tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/city-726/articlesCity – The Conversation2022-11-22T16:50:06Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1934242022-11-22T16:50:06Z2022-11-22T16:50:06ZThe era of the megalopolis: how the world’s cities are merging<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496172/original/file-20221118-13-3hmo7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>On November 15 2022, a <a href="https://ph.news.yahoo.com/baby-girl-born-manila-symbolizes-070929612.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly90aGVjb252ZXJzYXRpb24uY29tLw&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAACZON24C_Rp9fgLGVObkebb78761YzAajlc-lzRoCD0nLGsq-eYozsKi_fEYYWd-7M1BARQNheIi6sahq16dIi5N7W_6uxh17ijB6VaeZmWuf2ooqBLoyxGIOcIMsIrMmflBmu6jE2TLDt-n40gjVRI0KyGZnpM4FUsUzuOg6PdC">baby girl named Vinice Mabansag</a>, born at Dr Jose Fabella Memorial Hospital in Manila, Philippines, became – symbolically – the <a href="https://theconversation.com/8-billion-humans-how-population-growth-and-climate-change-are-connected-as-the-anthropocene-engine-transforms-the-planet-193075">eight billionth person</a> in the world. Of those 8 billion people, <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS">60%</a> live in a town or city. By the end of the 21st century, cities will account for 85% of Earth’s <a href="https://www.oecd.org/regional/regional-policy/The-Metropolitan-Century-Policy-Highlights%20.pdf">predicted 10 billion inhabitants</a>. </p>
<p>Cities don’t only grow by the number of inhabitants. The more people they host, the more services (public transport, energy infrastructure, water supply) they need, the more governance they require and the more resilient their economy has to be. It might be surprising then to learn that there is no single definition of what a city actually is. </p>
<p>In medieval times, cities from London to Seoul were delineated by their walls. And even well into the 20th century, the idea of a city’s limits still held water. Today, if the process of urbanisation still brings to mind the biggest pre-millennial metropolises (Tokyo, São Paulo, New York or Mumbai), they represent nonetheless a decreasing proportion of all the world’s cities. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A view of high-rise buildings with afternoon sunlight." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496190/original/file-20221118-12-see71z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">New York represents the city of the 20th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/wpU4veNGnHg">Ben O'Bro | Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>By contrast, in the more rapidly growing urban centres, <a href="https://urbanage.lsecities.net/data/urban-expansion-lagos">such as Lagos</a>, the geographic extent of a mayor’s official jurisdiction often ends long before the populace it serves does. Its economy, meanwhile, is often deeply intertwined with those of the neighbouring cities. </p>
<p>The question of where to draw the line between what is and what is not a city – not to mention where one ends and another begins – is getting harder to answer. As the world moves towards total urbanisation, settlements are spreading out by merging into one another to create what urban experts term “<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2199-8531/8/3/126/pdf">megalopolises</a>”.</p>
<h2>How machines saw cities grow</h2>
<p>The largest of these mega-cities already exceeds 60 million people. In China, the region of Guangdong province around the Pearl River estuary now known as the <a href="https://www.atlasoftheinvisible.com/">Greater Bay Area</a> effectively merges 11 cities, from Macao all the way around to Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Hong Kong. </p>
<p>With a total population <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649357.2021.1958539">of over 70 million inhabitants</a>, it counts 2 million more people than the entire population of the UK, squeezed into roughly a fifth of the area. In economic terms, it looms just as large: at US$1.64 trillion (£1.39 trillion) in 2018, its GDP represents 11.6% of China’s total. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of a coastline showing light emissions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496151/original/file-20221118-9310-fz02zk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A map of light emissions beaming from the Guangdong-Hong Kong megalopolis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Cheshire</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the west African coast, meanwhile, the 600km stretch between Abidjan, Ivory Coast and Lagos, in Nigeria, is rapidly catching up. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/oct/27/megalopolis-how-coastal-west-africa-will-shape-the-coming-century">Experts predict</a> that by 2100, this agglomeration of nine cities will be the most densely populated on earth, with up to 500 million people.</p>
<p>Cities only really started growing in the mid-18th century when we began to build machines that would propel us much faster – and further – than any technology invented so far. For the first time, cities and London, in particular, broke through the threshold of around 1 million people in size that had dominated the urban world hitherto. </p>
<p>Some cities, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/02/worlds-first-skyscraper-chicago-home-insurance-building-history">including Chicago</a> and New York, grew upwards as the technologies of the steel frame and the elevator enabled those with the resources to erect the early skyscrapers, those “cathedrals of commerce”. </p>
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<p>With the invention of the automobile, many cities, such as Los Angeles, have grown outwards, despite widespread <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Exploding_Metropolis.html?id=N6MwDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y">resistance</a> to the idea of urban sprawl. </p>
<p>Some large cities in the developing world including Dar es Salaam in Tanzania or Nairobi in Kenya have grown <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/africa-regional-studies/publication/african-cities-opening-doors-to-the-world">inwards</a>. Here, the idea of the compact city based around public transport and higher residential densities has taken root. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bird's eye view of a sprawling cityscape." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496189/original/file-20221118-18-t49zw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The gridded urban sprawl of Los Angles, California.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/b7d0fNna4as">Yuxuan Wang | Unsplash</a></span>
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<h2>How the metaverse is redefining the city</h2>
<p>Most people today live in medium-sized or even <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Urban-Empires-Cities-as-Global-Rulers-in-the-New-Urban-World/Glaeser-Kourtit-Nijkamp/p/book/9781138601710">small cities</a>. We still largely depend on the internal combustion engine to move between different activities, typically home and work. </p>
<p>However, over the last 50 years, the advent of computers and networked communications has meant that people can now live at huge distances from their colleagues. This blurs the physical boundaries of any city.</p>
<p>Counting a city’s inhabitants and mapping its geographical boundaries are only some of the aspects to consider when defining what a city is. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-metaverse-and-what-can-we-do-there-179200">digital skin</a> that now covers the planet enables the citizens of any city to interact with anyone and everyone, in any place, at any time. </p>
<p>Cities will continue to grow and change physically. By the end of the 21st century, every place will no doubt be one form of city, but the term itself is not likely to disappear. Instead, its meaning will change. </p>
<p>In 1937 already, in a compendium entitled The City Reader, the historian Lewis Mumford <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203869260-21/city-architectural-record-1937-lewis-mumford">argued</a> that although cities might be identified as physical entities, they were places of social interaction, of communications. </p>
<p>This resonates strongly with the notion that in the future we will no longer think of cities simply as distinct physical hubs in a rural landscape but as patterns of digital movement, crisscrossing the planet over many scales from the mega city down to the local neighbourhood. Boundaries will no longer have the same meaning as they did before the first industrial revolution in Britain in 1830. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of a coastal area in West Africa." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496152/original/file-20221118-6248-fy14dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The West African megalopolis stretches from Lago in Nigeria to Abidjan in Ivory Coast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Cheshire</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scholars agree that as cities get bigger, they <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0610172104">generate</a> economies of scale that increasingly dominate their economic growth and prosperity. Evidence suggests that the urban world is even more complex. </p>
<p>Cities increasingly <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262038959/inventing-future-cities/">resemble biological systems</a> more than they do mechanical systems, with transportation networks reaching out into the hinterlands around them resembling arboreal <a href="http://www.fractalcities.org/book/fractal%20cities%20low%20resolution.pdf">fractals</a>.</p>
<p>The emerging urban world is <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-metaverse-could-change-the-purpose-and-feel-of-cities-182628">vastly different</a> from anything that has gone before. Trying to determine the physical limits of the city remains important. In figuring out how to reckon with this new complexity, however, it may well be too superficial.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193424/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Cheshire receives funding from UKRI. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Batty receives funding from The Alan Turing Institute.</span></em></p>Quite how to gauge the size of a city – or where one ends and the next begins – is getting harder to determine. The 21st century belongs to the limitless city.James Cheshire, Professor of Geographic Information and Cartography, UCLMichael Batty, Chair and Professor of Planning, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1939492022-11-21T04:32:23Z2022-11-21T04:32:23ZQueensland’s high-tech plan to make the 2032 Brisbane Olympic Games smarter and greener<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495303/original/file-20221115-13-zhdrj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C80%2C3827%2C2784&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With Brisbane to host the 2032 Olympic Games, Queensland is accelerating “smart” and “green” infrastructure projects right across the coast from Coolangatta to Coolum.</p>
<p>So what practical steps is the state government taking to bring Brisbane closer to being a smart city while managing rapid growth? And what differences can city residents realistically expect to see for themselves?</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-planning-is-now-on-the-front-line-of-the-climate-crisis-this-is-what-it-means-for-our-cities-and-towns-193452">Urban planning is now on the front line of the climate crisis. This is what it means for our cities and towns</a>
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<h2>Exploiting a quarter century of technological progress</h2>
<p>Vastly more ambitious than the South Bank building boom, which preceded Brisbane’s World Expo 88 in the pre-internet era, Queensland’s current infrastructure programs are exploiting the last quarter-century of technological progress. </p>
<p>Think sensor-triggered street lights, automated air conditioning and watering of parks and green facades. Envision robots for cleaning and construction, satmaps, swipe cards and QR codes. Data technology will be embedded in 32 existing and planned Olympic venues, the future athletes’ village at Northshore Hamilton (near Breakfast Creek) and the international media centres. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An artist's impression of the new 'data' city centre being developed at Maroochydoore by Walker Corporation with the Sunshine Coast City Council." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495255/original/file-20221115-24-m8th6s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">An artist’s impression of the new ‘data’ city centre being developed at Maroochydoore by Walker Corporation with the Sunshine Coast City Council.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sunshine Coast City Council</span></span>
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<p>Technology will also underpin a substantial city centre at Maroochydore. Here, a mid-rise precinct will be powered via a solar farm at nearby Valdora, and will include fibre-optic telecommunications cables. In what may be a first for Australia, a new system will sluice garbage from chutes through <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-21/maroochydore-rubbish-revolution-envac-underground/7864272">underground vacuum pipes</a>.</p>
<h2>A ‘New Norm’ Olympics</h2>
<p>All Games facilities must align with a set of 118 reforms the International Olympic Committee (IOC) calls its “<a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/faq/roles-and-responsibilities-of-the-ioc-and-its-partners/what-is-the-new-norm">New Norm</a>” guidelines. </p>
<p>These were introduced in 2018 to improve energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness and long-term value from the huge development expenditure required of host governments. There had been concerns about integrity and wastefulness in the IOC’s old-school supervision of Games bidding and delivery processes.</p>
<p>Brisbane’s Games win is accelerating and expanding some major public mobility programs offering “turn up and go” transport routes for the 4.4 million people expected to live in South-East Queensland by 2031. </p>
<h2>Aerial taxis without pilots</h2>
<p>The most provocative proposal – still speculative – is to introduce <a href="https://www.austrade.gov.au/international/invest/investor-updates/wisk-s-self-flying-electric-air-taxis-to-land-in-australia">aerial taxis</a> to fly passengers without pilots, but remotely supervised, between future “vertiports”.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A prototype of the Wisk aerial taxi proposed to be flying passengers around south-east Queensland before the Brisbane Olympics." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495254/original/file-20221115-12-m9bp2t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A prototype of the Wisk aerial taxi proposed to be flying passengers around South-East Queensland before the Brisbane Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wisk Aero</span></span>
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<p>A prototype eVTOL (electric vertical take-off and landing) aircraft is in Brisbane while its American manufacturer, Wisk Aero, seeks approval from the Civil Aviation Safety Authority to operate commercially before the 2032 Games. </p>
<p>Wisk (<a href="https://www.theverge.com/2022/10/3/23380518/wisk-aero-air-taxi-electric-autonomous-boeing-faa">backed by Boeing</a>) has completed more than <a href="https://wisk.aero/news/press-release/generation6/">1,600</a> test flights with six generations of aircraft. The Brisbane model has 12 lift fans on two 15-metre wings and is powered by a battery in the tail. </p>
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<p>Delegates at a recent Smart Cities Council transport workshop I attended noted the potential of autonomous aerial vehicles to change patterns of housing development beyond road and rail links. Even so, Queensland is rapidly expanding its terrestrial network.</p>
<h2>Land transport projects</h2>
<p>Brisbane’s <a href="https://crossriverrail.qld.gov.au/about/rail-route/#:%7E:text=The%20Cross%20River%20Rail%20route%20includes%20a%205.9%20Kilometre%20underground,information%20on%20Brisbane's%20first%20underground!">Cross River Rail</a> line is being extended northwards through a new twin tunnel under Brisbane River and four new underground stations at Boggo Road, Woolloongabba, Albert Street and Roma Street. </p>
<p>This project uses smart <a href="https://crossriverrail.qld.gov.au/news/first-mega-machine-ready-to-go/">tunnel-boring machines</a> to carve through the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-07-14/what-is-brisbane-tuff-volcanic-rock/12435462">tuff</a> (a type of volcanic rock, pronounced toof) that formed Brisbane’s geology more than 200 million years ago.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TpWitOUYlHY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>As well as supporting the new health, science and education precinct near Boggo Road, this rail extension will connect the city’s southern suburbs with the existing line north from Bowen Hills.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="One of the new articulated carriages on the G:Link light rail line at Southport on the Gold Coast." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495258/original/file-20221115-24-hro79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the new articulated carriages on the G:Link light rail line at Southport on the Gold Coast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">G:Link</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And work continues on extending the Brisbane-to-Gold Coast light railway (also known as the <a href="https://ridetheg.com.au/">G:Link</a>). </p>
<p>This extension will provide eight new stations along a <a href="https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/projects/gold-coast-light-rail">6.7km track from Broadbeach to Burleigh Heads</a>. The G:Link service uses German Bombardier Flexity carriages that are bi-directional and air-conditioned, with low-level floors matching station platforms and storage for wheelchairs, bikes, prams and surfboards. These are electric-powered via 750V overhead cables.</p>
<h2>Superfast bus charging</h2>
<p>More innovative is the Brisbane Metro project, which is being tested to potentially supply <a href="https://thedriven.io/2022/08/08/brisbane-confirms-order-for-60-all-electric-trackless-trams-with-flash-charging/">60 electric buses</a> (or “trackless trams”) to supplement the city’s existing fleet. These would be battery-powered by a combination of 600kW, six-minute, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KtciCz92VE">superfast “flash chargers”</a> at end-of-line stations and 50kW, overnight, slow chargers at depots.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Flash (super-fast) charging of a Metro bus via rooftop equipment docking with an overhead charging arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495265/original/file-20221115-12-v17psy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flash (super-fast) charging of a Metro bus via rooftop equipment docking with an overhead charging arm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brisbane Metro.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each bus can be recharged up to 85 times faster than an electric car at home – but the flash system degrades batteries more than slow charging overnight.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Artist impression of a Brisbane Metro electric bus emerging from a city tunnel, with an older bus on the ramp." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495260/original/file-20221115-24-d6ceu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist impression of a Brisbane Metro electric bus emerging from a city tunnel, with an older bus on the ramp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brisbane City Council.</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Healthy footbridges</h2>
<p>Although two of Brisbane’s four proposed “green bridges” for pedestrians and cyclists were <a href="https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-and-transport/roads-infrastructure-and-bikeways/green-bridges/st-lucia-to-west-end-green-bridge">paused</a> to prioritise flood recovery, new crossings from the city to Kangaroo Point and Newstead to Albion are expected to open in 2024. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Artist impression of the Kangaroo Point to Ann Street green bridge now under construction in Brisbane." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495266/original/file-20221115-26-vliqyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist impression of the green bridge between Kangaroo Point and Ann Street now under construction in Brisbane.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Queensland government.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Kangaroo Point green bridge will include a <a href="https://brisbanedevelopment.com/updated-kangaroo-point-green-bridge-design-to-include-bar-restaurant/">restaurant overlooking the botanic gardens</a>. Newstead bridge will join the <a href="https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-and-transport/roads-infrastructure-and-bikeways/green-bridges">1.2km-long Lores Bonney Riverwalk</a>.</p>
<p>These are examples of a new phenomenon in public transport planning – to not merely move people between destinations but also boost their health and enjoyment outdoors.</p>
<p>As Corey Gray, global CEO of the Smart Cities Council, told me at the Smart Cities Council conference:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Smart cities are not ultimately about data and technology, but improving human systems.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-a-year-of-sporting-mega-events-the-brisbane-olympics-can-learn-a-lot-from-the-ones-that-fail-their-host-cities-187838">In a year of sporting mega-events, the Brisbane Olympics can learn a lot from the ones that fail their host cities</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Davina Jackson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What steps is the state government taking to bring Brisbane closer to being a smart city while managing rapid growth? And what differences can city residents expect to see for themselves?Davina Jackson, Visiting Scholar, Department of Architecture, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1757532022-03-01T15:04:50Z2022-03-01T15:04:50ZThe challenges of governing Lagos, the city that keeps growing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446769/original/file-20220216-13-k47zcc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Kraus/EyeEm/GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From its historical origins as a fishing village and the site of a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pyELCBM6ORQ">pepper farm</a>, to today’s bustling metropolis, Lagos has evolved into a complex agglomeration of people, settlements and vested interests.</p>
<p>As the economic powerhouse of Nigeria and West Africa, Lagos is projected to become the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2021/africa-cities/">most populous</a> city in Africa within the next 50 years. Reaching a population of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2021/africa-cities/">100 million</a> from 15 million today. If recent waves of migration are anything to go by –- from those seeking economic opportunities or escaping the climate crisis and insurgency in other parts of Nigeria –- the projections may be <a href="https://www.coolgeography.co.uk/gcsen/Lagos_Causes_Growth.php">underestimated</a>. </p>
<p>Governing a city like Lagos is not a job for the fainthearted. It’s a city that is <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/lagos">always growing</a>, and with deep-seated socioeconomic inequalities. </p>
<p>We are part of the <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/">African Cities Research Consortium</a>, a new initiative committed to addressing critical challenges in 13 cities in sub-Saharan Africa. Our recent <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/lagos_city_scoping_study">publication</a> sheds some light on the complexities of Lagos and why managing the city is a challenge in itself.</p>
<h2>Governance struggles</h2>
<p>Lagos faces many challenges; some are critical to understanding why metropolitan governance is so difficult. </p>
<p>Firstly, the geographical definition of what constitutes Lagos has become nebulous over time. The city’s urban land area continually spreads to absorb adjoining state, and now even national, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2413-4155/3/2/23/pdf">boundaries</a>.</p>
<p>This means that it is difficult to gain accurate data for short and long-term planning policies.</p>
<p>Secondly, the city’s governance structures – from local to state level – are unclear and don’t necessarily align in the ways expected. The local government system is essentially an appendage of the state government. It lacks autonomy as well as the technical and fiscal capacity required to perform its constitutional <a href="http://internationalpolicybrief.org/images/journals/Ecology/Ecoogy%2010.pdf">functions</a>. </p>
<h2>Power dynamics</h2>
<p>Lagos bears the historical legacy of having been Nigeria’s longest established capital city. It started as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265898128_Lagos_a_cultural_and_historical_companion_by_Kaye_Whiteman_review">protectorate</a> under the British colonial government and became capital of the colony and later of the independent Nigeria. It withstood the subsequent military coups, remaining the capital up until the movement of the federal capital territory to <a href="http://www.oaugf.ng/6thawam2016/index.php/about/abuja#:%7E:text=Abuja%20is%20located%20in%20the,the%20country's%20most%20populous%20city.">Abuja</a> in 1991.</p>
<p>Despite losing its administrative capital status, Lagos remains by far Nigeria’s preeminent economic powerhouse. The city’s economy more than <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/ff0595e4-26de-11e8-b27e-cc62a39d57a0">quadruples</a> its nearest rivals –- across Nigeria and elsewhere in West Africa –- in productivity, capital and infrastructure. </p>
<p>Its historical status and ongoing economic power provide the background for the city’s uneasy, and often tense, relationship with the national government which is where the power, revenue and resourcing decisions are located. </p>
<p>Furthermore, Lagos has a history of different political parties controlling different levels of <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3636948">government</a> – those that run the state, and those that run the nation. As a result, policies and fiduciary allocations are often “lost” between conflicting governance systems. </p>
<p>The local government system is severely incapacitated. Instead, informal governance institutions have immense influence on everyday life in <a href="https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/massive-urbanization-forum">the city</a>.</p>
<h2>Inequality and informality</h2>
<p>For the average Lagosian, these conditions result in a lived experience which delivers poorly on infrastructure and quality of life. Yet the city remains one of the most <a href="https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/lifestyle/lagos-is-the-second-most-expensive-city-in-africa-to-live-in-19th-in-the-world-mercer/8sbegg7">expensive places</a> in Africa to live in.</p>
<p>The poor residents of Lagos live in sprawling informal settlements within the city core, or create new ones at the <a href="https://urbanage.lsecities.net/essays/vignette-the-spirit-of-lagos">peripheral areas</a>. The rest can be found in several gated communities that span the city. In both instances, self-governance is <a href="https://urbanage.lsecities.net/essays/vignette-the-spirit-of-lagos">common</a>.</p>
<p>Taxation from local to state level is poorly managed. Basic services, such as primary healthcare and public education, are under-resourced. </p>
<p>There’s an intricate web of informal governance systems that hold sway at the local levels. This results in a <a href="https://www.societyandspace.org/articles/part-3-the-power-of-naming-lagos-nairobi-johannesburg">class of powerbrokers</a> who oversee the provision of infrastructure in the city. Very few people or groups have the agency to engage with these gatekeepers to development.</p>
<h2>Marginalised youth</h2>
<p>Additionally, Lagos is a city of marginalised young people. The <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/nigeria-population/">average age in Nigeria</a> is 18.1 years. But many young citizens are not in <a href="https://www.ng.undp.org/content/nigeria/en/home/library/poverty/policy-brief-nigerias-youth-bulge--from-potential-demographic-bo.html">education, employment or training</a>. In Lagos, as in other cities, young people are confronted with poor governance, unemployment or underemployment, police brutality and a high cost of living.</p>
<p>The frustration of these young Lagos residents is visceral. Frustration-aggression and relative <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/comparative-studies-in-society-and-history/article/abs/youth-as-a-force-in-the-modern-world/9EC23FFF00AAA25A24D5FB98CCB2D816">deprivation theories</a> suggest that individuals turn aggressive when there are impediments to their route to success in life, especially when material basic needs are not met. The <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/lessons-endsars-movement-nigeria">#EndSARS protests</a> that paralysed the city for days in October 2020, ending in bloodshed, showed what can happen when such frustration plays out in the streets.</p>
<p>The government’s inability to investigate what actually went on, and attribute blame, has further added to the underlying tensions in the city.</p>
<h2>People power</h2>
<p>In all of these challenges, certain things are clear: the immense potential of the Lagos economy, the hope in the hearts of migrants that Lagos offers opportunities for a better future, and the community driven city-making practices of residents.</p>
<p>Our research at the <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/">African Cities Research Consortium</a> seeks to investigate how these factors interact with complex governance frameworks. By doing this, we aim to identify which structures have been able to successfully navigate the complex layers of Lagos governance. In particular the local structures which <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781849774772-13/lagos-urban-gating-default-condition-ola-uduku">support</a> and deliver physical and social infrastructure for communities.</p>
