tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/cognitive-ability-9602/articlesCognitive ability – The Conversation2023-05-25T15:55:00Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2061442023-05-25T15:55:00Z2023-05-25T15:55:00ZGreedy gulls decide what to eat by watching people – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528236/original/file-20230525-29-gvd9ec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C2851%2C2790&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Herring gull at Burghead Harbour, Scotland.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/common-herring-gull-burghead-harbour-2266864219">Tom McPherson/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ask anyone living in a coastal area of the UK and they’ll confirm that seagulls can be a nuisance. These birds’ pilfering of food knows no bounds, and no one is safe from one of their thieving attacks.</p>
<p>For many people, this behaviour is the result of the gulls’ inherent aggression. But in reality, gulls such as the <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/wildlife-guides/bird-a-z/herring-gull/">herring gull</a> are more intelligent than we give them credit for, particularly in terms of their social skills. These birds are able to pay attention to the behaviour of others and use the information they gather to inform their own foraging choices.</p>
<p>Herring gulls thrive in modern urban areas. Urban gull colonies have taken off since making European cities their home in <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210615-why-sea-gulls-are-making-their-homes-in-our-cities">the mid-20th century</a>, despite the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/62030608/206585142">general decline in gulls’ overall population</a>. As a species, they have also shown great flexibility in their diet, nesting and reproductive behaviour. </p>
<p>As a scientist interested in animal cognition, I’m fascinated by the intelligent behaviour that allows gulls to successfully forage human foods. Research has already shown that urban herring gulls adapt their foraging behaviour to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12892">human activity patterns</a>, increase their attention <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.02.20.481240v2">towards a person in possession of food</a> and that they prefer food that has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191959">touched by a person</a> compared to food that has not. </p>
<p>To build on this, my masters students Franziska Feist and Kiera Smith and I <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0035">set out to discover</a> if the birds could not only track objects handled by humans, but if they could also compare objects in their environment with those being manipulated by a person. The ability to compare objects and identify whether they are identical implies a higher cognitive ability than object tracking alone.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pigeons and seagulls harassing a man with food next to a river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528237/original/file-20230525-17-9e3u4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gulls can be a nuisance. Dublin, Ireland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dublin-ireland-june-28-2019-person-1436723789">jenniferdurann/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Quick learners</h2>
<p>We placed two Walkers brand crisp packets of different colours on the ground a few metres in front of single or small groups of herring gulls on Brighton beach. We sat on the sand and held a third crisp packet that matched the colour of either one of the packets on the ground. We then recorded the gulls’ response to see if, as hypothesised, they would choose the crisp packet that matched the colour of the one in our hand.</p>
<p>Of the gulls that pecked at the crisp packets, nearly all (95%) did so to the crisp packet that colour-matched the one we were holding. This suggests that these gulls possess the ability to identify and compare objects within their surroundings. In addition, the gulls’ seemed to observe the foraging choices of others – specifically people in this case – and use the information they obtained to decide what to eat.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A herring gull taking off from a railing at Brighton beach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528245/original/file-20230525-17-u5kf52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A herring gull on a railing at Brighton beach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/european-herring-gull-native-seagull-western-1755362393">grandbrothers/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The number of approaches towards us did not differ significantly between adults and young birds (meaning, any with brown plumage). However, the majority that made an attempt at stealing one of the crisp packets were adults. Around 86% of the recorded pecks came from adults, despite these birds making up just 46% of our entire sample.</p>
<p>This suggests that stealing food requires a certain level of boldness and skill that most young birds lack. Another plausible explanation is that the young birds may have been deterred by the competition with adult birds, which they are likely to lose.</p>
<h2>Wide behavioural repertoire</h2>
<p>Our findings are interesting because herring gulls have not evolved with humans. In fact, their urbanisation only began relatively recently – around 80 years ago. </p>
<p>That means this behaviour cannot have come from an innate ability resulting from co-evolution or an extended period of living alongside humans. Rather, it must be the result of a broader, more general behavioural repertoire.</p>
