry/index.php?page=ref_view&id=1000128474">eighth century</a> appeared in literature and mythology. </p>
<p>As in the rest of the world, cats were useful in catching rats and mice. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A princess and a cat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532862/original/file-20230620-19-3stso2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats were precious and often kept on a leash, as in this 1768–70 painting by Suzuki Harunobu.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Metropolitan Museum of Art</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The population of domesticated cats, however, was relatively small. Because they were precious, some cats were kept on leashes to keep them close, rather than letting them run wild.</p>
<p>During the Edo period (1603-1868), paintings of cats were sold to silkworm farmers. These images were believed powerful enough to scare off silkworm predators: rats and mice. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1072&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1072&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522476/original/file-20230424-14-jb0iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1072&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paintings of cats were believed to keep mice away. This one was by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1797–1861).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://colbase.nich.go.jp/collection_items/tnm/A-10569-5506?locale=en">Tokyo National Museum/ColBase</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ancient-dna-reveals-how-cats-conquered-the-world-79584">Ancient DNA reveals how cats conquered the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A symbol of good fortune</h2>
<p>Maneki-neko style Japanese cat dolls can be traced back to the Edo period (1603-1868), or shortly beforehand. They probably first appeared in the Buddhist temples <a href="https://gotokuji.jp/manekineko/">Gotokuji</a>, <a href="https://nishisugamo-saihoji.com/">Saihoji</a>, or <a href="https://tesshow.jp/shinjuku/temple_wochiai_jishoin.html">Jishoin</a>, all located in Edo, today’s Tokyo. </p>
<p>Because the dolls have roots in the new eastern capital – instead of the traditional Japanese centre of Kyoto and its surrounding area of western Japan – we know maneki-neko is relatively new in Japanese history. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523541/original/file-20230501-655-cyqddf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ceramic maneki-neko from the 19th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.mingei.org/objects-1/info?query=Portfolios%20%3D%20%227057%22&sort=0&page=16">Gift of Billie L. Moffitt/Mingei International Museum.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each Edo temple has a different story about how maneki-neko came to be. </p>
<p>At the Gotokuji temple, the legend is based on the story of Ii Naotaka (1590-1659), the lord samurai of the Hikone domain. While passing Gotokuji, Naotka was beckoned by a cat at the temple gate. As he came inside he was saved from an unexpected heavy thunderstorm. </p>
<p>Out of gratitude, the samurai decided to provide continuous donations to the temple that had been struggling financially. The cat became the temple’s symbol and brought them continuous good fortune. Today, the temple attracts tourists from all over Japan and the world. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523546/original/file-20230501-5247-5za89g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ceramic maneki neko featuring bells around its neck, circa 1880.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.mingei.org/objects-1/info?query=Portfolios%20%3D%20%227057%22&sort=0&page=5">Gift of Billie L. Moffitt/Mingei International Museum</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Economic prosperity</h2>
<p>When and where the ceramic cats began to be sold remains a mystery, but by the late Edo period they found appeal with urban consumers. </p>
<p>Clear evidence of this is found in Utagawa Hiroshige’s <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ukiy/hd_ukiy.htm">ukiyo-e</a> print from 1852, <a href="https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/9369513/1/4">which depicts</a> a stall selling numerous doll cats. But these cats look slightly different from many cats we see in the 21st century; they hold no koban gold coins. </p>
<p>These cats, as seen in today’s Gotokuji cats, wore a bell around their necks, and were said to bring good luck to the owner.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522480/original/file-20230424-28-fo0eoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This book illustration from 1852 shows a shop selling maneki-neko.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://dl.ndl.go.jp/en/pid/9369513/1/4">NDL Digital Collections</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the Meiji era (1868-1912) <a href="https://setomanekineko.jp/">mass production</a> by using plaster moulds made the cat a popular figure nationwide. The cat came to represent material rather than emotional happiness. </p>
<p>By then, bells around cats’ necks were typically replaced with coins – perhaps linked to Japan’s increasing economic prosperity. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523542/original/file-20230501-28-mwq0nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On this 20th century terracotta cat, the bell around its neck has been replaced with a coin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.mingei.org/objects-1/info?query=Portfolios%20%3D%20%227057%22&sort=0&page=10">Gift of Billie L. Moffitt/Mingei International Museum</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The earlier ceramic cats looked like cats rather than cartoon characters. </p>
<p>In the 1950s, makers in Aichi Prefecture adapted the form of its local dolls, <a href="https://www.pref.aichi.jp/sangyoshinko/densan/303.html">Okkawa Ningyo</a>, onto the dolls of cats. The head became as big as the body and eyes became widely opened.</p>
<p>Later in the century, maneki-neko gained popularity in the Chinese-speaking world through Hong Kong and Taiwan. Altars in Hong Kong tea houses had traditionally been dedicated to legends such as the 3rd century Chinese military general <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Yu">Guan Yu</a>, but these days the pretty cats are <a href="https://spc.jst.go.jp/experiences/change/change_1007.html">also featured</a>. </p>
<p>The cats then spread globally through a diffusion of Asian culture by Asian migrants. </p>
<p>Today, turn on your phone and launch the Pokemon app. You might soon capture Meowth, a maneki-neko pokemon with a koban (gold coin) on its forehead.</p>
<h2>‘Cool Japan’</h2>
<p>While in the English-speaking world, it is commonly held that “money doesn’t buy happiness,” it is permissible under Japan’s spiritual code to pray for personal material desires. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523543/original/file-20230501-26-1jpw5t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A porcelain maneki-neko from the 20th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.mingei.org/objects-1/info?query=Portfolios%20%3D%20%227057%22&sort=0&page=7">Gift of Billie L. Moffitt/Mingei International Museum</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contemporary Japan, you are free to ask for and seek what you want – even if what you want is just as simple as meeting the cat. </p>