<p>From these analyses, we hope to examine how bottom-up systems in Lagos –- and ultimately in cities across Africa –- can be better supported to deliver development and infrastructural change in a challenging and complex landscape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Governing a city like Lagos, with deep-seated socioeconomic inequalities, is not a job for the fainthearted.Ola Uduku, Professor, University of LiverpoolTaibat Lawanson, Professor of Urban Management and Governance, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1746122022-02-14T14:53:07Z2022-02-14T14:53:07ZAddis Ababa yet to meet the needs of residents: what has to change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442449/original/file-20220125-17-cnwl2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Addis Ababa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sigel Eschkol / EyeEm/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With an estimated population of more than <a href="https://www.statsethiopia.gov.et/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Population-of-Weredas-as-of-July-2021.pdf">3.7 million people</a>, Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, is home to about <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/23245/Addis0Ababa00E0ing0urban0resilience.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">a quarter of Ethiopia’s urban population</a>. The city generates well above <a href="https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/download-manager-files/State%20of%20Addis%20Ababa%202017%20Report-web.pdf">29% of Ethiopia’s urban GDP and 20% of national urban employment</a>. </p>
<p>Over the last two decades, Addis Ababa has witnessed rapid socio-economic changes and a drastic physical transformation. This was propelled by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/dec/04/addis-ababa-ethiopia-redesign-housing-project">a development-oriented government</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-2427.12550?saml_referrer">the private sector</a>. </p>
<p>However, the city faces challenges around housing, transport, infrastructure, services, youth unemployment and displacement. </p>
<p>I’m part of the <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/">African Cities Research Consortium</a>, a new six-year initiative committed to addressing critical challenges in 13 cities in sub-Saharan Africa, including Addis. </p>
<p>I <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ACRC_Addis-Ababa_City-Scoping-Study.pdf">argue that</a> the solution lies in the way the city is governed. Currently, political elites influence the city’s governance and its physical transformation. The planning is top-down and excludes the majority of the city’s residents.</p>
<p>The result is that development has focused on features like skyscrapers, shopping malls and luxury housing complexes. These might fit the government’s aspirational template for a modern African city but they do not meet the needs or reflect the realities – <a href="https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/01/toilet-shortage-in-the-slums-of-ethiopia/#:%7E:text=But%20in%20Addis%20Ababa%2C%20where,and%20dangerous%20to%20be%20around.">about 80%</a> of city residents live in dilapidated housing conditions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/megaprojects-in-addis-ababa-raise-questions-about-spatial-justice-141067">Megaprojects in Addis Ababa raise questions about spatial justice</a>
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<p>A rethink is needed on how the city residents –- particularly the low-income urban citizens –- can actively shape their city and overcome the challenges they face every day.</p>
<h2>Urban challenges</h2>
<p>Addis Ababa was established in the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41967609?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">late 1880s</a>, under King Menelik (1889-1913). It was an area that was previously <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307608936_State_of_Oromia%27s_Interest_in_Addis_Ababa_Finfinnee_Undelivered_Constitutional_Promises">inhabited by ethnic Oromo</a> agro-pastoralists. </p>
<p>Constitutionally, Addis Ababa is governed by a city council, which are directly elected by city residents every five years. And the council elect a mayor among its members, who will lead the executive branch of the city government. However, the federal government has the legislative power to <a href="https://urbanlex.unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/faolex//eth135251.pdf">dissolve the city council</a>, extend <a href="https://chilot.me/2020/03/14/addis-ababa-city-government-revised-charter-amendment-proclamation-no-1094-2018/?fbclid=IwAR11M4Lf4AdUVQNMuJTBoTAnMonyBa9U3qKrYPidbJwxhtefnqrodM9DWUM">its term limits beyond five years and appoint a deputy mayor with full executive power</a>. </p>
<p>Even though residents elect the city council, they don’t have much say. Urban planning processes tend to be <a href="https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/11584/(1)35623.pdf">expert-led</a> –- for instance, the <a href="https://c40-production-images.s3.amazonaws.com/other_uploads/images/2036_Addis_Ababa_Structural_Plan_2017_to_2027.original.pdf?1544193458">10-year structural plan</a> (2017-2027) which was effected to guide the development of the city. However, due to <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ejossah/article/view/100818/90024">constant city leadership changes</a>, <a href="https://theses.gla.ac.uk/74327/7/2019KloosterboerPhD.pdf">imposition of modernist urban models</a>, and <a href="https://docplayer.net/52244884-Manipulating-ambiguous-rules-informal-actors-in-urban-land-management-a-case-study-in-kolfe-keranio-sub-city-addis-ababa.html">corruption</a>, it’s common to find developments that violate the urban plans. These include <a href="https://theconversation.com/megaprojects-in-addis-ababa-raise-questions-about-spatial-justice-141067">government projects</a>.</p>
<p>Federal and city governments have invested in infrastructure over the past 20 years. This has helped to reduce <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ACRC_Addis-Ababa_City-Scoping-Study.pdf">poverty, inequality and unemployment</a>. However, since the city started from a low development base the reduction is marginal. Addis Ababa still faces complex and interrelated urban challenges. </p>
<p>Around <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/22979/Ethiopia000Urb0ddle0income0Ethiopia.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">70-80% of Addis Ababa’s housing stock</a> is congested, dilapidated and lacks basic services and sanitation facilities. Although the city government has constructed more than 270,000 housing units since 2005, they are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/dec/04/addis-ababa-ethiopia-redesign-housing-project">unaffordable</a> for most of the city’s low-income residents.</p>
<p><a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/23245/Addis0Ababa00E0ing0urban0resilience.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Only 44% </a> of the population have access to clean water, and <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/23245/Addis0Ababa00E0ing0urban0resilience.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">less than 30%</a> have access to sewerage services. </p>
<p><a href="https://resilientaddis.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/addis-ababa-resilience-strategy-ENG.pdf">Flooding, landslides and fire hazards</a> affect many due to informal housing construction in risk-prone areas, congested settlement patterns, and poor housing quality.</p>
<p>The city is challenged by youth unemployment. About <a href="https://www.statsethiopia.gov.et/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Key-Findings-on-The-2020-Urban-Employment-Unemployment-Survey-UEUS.pdf">a quarter of Addis Ababa’s young population</a> (aged 15-29) are unemployed. This is <a href="https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/17474/Beshir-Butta-DALE.pdf">mainly due to</a> the mismatch between the new jobs the economy creates and the increasing number of youth joining the labour market.</p>
<p>Addis Ababa is also under pressure from the influx of migrants. Within the last five years, <a href="https://www.statsethiopia.gov.et/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Final-2021-LABOUR-FORCE-AND-MIGRATION-SURVEY_Key-finding-Report-.17AUG2021.pdf">the proportion</a> of net recent migrants (people who migrated in the last five years) was 16.2 per 1000 total population. Most of these recent migrants endure <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/207921468022733336/pdf/Urban-Migration-Final-Version8242010.pdf">economic hardship and poor quality of life</a>, especially during their initial years in the city. </p>
<p>Additionaly, city officials’ drive to make the city a well governed modern-city created a hostile environment to <a href="http://www2.econ.uu.nl/users/marrewijk/pdf/ihs%20workshop/fransen%20paper.pdf">the many</a> independent informal sector operators. Although official statistics tend to <a href="https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/download-manager-files/State%20of%20Addis%20Ababa%202017%20Report-web.pdf">underestimate</a> informal employment, some scholars estimate it to be as high as <a href="http://www2.econ.uu.nl/users/marrewijk/pdf/ihs%20workshop/fransen%20paper.pdf">69% of all employment</a> in Addis Ababa. Nevertheless, small informal businesses are forced to <a href="https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/download-manager-files/State%20of%20Addis%20Ababa%202017%20Report-web.pdf">register their businesses and abide by tax regulations</a> which is a challenge for them. And street vendors face <a href="https://nordopen.nord.no/nord-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/225025/Sibhat.pdf?sequence=1">harassment and intimidation</a>. </p>
<p>Overall, the city is unable to unlock its full development potential.</p>
<h2>Fix the politics first</h2>
<p>Many strategies have been proposed to tackle Addis Ababa’s urban challenges. But few seriously consider the city’s complex politics and how this determines resource allocation.</p>
<p>I suggest four areas of improvement.</p>
<p><strong>Fix the relationship between Addis and Oromia</strong></p>
<p>Addis is the capital of both Ethiopia and the Regional State of Oromia. </p>
<p>However, due to the absence of an institutional framework between the city government and the surrounding Oromia National Regional State – to demarcate the boundary and collaborate in joint governance concerns – cooperation is limited and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/feb/12/ethiopia-state-of-emergency-anger-oromo-people">politically contentious</a>. This needs to be resolved. </p>
<p>Without a clear agreement about how to work together or what each is responsible for, the city and the state can’t easily coordinate development, like water supply or landfill sites.</p>
<p>The establishment, and further expansion, of Addis has displaced thousands of ethnic Oromo farmers. The 1995 constitution guarantees the Oromia National Regional State a “<a href="http://www.parliament.am/library/sahmanadrutyunner/etovpia.pdf">special interest</a>” in Addis Ababa to address the historical ownership claims of ethnic Oromos. But the details of the “special interest” have not yet been specified in law. </p>
<p>A protest sparked by a <a href="https://eng.addisstandard.com/how-not-to-make-a-master-plan">draft metropolitan plan</a> shook the country between 2014 and 2018. Many ethnic Oromos perceived it as a plan to expand the administrative boundary of Addis Ababa into Oromia. In response, the city government decided to <a href="https://resilientaddis.org/2019/01/30/061/">rehabilitate previously displaced ethnic Oromo farmers</a> and allocate them subsidised condominium flats. The city government also sought to support them in urban agriculture. </p>
<p>The federal government should build on this and facilitate institutionalised coordination between the Addis Ababa city government and Oromia national regional state.</p>
<p><strong>More representation</strong></p>
<p>City residents must be better represented in how the city is governed and elected officials must be accountable to them. </p>
<p>The federal government <a href="https://chilot.me/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/self-governing-addis-ababa-the-federal-government-oromia.pdf">meddling</a> in the governance of the city means city officials are loyal to the ruling party, rather than the city residents. And, because they are not accountable to residents, corruption and mismanagement can go unchecked. </p>
<p>It’s paramount that city residents are properly represented at each tier of the city’s administration; city, sub-city and district. This will enhance their role in shaping the city’s future. City and local council elections must be held regularly and in accordance with the <a href="https://urbanlex.unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/faolex//eth135251.pdf">city charter</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Imposed city models</strong></p>
<p>City and national governments have imposed their vision of a “<a href="https://www.african-cities.org/the-political-opportunities-and-obstacles-associated-with-africas-urban-challenges/">modern city</a>”. This has resulted in <a href="https://theses.gla.ac.uk/74327/7/2019KloosterboerPhD.pdf">city models</a> that do not meet the needs of the majority of citizens. Instead, they favour <a href="https://qz.com/africa/1873924/ethiopias-addis-ababa-projects-harm-spatial-justice-design/">urban elites and international tourists</a>. This must change. </p>
<p>Two examples of this include the current government’s flagship <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QPi7oj6OtI">Beautifying Sheger</a> project – aimed at cleaning Addis’ rivers and building green spaces along the 56km riverbanks – and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QPi7oj6OtI">Dubai-inspired</a>, upscale commercial and residential public-private partnership developments. With the introduction of these developments the policy focus and <a href="https://www.capitalethiopia.com/news-news/finance-halts-new-condo-projects/">resource allocation</a> of the city government shifted away from the pro-poor schemes, such as <a href="https://www.pasgr.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/FINAL-The-Governance-of-Addis-Ababa-City-Turn-Around-Projects-.pdf">subsidised housing and light rail</a>.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/megaprojects-in-addis-ababa-raise-questions-about-spatial-justice-141067">Megaprojects in Addis Ababa raise questions about spatial justice</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Moreover, these developments threaten <a href="https://www.climatechangenews.com/2020/03/12/addis-ababa-riverside-project-gives-priority-development-residents/">to displace thousands of slum dwellers</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Supporting the informal</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://www.effective-states.org/the-politics-of-dominating-addis-ababa/?cn-reloaded=1">Repressive politics</a> have made it <a href="https://addiszeybe.com/opinion/politics/eskinder-nega-the-balderas-council-and-the-debate-on-addis-ababas-legal-and-political-status-implications-to-addis-ababa-residents">difficult</a> for civil society organisations to defend the rights and interests of their constituency. For instance, government can <a href="https://addisfortune.net/columns/ethiopians-yet-to-own-rights-to-cities/">displace inner-city slum dwellers</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/mar/13/life-death-growth-addis-ababa-racial-tensions">demolish peripheral informal settlements</a> without providing alternative housing. </p>
<p>The city needs organised communities that can reorient top-down, exclusionary urban development towards inclusive development. </p>
<p>Ultimately, what is needed is a shift to inclusivity. This requires that the relations between Oromia National Regional State and Addis Ababa City Government by addressed. In addition, the city residents must govern and pro-poor urban developments be promoted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/174612/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nothing to disclose. The views expressed in the piece are all Ezana's and do not represent their employer's official position.</span></em></p>Addis may be shaping up to look like the modern city that the government wants, but it is yet to meet the needs of most residents.Ezana Weldeghebrael, Research Fellow, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1632012021-07-12T15:12:51Z2021-07-12T15:12:51ZCities after COVID: Resiliency is about embracing the crisis as part of a new brand story<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409742/original/file-20210705-17-msndbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C7%2C4797%2C3181&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A picturesque image of the Kingston, Ont. waterfront at sunset. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Evi T/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cities as we know them are under attack thanks to COVID-19. Their <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/11/what-will-our-cities-look-like-after-covid-19/">growth, sustainability</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142391">ability to attract investment</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40558-020-00181-3">tourism</a> and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt5vkjkj">talent</a> are extremely vulnerable during times of crisis. In the last hundred years, cities have seen an increase in crises, pandemics and economic pressures — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2020.1720612">but not all are hit equally</a>.</p>
<p>Large global cities are much more insulated from economic change than small cities. Places relying on only one main industry are more vulnerable than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009754704364">diversified economies</a>, and those with once-robust <a href="https://ramboll.com/ingenuity/travel-tourism-and-impact-on-cities-covid-19">tourism and travel economies are often hit the hardest</a>. </p>
<p>Place branding (how we picture places in our imaginary and what <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/pb.2010.3">makes places notable</a>) is complex, much more complex than singer Jason Collett’s flippant lyrics “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avWclsEO5Sc">if you can tweet something brilliant, you’ve got a marketing plan</a>.” </p>
<p>A place’s brand is its overall image that’s constantly in the making. Its brand is being established through every photo, comment and tweet.</p>
<p>Place brand transformations can be documented in real-time, as seen through social media. Throughout the pandemic we can see that place brands have evolved and those likely to survive are the ones that were already well established to begin with or that continue to show differentiation in what they offer.</p>
<h2>Branding evolves in times of crisis</h2>
<p>During times of crisis, the predominate voice is often tipped too far one way or the other, and the sentiment the place brand message is hoping to convey can take a dramatic turn. </p>
<p>A snapshot in time (pre-COVID) of the <a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=%23ygk&src=hashtag_click">Twitter feed for #ygk</a> — a city hashtag for Kingston, Ont. — on May 29, 2019, highlights a balance of waterfront, parks and artistic events shared by both residents and visitors. </p>
<p>On the same day in 2020 and 2021, in the midst of the pandemic, the images shared primarily by residents contributed to a new place brand for the city that focuses on gardens, home offices and take out. This place brand is not unique to #ygk. </p>
<p>The value of these new symbols and mental souvenirs may prove to have limited long-term value to the post-crisis Kingston brand due to the lack of differentiation.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="3 screenshots from Twitter advanced search illustrating what people were sharing pre-pandemic, during and now" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410662/original/file-20210709-17-1hw0x52.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Twitter, #ygk search results, May 29, 2019, May 29, 2020 and May 29, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Screenshot/Twitter)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Off-limits in branding discourse</h2>
<p>Economic crises and other categories such as crime, terror, political or natural disasters are considered <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.04.004">off-limits in branding discourse</a>. However, the motivation for place branding often depends on or is a built-in response to a crisis. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://williamsville.ca/about/our-mission/">Williamsville Neighbourhood Association</a> in Kingston was born out of an anti-growth agenda, but the real neighbourhood place brand was most notably established <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ice-storm-ottawa-20-years-later-1.4470067">during the 1998 city-wide ice storm</a> that left many residents without power for several weeks. </p>
<p>In an interview, one local resident noted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We’ve seen key events that have brought people together that created more feelings of connection. One example is the 1998 ice storm. In our immediate neighborhood, and I would say a little bit further afield as well, people made connections as we all wandered the streets making sure neighbours had enough food and fuel to burn in the fireplace, seeing neighbours and helping out clearing the downed trees … there was a real sense of everybody helping each other to the point where, for the first few years after the ice storm we’d have a block party every summer to celebrate the coming of spring.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Several other residents noted the “new, neighbourly feel” that attracted them to move to Williamsville post-ice storm. Without the ice storm, the neighbourhood may have continued to suffer as a run-down industrial place to get your car fixed instead of a vibrant, family-oriented place where potlucks became the norm.</p>
<h2>Perceptions impact place brands</h2>
<p>Place brands such as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230627727">romanticism of Paris</a> or the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1139868">innovation aura of Silicon Valley</a> are slow to develop, but they show remarkable stability and elasticity with an ability to revert to pre-crisis perceptions. </p>
<p>But following a crisis, place brands are much more <a href="https://www.e-elgar.com/shop/usd/brands-and-branding-geographies-9781781001493.html">vulnerable to place brand substitutions</a> — like going to Kelowna for wine tasting versus a trip to Spain — and fragile to stereotypes, made more prevalent through social media platforms. </p>
<p>Place brands, more so than the realities of places themselves, have often <a href="https://www.bloom-consulting.com/journal/the-covid-19-study-the-impact-on-nation-brands/">faltered due to negative stereotyping</a> or brand imaging. </p>
<p>The Spanish Flu <a href="https://www.history.com/news/why-was-it-called-the-spanish-flu">didn’t start in Spain</a>, but became a place brand for Spain <a href="https://www.history.com/news/why-was-it-called-the-spanish-flu">through media</a>, leaving Spain’s brand image woven into a history of poor public health. </p>
<p>Negative perceptions are major economic obstacles for cities hoping to attract investment and promote tourism. This will perhaps be the same fate for the U.K. or India, both having COVID-19 variants attributed to them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of women wearing masks line up to get vaccinated against COVID-19." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409743/original/file-20210705-21-sg9y8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">India recently crossed a grim mark of 400,000 people lost to COVID-19, half of them in the past two months during which the virulent Delta variant was detected in the country.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Manish Swarup)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The recovery and resilience of cities, and in particular their brands, during major economic events are highly stratified and individualistic. </p>
<p>Jon Coaffee, urban geographer, helps us understand brand resiliency as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2008.12">the ability to detect, prevent and, if necessary, handle disruptive challenges</a>.” With that definition of resiliency in mind, local economies have proven that it is possible to be both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2020.1720612">vulnerable and resilient</a> at the same time. </p>
<p>These complex situations present uncertainty where both unknowns and unpredictability are highly prevalent. Resiliency planning to ensure survival post-crisis relies on lived experience. The only way to overcome this uncertainty is to consider resiliency as performative, that is, city brands are <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Place%3A+A+Short+Introduction-p-9781118725443">always in the making</a> and striving for sustainability rather than resilience. </p>
<p>The road to recovery is likely through relying on industries with better demand and lower operating costs or through increasing social cohesion such as what has been seen through the <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/buylocal?src=hashtag_click">#BuyLocal</a> movement over the last year. </p>
<p>Either way, the answer to place brands post-crisis will not be found through advertising. Resiliency will only be built through policy and embracing a place brand that is always in the making — embracing the crisis as part of a new brand story.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163201/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsey Fair, MBA, PhD does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Throughout the pandemic we can see that place brands have evolved and those likely to survive are the ones that were already well established to begin with or ones that are more flexible.Lindsey Fair, MBA, PhD, Ph.D. Candidate, Urban Geography, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1368232020-07-14T16:56:03Z2020-07-14T16:56:03ZIf we love our cities, we’ll make better decisions about their future after the COVID-19 pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346448/original/file-20200708-3970-11ra171.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C18%2C4196%2C2730&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Philadelphia's LOVE Park, featuring a sculpture by American artist Robert Indiana, shows how love can shape our cities and their futures. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s the most famous city slogan in the world: I Love New York. And yet, surprisingly, love doesn’t seem to play a part in how urban planners build cities. </p>
<p>Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, <a href="https://www.citylab.com/design/2020/03/coronavirus-urban-planning-global-cities-infectious-disease/607603/">the future for cities looks dire</a>. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/19/us/coronavirus-moving-city-future.html">Urban areas may empty</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/24/upshot/coronavirus-urban-density-risks.html">and the death of urban density</a> might bring an end to mass public transit, storefronts on streets, kids jostling in schools, parks and playgrounds, and festivals in the park. </p>
<p>Throughout the <a href="https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/research_resources/charters/charter04.html">modern history of urban planning</a>, high-density living has been seen as dangerous. And with or without a global pandemic, living in dense cities carries risks, from disease to <a href="https://www.azuremagazine.com/article/urban-density-confronting-the-distance-between-desire-and-disparity/">social conflict</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346450/original/file-20200708-3999-16gfy4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In cities, the sheer number of people in a concentrated space poses challenges to containing the coronavirus pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For some leaders, love has played a major part in the management of this pandemic. British Columbia’s Medical Health Officer Bonnie Henry refers to the need to “be kind.” And New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=11&v=WoeIoSYSk50&feature=emb_logo">March 24 coronavirus news briefing</a> earned him a new moniker as the “Love Gov” when he said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We’re going to make it because I love New York, and I love New York because New York loves you. New York loves all of you. Black and white and brown and Asian and short and tall and gay and straight. New York loves everyone. That’s why I love New York.” </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>The time-tested ratio of urban risk and reward</h2>
<p>Urban planners who study and design cities often explain them through growth, power, efficiency and grandeur. We have Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, with his <a href="https://99percentinvisible.org/article/ville-radieuse-le-corbusiers-functionalist-plan-utopian-radiant-city/">Radiant City</a>, Robert Moses as the “<a href="https://www.robertcaro.com/the-books/the-power-broker/">power broker</a>” and Harvey Molotch and his “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2777096?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">growth machine</a>” theory. </p>
<p>The discipline of regional science emerged in the 1960s to render the study of cities more serious and less personal, and interest has again surged in the creation of a “<a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/new-science-cities">science of cities</a>.” <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262181263_Love_as_a_planning_method">Urban researchers Andrew Zitcer and Robert Lake, however,</a> have asked: “What might it mean for a planner to love the people and communities that are the subject of planning?” </p>
<p>But what would it mean for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2012.731210">all urban planners to confess to their love for the places they plan</a>? And why?</p>
<p>As American philosopher Charles Peirce said, radical love — not competition, conflicts or challenge — is “<a href="https://arisbe.sitehost.iu.edu/menu/library/bycsp/evolove/evolove.htm">the great evolutionary agency of the universe…</a>.” According to <a href="http://periferiesurbanes.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Libby_Porter_Unlearning_the_Colonial_Cultures_ofBookFi.org_1.pdf">urbanist Libby Porter</a>, radical love is key to decolonizing planning. One of the possibilities that opens up for urban planning when decolonized is the possibility of more explicit and even reciprocal consideration of love as method and as purpose of planning. </p>