<p>From a scientific perspective, this is fascinating. It seems that herring gulls are an intelligent and versatile predator that has successfully adapted to urban environments due to their observational skills and behavioural flexibility. </p>
<p>Yet, for many people, this may have some rather negative implications. Coastal residents and visitors frequently experience the impressive yet annoying ability of these birds to observe, target and steal food from picnics, bins and people directly. </p>
<p>We suggest that these problems likely stem from more than people feeding urban gulls directly. It seems that simply watching us eat something will make that specific food item, and any identical items in the vicinity, more attractive to these birds. It is this cognitive toolkit that will make tension between humans and urban herring gulls difficult to manage.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A seagull sitting on a bench marked with the text: " src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528248/original/file-20230525-27-g2wlel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not that herring gulls need any help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/seagull-sitting-on-rail-do-not-1542378374">JoMarB/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our work does, however, agree with <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0405">existing studies</a> that suggest only around a quarter of the UK urban gull population will actually attempt to steal food from a person. Less than a fifth of the gulls we sampled approached the crisp packets when when we were sitting nearby. </p>
<p>Regardless, any attempt to minimise conflict should extend beyond deterring people from feeding gulls and should take into account these birds’ exceptional observational skills. What is clear, though, is that we can’t rely solely on signs insisting that people “do not feed the birds”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206144/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Graham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research has found that urban gulls work out what’s good to eat by watching humans.Paul Graham, Professor of Neuroethology, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1752272022-01-25T15:46:31Z2022-01-25T15:46:31ZThe Wordle craze: Why do we love puzzles, and are they good for our brains?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442097/original/file-20220123-27-14cfsw6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C0%2C5000%2C3323&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wordle is the latest word game to captivate millions. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-wordle-craze--why-do-we-love-puzzles--and-are-they-good-for-our-brains" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>In recent weeks, a web-based word puzzle called <a href="https://www.powerlanguage.co.uk/wordle/">Wordle</a> has become a popular daily distraction. Suddenly, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/03/technology/wordle-word-game-creator.html">millions of people are focused on their vocabulary of five-letter words</a>, and are newly aware of concepts like letter frequency and letter position as they strategize about the best opening words and faster solutions. </p>
<p>For these people, Wordle is captivating. Previous research can help us understand how our brains respond to word games, and why we love them.</p>
<p>Wordle is a single-player puzzle that combines elements of several games, including Scrabble and Battleship. My colleagues and I <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/145744/u-of-c-researchers-investigate-what-makes-accomplished-scrabble-players-so-s-m-a-r-t/">have studied Scrabble as a way of understanding how language is processed in the brain</a>, and how that processing changes with experience.</p>
<h2>This is your brain on Scrabble</h2>
<p>Competitive Scrabble players are people who spend a great deal of time playing Scrabble, competing in Scrabble tournaments, memorizing word lists and practising anagramming — shuffling sets of letters to create different words. </p>
<p>Much like chess players, competitive Scrabble players are <a href="https://www.wespa.org/aardvark/cgi-bin/rating.cgi">ranked in an international rating system</a> based on tournament results. We recruited competitive players from Scrabble tournaments and clubs and gave them a series of tasks to understand how all of this Scrabble practice and play alters their mental processes.</p>
<p>In our first study, we found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-011-0137-5">competitive Scrabble players recognized words faster than those who didn’t routinely play Scrabble, particularly when words were presented vertically</a>. Vertical word presentation is unusual in written English but common in Scrabble, and competitive players are very good at recognizing vertical words. </p>
<p>We also found that Scrabble players quickly recognized words without fully processing word meaning. This is probably because in Scrabble, you need to know whether different strings of letters make up legal plays, but you don’t actually need to know what those words mean.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Scrabble player places tiles to spell a word on a green Scrabble board." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442098/original/file-20220123-23-ugabse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Scabble player places tiles to spell a word during a meeting of the Vancouver Scrabble Club.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also used brain imaging to study how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2015.03.015">all those years of intensive practice might have altered brain processes for language in competitive Scrabble players</a>. </p>