<p>In addition to the Tokyo temples mentioned above, there are many places where you can meet the cat. Seto City in Aichi Prefecture, an area where ceramic cats have been produced over 100 years, is home to the <a href="https://luckycat.ne.jp/">Maneki-Neko Museum</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=762&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=762&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=762&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=958&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=958&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523548/original/file-20230501-655-mnyjxf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=958&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ceramic cat from 1926.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.mingei.org/objects-1/info?query=mfs%20any%20%22cat%22%20and%20Creation_Place2%20%3D%20%22Japan%22&sort=9&page=33">Gift of Billie L. Moffitt/Mingei International Museum</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You can paint your own original cat at the <a href="http://manekineko-m.jp/taiken/">Manekineko Art Museum</a> in Okayama.</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://hikone-hikonyan.jp/">Hikone Castle</a>, you can meet Hikonyan, a mascot created by the local government in 2007 to celebrate the castle’s 400th anniversary. The mascot is a model of the Gotokuji cat that welcomed Ii Naotaka.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523544/original/file-20230501-16-pgxdvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hikonyan, the mascot of Hikone-jo Castle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dakiny/2760132222">Toshihiro Gamo/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Japanese equivalent of the phrase “cast pearls before swine” is “<a href="https://www.wasshoimagazine.org/blog/curiosities-of-the-japanese-language/should-i-give-a-gold-coin-to-a-cat-cat-idioms">cast coins before cats</a>”. </p>
<p>And so maneki-neko, the pretty cat, welcomes you – and your money. </p>
<p>This feline welcome nicely reflects Japan’s soft power policy known as “<a href="https://www.globalasia.org/v6no1/feature/cool-japan-soft-power_asger-r%C3%B8jle-christensen">Cool Japan</a>”. Japan wants to use its cultural assets to attract international consumers and visitors to contribute to its economic revitalisation in the era when the county’s population is declining. We are most welcome to spend money in Japan. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/suzume-builds-on-a-long-line-of-japanese-art-exploring-the-impacts-of-trauma-on-the-individual-and-the-collective-203920">Suzume builds on a long line of Japanese art exploring the impacts of trauma on the individual and the collective</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203906/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tets Kimura does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
When and where the ceramic cats began to be sold remains a mystery, but by the late Edo period they found appeal with urban consumers.
Tets Kimura, Adjunct Lecturer, Creative Arts, Flinders University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/206812
2023-06-05T16:11:37Z
2023-06-05T16:11:37Z
How cats and dogs affect the climate – and what you can do about it
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530059/original/file-20230605-25-wur8h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=975%2C386%2C4035%2C3346&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Are dogs as polluting as private jets?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dogwalker-spending-time-three-dogs-urban-1045710715">elbud/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>According to Patrick Hanson, the CEO of <a href="https://www.luxaviation.com/">Luxaviation</a>, a Luxembourg-based luxury airline firm, having pets can be just as polluting as travelling by private jet. In defence of his own industry, <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/d5845324-8355-4509-b90e-2b2d0681da7b">he declared recently</a> that one of his company’s customers produces around 2.1 tonnes of CO₂ each year, roughly the same emissions as three pet dogs. This comparison draws on a <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-to-calculate-the-carbon-footprint-of-everything-j98nbv9jm">calculation</a> made in 2020 by carbon-footprint researcher Mike Berners-Lee.</p>
<p>The environmental impact of pets is often overlooked. But <a href="https://www.gfk.com/insights/mans-best-friend-global-pet-ownership-and-feeding-trends">more than half of people</a> worldwide have a pet in their home, and this number is rising. As of 2023, pet ownership in the US reached <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/pet-insurance/pet-ownership-statistics/">66% of households</a>, an increase from 56% in 1988. </p>
<p>So, how much should we worry about the harm our pets are doing to the environment? </p>
<p>Both cats and dogs can harm wild animal populations. They <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/advice/gardening-for-wildlife/animal-deterrents/cats-and-garden-birds/are-cats-causing-bird-declines/">hunt and kill birds and other creatures</a>, while they also <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-05-ecological-pawprint-domestic-dogs-greater.html">chase and harass wild animals</a>. However, perhaps the most concerning aspect of owning pets is the climate impact of the food they eat.</p>
<p>The environmental footprint of our animal companions can vary significantly and is influenced by factors including their size, how many we own and their diet. Choosing nutritionally balanced food with lower meat content will typically reduce emissions. But, just like other aspects of consumption, we must consider our choice of pets and how to feed them to minimise their climate impact.</p>
<h2>Pet food’s uncertain impact</h2>
<p>Animal byproducts (such as lungs, hearts, livers or kidneys) are frequently used in pet food due to their low cost and ability to provide appropriate nutrition. Poultry byproducts, for instance, have been identified as the largest ingredient in both <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-22631-0">dry and wet commercial pet food diets</a>.</p>