<p>As a colonial practice, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/urban-planning">urban planning has always been about taking a long-term view</a>. <a href="https://www.mqup.ca/reclaiming-indigenous-planning-products-9780773541948.php"><em>Decolonized</em> urban planning, as viewed by Indigenous planners</a>, goes further in considering planning for cities whose future residents we already love, and planning to make <a href="https://www.humansandnature.org/returning-the-gift">a gift of the city to them</a>. Decolonized urban planning permits us to think about cities loving us back.</p>
<h2>The three types of love for a city</h2>
<p>Different kinds of love feed and starve our cities. This shows up in the way urbanites of many stripes are motivated differently for the work they do. </p>
<p>In <em>Voices of Decline</em>, city lover Robert A. Beauregard writes: “<a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-ca/Voices+of+Decline:+The+Postwar+Fate+of+US+Cities-p-9781557864420">I grew up when the cities were dying.</a>” He exemplifies the <em>necrophiliac</em> urbanist who loves cities when it seems no one else will, especially the dying parts of cities, the desperate and forgotten places of decline, disinvestment and blight. They seek to offer dignity, a sense of rights and a voice to the marginalized. </p>
<p>Others — <em>optophiliacs</em> — fall in love with the city because the city opens their eyes. In cities, optophiliacs see how richness in diversity and density overfills their cups with creative potential — best exemplified by urbanist Richard Florida’s <a href="http://www.creativeclass.com/richard_florida/books/the_rise_of_the_creative_class">theory of the creative class</a>. They define urban success as a city dense with independent, multitudinous creative pursuits of all kinds. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/B_FZx-1In2C","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Then there are the <em>plutophiliacs</em>, whose love for the city begins and ends with their love for money <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/303439/triumph-of-the-city-by-edward-glaeser/">and the creation of private wealth</a>. Some critics call them <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/5dmqyk/naomi-klein-interview-on-coronavirus-and-disaster-capitalism-shock-doctrine">disaster capitalists</a>. </p>
<h2>Cities and the love of money</h2>
<p>These three different varieties of urban love act as rivals for the city’s favour and the forms that this takes in the urban form, function and structure. Necrophiliac love focuses on the city’s life-support systems for the sake of the most vulnerable — its economic base, basic democratic institutions, transportation system. </p>
<p>While Georges-Eugène Haussmann, master urban planner of Paris in the mid-19th century, was celebrated for sanitary works that saved the city from plague, necrophiliac city lovers <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?id=oY9JRQAACAAJ&dq=%22marshall+berman%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIy5S6qqrpAhWbCTQIHbyyA504ChDoAQg7MAM">Marshall Berman</a> and <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?id=F8Kghk6aaCYC&dq=%22neil+smith%22+%22the+new+urban+frontier%22">Neil Smith</a> derided “Haussmannization” as the obliteration of the urban commons in favour of capitalist modernity. They suspected the sanitary planning works were a plutophilic plot to clear the slums and prevent uprisings. </p>
<p>Optophiliac city lovers, who express their creative love through the arts, culture and the finer details that make city life worth living, find themselves particularly scorned during this pandemic. With local shops, galleries and creative venues of all kinds shut down, boarded up and verboten, it is as if the city they love is being stolen right out of the hands they have been using to sculpt it. While sometimes shrugged off in times of crisis like this as being non-essential, <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/entertainment/its-wiped-out-almost-everything-how-covid-19-is-hitting-ottawa-and-canadas-arts-scene">the laments of the optophiles for the cities they are losing are real, too</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.msn.com/en-ca/entertainment/news/covid-19-vancouver-arts-and-entertainment-live-streams-and-online-content-you-can-watch-at-home/ar-BB11BnQ3">When the arts sector scrambles</a> to generate ways to engage and show their work to others, despite the pandemic restrictions against gathering, this is not only an effort to earn a living — these optophiliac urbanists are fighting against a cultural retreat with far-reaching implications for cities as “the most human of all things,” as <a href="https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_LHOM_193_0023--claude-levi-strauss-s-world-view.htm">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> averred in <em>Tristes Tropiques</em>. </p>
<p>Plutophiliac urban lovers are the ones that cities seem both to love best, and love to hate. All of that sad dark stuff about the city we see in the present pandemic — it is their black gold. When business and <a href="https://torontosun.com/news/local-news/canadas-covid-19-recovery-depends-on-cities-tory">political leaders rally support</a> for cities as a necessary part of the economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, it is a plutophiliac love they are invoking. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-010-9081-z">As in previous disasters gone by</a>, they are busy devising new ways to create what they love from the wreckage, and that is private wealth. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346451/original/file-20200708-39-skbhbb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cities have an opportunity now to think about how love can shape the post-pandemic world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock.)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a spirit of loving attachment to our cities, we can see these different varieties of love as offering entirely different risks, and different reciprocal gifts that our cities are likely to give back, as we recover from the pandemic. In the rich mix of urban density and diversity that inhabits all our cities, our love takes all three shapes of: a lifeline, a fount of inspiration, a cash cow. </p>
<p>The coronavirus has brought these different stakes in the city into sharp focus. If we can summon the courage to profess our love for the city, although it is dangerous, now as throughout history we may be better able to hone our plans so that the city of the future will love us back.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136823/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meg Holden receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>City dwellers love their homes but there are different types of love that shape how cities are viewed and how they work.Meg Holden, Professor and Director, Urban Studies and Professor of Geography, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1366992020-04-28T14:48:06Z2020-04-28T14:48:06ZWhat cities can learn from lockdown about planning for life after the coronavirus pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329599/original/file-20200421-82666-1p3m91g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=138%2C307%2C3693%2C2486&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cities are going to be reshaped by the coronavirus pandemic, which has closed public parks, decreased traffic and put pressures on housing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Nathan Shurr/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For decades, epidemiologists have warned of <a href="https://www.lauriegarrett.com/the-coming-plague">the risks of new pandemics</a> in our world of stressed natural environments, densely populated cities and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/07/when-the-next-plague-hits/561734/">global travel networks</a>. The <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/112492/plagues-and-peoples-by-william-h-mcneill/">history of the relationship between cities</a>, the environment and disease shows that cities and civilizations have always been vulnerable to the rapid spread of infections: <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/article/1528/plague-in-the-ancient--medieval-world/">what the ancients called plagues</a>.</p>
<p>While societies often rebounded from such catastrophes, outbreaks set the stage for subsequent social and political change. For instance, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qORbiGWBBJ0">plague during the third century</a> helped <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Antonine_Plague/">undermine the Roman Empire</a> not only <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-climate-change-and-disease-helped-fall-rome-180967591/">by decimating the population</a> but also by <a href="https://archive.org/details/panstravailenvir00hugh">weakening the economic, cultural and religious underpinnings</a> of urban and state structures. </p>
<p>As recovering Romans increasingly converted to Christianity, they refused to contribute to maintaining temples and fountains associated with pagan gods. Grand cities began to decline.</p>
<p>In the 14th century, <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/black-death">the Black Death</a> killed a third to a half of Europeans. In the aftermath, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/city-in-history-its-origins-its-transformations-and-its-prospects/oclc/7102629">towns that in previous years had expanded their walls</a> to accommodate growth <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/how-black-death-changed-europes-cities">found themselves with open space</a> that Renaissance aristocrats and their urban designers subsequently transformed into parks, urban squares and promenades that now grace the great cities of Europe.</p>
<h2>How recovery built cities</h2>
<p>Waves of epidemics following European contact in the 15th century devastated cultures across the Americas, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nhncJH4UFQI">leaving towns emptied</a> and sophisticated knowledge lost. </p>
<p>Cholera and other outbreaks in the crowded and <a href="https://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowcricketarticle.html">unsanitary cities of the 19th century</a> led not only to major sanitary reforms but to the institutionalization of public health measures and <a href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/2244099">town planning practices</a>. The desire for ventilation and
daylight that Victorian-era epidemics reinforced influenced the streets, parks, urban spaces and homes we <a href="https://archive.org/details/townplanninginp00unwigoog/page/n9/mode/2up">planned and built through the 20th century</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">During the Renaissance, European cities — like Brussels — expanded public spaces like grand central squares.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Jill Grant)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>History reminds us that civilizations and <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/lab-rat/plague-and-the-city/">cities create the conditions</a> within which diseases rise and spread; pandemics in return can <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/how-pandemics-change-history">change important features of cities and civilizations</a>.</p>
<h2>Cities challenged by the pandemic</h2>
<p>In his 1912 pamphlet “<a href="https://www.hgstrust.org/documents/nothing-gained.pdf">Nothing gained from overcrowding</a>”, the British town planner Raymond Unwin advocated a maximum of 12 houses per acre. By the 1990s, the planning preference for relatively low urban densities, which <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo3614185.html">contributed to sprawl</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sf/article-abstract/62/4/905/1927494">suburbanization</a>, was replaced in many Western nations with policies encouraging high densities, mixed use and transit-oriented development thought to enhance the efficiency of infrastructure and services.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">McKenzie Towne in Calgary is an example of the recent focus on planning denser residential environments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Jill Grant)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The current pandemic challenges contemporary planning prescriptions for urban <a href="http://livable.org/about-us/what-is-livability">livability</a> and <a href="https://www.citylab.com/life/2012/11/cities-denser-cores-do-better/3911/">economic vitality</a>. Cities face significant risks during density-susceptible epidemics, with numbers of cases and death rates linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-072X-12-9">population density</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.22.20041004">city size</a>. </p>
<p>Many cities have <a href="https://www.thecoast.ca/COVID19Needtoknow/archives/2020/04/03/parks-beaches-and-trails-are-still-definitely-closed">closed the green spaces</a> intended to provide recreation for the residents of dense neighbourhoods, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-quarantine/sealed-in-chinese-trapped-at-home-by-coronavirus-feel-the-strain-idUSKCN20G0AY">leaving home-bound residents of small units feeling trapped</a>, especially if they have <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-your-children-active-and-healthy-while-in-coronavirus-isolation-134973">children to keep active and engaged</a>. The poorest urban residents <a href="https://www.homelesshub.ca/resource/covid-19-response-framework-people-experiencing-homelessness">lack adequate shelter</a> and <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/coronavirus-covid-19-homeless/">sanitation to stay safe</a> and socially distanced.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-your-children-active-and-healthy-while-in-coronavirus-isolation-134973">How to keep your children active and healthy while in coronavirus isolation</a>
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<p>Essential transit systems, often feared as <a href="https://www.pix11.com/news/coronavirus/covid-19-killing-nyc-transit-workers-at-staggering-rate">nodes and corridors for virus spread</a>, are <a href="https://torontosun.com/news/local-news/go-transit-ridership-drops-80-amid-covid-19-shutdowns">operating below capacity</a>. <a href="https://www.hamilton.ca/city-planning/official-plan-zoning-by-law/commercial-and-mixed-use-zones">Mixed-use zones</a> with concentrations of cafes, <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/6770746/coronavirus-interior-health-closure-fitness-centres/">fitness studios</a> and <a href="https://www.tvo.org/article/covid-19-and-the-restaurant-apocalypse">restaurants are struggling</a> to survive as the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00986754">third places</a>” valued for social interaction have had to go virtual. </p>
<p>Higher death rates among <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2020/04/09/why-are-blacks-dying-at-higher-rates-from-covid-19/">racialized populations</a> and <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/asian-americans-describe-gut-punch-of-racist-attacks-during-coronavirus-pandemic">racist attacks</a> against Asian residents threaten planning’s commitment to diversity and integration. The usual strategies for designing cities may need to be reconsidered.</p>
<h2>What can cities learn from lockdown?</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-lead-the-charge-on-the-coronavirus-front-lines-134502">What lessons can cities draw</a> from this crisis <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/dreessen-lets-use-what-covid-19-has-taught-us-to-redesign-our-city/">to inform future planning</a>? We may need to reconsider the push for higher urban densities. <a href="https://theconversation.com/homelessness-and-overcrowding-expose-us-all-to-coronavirus-heres-what-we-can-do-to-stop-the-spread-134378">Crowded housing</a> increases contagion risks.</p>
<p>After being cooped up in towers for months on end, urban dwellers may begin to look at suburban lots more longingly than they did in past: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-019-09678-8">living preferences may change</a>. Everyone needs some <a href="https://www.nrpa.org/blog/a-park-planners-perspective-on-the-covid-19-pandemic/">access to outside space</a> for mental health and exercise. We may want to consider broader park paths or longer benches that enable physical distancing, or <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/04/closing-parks-ineffective-pandemic-theater/609580/">better strategies for managing who uses space</a> when. Those who can walk to work <a href="https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/quebec-encouraging-people-to-shop-local-during-covid-19-pandemic-1.4877196">or to shop</a> are appreciating that ability during these times, but we need to ensure that more have that choice.</p>
<p>The pandemic has <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-pandemic-is-an-opportunity-to-create-affordable-cities-134735">brought inequality into stark relief</a>. Everyone needs <a href="https://theconversation.com/job-guarantees-basic-income-can-save-us-from-covid-19-depression-133997">a living income</a> to keep us all safe. Governments need to plan <a href="https://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/commentary/fast-facts-homelessness-precarious-housing-and-covid-19">decent housing for all</a>, not only for social justice reasons but <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/guidance-documents/homelessness.html">for public health</a>.</p>
<p>Although it’s too early to predict the long-term impacts of the pandemic on our cities, our societies and ourselves, we know that things will never be quite the same again. We need to learn the lessons of our current difficulties and plan effectively to meet the challenges ahead.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136699/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jill L Grant has received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Cities can learn from past pandemics to see how communities and lifestyles are shaped by outbreaks.Jill L Grant, Professor Emeritus, School of Planning, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1236982019-09-26T20:09:35Z2019-09-26T20:09:35ZTyphoons and other disasters force Japan to rethink its city vs rural living plans for the future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292927/original/file-20190918-148997-1i6bts5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C377%2C2063%2C1511&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Typhoon Faxai left many people without power and other services for several days when it hit the greater Tokyo region in September.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/?v=-251.12424263254027,20.81450093273819,-194.80152319851825,52.49603061437558&t=2019-09-07-T02%3A10%3A33Z&z=1&e=true">NASA/Worldview</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Greater Tokyo took a major hit <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-09/typhoon-faxai-hits-tokyo-area-causing-transport-chaos/11492592">earlier this month from Typhoon Faxai</a>, which stopped regional transport and knocked out power in the eastern prefecture of Chiba.</p>
<p>Ever since the hit, some media coverage has highlighted the difficulties Japan has in coping with the disaster. There were <a href="https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20190916_03/">delays in restoring lifeline services</a> (electricity and water) and this week attention shifted to the plight of <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/09/23/national/chiba-municipalities-struggling-debris-typhoon-faxai/#.XYvydUZLiUk">local authorities trying to deal with the debris</a>.</p>
<p>But this obscures the typhoon’s impact on visions of how Japan can best cope with <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2019/01/10/editorials/face-challenges-shrinking-aging-population/">ageing, population decline</a> and other sobering challenges.</p>
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Read more:
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<p>Japan’s choices are often simplistically represented as either denser cities or regional dispersal. The former is portrayed as coldly technocratic spatial planning and the latter as the road to an idyllic, sustainable, community-friendly utopia.</p>
<p>But there is a middle option: cities that are both spatially compact and better networked through people, infrastructure and smart technology.</p>
<h2>Artificial intelligence to the rescue</h2>
<p>There have been numerous studies on Japan’s dilemmas. One of the most innovative was a 2017 artificial intelligence (AI) experiment by researchers at the Hitachi Kyoto University Laboratory. </p>
<p>To compare the merits of urban concentration versus regional dispersal, the researchers looked at 149 indicators of population growth, health, employment, happiness and so on. With these variables they generated 20,000 future scenarios covering the period 2018 to 2052.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">In Japanese with English subtitles.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Their <a href="https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id035967.html">results</a> identified regional dispersal as the best way to ensure healthy ageing, inter-regional equity and environmental sustainability.</p>
<p>But the researchers also warned policymakers they had until roughly 2027 to decide on either urban centralisation or regional decentralisation. The AI simulation predicted a lock-in effect that would make it difficult to revert or change course after that time.</p>
<h2>Extreme weather events hit back</h2>
<p>Yet the scale of Typhoon Faxai’s devastation has revealed Japan’s vulnerability in the face of disasters.</p>
<p>Chiba is only 40 kilometres east of Tokyo. Even so, the typhoon’s landfall took out a large part of the electricity grid, destroying or damaging an <a href="http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201909240027.html">estimated 2,000 utility poles</a>.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.google.com/maps/embed?pb=!1m18!1m12!1m3!1d831534.9285423886!2d139.74873037218018!3d35.49974517139387!2m3!1f0!2f0!3f0!3m2!1i1024!2i768!4f13.1!3m3!1m2!1s0x60229b5fd61b9511%3A0x1cb677dbffe07bbe!2sChiba%2C%20Japan!5e0!3m2!1sen!2sau!4v1569462377378!5m2!1sen!2sau" width="100%" height="600" frameborder="0" style="border:0;" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<p>Japan’s <a href="http://www.bousai.go.jp/index.html">Disaster Management Bureau</a> said peak service interruptions saw 934,900 of Chiba’s households left in the dark and more than 139,700 without water.</p>
<p>The extent of damage to infrastructure, especially in forested areas, delayed recovery efforts. A week after the storm about <a href="https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20190917_30/">67,000 of Chiba’s households were still without power</a>.</p>
<p>Typhoon Faxai also disrupted <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/09/10/national/narita-train-services-resume-typhoon/#.XYwbmEZLiUk">Greater Tokyo’s transport networks</a> far more than anticipated, paralysing rail services and compelling <a href="https://japantoday.com/category/national/Typhoon-leaves-3-dead-in-Tokyo-area-strands-14-000-at-Narita">14,000 travellers to camp out at Narita airport</a>. </p>
<p>Typhoon Faxai’s costs are still being calculated. They seem unlikely to reach the A$22.1 billion (¥15 trillion Japanese Yen) <a href="https://insurancenews.com.au/international/jebi-now-japans-costliest-typhoon">toll of Typhoon Jebi</a>, which hit Japan’s densely-populated Kansai area last September.</p>
<p>This latest typhoon also hit less than a year before Tokyo hosts the 2020 Olympics.</p>
<h2>Japan’s major policy crossroad arrives early</h2>
<p>At first glance, Typhoon Faxai’s devastation might seem to confirm the argument for regional decentralisation versus urban density.</p>
<p>But this disaster is drawing attention to the middle ground between these polarised scenarios. For example, an article in Japan’s <a href="https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGKKZO49820850T10C19A9MM8000/" title="Japan at a crossroads">financial daily news Nikkei</a> argued that a combination of disasters, population decline and ageing infrastructure may require a strategic retreat into compact and networked cities.</p>
<p>A similar argument was outlined in much greater detail in <a href="https://www.oecd.org/japan/oecd-territorial-reviews-japan-2016-9789264250543-en.htm">a report three years earlier</a> from the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD). </p>
<p>Endorsing Japan’s 2015 <a href="https://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001127196.pdf">National Spatial Strategy</a>, the OECD highlighted the goal of promoting a compact and networked settlement pattern. The OECD pointed out that striking a balance between centralisation and decentralisation would help bolster cities without writing off the regions. </p>
<p>Under this strategy, three city-regions (Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya) are seen as vital to national prosperity. Communities outside these metropolitan areas are encouraged to network with them to share health, waterworks, power and other essential services.</p>
<h2>Rebuilding for resilience</h2>
<p>There are already indications Typhoon Faxai is accelerating the policies to realise compact and networked cities.</p>
<p>But more action is needed to alleviate the dangerous over-concentration of functions, such as government and business, in the Tokyo area. Typhoons are hardly the only hazard. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00234/the-next-big-one-government-map-forecasts-likely-future-japanese-earthquakes.html">forecasts indicate</a> Tokyo is likely to be hit by a major earthquake within the next 30 years. The current effort to move functions out of Tokyo should be expanded. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/affordable-housing-lessons-from-sydney-hong-kong-and-singapore-3-keys-to-getting-the-policy-mix-right-123443">Affordable housing lessons from Sydney, Hong Kong and Singapore: 3 keys to getting the policy mix right</a>
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<p>Japan’s compact and smart cities also use eco-systems to mitigate disaster risk. For example, forests and green space are robust against storm and tsunami threats. This year, Japanese policymakers reached agreement on the need to emphasise disaster-resilient green infrastructure.</p>
<p>In contrast to Anglo-American climate denial, Japanese pragmatists respond to extreme weather events with measures that achieve both climate change adaptation and mitigation. Chiba’s reconstruction seems a good opportunity to ramp up this approach.</p>
<p>It’s often remarked that Japan’s multiplicity of challenges make it a place where the world should be learning how to use smart policy and natural assets to build resilience. Typhoon Faxai has revealed some of the policy-making terrain we ought to be looking at.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Talk of moving people out of Japan’s cities into rural areas is changing after the recent cyclone hit near Tokyo. Smarter, more connected cities may be a safer way to go.Andrew DeWit, Professor, School of Economic Policy Studies, Rikkyo UniversityBrendan Barrett, Specially Appointed Professor, Center for the Study of Co*Design, Osaka UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1226392019-09-03T05:31:03Z2019-09-03T05:31:03ZMoving Indonesia’s capital city won’t fix Jakarta’s problems and will increase fire risk in Borneo<p>Indonesian President Joko “Jokowi” Widodo has officially announced plans to relocate the country’s capital from the congested, sinking city of Jakarta to East Kalimantan on the island of Borneo.</p>
<p>The hope is that building “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-politics-capital/indonesian-president-unveils-site-of-new-capital-on-borneo-island-idUSKCN1VG0FC">a smart city in the forest</a>” in North Penajam Paser and Kutai Kartanegara regencies will ease <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/21/jakarta-indonesia-30-million-sinking-future">Jakarta’s myriad problems</a>. Home to 10 million people, Jakarta struggles with severe pollution, traffic jams and floods, and parts of it are sinking. </p>
<p>But moving the capital to Borneo, which has large swathes of flammable peatlands, increases the risk of fires, which would wreak devastating environmental damage and release vast amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. </p>
<p>And the move wouldn’t necessarily solve Jakarta’s environmental problems.</p>
<h2>High forest fire risk</h2>
<p>The proposed site of the new capital is not far from the Mahakam Lakes, a beautiful area rich in peatlands and home to the Irrawaddy dolphin (<em>Orcaella brevirostris</em>), an endangered species known locally as <a href="https://www.globalnature.org/en/living-lakes/asia/mahakam-wetland"><em>pesut</em></a>. Peatland fires are the most significant source of the acrid haze that regularly envelop various parts of Indonesia, including this year.</p>
<p>Relocating the capital would mean clearing land to make space for new government buildings, houses and associated infrastructure. The government has <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-politics-capital/indonesian-president-unveils-site-of-new-capital-on-borneo-island-idUSKCN1VG0FC">reportedly set aside 180,000 hectares</a> for construction. </p>
<p>It is not surprising that environmental groups such as <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/southeastasia/press/2933/2933/">Greenpeace Indonesia are concerned</a> about the impact on the forest and the many species that inhabit it, such the orangutan. Unfortunately, forest clearing is just one of the many environmental impacts, and not even the most significant. </p>
<p>At least <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-politics-capital/indonesian-president-unveils-site-of-new-capital-on-borneo-island-idUSKCN1VG0FC">1.5 million public servants</a> are expected to move to the new capital. That’s on top of the environmental impact of the current population – 900,000 people in Kutai Kartanegara and North Penajam Paser regencies.</p>