<p>We found that when recognizing words and making simple decisions about them, competitive Scrabble players used a different network of brain areas than those who didn’t play Scrabble competitively. Scrabble experts made use of brain regions not typically associated with word meaning retrieval, but rather those associated with visual memory and perception.</p>
<h2>A Scrabble habit makes you … good at Scrabble</h2>
<p>We wondered whether the effects of Scrabble practice that we observed in competitive players have benefits beyond Scrabble. Does playing lots of Scrabble make you good at anything else? The answer seems to be no. </p>
<p>We investigated that question by <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00564">giving competitive Scrabble players and a group of Scrabble non-experts a task that was similar to Scrabble but used symbols instead of letters</a>. In that task, Scrabble players were no better than anyone else in terms of their processing speed or accuracy.</p>
<p>We also investigated whether <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.05.015">Scrabble expertise protects players from the effects of brain aging</a>. Again, the answer seems to be no. Older Scrabble players still show the normal effects of aging, like slower processing speed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man with grey hair and a woman with grey hair look down at a Scrabble board on a table in front of them." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442245/original/file-20220124-21-idxrqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An elderly couple plays Scrabble at their Toronto home in 2013.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Nathan Denette</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In both Scrabble and Wordle, players need to search their word memory based on letters, shuffle letters across positions to find solutions or plays — the meaning of the words is irrelevant. Because of these similarities, many of the brain processes involved in Scrabble are probably also engaged when solving Wordles. </p>
<p>Our research with people who are not Scrabble experts shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030304">mental processes start to change quite quickly when people are asked to take on a new word recognition task</a>. That means it’s very likely your Wordle habit has already caused slight changes in the brain processes you use to solve the puzzles. </p>
<p>Those changes help you to play Wordle, but probably don’t help you with anything else.</p>
<h2>Why do some people love puzzles?</h2>
<p>Wordle has become a habit for millions, but for others it’s not appealing. </p>
<p>There are probably lots of reasons for this, but one explanation could be differences in what people find motivating. Some people enjoy puzzles and thinking challenges more than others. This type of motivation is referred to as <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.197">need for cognition</a>, and people who have a high need for cognition tend to seek out mental challenges like word games and puzzles.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1484239830464696324"}"></div></p>
<p>In Scrabble, there are usually multiple possible plays that could advance the game, but Worldles have a single right answer. With only one Wordle released per day, everyone is solving the same puzzle. The online game’s sharing options also allow us to share our results with others without giving the answer away.</p>
<p>That means Wordle is also creating an opportunity for shared experience at a time when many people are feeling disconnected from others. A Wordle habit is not likely to make you smarter or ward off brain aging, but it may give you a daily dose of complex cognition combined with social interaction — and that can be a very good thing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175227/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Penny Pexman receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. She is a member of the Hotchkiss Brain Institute.</span></em></p>Like a Scrabble habit, a passion for Wordle isn’t likely to make you smarter or ward off brain aging. But it may give you a daily dose of complex cognition combined with social interaction.Penny Pexman, Professor of Psychology, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1739542021-12-22T13:49:47Z2021-12-22T13:49:47ZSeagulls, songbirds and parrots: what new research tells us about their cognitive ability<p>As you can imagine, a human intelligence test doesn’t really cut it for birds. It isn’t that easy to assess how an animal perceives information from the environment, processes it and decides to act. But researchers have developed a range of clever experiments to find out more about their cognitive abilities. Do they recognise each other, for example, or understand causal relationships where one thing can lead to another?</p>
<p>A commonly used “intelligence test” for animals is the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25984937/">string-pulling task </a>. In this set-up, a piece of food is attached to a string. The food is then positioned out of reach for the animal – although still visible – and if they understand the causal relationship between the string and the food, they will start to pull the string which then moves the food closer to them until they reach it. If an animal can solve the string-pulling task we assume that it understands the relationship between the string and the reward and can deliberately execute a series of actions to get access to the reward. </p>
<p>In a recent study, <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.211343">ring-billed gulls were tested</a> using the string-pulling model. Ring-billed gulls inhabit Canada and northern USA, however individual birds regularly wander to western Europe and are nowadays regular visitors in Ireland and the UK. </p>