<p>How the environmental impact of these byproducts is accounted for is therefore crucial. But published research on the environmental impact of pet food is limited. And even then, some of these studies have produced questionable results.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-22631-0">One study</a>, published last year, suggested that feeding a 10kg dog (roughly the size of a standard <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/dachshund">Dachshund</a>) wet food is associated with the equivalent of 6,541kg of CO₂ emissions each year. This equates to 98% of the total emissions of an average Brazilian citizen. By contrast, a dry food diet for the same dog would result in emissions equivalent to 828kg of CO₂.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Dachshund running towards the camera." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530060/original/file-20230605-8235-h1ffh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your pet’s diet also contributes to climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dachshund-exercise-685697788">NORRIE3699/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2017, another study produced equally alarming results. This study revealed that the emissions stemming from the production of dry cat and dog food in the US amounted to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0181301">between 25% and 30%</a> of the emissions associated with animal products consumed by all US citizens.</p>
<p>Both of these studies attribute environmental impacts to animal byproducts as if they were human-grade meat. This assumption allows available meat emissions factors to be used, but creates double-counting as the livestock emissions have been attributed to the human-grade meat they produce and not to the combination of meat and animal byproducts.</p>
<h2>Rethinking this approach</h2>
<p>A more balanced approach is to allocate the emissions associated with meat and byproducts using the relative economic value of the different products. The impact of the whole animal is recalculated and different values are assigned to the meat and the byproduct. It also slightly lowers the emissions associated with the meat, to give the same emissions for the livestock animal. Byproducts generally have a lower economic value, thereby leading to lower emissions per kilogram allocated to them when compared to meat.</p>
<p>Using this approach, the food emissions of a 10kg dog would be the equivalent of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378020307366">240kg of CO₂ emissions per year</a>. Scaled up for an <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0181301">average 22kg dog</a>, that’s 530kg of CO₂ emissions each year. This is smaller than, but relatively close to, Berners-Lee’s <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/d5845324-8355-4509-b90e-2b2d0681da7b">770kg a year calculation</a>.</p>
<p>But even with the lower emissions that result from this approach, the environmental footprint of pet food is still considerable. Globally, the production of dry pet food accounts for between <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378020307366">1.1% and 2.9%</a> of agricultural emissions, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378020307366">up to 1.2%</a> of agricultural land use and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378020307366">roughly 0.4%</a> of agricultural water extraction. This equates to an environmental footprint about twice the land area of the UK, with greenhouse gas emissions that would rank as the 60th-highest emitting country. While substantial, it’s worth noting that this is still only around one-tenth of <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions-from-aviation">global aviation emissions</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A dog eating dry food." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530085/original/file-20230605-23-ym3f5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dry pet food production generates a level of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to the 60th highest emitting country in the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dry-food-dog-177594395">successo images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reducing the environmental burden</h2>
<p>There is also substantial variability in the size of our pets, especially when it comes to dogs. While a large <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/mastiff">Mastiff</a> could weigh 80kg, a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/Chihuahua-dog">Chihuahua</a> could weigh more than 30 times less, resulting in significantly lower dietary requirements. </p>
<p>Such variability means simplified carbon footprint comparisons between activities like owning dogs and flying on a private jet <a href="https://inews.co.uk/news/comparing-carbon-footprint-private-jets-owning-pets-waste-time-2373116">may not be helpful</a>. But in any case there are several things we can do to reduce the environmental footprint of our pets.</p>
<p>Reducing the quantity of pet food required is a good start. By moving towards smaller breeds, we can keep the benefits of pet ownership while reducing the environmental burden. Feeding your pet <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831322010985?via%3Dihub">the appropriate amount</a> would also help to restrict demand for pet food – and also tackle pet obesity.</p>
<p>The type of food we give to our pets is equally important. Current trends towards the <a href="https://ga-petfoodpartners.co.uk/knowledge-centre/the-humanisation-of-pet-food/">humanisation of pet foods</a> (where products more closely resemble human food) or feeding them <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-you-feed-your-pet-raw-meat-the-real-risks-of-a-traditional-dog-diet-90271">raw meat</a> are likely to increase the environmental impact of owning pets. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tabby cat rearing up to reach a feeding dish containing raw meat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530064/original/file-20230605-15-adxppi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The type of food we give our pets matters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tabby-cat-rearing-reach-feeding-dish-1669099855">Nils Jacobi/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.sustainablejungle.com/sustainable-living/sustainable-eco-friendly-dog-food/">Sustainable pet food brands</a> – of which there are now many – and brands that incorporate <a href="https://theconversation.com/insect-protein-dish-of-the-day-for-your-environmentally-friendly-pet-110105">innovative ingredients such as insects</a> offer a more environmentally conscious approach. These pet foods have a reduced meat content, particularly of ruminant meat (grazing mammals like cattle), and include plant-based ingredients. But it’s essential to consider <a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-insects-can-be-good-for-the-planet-europeans-should-eat-more-of-them-190042">what the insects eat</a> to ensure the overall environmental cost is reduced.</p>
<p>Claims comparing pets to private jets may oversimplify the issue, especially when there is contention over what each activity could mean. But caring for our pets does contribute to global greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions (alongside the other environmental impacts of owning pets) must be considered when we decide which pets to own and how to feed them.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 10,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206812/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Alexander receives funding from UKRI and ERC.</span></em></p>
The environmental pawprint of pets is huge – and it’s mostly down to what we feed them.