<p>A vastly bigger population close to the Mahakam Lakes increases the risk of peatland fires there. Migrant inflows into the new capital would encourage agriculture expansion. And people still often burn land for agriculture expansion in Indonesia, despite a <a href="https://www.hukumonline.com/pusatdata/download/lt544603c2b2a07/node/lt544603c1022d5">ban on the use of fires for land clearing</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10745-005-5156-z">My research</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3008">that of other colleagues</a> show that fires in Indonesia are linked not just to large- and small-scale agricultural activities, but also other livelihood activities such as hunting and fishing.</p>
<p>People already living in the area will hunt and fish more to sell to city dwellers, who will also visit forest and peatland areas for recreation and to earn a livelihood.</p>
<p>When people hunt and fish during the dry season, they often build campfires and burn vegetation to find fishing ponds. Fires can escape and become wildfires. </p>
<p>The risk of fire in the area is very real. During <a href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/08indo_fires.htm">the worst El Nino drought on record in Indonesia</a>, which occurred in 1997-98, fires raged throughout the Mahakam area and the rest of East Kalimantan, the worst affected province in the country. </p>
<p>If similar fires were to reoccur – which is more likely than not, given the increasing temperatures due to climate change – the new capital would likely be brought to a standstill for months. Both fire and the resulting haze would put the health and livelihoods of its inhabitants at risk.</p>
<h2>Jakarta’s problems remain</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/27/why-is-indonesia-moving-its-capital-city-everything-you-need-to-know">Allocating US$32.7 billion to the construction of the new capital</a> might even worsen Jakarta’s environmental problems.</p>
<p>Jakarta needs massive infrastructure investment to improve public transport (which reduces congestion and greenhouse gas emissions) and boost sanitation, including linking all houses to potable water. </p>
<p>Many of its inhabitants are forced to rely on water from deep wells, resulting in over-extraction of underground water. That, in turn, <a href="https://harvardpolitics.com/world/jakarta-sinking-how-subsidence-endangers-indonesias-capital/">causes land subsidence</a>. </p>
<p>Without significant regulatory change and investment to stop Jakarta sinking, billions will be lost in damage to existing infrastructure and connected economic activity.</p>
<p>Relocating 1.5 million people out of Jakarta is not going to resolve the city’s subsidence problem, given that Jakarta’s population grows by <a href="http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/jakarta-population/">about 250,000 people every year</a>. </p>
<p>Before it approves relocation of the capital, the Indonesian parliament should guarantee sufficient resources will be available to address Jakarta’s transport and subsidence problems. And it should ensure any new capital is in a location that’s not going to worsen the region’s fire and haze problem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luca Tacconi receives funding from the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research. </span></em></p>The government has reportedly set aside 180,000 hectares of land for construction of a new capital in East Kalimantan.Luca Tacconi, Professor, Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1210262019-08-12T22:20:40Z2019-08-12T22:20:40ZRat detective uses DNA to uncover how rats scurry around cities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287706/original/file-20190812-71921-i4ftm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5607%2C3715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Learning about urban rat populations through genetic testing reveals information about their movements through cities.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s dark and I’m parked in an alley near a lopsided compost bin. I have a notepad, binoculars and a lukewarm cup of coffee — everything needed for a successful stakeout. I am waiting for them. </p>
<p>They appear approximately one hour before dawn, skittering from dumpster to dumpster along old paths they have worn down with time. I am trying to track their movements, to understand how far they go and how often. But it’s clear to me that the traditional detective approach isn’t going to work. There are too many and they move in places where I can’t follow. I’ll have to track them a different way — I’m going to need some rat DNA.</p>
<p>Take a trip to a city almost anywhere in the world and odds are that you will find rats. Rats are infamous for travelling with us across the globe and yet, until recently, there was very little information on how rats move within cities. </p>
<h2>Slippery little fellas</h2>
<p>As someone who has trapped more than 700 rats, I can tell you that this lack of information is partly because rats are notoriously difficult to study. For other wildlife species, you can track movement by trapping an animal, tagging it with something like a numbered ear tag, recapturing that animal later on and then measuring the distance between traps. But rats are wary of traps, and very <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00068">few rats will re-enter them more than once</a>. </p>
<p>To get around issues of trappability, researchers can use GPS technologies. This approach still involves wrangling rats to affix GPS tags, but advances in GPS technologies allow for data to be transmitted to the researcher remotely without having to catch the animal again. In fact, miniaturization of tags has allowed us to attach GPS tags to rats. But we’ve learned that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jue/jux010">GPS tags are tricky to use with urban rats because they will remove them</a> and satellite signals are obstructed in cities. Thank you, next?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287577/original/file-20190809-144868-1v6fmc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Trapping rats, collecting their DNA and then releasing them yields more information about how rats move through cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.lindsayelliott.com/">Lindsay Elliott</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>An alternative to these approaches involves collecting rat DNA. Chances are you’ve heard of companies like <a href="https://www.23andme.com/en-ca/howitworks/">23andMe that track your global ancestry by sequencing DNA from your saliva</a>. This approach looks at similarities and differences in the genetic codes of individuals to make inferences about how similar your DNA sequence is to that of other people in the database. This can also be applied to rats. Indeed, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1762">researchers have used genetics to track the migration of rats globally</a>. But how can this information help us to understand and address rat-associated issues?</p>
<h2>Staying close to home</h2>
<p>When sampled across a city, we can trace rat movement at a finer scale. Over the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the number of rat movement studies using genetics. By looking at relatedness of individuals based on genetic similarity, we can identify groups of relatives. We’ve found that relatives are often in close proximity to each other. </p>
<p>In Vancouver, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0245">most relatives are within approximately 50 metres of each other and relatedness tends to decrease past 250 metres</a>; on the whole, rats probably don’t move very far.</p>
<p>However, some rats travel further afield. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04232.x">In Baltimore, one rat was estimated to have moved up to 11.5 kilometres</a>. These migrant individuals can be identified because their genetic information assigns them to a group of individuals in a different location than to the one in which they were caught. </p>
<p>Thanks to genetics, we have come to understand that while rats typically move about the space of a city block, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00013">they move further than was estimated by observational methods</a>. This is useful to know because it can help inform how we address rat-associated concerns. </p>
<h2>Pathogens on the block</h2>
<p>Rats carry a number of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2012.1195">disease-causing organisms that can be transmitted to people</a>. Many of these are spread among rats and to people through close contact with affected rats and their urine or feces. In Vancouver, where rats rarely move between blocks, we would expect that the pathogens they carry would be restricted as well, due to few opportunities to spread.</p>
<p>And that’s what we see. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002270">Some blocks have many rats carrying a particular pathogen, while a neighbouring block may have few or no affected rats</a>. This is important because it suggests that actions that disrupt the normal patterns of rat movement could affect pathogen spread.</p>
<p>To remove rat-associated disease risks, efforts have focused on eliminating rats altogether, but this approach has been largely ineffective. This is partly because we fail to appropriately scale our control response. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/living-with-rats-involves-understanding-the-city-as-an-ecosystem-118383">Living with rats involves understanding the city as an ecosystem</a>
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<p>Most control efforts are enacted at a single property. If we look to the DNA, however, we see why that approach won’t cut it. Rats and rat colonies are often not restricted to a single property. For control efforts to be effective, they must encompass the genetic group, termed an eradication unit. </p>
<p>The scale of the unit varies by location due in part to barriers to movement such as roadways or rivers. For example, in Vancouver <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0245">a genetic cluster of related rats occupies an entire block, or spans several blocks</a>. By comparison, researchers have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12449">an eradication unit might encompass an entire “valley” in Salvador, Brazil</a>. </p>
<p>From my vantage point in the alley, I am struck by the power of genetic sequencing to help us answer challenging questions. Instead of viewing each rat independently, I begin to see them as interconnected groups of relatives scurrying along the pavement. I wonder if any are outsiders, migrants from another block. </p>
<p>I check my bag and realize that something’s missing. Tomorrow I’ll be back with what I need for DNA collection: my Rat Detective Toolkit 2.0.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=thanksforreading">Thanks for reading! We can send you The Conversation’s stories every day in an informative email. Sign up today.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kaylee Byers is the Regional Deputy Director of the British Columbia Node of the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative. She receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Genetic analysis shows that urban rats prefer to stay near their relatives; however, some of them migrate. Knowing this could help with pest control efforts.Kaylee Byers, Regional Deputy Director, British Columbia Node of the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative; PhD Candidate Interdisciplinary Studies, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1204222019-07-20T02:37:25Z2019-07-20T02:37:25ZIndonesia’s environment ministry fails to communicate risk of air pollution to Jakartans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284288/original/file-20190716-173347-6nglne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C16%2C5414%2C3615&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aerial view of severe air pollution with skyscrapers in Jakarta city on 24 April 2019. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Indonesia’s Ministry of Environment and Forestry has failed to communicate the risk of air pollution in the capital, Jakarta, and surrounding areas. </p>
<p>Data presented on the ministry’s <a href="http://iku.menlhk.go.id/">website</a> shows Jakarta has good air quality, making it unnecessary to warn the public about health risks from filthy air. But data from Swiss-based app AQ AirVisual tell a different story. </p>
<p>According to their data, sourced from the US embassy’s air quality monitors, Indonesia’s climate agency and Greenpeace Indonesia, Jakarta and its neighbouring province Banten have some of <a href="https://www.airvisual.com/world-most-polluted-cities/world-air-quality-report-2018-en.pdf">the world’s filthiest air</a>. This poses health risks to residents. </p>
<p>The ministry responded to this information by saying it’s confident that AQ AirVisual data is <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/07/jakarta-residents-sue-government-over-worlds-filthiest-air-quality/">not accurate</a>.</p>
<p>The conflicting information creates public distrust of the government, prompting <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/07/02/health/jakarta-pollution-law-suit-intl-hnk/index.html">a group of citizens to sue the government over growing air pollution</a>. </p>
<h2>Differing data</h2>
<p>The ministry regularly monitors air quality in Indonesia through devices installed in several strategic places, such as roads or other crowded areas. </p>
<p>These devices compile air quality data that the ministry uses to create its Air Pollution Index (API). </p>
<p>This Air Pollution Index uses a scale of 0 to 300, – <a href="http://iku.menlhk.go.id/">the website put 3,000</a> as maximum. If the monitors read that the air quality stands between 0 and 51, that means the air is clean. If the monitors read air quality levels between 51 and 100, there’s moderate pollution. Readings between 101 and 199 mean the air can cause illness and between 200 and 299 the air is very unhealthy. If the air quality level reaches 300, that spells danger. </p>
<p>Based on the air quality assessment update of July 16 2019 at 9 am, Jakarta and Banten stand at 58 to 78. This level falls in the moderate category.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284681/original/file-20190718-116562-10utptl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jakarta’s air quality based on the Ministry of Environment and Forestry per 16 July 2019. Source : http://iku.menlhk.go.id/</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to the ministry, air quality that falls in the moderate level “<a href="http://iku.menlhk.go.id/">would give no effect to human and animal health, but will affect sensitive plants and aesthetic value</a>”. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, AQ AirVisual uses the United States Air Quality Index (US AQI), one of the most recognised air quality standards in the world. The US AQI converts concentrations of pollutants in the air into a colour-coded scale of 0-500, to easily represent the level of associated health risk.</p>
<p>It provides real-time air assessment with scores of 0-50 being “good” air quality that poses no threat, 51-100 “moderate”, 101-150 “unhealthy for sensitive groups”, 151–200 “unhealthy”, 201–300 “very unhealthy” and 301-500 hazardous.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=294&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=294&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=294&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284280/original/file-20190716-173351-ksn85z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jakarta’s air quality based on the US AQI as per 16 July 2019. Source : https://www.airvisual.com/</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284251/original/file-20190716-173334-1c3317y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Serpong of Banten province air quality as per 16 July 2019. https://www.airvisual.com/</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The US AQI’s standard for Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5), one of four common air pollutants with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometres, or smaller than a human hair, is slightly higher than standards applied by WHO. </p>
<p>US AQI’s standard determines that humans should only be exposed to less than 12 micrograms per cubic metre of pollutants in a year. The WHO meanwhile sets the maximum to less than ten micrograms per cubic metre per year. </p>
<p>For daily exposure, WHO states 25 micrograms per cubic metre as the safe threshold. However, Greenpeace Indonesia claims <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/07/jakarta-residents-sue-government-over-worlds-filthiest-air-quality/">Indonesia’s threshold is nearly three times higher, at 65 micrograms per cubic metre</a>.</p>
<p>If we follow the US AQI standards, Jakarta and Banten, which score 151-200, fall into the “unhealthy” category. </p>
<p>Apart from real-time air quality data, the app also provides health risk information for each score. For instance, when the air is considered “<a href="http://support.airvisual.com/knowledgebase/articles/1185775-what-is-aqi">unhealthy</a>” the app provides information that infants and the elderly might experience heart and lung problems. At this level, it recommends people limit outdoor activities and wear pollution masks. </p>
<h2>Clean air as an environmental right</h2>
<p>Everyone has <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Environment/SREnvironment/FrameworkPrinciplesUserFriendlyVersion.pdf">environmental rights</a> to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, along with the right to seek, receive and impart environmental information. </p>
<p>The state must protect the environmental rights of its citizens, and Indonesia is one of the countries that has formally accepted all these environmental rights norms.</p>
<p>The government’s insistence that air pollution is under control creates confusion. Several mass media have reported air pollution issues caused by private transportation (such as cars and motorcycles) and <a href="https://jakarta.tribunnews.com/2019/01/10/polusi-di-kota-tangerang-meroket-pengamat-lingkungan-jelaskan-bahayanyauntuk-balita">industrial activities</a>.</p>
<p>Previous studies have found air pollution has <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4776742/">pulmonary health effects</a> such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer and respiratory infections. Researchers also found a correlation between air pollution and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/10473289.2006.10464485">cardiovascular disease</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10810730.2019.1574320">Understanding and communicating the risk of air pollution</a> is highly important to warn the public about how it can impact them. The public has a right to know about their current environmental situation and receive clear information, not confusing or misleading information.</p>
<p>In this current situation, the government has failed to communicate the risk and neglected to inform and provide comprehensive environmental data assessment to the public.</p>
<h2>Why communicate risks?</h2>
<p>People need to know what health risks they face from air pollution. They also need to know what they can do to protect their lives, their health, their families and communities.</p>
<p>Experts can carry out <a href="https://www.who.int/risk-communication/background/en/">risk communication</a> by using social media, mass media and community engagement channels. They can communicate and share real-time information with the public whose health, economic or social well-being is threatened. This may increase public awareness and help people respond appropriately to protect themselves. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540729/">WHO</a>, risk communication should be a platform for building trust between the government and the public. Having governments engaging with risk communication can lead to countries self-declaring air pollution, as <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315736761/chapters/10.4324/9781315736761-9">China has done</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120422/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juhri Selamet tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>The Ministry of Environment and Forestry insists the air quality is still “moderate with no health effect”. Other data show the city’s air is filthy.Juhri Selamet, Lecturer, Universitas Multimedia NusantaraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1157822019-04-29T10:43:52Z2019-04-29T10:43:52ZUber drivers report 80-plus hour workweeks and a lot of waiting<p>Uber’s upcoming initial public offering <a href="http://fortune.com/2019/03/21/uber-ipo-nyse-listing-lyft-nasdaq/">may be one of the biggest in history</a>, with the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-26/uber-seeks-to-raise-as-much-as-9-billion-in-year-s-largest-ipo">ride-hailing company expected to raise</a> up to US$9 billion. </p>
<p>That’s good news for its early investors and executives, <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-26/uber-s-early-investors-poised-to-reap-1-3-billion-in-ipo-sale">who could reap $1.3 billion</a> from the IPO.</p>
<p>For the potentially <a href="https://www.ridester.com/how-many-uber-drivers-are-there">hundreds of thousands of drivers</a> who do it as their <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/uber-static/comms/PDF/Uber_Driver-Partners_Hall_Kreuger_2015.pdf">largest or main source of income</a>? Not so much. That may be why some of them <a href="http://fortune.com/2019/04/24/uber-drivers-plan-12-hour-strike/">plan to go on strike</a> in seven U.S. cities for 12 hours on May 8. </p>
<p>For the past two years, I’ve spoken with dozens of full-time Uber and Lyft drivers in Seattle to get an on-the-ground understanding of how the technologies supporting the platform-based gig economy are affecting workers. </p>
<p>Their stories help illustrate why so many of them <a href="https://www.vox.com/2019/3/25/18280718/uber-lyft-drivers-strike-la-los-angeles">find it difficult</a> to earn a living wage as an app-based driver. </p>
<h2>Just ‘chilling’</h2>
<p>To see why, it helps to understand how Uber operates – and why investors value it so highly.</p>
<p>Uber <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520324800/uberland">doesn’t see itself as a transportation company</a>. Rather, it sells itself as a technology middle person that efficiently connects riders to “transportation providers” with its algorithms. <a href="https://vimeo.com/185547342">Uber’s ads boast</a> that drivers can move from “earning” to “chilling” with a push of a button, making it easy to “get your side hustle on.” Lyft similarly promises “<a href="https://www.lyft.com/drive-with-lyft">you’re free to drive, earn and get paid when you choose</a>.” </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12157">Researchers have found</a> that many of its drivers do in fact enjoy this flexibility as most use Uber or Lyft <a href="https://www.ridester.com/how-many-uber-drivers-are-there">infrequently</a> as a side gig – or until they have earned the <a href="https://ridesharecentral.com/uber-sign-up-bonus">promotional bonus</a>. But many others – perhaps as many as <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/uber-lyft-jobs-drivers-income-employees-independent-contractors-gig-economy-a8376271.html">two-thirds</a> in some areas – rely on it as their largest source of income. </p>
<p>These drivers are the ones who make it possible for Uber to honor a <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1543151/000119312519103850/d647752ds1.htm">key selling point</a> to investors: near-instant driver availability. Uber’s aim to provide consumers a <a href="https://www.recode.net/2017/8/23/16189048/uber-pitch-deck-2008-ubercab-travis-kalanick-founder-startup">ride within five minutes</a> of a click was considered a key differentiator from taxis even before it launched in 2009. </p>
<p>That availability necessitates a legion of essentially full-time drivers who spend many unpaid hours waiting – not “chilling” – until a fare comes their way. Drivers are only paid once they pick up a passenger. Every minute they spend waiting for a pickup or even driving to meet a rider they are simply losing money. </p>
<h2>Media and management</h2>
<p>To better understand how drivers navigate this challenge, I interviewed 63 drivers for Uber and Lyft as well as union organizers and policymakers in Seattle over the past two years. </p>
<p>The research is for a book I’m working on and part of my <a href="https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/4556/2026">ongoing examination of media’s role in labor management</a>, a project that looks at how managers have used different types of media – from film that <a href="https://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/sciencefilm/human-sciences-on-film/human-movement-3/frank-gilbreth-films/">showcased efficient manual workers</a> back in the early 20th century to today’s apps and algorithms – to nudge workers to be more productive. At the same time, they typically insist their use of new technologies will be good for workers as well.<br>
For example, Uber claims that its “<a href="https://marketplace.uber.com/matching">matching technology</a>” creates a “seamless pickup experience” that connects “riders and drivers more efficiently,” reduces wait time for riders and produces “more business” for drivers. </p>
<p>But the drivers I spoke with shared a very different experience. And Uber’s <a href="https://www.uber.com/blog/new-york-city/4-septembers-of-uberx-in-nyc/">own data suggests</a> that drivers spend about half of their time on the app without a fared passenger. The ones I interviewed said that waiting time could be even longer. </p>
<p>The three stories below are typical of the other 60. All names are pseudonyms to protect them from retaliation.</p>
<h2>Waiting on a fare</h2>
<p>Ayele, a middle-aged married father of two who’s been driving for Uber and Lyft for more than six years and currently works only for the Uber Black luxury service, estimates that more than half of the 80-plus hours he’s on the app each week is spent waiting for a fare. He says there are days where he’s spent as many as 16 hours on call in order to get just a few passengers. </p>
<p>While the long waits are necessary to make ends meet – he sends money to his father, sister and other relatives in Ethiopia – he earns “way below” the minimum wage of $15. </p>
<p>Ayele, whom I interviewed at a Teamster’s hall outside Seattle, is a member of the <a href="https://www.abdaseattle.org/">App-Based Drivers Association</a>, a union that’s been pushing for regulations that would require living wages for drivers. </p>
<p>He told me he joined the union because the rising number of drivers and falling incomes made him realize “there is a necessity to be united.” </p>
<h2>‘A gift from the Lord’</h2>
<p>Muhsin, a five-year veteran of Uber and Lyft, also works as much as 80 hours a week. </p>
<p>He says he earns just $9 to $12 an hour after expenses and wait time, which is around the national average found in studies by the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/transportation-and-material-moving/taxi-drivers-and-chauffeurs.htm">Department of Labor</a>, <a href="https://www.epi.org/press/uber-drivers-earn-the-equivalent-of-9-21-in-hourly-wages-uber-and-other-gig-platforms-account-for-far-less-of-the-economy-than-many-estimates-suggest/">Economic Policy Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.ridester.com/2018-survey/#introduction">Ridester</a>. Ridester’s late 2018 survey, for example, suggests drivers earn a national average of less than $10 an hour after expenses, which for a 40-hour workweek would be below the poverty threshold for a family of three.</p>
<p>Muhsin puts in such long hours, even at low pay, because he views it as his familial and God-given responsibility to send money to his poor relatives “home” in Somalia. </p>
<p>“It’s a gift from the Lord that I’m working,” the 32-year-old said. </p>
<h2>Unpredictability and stress</h2>
<p>Salim, a 58-year old Ethiopian driver for Uber Black, jokingly described his profession as a waiter. “I wait a lot.”</p>
<p>When asked what he does while waiting, he shrugged his shoulders, emphasizing that he “cannot plan … because you always wait for the phone call.” </p>
<p>As a father of two children under 12 and one adult son who depend on his income, Salim could not afford to miss answering the app’s call because doing so puts him at risk for a low acceptance rate, which can lead to “deactivation.”</p>
<p>Salim said it can also be emotionally and physically stressful. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12157">Studies have shown</a> that the long, unpredictable and underpaid hours <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520324800/uberland">can lead to physical</a>, mental, emotional and marital strain. </p>
<p>Salim himself says he’s witnessed three drivers collapse while waiting in the uncovered airport parking lot during the summer months. The airport only recently added portable toilets and running – though not potable – water, which alleviates some of the physical stress of waiting.</p>
<h2>The company ‘engine’</h2>
<p>Unions that represent drivers are trying to find ways to ensure their members get paid for all this time spent being on call. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/1/18206737/nyc-driver-wage-law-uber-lyft-via-juno">new law that took effect</a> in New York City in February requires ride-hailing companies to pay their drivers at least $17.22 an hour after expenses, a figure that’s meant to account for idle time. Unions in Los Angeles, Seattle and elsewhere <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/uber-lyft-drivers-plan-24-hour-strike-to-protest-pay/">are pushing for similar laws</a> – as well as ways to appeal the deactivation of a driver’s account. </p>
<p>So as early investors and executives for Uber and Lyft – which <a href="https://venturebeat.com/2019/03/29/lyft-was-valued-at-24-3-billion-in-its-ipo-and-raised-more-than-it-planned/">raised $2.34 billion</a> in its own IPO in March – collect their windfalls, they should spare a thought for the drivers who made it possible.</p>
<p>“We are the engine of the company,” said 42-year-old Ahmad, a father of two who drives for Uber and Lyft for 100 hours a week. I believe it’s time drivers get paid as if they are.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115782/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Rodino-Colocino shares information with unions representing app-based and taxi drivers but receives no compensation for it. She has received travel grants to the Smithsonian in Washington, DC, and the Walter Reuther Library at Wayne State to travel to their archives for research that is related to the study mentioned in the article. Previously she has worked for organizations that advocate for workers, including as interim chair for Penn State’s local campus chapter of the American Association of University Professors. She thanks Penn State's Bellisario School of Communication for funding her research in Seattle.
</span></em></p>One of Uber’s selling points is that a driver is always available to pick up a rider within minutes. But the drivers who make this possible aren’t being compensated for the time they spend waiting.Michelle Rodino-Colocino, Associate Professor of Media Studies and Women's, Gender and Sexuality Studies, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1121922019-03-12T20:50:22Z2019-03-12T20:50:22ZWashrooms for customers only: Peeing with dignity in the city<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263224/original/file-20190311-86693-x2v1xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Washrooms for customers only signs can be seen as an affront to human dignity. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Everyone needs to use washrooms, but public washrooms are hard to find. Just ask anyone with <a href="http://crohnsandcolitis.ca/Support-for-You/GoHere-Washroom-Access/Access-Card">colitis</a>, or who has ever cared for a child who really needs to go. Toronto, for example, has only one free and public washroom for every 9,213 residents. </p>
<p>So, where do we go, when we really need to go? </p>
<p>Whether or not we like to admit it, many have probably managed to sneak in to use a washroom that is designated with a sign as “Washrooms for Customers Only” (W4CO) when we have not been customers. Last year, in a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/tim-hortons-poop-throwing-1.4665873">well-publicized</a> incident at a British Columbia Tim Hortons, a woman was denied washroom access; she defecated on the floor and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1368879022000021100">threw the feces at employees</a>. </p>
<p>While the <a href="http://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/douglas.powersdangers.pdf">ick-factor</a> might distract us, there’s an important issue of <a href="http://www.un.org/en/events/toiletday/">human dignity</a> at play here, both for all of us who need <a href="https://www.wateraid.org/uk/publications/out-of-order-the-state-of-the-worlds-toilets-2017">washroom access</a>, and for the often <a href="https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2018/02/08/tim-hortons-and-the-saga-of-ontarios-minimum-wage">minimum-wage workers</a> on the frontlines in managing access to this most basic and essential resource. </p>
<h2>Employees allow washroom access despite rules</h2>
<p>Surprisingly, there’s very little <a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9780814795897/">research</a> on “Washrooms for Customers Only” rules and their enforcement. We decided to address this and <a href="https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/xmlui/handle/10214/14705">designed an exploratory study</a> to figure out the prevalence of W4CO rules, and how they are enforced. The results were not what we expected. </p>
<p>In North America, it seems that W4CO signs are everywhere. After visiting 202 cafés and restaurants along a sample of five of Toronto’s busiest strips, we were surprised to discover that just over one-third of these businesses had W4CO signs. </p>
<p>Almost half of all chain businesses had W4CO signs, while only one in five independent businesses did. </p>
<p>These numbers paint only a partial picture. To follow up on this basic count, Edith observed interactions between staff and prospective washroom users in both independent and chain coffee shops. Across all 92 interactions observed, there was not one single instance of anyone being denied access to a washroom, despite the presence of W4CO signs. </p>
<p>Management might put rules restricting washroom access in place, but employees consistently use their discretion in defence of basic human dignity. </p>
<p>To get a better understanding of how discretion works, Edith interviewed 15 frontline café and restaurant staff charged with managing washroom access. Participants shared that denying access to a washroom was rare, reserved for times when they felt they had to.</p>
<p>Some workers said that they would deny access if someone was aggressive or erratic or showing signs of substance abuse, but they tended to feel bad about the possibility of misjudging someone. Others said they denied access to people who were rude. </p>
<p>All but one interviewee stressed that denying access to the washroom was rare. Some discussed purposely subverting management policy by supporting unrestricted access to washrooms. </p>
<p>Many participants brought up Toronto’s lack of public washrooms. There did not appear to be a city guide for bathrooms, and so Edith made <a href="http://torontotoilets.org/">a complete list and accompanying map of all public access washrooms in Toronto.</a></p>
<iframe src="https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1waDSZxNxLTWNSGMTaLq7WWknm3BLd3ZA&hl=en" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>How people dealt with difficult situations, though, was based mainly on the volume of traffic that they had to deal with at their workplace and the frequency of upsetting incidents. </p>
<p>Workers in bustling locations where mental health issues, substance abuse, and homelessness are visibly present were more willing to call the police when they felt it was necessary. </p>
<p>In less busy shops, especially independent ones, some interviewees said they would instead handle whatever situation came up themselves. Police, they said, were just as inexperienced and unable to deal with mental health and addictions crises as they were. <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/arthur-gallant/police-mental-illness_b_3857786.html">Possible dire consequences </a> for the person going through the crisis if the police got involved made these interviewees more willing to take on that labour themselves. </p>
<p>In Toronto, the memory of the killing by police of <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/editorials/the-sammy-yatim-case-when-policing-goes-wrong/article31174172/">Sammy Yatim</a>, who was struggling with mental health issues, still looms large. Overall, for most staff W4CO rules are not regularly applied. They seem to exist as a shield to be used if workers felt like they needed to deny someone access for safety reasons. </p>
<p>In short, workers use W4CO rules as an imperfect solution to a difficult problem.</p>
<h2>Much more than places to pee</h2>
<p>Besides the obvious, what happens in these washrooms? </p>
<p>In interviews with café and restaurant workers, over half of the participants talked about working in businesses where they dealt with used needles in the washroom. Two participants reported that someone had overdosed in the washroom at their place of work. One discussed finding someone who needed emergency medical assistance at least once a month. Almost all workers had dealt with hazardous waste (including blood, feces and vomit) at their workplace.</p>
<p>Participants felt that the lack of services for Toronto’s most vulnerable populations results in a downloading of crisis-management labour onto the city’s minimum-wage café and restaurant workers. </p>
<p>When asked for policy solutions, workers emphasized more supervised injection sites <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-injection-sites-1.4144096">(Toronto currently has only three)</a>; more public washrooms; and the extension of housing-first projects. Housing first is an approach that considers a stable place to live as an essential human right and as a necessary foundation to other care like addictions counselling. Toronto currently has one <a href="https://www.homelesshub.ca/solutions/housing-first/homechez-soi">successful pilot.</a></p>
<p>But there are still over <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/home/media-room/backgrounders-other-resources/fact-sheet-homelessness-in-toronto/">5,000 people experiencing homelessness</a> in the city. </p>
<p>Overall, this initial research points to an unforeseen consequence of not providing essential aid for people living with homelessness, mental health issues or substance abuse problems. </p>
<p>As long as we fail to provide comprehensive services that address these needs, low-wage workers throughout the city will continue to deal with difficult and sometimes frightening incidents in their daily work lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112192/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mervyn Horgan receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Edith Wilson is also the past President and current Past Executive Officer of CUPE 3913, and receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>With so few public washrooms in our cities, vulnerable people are forced to use café and restaurant washrooms. How do mostly minimum wage café and restaurant workers deal with this?Mervyn Horgan, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Guelph, and Visiting Fellow, Department of Sociology, Yale University, University of GuelphEdith Wilson, Master's of Sociology, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1090772019-01-18T12:49:05Z2019-01-18T12:49:05ZUrban rooms: where people get to design their city’s future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254494/original/file-20190118-100273-qlw2pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C179%2C4985%2C3151&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Shanghai's urban room. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/shanghai-china-october-3-2017-visitors-1136197991?src=wKW-VcgbAoWJcy5EBaNnFQ-1-59">Efired/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite the <a href="https://www.tcpa.org.uk/pages/category/garden-cities-and-new-towns">strong Utopian traditions</a> of urban planning, there has often been a reluctance to think beyond the short term. Long-term planning is complex; electoral cycles are short and it’s easier to focus on the everyday challenges than those of the far-off future. For this reason, urban planners have often struggled to describe how a city might develop over the next 30 or 40 years. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/future-of-cities">research has shown</a> that it’s essential to take a long-term, participatory approach to urban planning, to manage continuous socioeconomic and environmental change. This means bringing together local government, universities, businesses and people living in cities. </p>
<p>Newcastle, Milton Keynes and Reading are examples of this in action in the UK, as shown by the recent <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/future-of-cities">Government Office for Science Future of Cities Foresight Project</a>, which used a range of tools and techniques (including workshops with local people) to imagine different possible futures for the cities. </p>
<p>But there also <a href="http://www.farrellreview.co.uk/">needs to be</a> a physical space where everyone can reflect on how a city has evolved, understand what sort of a place it is now and debate how it should develop in the future. That’s where “urban rooms” come in – they’re an important building block in making a city vision “real” for the people who live there. </p>
<h2>Past meets present</h2>
<p>An urban room can act as an exhibition hall, a community centre and a learning space, while giving people opportunities to help redesign and reimagine their city’s future. Urban rooms are already commonplace in countries such as China and Singapore, in the form of urban planning museums, city galleries or exhibition centres. These are all places where the public can directly engage with a physical space dedicated to understanding the past, present and future of the city. </p>
<p>Many of these spaces not only incorporate very large physical models, but also have space dedicated to understanding the urban planning stories and future paths of these cities. Models are a useful tool to help people visualise key public spaces, and the impact that new design proposals will have on the cityscape. </p>
<p>For example, Singapore’s mega model is located in the Singapore city gallery, which first opened in 1999 to tell the story of the nation’s planning efforts, including its intensive <a href="http://blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/what-about-singapore-lessons-best-public-housing-program-world">social housing programme</a>. It is important these spaces are open, so members of the public can easily access planning information.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253701/original/file-20190114-43541-1trq4u7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scale model of Singapore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/south-east-asia-singapore-december-3rd-414308821?src=h_QJ_UpVWgAK4pR9Umgk2A-1-0">Christian Kober/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another, rather different, example of an urban room is the <a href="http://mpavilion.org/">MPavilion</a> in Melbourne. Here, the urban room is a temporary pavilion, designed by a different architect every year. During its intensive summer programme, the pavilion becomes a space that contributes to public education, encourages public understanding and engagement in architecture and built environment and facilitates discussion about key planning proposals. When its life cycle is finished, the pavilion is installed permanently elsewhere in the city. </p>
<p>Only relatively recently have urban rooms started to garner interest in the UK. For example, <a href="https://urbanroomsnetwork.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/anurbanroomfortynesidefeb2016.pdf">research</a> as part of the university-led <a href="http://www.newcastlecityfutures.org/">Newcastle City Futures Programme</a> has shown how urban rooms can positively shape strategic urban development and regeneration projects, by increasing civic engagement and public participation in forging a vision for the city. </p>
<h2>A growing movement</h2>
<p>A network of urban rooms has now sprung up across the UK facilitated by the <a href="http://placealliance.org.uk/working-groups/urban-rooms/">Place Alliance</a> with Sheffield University, which brings together places as diverse as Newcastle, London, Hereford, Bristol and Weymouth. Each urban room creates a physical space where people can go to understand, debate and get involved in the past, present and future of the place where they live, work and play. </p>
<p>In Reading, we have linked the development of the urban room with the <a href="http://www.reading2050.co.uk">Reading 2050</a> vision, which brings together the University with local business, local government and local people. The vision <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0269094218800677">imagines how</a> Reading could become a low carbon city with a smart and sustainable future. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254487/original/file-20190118-100270-1e6jq8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Part of the Reading 2050 vision.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Dixon.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The urban room being developed at the University of Reading houses a much smaller model of the local area than some of the above examples, but through digital and physical media (virtual reality models, interactive exhibits and exhibition spaces) it will offer similar opportunities for the public to form a deeper understanding of proposed new developments. </p>
<p>Urban rooms are just one way of giving communities the confidence to actively participate in helping shape places, often in relation to the small scale changes of good open space and housing provision and air quality improvement that are so important in people’s lives. In this way, universities have a crucial role to play in creating stronger engagement with local people, and helping them to understand and influence the long term future of their city.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109077/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Urban planning should be long-term and visionary, but the public must have a say, too – that’s where urban rooms come in.Tim Dixon, Professor of Sustainable Futures in the Built Environment, University of ReadingLorraine Farrelly, Professor of Architecture, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/972482018-07-02T20:07:02Z2018-07-02T20:07:02ZLook up #happycity and here’s what you’ll find<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225430/original/file-20180629-117425-rzt0gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The same things tend to make people happy - such as nature and colour. (Jardin des Curiosités, Lyon, France)
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MfNHW8vlbLs">Léonard Cotte/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>City planners and designers want to build cities that are liveable, healthy and smart. Yet, in the abundance of research and guidelines on how to make healthy cities, happiness seems to be missing.</p>
<p>Research shows urban environments have an impact on our well-being and <a href="https://www.urbandesignmentalhealth.com/how-mental-health-affects-the-city.html">mental health</a>, affect our behaviour and moods, interactions, day-to-day lives and even alter <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/jun/22/city-living-afffects-brain">how our brain functions</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tweet-all-about-it-people-in-parks-feel-more-positive-95290">Tweet all about it – people in parks feel more positive</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322777034_Images_of_Urban_Happiness_A_Pilot_Study_in_the_Self-representation_of_Happiness_in_Urban_Spaces">study found</a> people associate their happiness with particular natural and built elements in the environment. This highlights how we can improve the design of cities to enhance people’s happiness.</p>
<h2>Searching Instagram</h2>
<p>In the first part of our study, we searched Instagram for images of the city people associated with happiness. We did this using four hashtags:</p>
<ul>
<li>#cityhappy</li>
<li>#happycity</li>
<li>#cityofhappiness</li>
<li>#urbanhappiness</li>
</ul>
<p>The images came from all corners of the globe, with no geographical limitation. </p>
<p>We sifted through hundreds of images, excluding photographs that were “selfies”, had non-urban attributes, or if they included people posing. Overall, we narrowed it down to 196 images, all of which exhibited characteristics of an urban area. </p>
<p>We found photographs tagged with one of the above hashtags consistently featured particular design elements. These were:</p>
<ul>
<li>open space</li>
<li>natural elements (vegetation, sand, rocks)</li>
<li>historic or heritage buildings</li>
<li>colour</li>
<li>medium density buildings (up to six storeys)</li>
<li>water </li>
<li>human scale buildings (horizontal rather than vertical).</li>
</ul>
<p>The same features came up time and again, irrespective of demographic and geographic location. This supports the idea there may be universal urban features that enhance happiness. </p>
<p>We then tested these themes on Brisbane residents through an online questionnaire.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water and vegetation came up time and again as relating to happiness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BkST-t2g39k/?tagged=happycity">screenshot/Instagram</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Online survey</h2>
<p>Twenty-two people took part in the online survey. They were asked to evaluate their happiness relative to different features, characteristics and images of areas in Brisbane. The survey comprised a series of multiple choice, selection and rating questions.</p>
<p>The results showed participants associated happiness with the same features as those who had posted on Instagram using the above hashtags. Most common to happiness was open space (86% of respondents) and natural lighting (81%).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sustainable-cities-need-more-than-parks-cafes-and-a-riverwalk-88760">Sustainable cities need more than parks, cafes and a riverwalk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Natural spaces with greenery such as parks, gardens and areas with trees, as well as areas that had water, had a significant positive impact on respondents’ happiness. Proximity to facilities, walkability of the area, green belts and views to mountains were also significant factors.</p>
<p>Historic or heritage character buildings ranked pretty highly (72%), over the more modern style buildings. Laneways also scored pretty highly (72%) as did views of the city (68%) and colour (59%). We noticed people liked other things, such as the materials used on sidewalks, roads and building facades.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colourful buildings, like these in Venice, are associated with happiness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MUsfb_f1I4E">Toa Heftiba/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This pilot study confirms there are specific elements which can be incorporated and factored into the planning and design of cities to enhance people’s happiness. Our further research is currently building on these initial findings, focusing on the relationship between density, urban design and happiness. </p>
<h2>How can we use this?</h2>
<p>Happiness is a major component of human well-being. But it isn’t factored into the widely recognised <a href="https://mobilityexchange.mercer.com/quality-of-living">quality of life</a> (including health, well-being and a number of economic factors) and <a href="https://store.eiu.com/product/liveability-ranking-and-overview">liveability</a> (including the standard of living) surveys of cities.</p>
<p>Some evidence suggests average happiness levels in Western nations haven’t improved in the last 68 years (<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30529548_Happiness_Lessons_From_A_New_Science">since 1950</a>). This is despite first-world incomes more than doubling in that time.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-might-explain-the-unhappiness-epidemic-90212">What might explain the unhappiness epidemic?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Happiness studies look at the links between human “<a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162125">subjective well-being</a>” and the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00343404.2011.589830">environment</a>. We can determine people’s preferences, subjective view and association with elements of the built environment through research, and then apply the lessons to design to improve the quality of the urban environment. </p>
<p>Our research highlights the key elements to be cognisant of in urban transformation projects and designing for future urban areas. These findings show we can use such knowledge and apply this to existing cities to retrofit them for happiness. </p>
<p>People are increasingly leaving the broad acre, single detached home to live in denser, more compact urban areas. There are many benefits to this urban settlement. But to make this lifestyle compatible with human happiness and foster mental health, the design, planning and governing policy needs to consider such factors. </p>
<p>Density can be done well, if happiness becomes part of the equation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sofie Pringle works at Pedde Thorp and QUT
</span></em></p>We searched Instagram for city images people associated with happiness. And they consistently included similar features, such as water, nature and heritage buildings.Sofie Pringle, PhD researcher & consultant, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/914482018-02-22T10:14:15Z2018-02-22T10:14:15ZManaging shrinking cities in an expanding world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207261/original/file-20180221-132660-wfqwrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Parts of the world are grappling with the urbanisation problem but some other parts experience the opposite: their cities are shrinking.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Urbanisation has been a well-established trend in the 20th and 21st centuries. However, depopulation and de-urbanisation in several countries and numerous cities have become serious problems for which few solutions exist at present.</p>
<p>People have steadily moved from rural to urban areas to improve their standard of living and their quality of life. In 1950, 30% of the world’s population was urban. A century later, 66% of people are expected to live in urban areas. </p>
<p>In terms of absolute numbers, the difference is stark. In 1950, 746 million people lived in urban areas. By 2046, this number is estimated to climb to more than <a href="https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014-Report.pdf">6 billion</a>.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly, global attention has focused on these rapid century-long urbanisation processes and their social, economic and environmental implications. In contrast, de-urbanisation has received limited attention. If one searches for the term in Google, the response is: “Did you mean: urbanisation?” </p>
<h2>Reasons for shrinking cities</h2>
<p>De-urbanisation happens for three main reasons. First, when the fertility rate of a country drops below 2.1, its total population starts to decline and so does its urban population. </p>
<p>Fertility rates are now 1.17 in South Korea and 1.44 in Japan. Without immigration, a fertility rate of 2.1 is required to keep a population stable. If current trends continue, Japan’s population is expected to decline from today’s 126.5 million to 88 million in 2065, 51 million by 2115, and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/02/26/its-official-japans-population-is-drastically-shrinking/?utm_term=.f521ab7bf4b5">to zero around the year 3000</a>!</p>
<p>Second, in many cities, jobs in different sectors such as manufacturing and mining are disappearing. Between 1950 and 2010, many American cities <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shrinking_cities_in_the_United_States">lost a large part of their population</a>: St Louis (62.7%), Cleveland (56.6%), Pittsburgh (54.8%) and Cincinnati (41.1%).</p>
<p>Third, some cities have lost residents due to resource depletion or technological changes. Yichun, a city in northeast China close to the Russian border, was transformed from a sleepy village to a bustling town due to <a href="http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015-08/17/content_21621400.htm">unsustainable logging</a>. Later, from 2012-2016, Yichun lost <a href="http://interaction.sixthtone.com/feature/2018/shrinking-cities/yichun.html">12% of its population</a> after its natural resources were depleted.</p>
<h2>Lessons from China</h2>
<p>China’s voracious appetite for natural resources to fuel its unprecedented continuous economic growth over the past three decades has meant that some 500 billion tonnes of resources, ranging from coal and iron ore to gold, have to be mined every year. Resource exhaustion and environmental degradation have contributed to the rapid depopulation in many urban centres. </p>
<p>China’s National Development and Reform Commission has reported that 50 of China’s 390 mining towns have already <a href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-04/16/content_9737089.htm">exhausted their resources</a> that can be economically extracted. This has left 3 million people jobless, affecting an additional 10 million people. </p>
<p>The commission has given 44 cities the official status of being “resource depleted”. These cities are receiving central government funding to rejuvenate and restructure their economies by increasing employment opportunities and improving environmental conditions. More cities will earn this distinction unless natural resource management and environmental protection policy measures are formulated on a long-term basis.</p>
<p>Technological development and economic considerations can also contribute to de-urbanisation. For example, Khulna, Bangladesh’s third-largest city, grew 20-fold between 1950 and 2000. Then, as the jute industry declined, it lost <a href="http://bangladesh.unfpa.org/en/publications/urbanization-and-migration-bangladesh">more than 150,000 people</a> (11% of the population) from 2001-2011.</p>
<h2>Infrastructure and shrinking cities</h2>
<p>Throughout history, as population increased and urbanisation took place, all types of infrastructure for water, energy and transportation had to be built to meet the steadily expanding needs. All societies have had centuries of experience in how to expand infrastructural requirements. Considerable expertise and technology have been developed to meet these advancing standards.</p>