Peter Alexander, Senior Lecturer in Global Food Security, The University of Edinburgh
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/206556
2023-06-01T20:58:59Z
2023-06-01T20:58:59Z
Summer fireworks can traumatize pets and cause wildlife to flee
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529674/original/file-20230601-19-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C0%2C6720%2C4406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Studies suggest up to 50 per cent of dogs are afraid of fireworks.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fireworks have become a fixture of many celebrations around the world, from weddings to national holidays. But there are many among us, including the furry, feathered and finned, who feel fear with every thundering boom.</p>
<p>Animal caretakers, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/calgary-fireworks-environment-wildlife-human-health-concerns-1.5218006">wildlife rehabilitators</a> and fire services see firsthand the damaging — and sometimes fatal — effects whenever and wherever fireworks are deployed. </p>
<h2>Real risks for animals</h2>
<p>Cats and <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/canine-corner/202212/how-much-loud-noise-can-a-dog-tolerate">dogs</a> both experience sounds at <a href="https://www.four-paws.org.za/campaigns-topics/topics/companion-animals/how-to-help-pets-and-wildlife-during-the-fireworks-season">far greater intensity</a> than humans. Fireworks appear for them as discordant noise without warning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-ways-to-help-your-pets-cope-with-fireworks-171023">Five ways to help your pets cope with fireworks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2012.12.004">Studies</a> suggest <a href="https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/437774847">up to 50 per cent</a> of dogs are afraid of fireworks. Frightened animals awakened from sleep or startled from a state of relaxation will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2045-0648.2012.00224.x">hide, pace, shake, cry or flee</a>, unable to process what is going on or find a safe haven. </p>
<p>I had a tough and confident rescue dog named Ms Macey who was only afraid of one thing: fireworks. She would try to find reprieve by hiding in the bathtub.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a german shepherd mix dog sits on a kitchen floor" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528942/original/file-20230529-36299-p7lyop.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ms Macey, the author’s dog, was afraid of nothing except fireworks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(K. Coulter)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Horses’ innate fear responses can take over when they hear fireworks. This led to the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/horse-death-debate-fireworks-nova-scotia-1.6306019">tragic death of a horse</a> in Nova Scotia in 2022, neither <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/929122/fireworks-evidence-submission-rspca.pdf">the first nor last related equine casualty</a>. </p>
<p>So far this year, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cml0z8lnrvyo">Murphy</a> and <a href="https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/uk-news/horse-dies-after-charging-through-25926652">Tallulah</a> were two horse victims of fireworks, the latter so afraid she ran through a wooden fence. </p>
<p>It’s not only animals who are at risk either. Spooking horses can accidentally hurt people trying to handle and comfort them. Bystanders can also be injured when horses bolt out of fear.</p>
<h2>Wild animals’ responses</h2>
<p>The dangers are serious for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coac050">wild animals</a> like birds, squirrels, frogs and fish too. During fireworks explosions, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/grrlscientist/2017/12/30/how-do-fireworks-harm-wild-birds/">nearby resting birds will flee</a> in fear <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arr102">en masse from trees and ponds</a>, and fly off into the night sky. </p>
<p>Some birds have flown <a href="https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/437774847">so far out to sea</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3809202">they would not physically have been able to return to land alive</a>. Birds can crash into buildings, get lost and disoriented and literally fall, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/us/04beebe.html">by the thousands</a>, onto communities. </p>
<p>Because fireworks are launched at night, the full effects on wild animals are challenging to document. Researchers expect that <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/grrlscientist/2015/12/31/birds-flee-en-mass-from-new-years-eve-fireworks/">millions</a> of birds are affected around the world and that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12927">results linger</a> after the smoke has disappeared.</p>
<p>In spring and early summer, when animals like birds and squirrels are nesting or in the early stages of rearing their offspring, the risks are even greater. Babies die of dehydration or starvation when <a href="https://ontarionature.org/lakes-and-fireworks-blog/">terrified or disoriented</a> animal parents cannot find their way back to their nests and burrows. These painful deaths are particularly tragic because they are completely avoidable.</p>
<h2>Risks to people</h2>
<p>The negative impacts of fireworks extend beyond animals — they can also trigger <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035081">refugees</a> and <a href="https://www.va.gov/hines-health-care/stories/how-your-fireworks-may-affect-americas-veterans/">veterans</a>.</p>
<p>When set off, fireworks can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2017-0063">release toxic chemicals and pollute the environment</a>. And during warnings of the potential of an intense and dangerous fire season, the incendiary risks of fireworks are even more dire.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Data-research-and-tools/US-Fire-Problem/Fireworks-fires-and-injures">Nearly 20,000 blazes were started by fireworks</a> in the United States in 2018 alone, killing five people and injuring dozens more. The fact that fires are already decimating forests and communities makes these facts even more alarming. It’s difficult to see why fireworks are permitted at all.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1536242716526485509"}"></div></p>
<h2>Harm is nothing to celebrate</h2>
<p>Thankfully, some communities are taking action and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/greener-alternatives-to-fireworks-1.4748406">exploring alternatives</a> to conventional fireworks. </p>
<p>In 2018, the Italian town of Collecchio made headlines as the <a href="https://iheartdogs.com/town-in-italy-is-using-silent-fireworks-should-we-all/">first in the world</a> to implement “silent” fireworks; they aren’t completely noiseless, but make far less noise than traditional fireworks.</p>
<p>That same year <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-banff-ditches-big-bang-canada-day-fireworks-to-protect-wildlife/">Banff, Alta.</a> moved to a much quieter pyrotechnic display for its Canada Day event. And this year, the city suspended the light show to “<a href="https://banff.ca/823/Canada-Day">review the impacts of noise and light flashes on wildlife and the secondary impacts on pets and people in the community</a>,” which is laudable. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="wild mountain elk in a meadow with mountains in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529425/original/file-20230531-19-ij3mp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2023, Banff decided to stop setting off fireworks for celebrations to review their impact on animals and people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is a disturbing display of ego that the human desire to light up the quiet night sky with explosions continues despite the serious effects it has on vulnerable people, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3921-4">other species and our shared environment</a> (not to mention <a href="https://torontosun.com/news/local-news/party-poopers-cash-strapped-city-nixes-canada-day-celebration">the cost when governments are footing the bill)</a>.</p>
<p>Since backyard and community-run fireworks continue in most places, concerned <a href="https://ontariospca.ca/blog/a-guide-to-fireworks-for-the-anxious-doggo/">animal caretakers</a> <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/london/dogs-canada-day-fireworks-humane-society-1.4186094">should take steps to protect their animals</a>.</p>
<p>But individual actions aren’t enough to mitigate the damaging effects of fireworks on domesticated and wild animals. The more <a href="https://vancouverhumanesociety.bc.ca/posts/are-fireworks-safe-for-animals/">this issue is raised</a>, the more likely this harmful practice will be replaced with alternatives that are more respectful and genuinely joyful. Harm should be prevented not cheered. Governments ought to ensure celebrations consider the well-being of humans and other animals alike.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kendra Coulter receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. She is a fellow of the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics in England and a member of the Canadian Violence Link Coalition's Strategic Planning Committee. </span></em></p>
Fireworks can frighten wild and domestic animals, start wildfires and affect some people’s mental health.
Kendra Coulter, Professor, Management and Organizational Studies, Huron University College, Western University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201947
2023-05-28T23:59:14Z
2023-05-28T23:59:14Z
Australian shelters and pounds kill 50,000 mostly healthy cats and kittens in a year. There’s a way to prevent this pointless killing
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517333/original/file-20230324-20-qmnsgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C38%2C6413%2C4246&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Stray cats are a longstanding problem in Australian towns and cities. Common complaints about roaming cats include nuisance (fighting and urinating), disease risks to humans and other animals, and predation of native wildlife. The huge numbers of cats and kittens taken in by animal shelters and council pounds are a challenge to manage, leading to an estimated 50,000 being killed each year – most of them young and healthy. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/11/1771">newly published research</a> reveals Australian council pounds, rescue groups and animal welfare shelters took in 179,615 cats and kittens in 2018-2019. Of these animals, 5% were reclaimed by owners, 65% rehomed and 28% killed.</p>
<p>Council-operated pounds killed 46% of all cats and kittens admitted. Shelters killed 25%. One in four council pounds in New South Wales and Victoria killed a staggering 67-100%.</p>
<p>Despite the scale of this killing, Australia’s stray cat numbers are not decreasing. The evidence shows an urgent need for proactive <a href="https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/councils/responsible-pet-ownership/rehoming-practices-review/">community cat programs</a> offering free desexing of cats in targeted problem areas.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1616291930773544962"}"></div></p>
<h2>Killing so many cats is bad for people too</h2>
<p>High cat-killing rates also have a significant human cost. Many council, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2020.1694316">shelter</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3119248/">veterinary</a> staff <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7498553_Perpetration-induced_Traumatic_Stress_in_Persons_Who_Euthanize_Nonhuman_Animals_in_Surgeries_Animal_Shelters_and_Laboratories">suffer</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4530968/">devastating</a> <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02096.x">psychological</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195561611000301?via%3Dihub">impacts</a> when required to kill large numbers of healthy cats and kittens, often repeatedly. These impacts include trauma, depression, substance abuse and <a href="https://jvme.utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/jvme.0116-026R">increased suicide risk</a>. </p>
<p>Members of the public can also be <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/2/271">traumatised</a> when the stray cats they are feeding are trapped and killed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="several cats sit on cages at an animal shelter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517332/original/file-20230324-20-j0scpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More than one in four cats and kittens entering pounds and shelters are killed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Current approaches are failing</h2>
<p>To make matters worse, trapping and killing stray cats and kittens is costly and has not worked. This reactive approach has not reduced the stray cat population over the decades it has been applied. Therefore, the potential nuisance, disease risks and native wildlife predation have not been reduced. </p>