<p>What we are facing now is a different type of problem that is becoming increasingly familiar in both developed and developing countries. How can shrinking cities downsize the infrastructure that has already been built? And how they can they find a usable financial model for its operation and maintenance?</p>
<p>Take Leipzig, Germany. During the post-1990 period, numerous buildings were renovated, water-efficient toilets and showers were installed and piped water and waste water facilities were <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13549830902903781">increased by 50%</a>. Consequently, leak detection and repair received priority, and water tariffs were increased to finance the necessary infrastructure expansion and modernisation. All of these measures contributed to major changes in people’s perceptions of the importance of water conservation.</p>
<p>Water use in the system, which was initially designed to provide 200 litres of clean water per person per day, dropped to only 92 litres. Fewer users, increased efficiency and less water demand by industries dramatically reduced water demands from <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13549830902903781">700,000m3 to only 165,000m3/day</a>. Leipzig now has the same water demand as it did in the mid-1940s yet a supply network that is significantly larger than what is needed.</p>
<p>This has created new types of challenges. Lower demand means water that stays in the pipes for longer periods, which increases the risk of bacterial growth and microbial contamination, <a href="https://difu.de/publikationen/2004/demographischer-wandel-in-kommunen.html#koziol">and related risks to health</a>. </p>
<p>Lower water use means lower waste water generation. This contributes to sedimentation in sewer pipes because of low flow velocities. Thus, additional clean water has to be used to flush the sewer system periodically for proper maintenance.</p>
<p>Leipzig’s water utility is facing higher operation and maintenance costs, and also higher long-term investment costs for restructuring the water system, while consumption and revenue are declining. </p>
<p>Another problem is that this unexpected but serious financial pressure is forcing the utility to focus on possible technical fixes due to lower domestic and industrial water use. This means a lower priority to proper operation and maintenance practices, which will have negative impacts on the long-term sustainability of the utility.</p>
<p>Countries like Japan and South Korea and numerous cities around the world are facing similar problems in downsizing their current infrastructure availability in response to reduced demand from their citizens and industries. Prosperous cities like Singapore have to consolidate schools since student numbers have declined. All the resource-depleted cities of China will have to consider how best to balance the size of their infrastructure with decreased demands. </p>
<p>This is an issue that needs urgent attention from policymakers and researchers, especially in cities and countries where de-urbanisation has become a more serious problem than urbanisation. While increasing urbanisation is a serious issue that many developing countries need to manage effectively, a significant number of cities in these countries are witnessing depopulation. They are finding they have constructed more and larger-scale infrastructure than they need and are able to manage. </p>
<p>Both policymakers and academics have not paid enough attention to de-urbanisation and shrinking cities. Within the next decade we need to find cost-effective solutions. While the task may not be easy, appropriate solutions need to ensure sustainability in both operational and financial terms for the future.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This article has been updated to reflect corrections of grammatical errors.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91448/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Para penulis tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi di luar afiliasi akademis yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Urbanisation has been a well-established trend and for some countries will continue to be. But some others experience the opposite, resulting in underused and abandoned infrastructure.Asit K. Biswas, Distinguished Visiting Professor, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of SingaporeCecilia Tortajada, Senior Research Fellow, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of SingaporeMartin Stavenhagen, Climate, Energy and Water Policy Consultant, National University of SingaporeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/810992017-08-02T20:21:14Z2017-08-02T20:21:14ZAustralia’s city/country divide is not as wide as you may think<p>Many people assume Australia’s regions are getting a raw deal compared to the big cities. But beneath the oft-told “tale of two Australias” is a more nuanced story.</p>
<p><a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/regional-patterns-of-australias-economy-and-population/">New research released today by the Grattan Institute</a> shows that income growth and unemployment rates are not obviously worse in regional areas. Cities and regions both have pockets of disadvantage, as well as areas with healthy income growth and low unemployment.</p>
<p>But shifts in population are driving a wedge between city and regional Australia. Fewer people are living in remote areas. And because of this, the economy is becoming more concentrated in cities and large regional centres.</p>
<h2>Income growth in the regions has kept pace with the cities</h2>
<p>The gap in incomes between the cities and the regions is actually not getting wider. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/WbGEx/3/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="630"></iframe>
<p>Income growth was particularly high over the past decade in the mining areas of Western Australia and Queensland. But this is not just a mining-state phenomenon: average growth in income per person was similar in cities and regions across every state.</p>
<p>Income growth was high in areas close to the centre of Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. But suburban parts of these cities did not fare so well – areas in Sydney’s west and Melbourne’s outer ring had some of the lowest income growth in the nation.</p>
<p>The absolute level of income tends to be higher in the cities than the regions - but this has always been so. The highest taxable incomes in Australia are in Sydney’s eastern suburbs, followed by Cottesloe in Perth and Stonnington in eastern Melbourne. The only regional area in the top 20 areas by taxable income is the mining region of Pilbara in WA.</p>
<p>The lowest taxable incomes are in Tasmania and the regions of the east-coast states, especially the far north coast of NSW, central Victoria and southern Queensland.</p>
<h2>Where unemployment is worst</h2>
<p>Unemployment is not obviously worse in the regions than the cities, but both have areas of strong disadvantage. </p>
<p>Parts of Far North Queensland have the highest rates of unemployment: 40% or more, compared to the national average of 6.1% in 2016. Most of these areas have had high unemployment rates for many years.</p>
<p>Unemployment tends to be higher in large regional towns than in surrounding rural areas. In the capital cities, unemployment is concentrated along the “spines” - built-up areas that follow major roads.</p>
<p>Unemployment got worse over the last five years in many areas where the jobless rate was already high. The unemployment rate increased in the northern parts of WA, the Northern Territory and Queensland between 2011 and 2016. Unemployment appears to be entrenched in these areas.</p>
<p>Unemployment also got worse along city “spines”: the Ipswich to Carole Park corridor in Brisbane, and the Dandenong to Pakenham corridor in Melbourne. The exception was the Botany Bay to Liverpool corridor in Sydney, where unemployment improved but remains high.</p>
<p><strong>Interactive map</strong></p>
<p><em>Click on the map below to compare income, income growth, unemployment and population growth.</em> </p>
<iframe width="100%" height="520" frameborder="0" src="https://grattan.carto.com/builder/a928f4b6-b747-47ae-9034-3766e0ecb6a5/embed" allowfullscreen="" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" oallowfullscreen="" msallowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<p><em>The full functionality of this graph is not available on mobile devices/small screens. If so, <a href="https://grattan.carto.com/builder/a928f4b6-b747-47ae-9034-3766e0ecb6a5/embed">click here</a> to open in a new window</em></p>
<h2>Population growth is much stronger in the cities</h2>
<p>The regions are not noticeably falling behind in terms of income growth and employment. But there are big – and growing – differences in the location of economic activity and where people are choosing to live.</p>
<p>A long-term trend in Australia’s economy continued in the past decade: fewer people are working in agriculture and manufacturing, and more are finding jobs in services. The loss of agricultural and manufacturing work is felt most keenly in regional and outer-suburban areas. And many service jobs – particularly professional services – tend to cluster in the centre of cities.</p>
<p>Large regional towns exert a gravitational pull on the populations of smaller rural communities. Major cities have a stronger pull again, drawing younger and more-educated people from the regions as well as the majority of new migrants.</p>
<p>This is evident in the population data over the past decade: in general, populations declined in small towns in the east-coast states and South Australia, but increased in larger regional centres. Population – and unemployment – also tended to increase faster in the towns along the east coast. Populations in the major cities, meanwhile, grew strongly.</p>
<p>Voters in regional areas are <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/the-rise-of-protest-politics/">increasingly voting for minor parties</a>. It’s often suggested this is because of the <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/columnists/john-black/one-nation-and-pauline-hanson-tap-into-a-regional-disconnect/news-story/5f13ab8d3d49e0f379a22ee486a1ca5b">deteriorating economic position of the regions</a>.</p>
<p>But given that people in regions have generally fared as well as those in cities over the past decade, major parties may need to look beyond income and employment to discover what is driving dissatisfaction among regional voters.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81099/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grattan Institute began with contributions to its endowment of $15 million from each of the Federal and Victorian Governments, $4 million from BHP Billiton, and $1 million from NAB. In order to safeguard its independence, Grattan Institute’s board controls this endowment. The funds are invested and contribute to funding Grattan Institute's activities. Grattan Institute also receives funding from corporates, foundations, and individuals to support its general activities as disclosed on its website.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carmela Chivers and Danielle Wood do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research released today by the Grattan Institute shows that income growth and unemployment rates are not obviously worse in regional areas.John Daley, Chief Executive Officer, Grattan InstituteCarmela Chivers, Associate, Grattan Institute, Grattan InstituteDanielle Wood, Fellow, Australian Perspectives, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/707382017-01-29T19:01:05Z2017-01-29T19:01:05ZWhen the heat is on, we need city-wide plans to keep cool<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154513/original/image-20170127-30416-1n8in84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cities are facing more heatwaves, but not all strategies to keep us cool are equal. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sydney image from www.shuttrstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/jan/18/eastern-australia-swelters-under-heatwave-as-hottest-january-on-record-looms">recent</a> spate of heatwaves through eastern Australia has reminded us we’re in an Australian summer. On top of another <a href="https://theconversation.com/2016-crowned-hottest-year-on-record-australia-needs-to-get-heat-smart-70994">record hot year</a> globally, and as heatwaves become <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-council-heatwaves-are-getting-hotter-and-more-frequent-23253">more frequent and intense</a>, our cities are making us even hotter. </p>
<p>This is the <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-why-are-cities-warmer-than-the-countryside-53160">urban heat island</a>, where city temperatures can be significantly warmer than the surrounding rural regions.</p>
<p>The question, then, is what we can do to keep our cities cooler.</p>
<h2>Why are cities hotter?</h2>
<p>The temperature difference is caused by a <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/longcontent/urban-heat-islands">range of factors</a>, including dense building materials absorbing more of the sun’s energy, fewer trees to provide shade, and less soil to cool by evaporation. </p>
<p>Buildings can also act like the hairs on a husky, reducing wind speeds and blocking thermal radiation up to the night sky. On top of that, waste heat from car engines, air-conditioners and other energy use <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-its-not-your-imagination-it-actually-is-colder-on-the-weekend-if-you-live-in-a-city-67223">adds to overall</a> air temperatures.</p>
<p>Why does this matter? Even a small increase in air temperature pushes up overall energy demand, and about 25% of our energy bills are for only <a href="https://theconversation.com/air-conditioning-is-peaking-out-time-to-rethink-cool-comfort-10598">40 hours per year</a> when the grid is most heavily used. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-more-heatwaves-to-come-how-will-our-cities-hold-up-22079">most extreme heat events</a> can buckle train lines, cause rolling blackouts and <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-poses-a-billion-dollar-threat-to-australias-economy-41153">cost billions</a> in lost productivity. And it’s not just bad for our wallets.</p>
<p>Heat stress can damage organs or exacerbate existing illnesses. Since 1900, extreme heat events have <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901114000999">killed more Australians</a> than bushfires, cyclones, earthquakes, floods and severe storms combined.</p>
<h2>So, what can we do?</h2>
<p>There are a number of things individuals can do to reduce the impact of heat in their homes, such as installing light coloured roofing material, insulation or an air-conditioner. </p>
<p>But it gets more complicated when considering the city as a whole, and how these small actions interact with each other and with the climate. </p>
<p><strong>Air-conditioners</strong></p>
<p>In heatwaves, air-conditioners <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-third-day-of-a-heatwave-is-the-tipping-point-are-we-ready-62710">save lives</a>, allowing stressed bodies time to cool. But our homes can only be made cooler by blowing heat outside, along with the extra energy to run the system. </p>
<p>As well as increasing outside air temperatures in the short term, the fossil fuels burned add to global warming. A world cooled by air-conditioning probably <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-global-impact-of-air-conditioning-big-and-getting-bigger-62882">isn’t the answer</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Trees and parks</strong></p>
<p>Trees provide shade, but also <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-trees-really-cool-our-cities-down-44099">cool the air</a>, because evaporating water from leaves takes energy, reducing peak temperatures <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/using-trees-and-vegetation-reduce-heat-islands#3">by 1-5° C</a>. </p>
<p>Most city planners agree on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-a-great-return-on-investment-try-trees-5050">broad benefits</a> of urban vegetation, with some <a href="http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/community/parks-open-spaces/urban-forest/Pages/urban-forest-strategy.aspx">metropolitan councils</a> developing urban greening strategies. </p>
<p>However, urban trees can be a <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-green-infrastructure-can-easily-be-added-to-the-urban-planning-toolkit-57277">vexed issue</a> for some councils; they use water, can be costly to maintain, can damage utilities and property, and can <a href="https://theconversation.com/greener-but-not-cleaner-how-trees-can-worsen-urban-air-pollution-44856">worsen air quality</a> instead of improving it. Larger cities are often made up of dozens of councils; getting them to agree is a major challenge. </p>
<p><strong>White roofs</strong></p>
<p>We know that black surfaces get hotter in the sun, but demand for dark roof tiles still <a href="http://www.thefifthestate.com.au/innovation/design/cool-roofs-versus-dark-roofs-special-report/60257">far outweighs demand for light colours</a>. More reflective roofs <a href="https://theconversation.com/cooling-the-urban-heat-island-with-more-reflective-roofs-5038">can reduce</a> a household’s energy bill, as well as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-and-cool-roofs-provide-relief-for-hot-cities-but-should-be-sited-carefully-60766">overall</a> temperature of a city. </p>
<p>White roofs are most effective in warmer climates, because in cold climates, the cost savings in summer must be balanced with additional heating costs in winter.</p>
<p><strong>Green roofs and walls</strong></p>
<p>Green roofs and walls are building structures with integrated vegetation. They provide cooling benefits by shading buildings and through evaporation from leaves. They generally show <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-or-white-planted-or-painted-roofs-can-cool-buildings-25352">less cooling benefit</a> than white roofs, cost more to install and maintain, and use additional water and energy.</p>
<p>But they do <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/11/sydneys-one-central-park-wins-international-best-tall-building-award">look nice</a>, improve biodiversity and make <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-official-city-parks-make-us-happy-14696">people happier</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Pavement watering</strong></p>
<p>Prior to an extreme heatwave, it may be possible to reduce temperatures by wetting down building and road surfaces. It’s a traditional practice in <a href="http://tadaimajp.com/2014/08/uchimizu/">Japan</a>, and is now being considered in major cities like <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212095514000868">Paris</a>. </p>
<p>But temperature <em>and</em> humidity are <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-heat-can-make-your-body-melt-down-from-the-inside-out-22042">important factors in heat stress</a>, so pavement watering should only be undertaken if the extra humidity does not increase heat stress.</p>
<p><strong>Large scale rooftop solar</strong></p>
<p>Solar panels convert energy from the sun into electricity, so less energy is required from the network overall. If enough roofs were covered with solar panels, could that lower air temperatures?</p>
<p>Probably <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fenvs.2014.00014/full">a little</a>. Other benefits include a reduction in the energy required for cooling (because the roofs are shaded by panels), and a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-tesla-battery-heralds-the-beginning-of-the-end-for-fossil-fuels-41197">stable</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/rooftop-solar-reduces-the-risk-of-price-hikes-for-everyone-13831">lower cost</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-i-had-a-blank-cheque-id-prove-the-benefits-of-decentralised-energy-3719">decentralised renewable energy system</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Building density</strong></p>
<p>A building with lots of thermal mass (think sturdy, double-brick home) can be an effective way to keep inside temperatures more stable. Heat is absorbed during the day and released at night. The same idea can work for an entire city. </p>
<p>An urban cool island can form in high-density cities like <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/joc.4747/full">Hong Kong</a> because tall buildings provide extra heat capacity and shade. </p>
<p>For similar reasons, the tight street layout of traditional Arabian and Mediterranean cities keep those <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-traditional-architecture-offer-relief-from-soaring-temperatures-in-the-gulf-49760">streets cooler</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Shading structures</strong></p>
<p>Installing light shading structures over streets, pavements and roofs can reduce the surface temperature of materials, and reduce the heat absorbed and radiated back into streets. Shading structures need to be designed so that they do not limit airflow, trapping heat and air pollution in streets.</p>
<h2>Which is best?</h2>
<p>To figure out what works best, we need to be able to model the physics of different strategies, in different types of cities and in different climates. We can then assess the economic and health impacts and decide on appropriate and plans that give us the biggest bang for our buck.</p>
<p>Here we have focused on heat in cities, but there are other important concerns like <a href="https://theconversation.com/air-pollution-causes-more-than-3-million-premature-deaths-a-year-worldwide-47639">air quality</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-garden-could-help-stop-your-city-flooding-42473">flooding</a>. </p>
<p>In colder cities, an urban heat island could actually be a good thing. Each city is different; each requires a tailored and integrated plan developed over the entire metropolitan region, and then implemented locally by councils, businesses and households.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70738/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathew Lipson receives funding through an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship, UNSW Sydney and the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Hart receives funding from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science, the NSW Environmental Trust and the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage. </span></em></p>Our cities are getting hotter. Luckily, as a built environment, we can actually do something about it.Mathew Lipson, PhD Candidate, UNSW SydneyMelissa Hart, Graduate Director ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/610342016-08-07T15:14:53Z2016-08-07T15:14:53ZUgandan architects struggle with the dilemma of what’s appropriate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133239/original/image-20160805-488-1w6f22i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The African Union laboratory in Nansana, a suburb of Kampala, Uganda.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.terrain-arch.com">Ikko Kobayashi and Fumi Kashimura/Terrain-Architects</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Located in the heart of Africa, Uganda exhibits a spatial geography of stark economic contradictions. There is a relatively modern and better-serviced urban sector, and then a traditional rural sector where most Ugandans live. In urban areas, the affluent formal sector is juxtaposed against the informal sector, where perhaps more than 60% of the East African country’s urban population work and live.</p>
<p>Globally generated ideas freely penetrate the national boundaries deep into the innermost recesses of Uganda’s villages. Local architects and potential clients are exposed to state-of-the-art contemporary architecture. On large urban projects (particularly in the capital, Kampala), architects work to create a local version of cutting-edge architecture.</p>
<p>But something niggles. Their broad educational backgrounds, coupled with a critical understanding of local context, leave Ugandan architects with a nagging feeling that something is not quite right. They are driven to confront the ethical question: is it justifiable to produce isolated, resource-guzzling edifices?</p>
<p>These edifices propagate an irresponsible idea that modern materials, technologies and finances negate the need to differentiate between a building in the hot wet tropics and one in the hot dry desert or even in freezing temperature zones. Could there be a more contextually responsive alternative?</p>
<h2>Open buildings</h2>
<p>It is an ethical imperative for every architect to negotiate with the client to expand the design brief to fulfil the developer’s needs while promoting the public good. For example, in Mexico City <a href="http://www.rojkindarquitectos.com/">Rojkind Arquitectos</a> uses grand projects to provide for strategically significant private-public interfaces in the city. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most fertile potential for thoughtful urban place-making exists in the careful calibration of public-to-private gradations. The aim is to make the building more open to the greater public. This, while simultaneously empowering the main tenants with a range of choices as to the extent to which they will engage with the outside world. </p>
<p>By sensitively handling how the building interfaces with the broader city and street life, architects can contribute to creating positive places that make possible the mixing of minds and bodies. An example here is the 55-storey <a href="http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/commerzbank-headquarters/">Commerzbank</a> in Frankfurt. The building is embedded in city and social networks by enabling pedestrians to flow through it. It allows pedestrians to refresh themselves in its street-level cafés and restaurants.</p>
<p>A more radical example is by Indian architect <a href="https://lsecities.net/media/objects/articles/the-static-and-the-kinetic/en-gb/">Rahul Mehrotra</a>, who uses his projects in Mumbai to blur formal-informal city dichotomies. He does so through carefully considered erosion of boundaries to enhance a bidirectional flow of ideas, bodies and resources.</p>
<h2>Tradition and context</h2>
<p>Architects can also initiate critical engagement with tradition and context. The quintessential Ugandan traditional building is a round grass-thatched mud hut in a homestead. Having evolved over centuries, it has responded to existing materials, technologies, skills and cultural practices and attitudes. </p>
<p>Arguably, it embodies lessons that can be unlocked through intense study. But the forces of modernisation have led to many people abandoning the hut in favour of tin and brick buildings. </p>
<p>A key characteristic of the traditional building was that it was built within the resources and expertise of a given community. It was therefore empowering and supportive of diverse and distributed niches of economic activity. The preferred brick-tin alternative obliges people to become ever more dependent on faraway manufacturers and suppliers. This ultimately weakens local societies. </p>
<p>Given modern aspirations, how can architects salvage tradition’s positive lessons? How to become modern and return to sources? The answer does not lie in the growing trend of designing modernised replicas of traditional buildings for entertainment and tourism.</p>
<p>Like fast food (which is ultimately bad for you), such replicas give instant gratification. But they are, borrowing from British architect Kenneth Frampton, best described as <a href="http://cargocollective.com/jjyeo/filter/origins">scenography</a> – mere stage sets.</p>
<h2>Cross-pollination needed</h2>
<p>Tradition should not be static and frozen. Rather, it should be conceptualised as malleable and fluid. It should resiliently soak up the emerging demands and opportunities of modernity in the design and erection of buildings. This requires a double-pronged approach – one in which tradition and modernity are in dialectical opposition to constantly yield lessons for architecture. </p>
<p>Cross-pollination between tradition and modernity in terms of materials, skills and technologies is required. The broader objective is to strengthen endogenous craftmanship and make the building process more responsive to diverse economic and socio-cultural niches.</p>