<p>Our research shows cat intakes actually increased at municipal pounds in NSW from 2016-17 to 2018-19 (pre-COVID data are most accurate). Attempts to adopt and kill our way out of the stray cat problem have failed.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cats-that-are-allowed-to-roam-can-spread-diseases-to-humans-and-wildlife-173613">Cats that are allowed to roam can spread diseases to humans and wildlife</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australian councils are increasingly adopting mandatory cat containment (curfews). It seems like a logical solution, but based on the evidence it is not effective. It doesn’t reduce stray cat numbers in the short or long term, as <a href="https://aiam.org.au/resources/Documents/2001%20UAM/PUB_Pro01_DaveBaker.pdf">shown by the experience</a> of councils such as <a href="https://www.casey.vic.gov.au/policies-strategies/domestic-animal-management-plan-2021-2025">Casey</a> and <a href="https://www.yarraranges.vic.gov.au/files/assets/public/webdocuments/council/policies-strategies/animal-management-plan.pdf">Yarra Ranges</a> in Victoria. </p>
<p><a href="https://kb.rspca.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Identifying-Best-Practice-Domestic-Cat-Management-in-Australia-RSPCA-Research-Report-May-2018.pdf">RSPCA Australia</a> acknowledges:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Overall, councils with cat containment regulations have not been able to demonstrate any measurable reduction in cat complaints or cats wandering at large. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In contrast, <a href="https://www.hume.vic.gov.au/Your-Council/Governance/Previous-Council-Term-%E2%80%93-Agenda-and-Minutes/2018-Council-Agenda-and-Minutes/16-April-2018">Hume</a>, <a href="https://www.hobsonsbay.vic.gov.au/files/assets/public/documents/council-meetings/from-old-website/2014/1216/appendix_1_-_cat_curfew.pdf">Hobsons Bay</a> and <a href="https://merri-bek.vic.gov.au/globalassets/website-merri-bek/areas/my-council/council-and-committee-meetings/council-and-parm-meetings/minutes/2022-minutes/council-minutes-2022-12-07-december---pdf.pdf">Merri-bek</a> councils in Victoria have rejected mandatory containment. Their decisions cited reasons such as it is ineffective and unenforceable because most stray cats don’t have an owner to contain them. </p>
<p>Cats may be owned, semi-owned (people feed them intentionally) or (uncommonly) unowned. In the latter case they get food unintentionally provided by people, such as from bins.</p>
<p>Even for owned cats, containment is <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/6/1067">sometimes not achievable</a> due to factors such as housing limitations, cost – containment systems typically cost $700-$2,000 – and concerns about the welfare of confined cats. Mandatory containment creates a barrier to semi-owners adopting the stray cat they are feeding and also potentially criminalises cat ownership for disadvantaged families, particularly those in rental properties.</p>
<p>Containment to their owners’ properties should be strongly encouraged where cats’ physical and mental needs can be met. But mandatory containment should be rejected. It will not protect native wildlife, the commonly cited justification, because it does not measurably reduce the number of free-roaming cats.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/research-reveals-why-pet-owners-keep-their-cats-indoors-and-its-not-to-protect-wildlife-166263">Research reveals why pet owners keep their cats indoors – and it's not to protect wildlife</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Stray cats are not feral cats</h2>
<p>Based on <a href="https://kb.rspca.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Identifying-Best-Practice-Domestic-Cat-Management-in-Australia-RSPCA-Research-Report-May-2018.pdf">RSPCA</a> and <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/threat-abatement-plan-feral-cats">government</a> <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/invasive-plants-and-animals/feral-cats">definitions</a>, stray cats in urban and urban fringe areas are all domestic cats. </p>
<p>They are not <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/invasive-plants-and-animals/feral-cats">feral cats</a>. Feral cats <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/threat-abatement-plan-feral-cats">live and breed in the wild</a>, not in cities or towns or near people, are not the subject of nuisance complaints and are <a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/sites/default/files/RSPCA%20Australia%20Annual%20Statistics%202020-2021.pdf">not admitted to shelters or pounds</a>. Stray cats are sometimes mislabelled as feral cats, which prevents effective solutions to the stray cat problem. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1002064910912700416"}"></div></p>
<p>Stray cats account for 80-100% of admissions to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/8/7/100">council pounds</a> and 60-80% to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/8/6/95">animal welfare agencies</a>. The rest are mostly cats given up by their owners.</p>
<p>Most stray cats entering pounds and shelters are from poorer areas and are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10888705.2015.1121145?journalCode=haaw20">likely semi-owned cats</a>. The people who feed them do not see themselves as owners of the stray cat but have an emotional bond with the cat. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-our-dogs-and-cats-bring-us-dead-animals-189983">Why do our dogs and cats bring us dead animals?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>So what’s the long-term solution?</h2>
<p>Assisting semi-owners and owners in disadvantaged areas to desex their cats is the best long-term solution to the stray cat problem. The <a href="https://petwelfare.org.au/community-cat-program-2/">Community Cat Program</a> is an evidence-based approach that supports cat owners and semi-owners with free desexing and microchipping of the cats they are caring for. These efforts should be focused on areas of high cat intakes and complaints. </p>
<p>Proactive <a href="https://petwelfare.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022%20/02/Aust-Community-Cat-Program-Dec-2021.pdf">community cat programs</a> are <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/8/4/55">scientifically</a> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2019.00077/full">proven</a> to reduce the number of stray cats and unwanted kittens in targeted areas. They thereby reduce nuisance complaints, cat intake and killing, trauma to people, costs, disease risks and wildlife predation. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1615926324060901377"}"></div></p>
<p>Banyule in Victoria set up a free program to desex, microchip and register owned and semi-owned cats, with a focus on suburbs with high cat-related calls. In just three years, the council <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=29ab9b81-391c-459c-8eed-ff6253b0293d&subId=691320">reduced impoundments</a> by 61% and numbers killed by 74%. In contrast, after Yarra Ranges Council <a href="https://www.yarraranges.vic.gov.au/files/assets/public/webdocuments/council/policies-strategies/animal-management-plan.pdf">implemented mandatory containment</a> in 2017, there was a 68% increase in impoundments in the third year.</p>
<p>The 2022 NSW <a href="https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/councils/responsible-pet-ownership/rehoming-practices-review/">Rehoming Practices Review</a> recommended community cat programs, consistent with a “<a href="https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-is-one-welfare/">One Welfare</a>” approach. The aim is to optimise and balance the wellbeing of people, animals and their social and physical environment. Earlier this year, the NSW government <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/grants-and-funding/westinvest/westinvest-project-updates/westinvest-ice-rink">announced</a> <a href="https://nswliberal.org.au/news/record-investment-of-$40-6-million-for-animal-welfare-and-rehoming">$8.3 million</a> in funding for community cat programs and facilities.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/6/3/23">At least 50%</a> of cats entering pounds and shelters are kittens less than six months old. These figures highlight why community cat programs are urgently needed across Australia to protect cats, native wildlife and people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Chua, a veterinarian and masters student at The University of Queensland, is lead author of the research paper on the numbers of cats being taken in by Australian pounds and shelters, and contributed to this article. Jade Norris, a veterinarian working at the Australian Pet Welfare Foundation and a masters student at The University of Queensland, and Andrea Hayward PhD, a volunteer researcher with the APWF examining social issues associated with cat management following a background in clinical genetic counselling, reproductive medicine and genetic paternity testing, also contributed to this article. Jacquie Rand is a registered specialist veterinarian in small animal internal medicine and Emeritus Professor of Companion Animal Health at the University of Queensland. She is also the Executive Director and Chief Scientist of the Australian Pet Welfare Foundation, which provides a consultancy service on urban cat management to local governments. APWF receives funding from the Queensland Government Gambling Community Benefit Fund and from many state, national and international granting bodies, not-for-profits and donors. She is affiliated with the Australian Veterinary Association, Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists, American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine and the Society of Comparative Endocrinology. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Morton is affiliated with the Australian Veterinary Association and the Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists. Dr Morton provides an epidemiological consulting service through Jemora Pty Ltd.</span></em></p>
Some 60-100% of cats taken in are strays and at least 50% are kittens born in the preceding six months. Community cat programs focused on free desexing in problem areas are badly needed.
Jacquie Rand, Emeritus Professor of Companion Animal Health, The University of Queensland
John Morton, Industry Fellow, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/203096
2023-04-05T13:53:51Z
2023-04-05T13:53:51Z
Easter bunnies, cacao beans and pollinating bugs: A basket of 6 essential reads about chocolate
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519391/original/file-20230404-14-reloqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=422%2C0%2C4914%2C3173&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Easter has its bunnies, but chocolate comes out for every holiday.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/chocolate-bunny-family-royalty-free-image/177875356">garytog/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.insider.com/surprising-easter-fun-facts-stats-2019-4#as-many-as-91-million-chocolate-bunnies-are-sold-in-the-us-for-easter-annually-8">Tens of millions of chocolate bunnies</a> get sold in the U.S. every Easter. Here are six articles about chocolate from The Conversation’s archive – great reading while you’re nibbling the ears off your own bunny (if you’re one of the <a href="https://www.insider.com/surprising-easter-fun-facts-stats-2019-4#as-many-as-78-of-americans-eat-the-ears-of-their-chocolate-bunny-first-11">three-quarters of Americans who start</a> at the top).</p>
<h2>1. Food scientist on cocoa chemistry</h2>
<p>Chocolate bunnies don’t grow on trees – but cacao pods do. It takes a lot of processing to get from the raw agricultural input to the finished output.</p>
<p>Food scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5iZjEckAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Sheryl Barringer</a> from The Ohio State University wrote about various chemical reactions that are part of the transformation of beans into chocolate. One is the Maillard reaction, the same thing that gives the browned bits on roasted meats or a bread’s golden crust their flavor. <a href="https://theconversation.com/chocolate-chemistry-a-food-scientist-explains-how-the-beloved-treat-gets-its-flavor-texture-and-tricky-reputation-as-an-ingredient-198222">Barringer also explains that weird white stuff</a> – known as bloom – that might appear on your Easter chocolates if they hang around for a while. (Don’t worry, it’s still edible.)</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chocolate-chemistry-a-food-scientist-explains-how-the-beloved-treat-gets-its-flavor-texture-and-tricky-reputation-as-an-ingredient-198222">Chocolate chemistry – a food scientist explains how the beloved treat gets its flavor, texture and tricky reputation as an ingredient</a>
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<h2>2. Chocolate is a fermented food</h2>