<p>Contextual sensitivity also demands design of spaces that utilise and make us more aware of the richness of the Ugandan natural environment. Think building materials, landscape forms, lakes and flowing rivers, the beautiful sunlight, sunrises and sunsets. Include sheltering shadows, framing of views, channelling breezes to cool people, diverse flora and fauna, and the array of natural colours in this country.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the aim should be to design and erect buildings that do not brutalise but rather nurture societies and nature with multiple benefits.</p>
<p><em>The author acknowledges <a href="http://www.terrain-arch.com">Ikko Kobayashi and Fumi Kashimura</a>, who are also the owners of images used. This is a shortened, edited version of an article in Architecture Uganda, Vol 2 Issue 2. It is a publication of the <a href="http://architects.ug/">Uganda Society of Architects</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61034/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Sanya is an architecture academic at the University of Cape Town. He is active in research some of which is funded.</span></em></p>There is a growing trend of designing modernised replicas of traditional buildings for entertainment and tourism. That’s no way to salvage positive lessons from building traditions.Tom Sanya, Senior Lecturer in Sustainable Design, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/562712016-03-16T04:59:23Z2016-03-16T04:59:23ZThe 24/7 city, creativity and the lockout laws<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115206/original/image-20160316-25496-1qawo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our visions of the future embrace huge, glittering cities, but Sydney has a case of the little town blues.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Warner Bros.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A city, especially in the global age, is active, night and day. Some cities particularly – New York or Hong Kong or Tokyo – are commonly presented at night. They are magic lands lit with public television screens, flashing neon and LED text.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083658/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Blade Runner</a> uses this night-time city as a picture of the future; its buildings become nodes of constant flows of information and electricity. Unlike the pre-modern village, which structured its days on the sun, the perfected modern metropolis is a 24-hour city, which “never sleeps”.</p>
<p>When the West wanted to demonstrate the backwardness of North Korea, the Western media proliferated a satellite image of a blackness – the size of a country – just above a shimmering South Korea.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA image taken by the Expedition 38 crew aboard the ISS shows night view of the Korean Peninsula.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Reuter</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This vision from space was also used in Star Wars to introduce, in <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120915/">The Phantom Menace</a> (Episode 1), the city planet Coruscant. It is New York scaled up, not just the administrative and cultural centre of a world but of the universe. The planet’s name, from the Latin, means glittering. </p>
<p>Coruscant is vital, powerful and beautiful (in some shots it looks like Brasilia meets Renaissance Venice). But it is also artificial and sickly: civilisation covers the whole planet, nature is a pot plant and the smog covered ground level has been uninhabitable for 1,000 years. Life is above ground in skyscrapers, recalling the class divide of another early vision of the future, contained in the film <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0017136/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Metropolis</a>.</p>
<p>This paradox of the city has haunted culture since its invention in the mid-19th century. As soon as the city came into being, middle class urbanites started putting pictures of praying peasants on their walls and hiring wholesome milkmaids as wet-nurses. There was something worryingly immoral and dirty about cities.</p>
<p>The first City of Light was of course Paris; it is the model that everyone followed. The nickname was earned because it was almost uniquely, at that time, lit up. Streetlights first appeared under Louis XIV but the planning vision was completed under <a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Eugene-Baron-Haussmann">Baron Haussmann</a> in the 1850s. The design facilitated a complex life after dark. But it also allowed for better surveillance and scrutiny — all the better to see into the dark corners of lurking revolutionaries and criminals. </p>
<p>In their effort to picture modernity, Impressionists painted all the new daytime activities of Paris: from walking the freshly laid promenades to peering through the industrialised glass panes of shops. But they also began to paint the nightlife: the absinthe drinker; the lady of the night; the theatre; the bar girl; the singer. The Impressionists were just as interested in the magical ambience of gaslight and the limelight as the effects of sunlight on a haystack. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=874&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=874&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=874&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At Gennelle, Absinthe Drinker by Toulouse-Lautrec.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.wikiart.org/">via Wikiart.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When Sydney was preparing to debut itself to the world in the 1879 World Fair, it looked to Paris. Its Second Empire Style Town Hall, based on French models, not English ones, stood for the future, the new.</p>
<p>It is not a coincidence that Gustave Eiffel not only designed a tower but also the logo for Noilly Prat Vermouth (which is still used today). Both are in their own way symbols of the city and of modern progress. Industrialisation and its certainties allowed for the tower to stand up and for the barman to be assured that every martini he mixed would be the same, and good. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Noilly Prat Vermouth logo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A big city, as the centre of states, has traditionally accommodated all comers, almost as a defining feature. That is why, even on the extremes, we need planning laws that stipulate where our (legal) brothels go, where the erotic book shop is sited (right next to Abbey’s in Sydney), and where the bar precinct is. </p>
<p>The modern utopian dream of the model city wants to stay open, totally. In this place there are no curfews; transport runs all night; bankers working foreign stock exchanges go to dinner after trading; comedy writers drink litres of coffee and order takeout; and live music plays through the evening.</p>
<p>In 2001, Tony Blair ran for PM on a platform of keeping London open. New Labour sent an email to primarily prospective young voters that said “couldn’t give a ‘four x’ for last orders? Vote Labour on Thursday for extra time.” The new laws came into effect in 2005.</p>
<p>Last year, a report from the free market leaning Institute of Economics lauded the success of the laws. Its author, Chris Snowdon, <a href="http://www.iea.org.uk/in-the-media/press-release/longer-opening-hours-have-been-a-success">noted</a>, “The hysteria about so-called 24-hour drinking ranks as one of the great moral panics of our time, but the evidence is now clear: the doom-mongers were wrong … The biggest consequence of relaxing licensing laws has been that the public are now better able to enjoy a drink at the time and location of their choice.” </p>
<p>The report goes on to say that the diversity of offerings has gone up, including small bars and clubs. Statistically, too, assaults and other binge drinking related crime have gone down in London. This may not be a direct cause of the legislation, but at least indicated that the 24-hour city had not “made matters worse”.</p>
<p>Back in Sydney, we have a terrible case of little town blues. We are seeing a perfect case study for illustrating Michel Foucault’s political theory of “micropower”. Instead of merely laws, Foucault suggests that we are primarily controlled in modern society by smaller more socially embedded modes of control. These include our education systems, science and health experts and even the buildings we live and work in. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/Pages/media-news/media-releases/2016/mr-liquorlawreview.aspx">Ian Callinan review</a> will no doubt bring together a phalanx of experts (emergency doctors, drug experts, criminologists and police) arguing for the lockout laws on the grounds that they save lives.</p>
<p>The experts’ information is presented to us as neutral, when it cannot help but have some subjectivity and ideology (even a disciplinary bias for example) underpinning it. What we are seeing in the lockout laws is primarily a neoliberal point of view: we are kept safe to be better workers, gentrification leads to rising property prices and as Richard Cooke in The Monthly has highlighted, baby boomers (i.e. those in power) are <a href="https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2016/march/1456750800/richard-cooke/boomer-supremacy">not really concerned anymore with the issues of the young</a>. </p>
<p>I do not believe the instrumentalist claims of those tweeting at <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/casinomike">#CasinoMike.</a> who argue the laws are part of a conspiracy to boost casino business. The lockout laws are not born from Machiavellian complexity; they are a result of merely thoughtless, harried governance.</p>
<p>These laws represent what Foucault would see as a form of control through care; the care seems well-meaning but obviously delimits freedom. By reducing the debate to the overly simplistic terms of drinking versus safety, the discussion fails to take into account the whole social infrastructure at stake. The concern for our safety does not even meet the sober professionalism of the nanny (state). Instead we have the thin-lipped nervousness of the helicopter parent.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toulouse Lautrec’s La Goulue arriving at the Moulin Rouge with two women.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">via Wikiart</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So intent on securing us from risk, the laws infantilises us all and stifles our activity. The argument that we are a binge-drinking culture that cannot be trusted actually ossifies the situation and never allows for the growth into a mature culture. There is a limit to risk management. </p>
<p>The blinkered debate also closes down alternative methods and solutions (like the London 24-hour model or better transport options). In a recent <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-16/fact-check-do-other-world-cities-have-lockout-laws/7225790">ABC fact check</a> this problem was exemplified. The check seemed to work hard to find cities that proved Sydney’s laws had precedent (Glasgow, Whangarei, “a city of around 50,000 people” in New Zealand). What about “world cities” such as Paris or London or Hong Kong? </p>
<p>Gilles Deleuze coined the term “society of control,” which moves Foucault’s analysis away from the policing of our health and safety towards the policing of exits and entrances, through ID and other screening, which he sees as the general new approach to law and order.</p>
<p>The lockout is the perfect example of this new order. It treats people as guilty before they can prove that they should be let in. The whole citizenry is being treated as a class of potential hooligan. That may be efficient policing but it is not good policing.</p>
<p>The modern city wants to accommodate a broad spectrum of life, from work to carnivalesque excesses. Bars, clubs and other places of mischief have an enormously important role in our societies and not just for the young. </p>
<p>They are the places of play, of celebration, of dance and imagination. The birth of the city saw a huge explosion of cultural and artistic pursuits (for all the new theatres, bars, galleries and halls) all driven by the energy and appetites of the residents. The city itself became not only a venue but a muse. </p>
<p>So to the strains of the clarinet in the opening of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ynEOo28lsbc">Rhapsody in Blue</a>, day begins in the big smoke. The city is the perfect place for clubbers to share a coffee with early rising suits. They should have an equal right to see the sunrise.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56271/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver Watts does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The city, with its carnivalesque excesses, has long been a muse for artists. But Sydney’s lockout laws infantilise its citizens and stifle activity.Oliver Watts, Lecturer, Sydney College of Arts, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/551562016-02-24T19:03:05Z2016-02-24T19:03:05ZUrban sprawl is threatening Sydney’s foodbowl<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112649/original/image-20160223-16422-49oo0z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sydney's farms on the urban fringe produce 10% of the city's fresh vegetables.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/avlxyz/3830023504/in/photolist-6QnMoZ-6QrV7L-6QnQae-6QnQs8-fPxGqz-6QrT6S-6QnP8P-c9BtAu-6QrShL-6QrTXm-6QrSy1-5h5BkV-5h5Exe-6QnLyn-6QnQCk-6QnMXz-eqv9Hn-5hioUu-6QnNHB-2Tpp7q-2Tpneo-6QrTEh-5hioRW-dV7c9n-6QrVPh-dV7c3i-dVcMq5-d3q7iW-odvEcC-6QrURb-akQmRa-6QnNT8-deZBmQ-dV5L28-9pqX16-cA7xnW-afUB7x-7Xzjvz-7XCy8u-9pqXxT-9pqXZx-dj7cyp-qEEA1P-pUTaZT-bHhgEn-ifXqaC-5h9UJL-9ptUHJ-85PVEP-ei7M5t">Alpha/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sydney loves to talk about food, and the housing market. But rarely do we talk about the threat that housing poses to the resilience of Sydney’s food system.</p>
<p>If we continue along the path we’re on, Sydney stands to lose more than <a href="http://www.sydneyfoodfutures.net/interactive-maps/">90% of its current fresh vegetable production</a>. Total food production could drop by 60% and the city’s supply of food from within the basin could drop from 20% of total food demand to a mere 6%.</p>
<p>Like most Australian cities, Sydney is facing an influx of people – <a href="http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Plans-for-Your-Area/Sydney/A-Plan-for-Growing-Sydney">1.6 million new residents</a> are expected over the next 15 years. </p>
<p>Competing priorities for land are compounded by this growing population, as well as by planning laws that favour development over agriculture – not to mention a changing climate. Cities worldwide are facing the same issues as we try to feed a growing population with limited resources. </p>
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<h2>Protecting farmers</h2>
<p>Sydney’s fertile soils are being paved over at a rapid rate. Large portions of areas that currently grow Sydney’s fresh produce are earmarked for release for housing development.</p>
<p>Currently, the planning system does not prioritise agriculture as a land use, meaning urban sprawl into potential farmland continues relatively unchecked. Instead, planning tends to focus on whichever use has the greatest economic value. </p>
<p>In an overheated housing market such as Sydney’s, this tends to mean agricultural land is allowed to be rezoned for houses or other higher-value land uses.</p>
<p>As city land prices rise, more people are moving further out for a “<a href="http://www.wollondilly.nsw.gov.au/assets/PDF/Planning-and-Development/SPUN/20140701-Can-you-have-your-Chook-and-Eat-it-too-Peri-URban-COnference-2014-paper.pdf">tree change</a>”. Lower land prices on the city’s fringe allow families to purchase large homes and lots at a lower price than in the city. </p>
<p>But many of these new rural residents don’t like the early morning sound of tractors and the smell of manure on neighbouring farms, and make nuisance complaints to their local council. These complaints often result in tough operating restrictions being placed on farmers’ activities, such as limits on hours of operation and types of fertiliser that can be used.</p>
<p>These restrictions are introduced by councils to appease local residents and are in accordance with <a href="http://wollondilly.nsw.gov.au/assets/PDF/Planning-and-Development/SPUN/20150928-Sydney-Peri-Urban-Network-Issues-Paper.pdf">noise pollution laws designed for urban residential areas</a>. But they can have significant impacts on farm viability. In several instances, such restrictions have pushed marginal farms into the red, eventually forcing farmers off their land and out of the basin. </p>
<p>The New South Wales government is interested in taking steps to ameliorate this problem, as demonstrated through its recently tabled <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/lup/legislation/right-to-farm-policy">Right to Farm policy</a>. This seeks to ensure that farmers’ right to operate their business is protected against nuisance complaints.</p>
<h2>Why growing food in Sydney is important</h2>
<p>There are enormous benefits to growing fresh food in the Sydney basin – and, indeed, near any city. Perishable foods such as Asian greens and eggs can be grown close to market, reducing spoilage, waste and <a href="http://www.foodmiles.com">food miles</a>, and buffering against spikes in fuel prices. </p>
<p>Agriculture and food processing are labour-intensive, providing significant local job opportunities. In fact, <a href="http://wollondilly.nsw.gov.au/assets/PDF/Planning-and-Development/SPUN/20150928-Sydney-Peri-Urban-Network-Issues-Paper.pdf">the benefit of Sydney’s agriculture to the economy is estimated at upwards of A$4.5 billion</a>. This includes jobs in storage, processing, transport and retail. </p>
<p>A changing climate will mean many of Australia’s important foodbowls, such as the Murray-Darling Basin, are likely to be more vulnerable to droughts and floods. Sydney’s higher rainfall and fertile soils will become even more suitable for growing food, meaning their importance to Sydney’s food supply will grow.</p>
<p>Farms on the fringes of our city will help buffer the city against the impacts of climate change, by cooling the city and helping wildlife move between habitat. </p>
<p>Food produced in close proximity to the city can also be fertilised by nutrients and organics in urban food waste, garden waste and wastewater. Accounting for these sources, Sydney actually has <a href="http://www.p-futurescities.net/sydney-australia/#MappingSydney">15 times more phosphorus supply than agricultural demand</a>. That means local food systems can better buffer against the growing global threat of <a href="http://phosphorusfutures.net/the-phosphorus-challenge/the-story-of-phosphorus-8-reasons-why-we-need-to-rethink-the-management-of-phosphorus-resources-in-the-global-food-system/">phosphorus fertiliser scarcity</a>, a threat that could lead to further fertiliser price spikes and supply disruptions.</p>
<p>Sydney’s farms also help buffer the city against disruptions to food supply. For example, if a bushfire or fuel shortage cut transport routes into Sydney, the city would have only <a href="http://www.wollondilly.nsw.gov.au/assets/PDF/Planning-and-Development/SPUN/20150901-Agri-Reference-Group-Response-June-2013-to-Draft-Metropolitan-Strategy-Review.pdf">two days’ stock of fresh produce</a>.</p>
<p>Our research shows that in the face of dramatically increasing population, Sydney stands to lose these benefits.</p>
<p>A similar <a href="http://www.ecoinnovationlab.com/project_content/foodprint-melbourne/">study in Melbourne</a> found their city’s foodbowl could <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-feed-growing-cities-we-need-to-stop-urban-sprawl-eating-up-our-food-supply-49651">plummet from meeting 41% of Melburnians’ food demand to 20%</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike Melbourne, Sydney is geographically constrained by mountains on one side and ocean on the other, meaning there is nowhere for agricultural production in the basin to go. Our agricultural production is literally being chased to the hills – and this at a time when we face the challenge of feeding over a million extra mouths.</p>
<p>We’ve <a href="http://www.sydneyfoodfutures.net/interactive-maps">mapped Sydney’s current and future food production</a>. The pink areas of the images below are areas where food is produced. As the maps indicate, the areas producing food in 2031 will dramatically decrease if we continue along the path we’re on. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112641/original/image-20160223-29156-w73069.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sydney’s peri-urban farms produce 20% of the city’s food supply.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Institute for Sustainable Futures UTS</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112643/original/image-20160223-16416-sbgwc5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If we allowed unchecked urban sprawl, Sydney’s farms might produce only 6% of the city’s food supply.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Institute for Sustainable Futures UTS</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A better food future</h2>
<p>Our city plans need to value and better protect agriculture from urban sprawl. Planners need to make decisions based on evidence to balance competing land uses.</p>
<p>These decisions need to take account of the full suite of values and benefits we gain from Sydney farmers, not just the economic gains we stand to achieve by converting the land to houses. </p>
<p>Farmers in the basin need better commercial conditions, a fair price for commodities, land security and support from other residents.</p>
<p>Sydneysiders need access to affordable housing, jobs and infrastructure. </p>
<p>But, equally, they need access to nutritious and affordable food, reversing the high rate of obesity and diabetes, and “<a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-08/food-deserts-have-serious-consequences-for-residents-experts/6605230">food deserts</a>” without access to groceries particularly prevalent in Western Sydney.</p>
<p>Through increased awareness and accessibility, food shoppers can also support local food producers, increasing the resilience of Sydney’s food system and simultaneously reducing the environmental footprint of food.</p>
<p>However, strategic policies and plans are needed to ensure that agriculture is valued and prioritised as an important land use and economic activity within our city, to ensure that buying local food is a choice that consumers can make in future. </p>
<p><em><a href="http://www.sydneyfoodfutures.net">Read more at Sydney’s Food Futures</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dana Cordell received funding for this project from the Building Resilience to Climate Change Grant, through Local Government NSW, the Office of Environment and Heritage and the NSW Environment Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brent Jacobs received funding for this project from the Building Resilience to Climate Change Grants, through Local Government NSW, the Office of Environment and Heritage and the NSW Environment Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The researchers received funding for this project from the Building Resilience to Climate Change Grant, through Local Government NSW, the Office of Environment and Heritage and the NSW Environment Trust. </span></em></p>Farms on Sydney’s fringes supply 20% of the city’s food. That could drop by more than half if urban sprawl isn’t kept in check.Dana Cordell, Research Principal, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyBrent Jacobs, Research Director, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyLaura Wynne, Senior Research Consultant, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/446102016-01-18T12:40:51Z2016-01-18T12:40:51ZWhat is a garden city – and why is money being spent on building them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108134/original/image-20160114-2368-6o232.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lovely Letchworth.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrlerone/53188800/sizes/o/">mrlerone/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The government <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/mar/16/george-osborne-garden-city-ebbsfleet-budget">is investing</a> more than <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3383519/They-shouldn-t-building-Experts-slam-plans-deliver-Osborne-s-312-million-garden-city-Kent-builders-hesitate-deliver-homes.html">£300m</a> in building what George Osborne has described as the first “proper” garden city in nearly a century, near Ebbsfleet, Kent.</p>
<p>To understand what garden cities are, and why they should be invested in, we need to go back a bit – in fact, more than 100 years. At the turn of the 20th century, Ebenezer Howard proposed building a constellation of towns, each with about 32,000 residents. Famously expressed through a series of diagrams, these towns would be largely self-contained places to live and work. They would be located around industrial cities like London which themselves, over time, would be decentralised into smaller garden city-style settlements. All these places would be linked by electric rail and canal to permit the easy movement of people and goods. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1019&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1019&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108131/original/image-20160114-2352-ffcmsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1019&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ebenezer’s vision.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Howard wanted to control what he called the “smoke fiend” of polluting transport, which was already blighting cities at the turn of the century. The idea was to give people the chance to get away from London’s rank conditions and offer them the best of town and country combined: healthy air; affordable, good quality housing; and (mostly) local food, facilities and jobs. Many of Howard’s intentions were realised in two garden cities: Letchworth Garden City, built from 1903, and Welwyn Garden City, built from 1920.</p>
<p>The idea of garden cities – and especially garden suburbs and towns – took off around the world including in Scandinavia, Australia, the US, South America and Japan. In many places, hybrids emerged, building on both garden city ideas and related traditions such as Utopian settlements, industrial villages and the <a href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/City-Beautiful-movement">City Beautiful movement</a>. Before and between the two world wars, there were plenty of garden villages and garden suburbs created in the UK, including the famous and beautiful example of Hampstead Garden Suburb. But there have been no more garden cities built in the Britain since Letchworth and Welwyn. </p>
<h2>What happened?</h2>
<p>After World War II, a number of “new towns” were built following the <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1946/68/contents/enacted">New Towns Act of 1946</a>, with examples including Stevenage, Hatfield, Telford, Runcorn and Milton Keynes. The new towns, though, have drawn a much more <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/britain/21582559-britains-new-towns-illustrate-value-cheap-land-and-good-infrastructure-paradise-lost">mixed response</a> than the garden cities that preceded them. While <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/dec/28/communities-planning">sometimes criticised</a> as places to live, many new towns have strong support <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/feb/10/living-the-dream-in-milton-keynes-why-its-my-kind-of-town">from residents</a> and proponents of their <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/jun/03/from-garden-city-to-new-towns-why-britain-should-be-proud-of-its-planners">social purpose and design</a>.</p>