<p>Food science Ph.D. candidate <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QjIM6yUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Caitlin Clark</a> from Colorado State University focuses her research on the microbes responsible for much of chocolate’s flavor. As a fermented food, chocolate depends on yeast and bacteria to help turn a raw ingredient into the treat you can recognize.</p>
<p>Clark described how the microorganisms that occur naturally in a given geographical location can give high-end chocolates their “terroir” – “<a href="https://theconversation.com/chocolates-secret-ingredient-is-the-fermenting-microbes-that-make-it-taste-so-good-155552">the characteristic flair imparted by a place</a>” you might be more used to thinking about with regard to wine.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chocolates-secret-ingredient-is-the-fermenting-microbes-that-make-it-taste-so-good-155552">Chocolate's secret ingredient is the fermenting microbes that make it taste so good</a>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cacao pods and flowers on branch tree close up" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519395/original/file-20230404-2112-yh79aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Tiny flies spread pollen from one cacao tree to another.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cacao-pods-and-flower-on-branch-royalty-free-image/1165785501">dimarik/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<h2>3. Pollinators are important part of process</h2>
<p>Cacao growers rely on another tiny ally to pollinate their crop. Entomologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=qvmWZYwAAAAJ">DeWayne Shoemaker</a> from the University of Tennessee described the mini flies – particularly biting midges and gall midges – that get the job done. “Pollinators must pick up pollen from the male parts of a flower of one tree and deposit it on the female parts of a flower on another tree,” Shoemaker wrote.</p>
<p>But up to <a href="https://theconversation.com/tiny-cacao-flowers-and-fickle-midges-are-part-of-a-pollination-puzzle-that-limits-chocolate-production-154334">90% of cacao flowers don’t get pollinated</a> at all. People can hand-pollinate the little flowers, but it remains a mystery which other insects might do the job in the wild.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tiny-cacao-flowers-and-fickle-midges-are-part-of-a-pollination-puzzle-that-limits-chocolate-production-154334">Tiny cacao flowers and fickle midges are part of a pollination puzzle that limits chocolate production</a>
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<h2>4. Child labor is chocolate’s bitter secret</h2>
<p>Harvesting and processing cacao is labor-intensive. To meet this need, some farmers turn to child labor. Cultural anthropologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1ErMxzgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Robert Ulin</a> from the Rochester Institute of Technology described how the global chocolate industry is tied to inequality via exploitative labor practices.</p>
<p>“The largest chocolate companies signed a protocol in 2001 that <a href="https://theconversation.com/some-chocolate-has-a-dark-side-to-it-child-labor-179271">condemned child labor and childhood slavery</a>,” Ulin wrote. But he noted that consumers may want more information to make sure their purchase power supports “fair labor practices in the chocolate sector.” </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/some-chocolate-has-a-dark-side-to-it-child-labor-179271">Some chocolate has a dark side to it – child labor</a>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dog and woman, both with Easter bunny ears on" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519398/original/file-20230404-18-7hqbi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Do not share your chocolates with your pooch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/dog-and-woman-with-costume-and-easter-decorations-royalty-free-image/1359250422">F.J. Jimenez/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>5. Not safe for furry family members</h2>
<p>Eating a ton of chocolate is probably not a healthy choice for anyone. But even a little bit of chocolate can be deadly for dogs and cats. </p>
<p>In an article about all kinds of holiday foods that are unsafe for pets, veterinarian and researcher <a href="https://experts.okstate.edu/le.fanucchi">Leticia Fanucchi</a> from Oklahoma State University explained the chemicals in this human delicacy that can cause fatal “<a href="https://theconversation.com/holiday-foods-can-be-toxic-to-pets-a-veterinarian-explains-which-and-what-to-do-if-rover-or-kitty-eats-them-196453">chocolate intoxication</a>.” Don’t delay getting veterinary help if your pet does raid your Easter basket.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/holiday-foods-can-be-toxic-to-pets-a-veterinarian-explains-which-and-what-to-do-if-rover-or-kitty-eats-them-196453">Holiday foods can be toxic to pets – a veterinarian explains which, and what to do if Rover or Kitty eats them</a>
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<h2>6. An enslaved chocolatier in colonial America</h2>
<p>An enslaved cook named Caesar, born in 1732, was one of the first chocolatiers in the American colonies. Historical archaeologist <a href="https://berkeley.academia.edu/KelleyFantoDeetz">Kelley Fanto Deetz</a> from the University of California, Berkeley described how Caesar “would have had to <a href="https://theconversation.com/oppression-in-the-kitchen-delight-in-the-dining-room-the-story-of-caesar-an-enslaved-chef-and-chocolatier-in-colonial-virginia-151356">roast the cocoa beans on the open hearth</a>, shell them by hand, grind the nibs on a heated chocolate stone, and then scrape the raw cocoa, add milk or water, cinnamon, nutmeg or vanilla, and serve it piping hot.”</p>
<p>Cocoa was a hot commodity for Virginia’s white elite during this period, when it was a culinary component – along with pineapples, Madeira wine, port, champagne, coffee and sugar – of the Columbian Exchange.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/oppression-in-the-kitchen-delight-in-the-dining-room-the-story-of-caesar-an-enslaved-chef-and-chocolatier-in-colonial-virginia-151356">Oppression in the kitchen, delight in the dining room: The story of Caesar, an enslaved chef and chocolatier in Colonial Virginia</a>
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<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Two food scientists, an entomologist, an anthropologist, a veterinarian and a historian walk into a bar (of chocolate) and tell bitter and sweet stories of this favorite treat.
Maggie Villiger, Senior Science + Technology Editor
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.