<p>More recently, in the light of increasing worries about making new places sustainable, a previous Labour government tried to develop <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8152985.stm">a number of so-called ecotowns</a> on former airbases and other pieces of leftover land, but most of these weren’t built after local communities rejected them. Over the last 40 or 50 years, there has also been quite a lot of <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/11092924/Why-is-Britain-so-terrible-at-domestic-architecture.html">pretty ordinary housing</a> developed by builders in dormitory estates. These have tended to make places which are just residential – not proper towns. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108135/original/image-20160114-2359-14sdkvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Keynes: bleak or beautiful?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/iancvt55/8419715456/sizes/l">Ian Halsey/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many people aren’t impressed with the way that postwar housing estates in cities have turned out either; this was most recently reflected in prime minister David Cameron’s <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-35274783">announcement about</a> redeveloping the hundred “worst” housing estates. All of this means people usually aren’t too keen to hear that any new housing is being built near them – as any scan of local newspapers makes <a href="http://www.expressandstar.com/news/2015/09/24/more-than-1000-say-no-to-controversial-housing-estate/">abundantly clear</a>.</p>
<p>One thing has stood out though. Most people still really like garden cities. They like the Arts and Crafts houses designed by Barry Parker and others <a href="http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/arts-and-crafts-architecture/">at Letchworth</a> and the delicacy and refinement of the red brick neo-Georgian architecture of many of Welwyn’s houses and public buildings. They appreciate the numerous trees and avenues that make the garden cities feel fresh, green, open and pleasant to walk around. </p>
<p>And in Letchworth, they value the way that money which comes from the town’s landholdings (things like farms, shops, office buildings and so on) is poured back into the local community by the town’s governors, as part of <a href="http://www.letchworth.com/heritage-foundation/about-us">a unique arrangement</a> whereby people who live there get extra health facilities and other valued services. </p>
<h2>Where to next?</h2>
<p>With this context in mind, the UK funding announcement, made by the country’s chancellor, George Osborne, starts to make sense. England is having a <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/housing-crisis-350000-uk-households-unable-to-rent-or-buy-without-help-by-2020-a6736541.html">housing crisis</a>. In the south of the country, where the economy is strong, there aren’t enough <a href="http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/8745c6b4-8875-11e5-90de-f44762bf9896.html#axzz3wwmJfH5u">places to live</a>. In the north, there are problems caused by <a href="https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/planning/housing/low-demand-housing/">low demand for housing</a>, because economies there have been suffering for a long time.</p>
<p>For governments of any complexion, the upshot is that supporting new garden cities increasingly looks like a good idea as a way to help supply more houses – and to make homely towns to live and work in instead of sprawling housing estates people have to commute from for jobs and services. It’s particularly important that the garden city brand is still a positive one: there seems more chance that people will be less opposed to new garden city developments than they would be to other kinds of settlements. They may even welcome them. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108132/original/image-20160114-2362-1uu1dyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More of this, please.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/paulafunnell/8704766655/sizes/l">paulafunnell/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The garden cities of Letchworth and Welwyn were created without any government support, and their early days were fairly <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/visionaries-and-planners-9780195061741?cc=au&lang=en&#">financially precarious</a> as a result. But now the government is prepared to help with substantial financial contributions to at least three new garden settlements, with <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-30287273">Bicester</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-garden-towns-to-create-thousands-of-new-homes">north Essex</a> in addition to <a href="http://ebbsfleetgardencity.org/">Ebbsfleet</a>. </p>
<p>New garden villages – like one <a href="http://www.gascoynececil.com/stanborough-hat1/">on the edge of Hatfield</a> in Hertfordshire – are being planned, and some people <a href="http://www.larkfleetgroup.co.uk/news/2015/08/27/garden-villages-could-deliver-one-million-homes/">advocate them</a> as a way to solve the housing crisis. </p>
<p>Of course, garden cities will not be the only way to meet housing demand in England’s south-east. What’s more, there’s a risk that they might not be put in the right places in terms of transport, suitable land, population and housing need – just where land is available. It’s not really clear how far new garden cities in northern locations could help revive local economies and deliver Osborne’s “<a href="https://theconversation.com/devolution-plan-could-be-a-poisoned-chalice-for-cities-41848">Northern Powerhouse</a>”. There’s also some anxiety that they could infringe on the green belt, which many <a href="https://theconversation.com/greenbelt-myth-is-the-driving-force-behind-housing-crisis-17802">hold sacrosanct</a>. These are all valid points. </p>
<p>But despite these fears, I remain optimistic that in supporting a new round of garden cities and other kinds of garden development we are heading in the right direction. My university did some detailed consultation and design-based <a href="https://www.herts.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/10289/herts-charrette-guide-to-growth_02-12-2008.pdf">work on this idea</a> in 2008, <a href="http://www.uh-sustainable.co.uk/docs/HertsGTG_5yearson_aw4_complete_highres.pdf">and again</a> in 2014. It remains clear garden cities <a href="http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/images/WolfsonPrize2014/20140827%20parham%20wolfson%20prize%202014%20submission.pdf">could work well</a> as part of any new development balance. I’d like to see a number of different kinds of settlements created to make beautiful, diverse, affordable and compact places – and that would include both new garden settlements and remade housing estates. Garden cities are not the whole answer, but they could and should be an excellent part of the mix.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Parham is Academic Director of the International Garden Cities Institute - a role governed by an agreement between the University of Hertfordshire and the Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation. </span></em></p>Garden cities are the best of town and country combined and could be part of the answer to the housing crisis.Susan Parham, Head of Urbanism, Centre for Sustainable Communities, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/509282015-11-19T14:19:36Z2015-11-19T14:19:36ZParis attacks: how cities can protect people<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102493/original/image-20151119-18453-1dy5of2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Jacky Naegelen</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The attacks carried out in <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/paris-attacks-2015">Paris</a> on November 13 were low tech, simple and devastating. A small band of Islamic State fighters proved capable of carrying out multiple assaults on bars, restaurants, a concert hall and the Stade de France, leaving 129 people dead and several hundred others injured.</p>
<p>What is particularly troubling for the authorities is that these attacks occurred at a time of exceptionally high security throughout many parts of France. Following the attacks that took place in the city in January, the French authorities had already deployed groups of heavily armed paratroopers. Teams were patrolling French cities, buttressing the already heightened policing and intelligence efforts. They could be seen around transport hubs, tourist attractions and other crowded places. </p>
<p>But what they feared and planned for came true, and the troops on the streets failed to prevent the slaughter.</p>
<p>These “soft target” attacks amply demonstrate the difficulties faced by any government when trying to keep their citizens safe. In reality, the authorities are always behind the curve, and adversaries are opportunistic and adaptive. They respond quickly to new security innovations, creating an “<a href="http://www.designagainstcrime.com/files/crimeframeworks/11_gearing_up_against_crime.pdf">arms race</a>” between attacker and defender.</p>
<p>What is described as “terrorism” is best thought of as a tactic – one used by the weak against the strong. IS knows it can never defeat a modern, well-equipped European army, but it can infiltrate the heart of a European capital and bring the battle to its streets. In doing so, it is not only able to create fear and havoc, it can badly damage the tourist economy.</p>
<h2>Designing safety</h2>
<p>Most people going about their daily lives don’t realise that our cities are increasingly being built or retro-fitted to supposedly design out vulnerability to terrorism.</p>
<p>In the UK especially, but also elsewhere in some parts of Western Europe, efforts have primarily focused on preventing two types of potent threat – vehicle-borne IEDs, (rammed into crowded places or left close to them) and bombs (left and remotely detonated).</p>
<p>That is why you constantly hear announcements at stations and airports warning you not to leave your bags unattended. It’s also why you see rows of bollards and other design features outside important buildings and station perimeters. These are added to extend blast “stand-off” distances, keeping the bomb from getting close to the intended target and thereby reducing its destructive capacity.</p>
<p>The bombings on the London underground on <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/7-7">July 7 2005</a> and in Madrid on <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26526704">March 11 2004</a> dramatically highlighted the vulnerability of train stations and transport hubs more generally.</p>
<p>That has affected how new stations are built. Typically, they are now designed with clear sight lines, using smooth panelled walls with no nooks or crannies. They are generally open, well lit and uncluttered spaces, with little furniture.</p>
<p>But arms races are dynamic – and security experts admit (at least in private) that these measures are a double-edged sword. While aiding the early detection of suspicious items and behaviour, there’s a nasty rub. In a different attack context, these same carefully crafted, uncluttered and open spaces can increase vulnerability. Passengers who are unable to flee the immediate vicinity, for example, find themselves sitting ducks with nowhere to hide from determined gunman bent on killing as many people as possible before the cavalry arrives.</p>
<p>This is the arms race going wrong. It demonstrates the central predicament of counter measures – they can be used against defenders. Survivors of the 2008 Mumbai and <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/kenyan-mall-attacks">2013 Kenya attacks</a> survived precisely because they were able to hide, facilitated by the type of buildings in which they found themselves captive.</p>
<p>In future, paying attention to these details – and the possible consequences – will only become more important.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50928/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kris Christmann does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Recent events show that you can’t always stop an attack, even when you prepare for one.Kris Christmann, Researcher, Applied Criminology Centre, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/453982015-08-06T05:33:39Z2015-08-06T05:33:39ZNo country for dirty money: behind Britain’s populist promise on corruption<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/90788/original/image-20150804-12011-qxnr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A ragged record. UK and corruption.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jimjarmo/2838265972/in/photolist-5jNRAd-5ttz8J-cc8g71-81vRoK-31teKY-qdTvP-2bfina-naL7mW-8fb5Vg-8gW684-49Fvw9-7LD8qr-3pDz3r-eY6rz1-dYfbhp-bVRoNB-22w7ZL-f36oxo-i9bvWW-kzAj2Z-8yYHUE-61AEcJ-7Km6Ta-cW8N53-8eb7c1-bULYPi-bUkAT8-29aSbS-cFQ6uJ-9DFRc5-fAGijY-cxj7fY-8bvE2a-bxL6Au-8AMCjj-7ZpcPj-bRvZkV-CEZuQ-7rSXae-nmHv17-r5TYSU-r3Fy83-dSnQQG-93JBjA-obLdkD-c3ezEU-fcWGEN-cro8w9-bvckFV-6cdj4t">jimjarmo</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The contemporary global economy is characterised by high levels of corruption and crime. Economic chicanery and fraud are rife in many business sectors – and the banks that provide the funding which keeps the whole machine running have been so frequently fined and admonished that it has almost become routine. It is no wonder that political leaders understand the electoral value of moves to clean up the grubby workings of capitalism – but do they understand the beast they will unleash?</p>
<p>There had to be a reaction to the wrongdoing – and it is notable that, after two decades of light-touch regulation of the economy, a number of states around the world have sought countermeasures designed to uncover and reduce fraudulent activities in their economies. So there are <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/white_collar">regulatory</a> <a href="http://www.stopfraud.gov/report.html">initiatives</a>, inspections and pledges to <a href="http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/657340-government-moves-to-curb-fake-agro-inputs">“clean up” the economy</a>, complemented by the efforts of <a href="http://www.which.co.uk/campaigns/#?intcmp=NH.Campaigns.Campaigns">consumer protection</a> and <a href="http://www.taxjustice.net/">tax justice campaigners</a>. </p>
<p>The global financial crisis was clearly a catalyst for this, as well the string of eye-opening revelations about corporate trickery and corruption since the mid-2000s and the resulting public debates about elite criminality, moral crisis and the future of capitalism.</p>
<p>We now have a range of post-crash ideologies advanced by political and economic leaders to steer us into a new “cleaned-up” world and ideological order. </p>
<h2>No more safe haven?</h2>
<p>It was therefore only a matter of time before the UK prime minister, David Cameron, offered his take. Against the background of mounting debates about London as the city of criminal and dodgy capital, Cameron <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/jul/28/david-cameron-fight-dirty-money-uk-property-market-corruption%E2%80%99">declared the following</a> in a noted speech in Singapore. It is worth quoting this in some length:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I am determined that the UK must not become a safe haven for corrupt money from around the world. We need to stop corrupt officials or organised criminals using anonymous shell companies to invest their ill-gotten gains in London property, without being tracked down … I want to ensure that all this money is clean money. There is no place for dirty money in Britain …. That is my message to foreign fraudsters: London is not a place to stash your dodgy cash. The challenge I am laying down for every country today is to root out the rot of corruption – to ensure transparency over what your own companies are doing; require transparency for foreign companies in your country too and work with us to spread this approach to transparency around the world.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>There have been various reactions. <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/28/the-guardian-view-on-offshore-secrecy-transparency-is-welcome-but-its-not-a-housing-policy">A Guardian editorial</a> offered “a big round of applause” and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/29/bankers-lawyers-and-other-professionals-abetting-corrupt-money-in-uk-property">there were calls for a concerted effort</a> to bring about capital transparency, but there were also <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/anticorruption-campaigners-furious-as-government-considers-softening-bribery-act-10425362.html">criticisms</a> from anti-corruption campaigners, about perceived <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/28/cameron-corruption-britain-transparency-property">hypocrisy</a> on the matter.</p>
<h2>A moral-economic labyrinth</h2>
<p>This “dirty money” debate shows, yet again, that a significant share of the political discussion about the way forward in terms of economic policy is not just about the big, macroeconomic dimension. It is not just the stuff of interest rates, <a href="http://www.bath.ac.uk/ipr/policy-briefs/quantitative-easing.html">quantitative easing</a>, public debt, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/keynesian">Keynesianism</a> or monetarism. It is now also about everyday economic practice – or, to be more precise, the different ways of earning a living, making a profit, taking a cut and so on in a capitalist economy. The case of the recently announced <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-31616523">crackdown on dodgy cold-calls</a> is one such example.</p>
<p>That terrain of debating the actual practice of profit-making, taking and maximisation is deeply tricky for all sorts of people who decide how capitalism works: politicians, business people and regulators, to name only three. Expanding these debates can not only lead to predictable charges from critics of government about double standards, ineffectiveness, and lack of “political will”, but also to revelations and <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/george-osbornes-family-struck-a-6m-property-deal-with-firm-based-in-tax-haven--reports-10373416.html">uncomfortable truths</a> – including cases that perhaps involve business partners, friends and family of our officials – as well as questions and public outrage about “dirty practice” wherever it is found. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/90894/original/image-20150805-22471-p7bhb0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protest and survive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/idarrenj/8255921502/in/photolist-eaZUkS-eaUh8r-eaUhyB-eb15SC-eb16es-eaUmwD-eaUmXt-eaUsWR-eaUnY4-eb11qU-eb15mu-ebeCA5-eb913e-ebeCTh-eb91Cc-eb91kF-ebeDa7-eaZTXA-92N3vg-goBwAa-eaUsrr-9ttiGD-goATh5-dzxLGu-dzxLfo-dzsicF-9ttJDY-9PrRm5-9MXf8B-9MX4sz-92Rb5C-dzxKQb-dzxL47-dzxKBL-dzxJKC-dzxMPu-dzshaF-9u6795">Darren Johnson/IDJ Photography</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is already a rich vocabulary used in the media that points to dubious or plain dishonest business practices. And remember the <a href="http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/13037172.Miliband_declares_war_on_Britain___s____asset_strippers___/">ideas advanced by former Labour Leader Ed Miliband</a> about “true wealth creators” versus “asset strippers and predators” displaying “predatory behaviour” and embodying a “fast-buck” and “anything goes” culture. </p>
<p>David Cameron has now advanced his own categories to view the world of business in moral terms: clean as opposed to dirty money, corrupt money (as opposed to non-corrupt?), dodgy cash (versus trustworthy?), corrupt officials (versus non-corrupt?), fraudsters (versus honest business people?). This terrain of discourse about which businesses are, in the PM’s words, “legitimate and proper” and which are not, is a highly sensitive, political, difficult and dangerous one. </p>
<p>Talk is cheap. How do you translate your moral categories for business into ideologically coherent policies that make sense in terms of everyday practice, as well as speeches? And, in the medium term, do you create Big Society type interventions, make school curricula changes, review corporate sponsorship deals, and so on, based on your zero-tolerance-to-dirty-cash policy? </p>
<p>It gets harder still when Cameron has to work out how to respond to calls that might come up for a truth and justice commission on ill-gotten wealth in Britain and the countries that are major sources for large investment in London. This political move to label “dirty cash” has manoeuvred political leaders like Cameron into a moral-economic labyrinth and signalled political-economic conflicts that offer no easy way out. He should expect to hear the language of his Singapore speech quoted back to him in the House of Commons. </p>
<p>We don’t know if there is a way back for our leaders into their pre-crash ideological dreamland of the 1990s and early 2000s – where the legitimacy and hegemony of capital was somewhat more stable, and the methods and consequences of profit making discussed less or differently. But what we do know is that Cameron’s promise of a world where “corruption in all its forms” is defeated; where all the investment coming into the UK is “clean”; where no foreign fraudster hides “dodgy cash” in London, and where no place in Britain will be home to “dirty money” at all, is populist spectacle at its best.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45398/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jörg Wiegratz receives funding from British Academy/Leverhulme Trust/Sir Ernest Cassel Educational Trust Fund.</span></em></p>David Cameron’s call for an era of clean money has opened the door to a host of problems for the powerful as capitalism struggles into a new era.Jörg Wiegratz, Lecturer in Political Economy of Global Development, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/260262014-04-30T05:16:03Z2014-04-30T05:16:03ZHeartbleed bug: insider trading may have taken place as shares slid ahead of breaking story<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47294/original/skpc62hp-1398783384.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Saw it coming?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jooon/2432064925/in/photolist-mZdKrD-4GUYaT-mYec7R-n4Te9S-n4tixv-nhZwtE-n174PX-mXZ8xL-n1WHrX-naJCem-n2iyiH-n2ixxB-n2ixrV-n8Wrf5-nf92fS-naQx9D-mVbXze-nbqU4Y-n6Y57w-mZhmxe-mZt99K-mWrtUh-n6KDwn-n57ydM-nbou86-mZiFUX-mWkjCT-n5PbZ3-mY2r8H-n8xmPP-4HnUAc-n9z6j9-ndb1FH-mZTmjP-n12jH6-n292ph-mVZ9ra-n31ZjJ-mYbPKB-ni9yrn-npmjXA-mZohiR-mWkYyx-mY2ksp-mYajNF-mZhmwH-mZhmvR-mZhmtX-mZj9Pu-n89CYC">Jon Åslund</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Here is a puzzle for you. Why did shares in Yahoo! slide by nearly 10% in the days before Heartbleed was announced and then recover after the main news items broke?</p>
<p>It has long been the case that security vulnerabilities can have a negative effect on the public’s perception of tech companies and the value of their stock. All chief executives need to understand this and take action to reduce the exposure and associated risks. </p>
<p>It happened with Sony three years ago, for example, with an <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-13169518">outage on their PlayStation network</a>. This lasted more than a week, resulting in a share price drop of 8%. It affected both consumers and developers, causing major embarrassment for the company. </p>
<p>I have analysed how the recent <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/heartbleed-bug-explainer-2014-4">Heartbleed bug</a> affected certain major tech companies. Yahoo! was widely reported to have been hit hard by Heartbleed and to have leaked user information. Amazon had more to lose than most major companies from a dip in consumer confidence related to electronic commerce. Also included in the analysis were HP, Dell, Google, AOL and Microsoft. </p>
<p>The chart below shows the stock price of these companies over the time of the Heartbleed vulnerability. You can see there are two dips, which can be explained by three main phases.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47176/original/r42zg52x-1398701187.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ups and downs of big tech stock during Heartbleed crisis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google Finance</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Day zero minus two</h2>
<p>The first phase related to the <a href="http://blog.easydns.org/2014/04/07/urgent-security-advisory-heartbleed-openssl-vulnerability/">technical release of information</a> about the vulnerabilty. The first major news release was on April 7 with the stark message: <a href="http://seclists.org/fulldisclosure/2014/Apr/106">“We are doomed.”</a></p>
<p>We can see that the full dip happened that day, taking these companies’ stock prices down between 3% and 10%. But the slide had been happening for a few days, having started on the previous Thursday. This may have been due to information being disseminated to the major companies, most likely from the security authorities before the rest of the world knew about it.</p>
<p>This would have been intended to give the major companies a day or two to get their systems ready for the so-called day zero threat, where it would be an open season in terms of intruders probing systems. </p>
<p>It could be that this information was also leaked to insiders who then sold their stocks in the major IT companies, waiting for a time to repurchase them at a tidy profit. One thing that would certainly be well known to traders is that a news item can push down a company’s stock price, only for it to recover after it blows over. </p>
<h2>Day zero plus one</h2>
<p>In the next phase, from April 7 to 9, the companies’ stock prices went back up, almost to normal levels. This was the period where the key technical teams within the major IT companies were patching their systems and reporting back. The information coming back perhaps didn’t look too bad on their systems, which would have made them think they weren’t badly exposed. </p>
<p>The vulnerability was only seen as a technical flaw and nothing to alarm the business community. Few at the time were predicting the storm would hit and the impact that it would have. Traders may well have gone back into the market to repurchase stocks that they had sold in the days before. </p>
<h2>Day zero plus two</h2>
<p>The news of Heartbleed <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2014/04/09/technology/security/heartbleed-bug/">broke in a major way</a> around the world on April 9. Yahoo! and Amazon were heavily quoted in the news and were seen as being at the most risk. </p>
<p>Yahoo! stock lost 9.4%, while Amazon’s lost 8.3%. More curiously Microsoft went down nearly 5%, even though it was not exposed to the vulnerability.</p>
<p>Two things appear to have been going on – the first could have been profit taking. Traders could bail out of a stock, wait for the news item to play through, then go back in when the stock was at its lowest and make a nice profit. The second may have been a general knee-jerk feeling that the internet was cracking, and that the roof was about to collapse. It seemed possible that user trust in online commerce could be broken. </p>
<p>When the news broke, no one really knew what was going on, even at the highest level. Some governments were advising users to change all their passwords immediately, for example, while others were saying don’t change until things had been patched. For a company such as Amazon this lack of user trust, even for a short period, can have major effects on their infrastructure.</p>
<h2>The after effects</h2>
<p>After the main news events, stock prices mostly went back to where they started. None of the major companies caused the problem, so their reputations have not been tarnished. Yahoo! is now showing a 0.0% change overall, for example. </p>
<p>Some traders may have done well from the rises and falls during the crisis. The evidence suggests that there could have been some insider trading taking place in the days before the story became big news. In theory the companies should have announced the problem to the stock market as soon as they became aware, but this series of events probably illustrates the limits of the duty on companies to disclose: when matters of national security are at stake, the rules may not be so rigorously applied. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/26026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Buchanan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Here is a puzzle for you. Why did shares in Yahoo! slide by nearly 10% in the days before Heartbleed was announced and then recover after the main news items broke? It has long been the case that security…Bill Buchanan, Head, Centre for Distributed Computing, Networks and Security, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.