<p>Gulls from a colony in Canada were individually marked with a colour band. This allowed the researchers to identify individual birds, which is important when testing cognition – and is often an obstacle for research on wild animals. In the test, a transparent plastic box was presented to the gulls, and they needed to pull a string through an open slit to retrieve a piece of sausage placed in a petri dish from inside the box. Gulls are omnivores and their diet consists of insects, fish, grain, eggs, worms and rodents. So a piece of sausage was particularly appealing.</p>
<h2>Seabird skills</h2>
<p>This task was given to 138 individuals at least once and 104 individuals – 75% – of the gulls attempted to solve the task. Of these, 26 individuals – 25% of those who attempted the task at least once – successfully retrieved the food from the box by pulling the string. </p>
<p>That may not seem like a particularly large number of successful gulls, but in a comparable <a href="https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/112/4/994/5168328?login=true">experiment in common ravens</a>, 26% successfully solved a similar task, suggesting that ravens and gulls perform similarly well. So that one test, at least, seems to suggest that corvids might not necessarily always possess higher cognitive abilities compared to other groups of birds, as has been widely assumed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A rook carrying a takeaway box in its beak." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3620%2C2408&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438829/original/file-20211222-23072-1itpe1r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rooks are known for their skills in collaboration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gulls also perform well in other recent cognitive tasks – for example, urban herring gulls <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.191959">use human cues</a>, such as human handling of food or human behaviour, to make foraging decisions which exploit their city home and help them to locate hidden food for themselves.</p>
<p>Up until recently, groups of birds such as fowl, birds of prey or penguins were rarely subjected to cognitive tests, because they were widely considered “less clever” and therefore less interesting than the songbirds – corvids such as crows, ravens, magpies and jays – and <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/156/5-8/article-p391_1.xml">parrots</a> which have attracted the most interest from animal cognition experts due to what is thought to be their <a href="http://blogs.nwic.edu/briansblog/files/2013/02/feathered_apes.pdf">extraordinary cognitive abilities</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/birds-that-play-with-others-have-the-biggest-brains-and-the-same-may-go-for-humans-151079">Birds that play with others have the biggest brains - and the same may go for humans</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But the recent studies on gulls – and a number of other waterfowl species – have shone a light on their previously undiscovered skills. Greylag geese can <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Isabella-Scheiber/publication/230811059_Long-term_memory_of_hierarchical_relationships_in_free-living_greylag_geese/links/552ccc770cf2e089a3acee56/Long-term-memory-of-hierarchical-relationships-in-free-living-greylag-geese.pdf">memorise social relationships</a> for at least six months, probably longer. And domestic chickens can <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.210504">learn to differentiate</a> between a rewarded and unrewarded colour as quickly as carrion crows.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Greylag goose landing on the water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438755/original/file-20211221-19-1u5daf2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greylag geese remember their social relationships.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Claudia Wascher</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Corvids and parrots still impress</h2>
<p>So it seems that corvids and parrots are not the only birds who show evidence of their brain power, and perhaps we should reconsider the use of the insult “bird brain”. But none of that detracts from the marvellous feats we witness in some of those more famous bird families. Earlier this year in Sydney, wild urban-dwelling sulphur-crested cockatoos not only learned to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe7808">open wheelie bins</a> and get food from them, but individuals also learned to do this from each other – it became a cultural innovation.</p>
<p>Other recent studies have shown that New Caledonian and Hawaiian crow are among only a handful animal species who can <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature19103">make and use tools</a>. And, in a food hoarding experiment, scrub-jays demonstrated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352154617300025?casa_token=QPSQSIaRQWwAAAAA:cuo8OCdrycb7MqvbqGl2D_gzTR44KypUp2xXHx4YCGRWyiezCi8TiRmuTP7b0Jw2Bzxcg9vF4A">what-where-when memory</a>: they seemed to remember what type of food they had hoarded at specific locations, and when they had done it. In the more barren winter months, this helps them to remember where they have hidden food which they have gathered and stored for later consumption.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347214000414?casa_token=5AMokS7bPuIAAAAA:hFXpGkQ6hEMg_friH66T0T8Y6ML8gT4BDxfXStoF-pOBi4YCsExKSFd3RB_SyPJYM6zeI4JSNA">Crows, ravens</a> and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsbl.2012.1092">goffin cockatoos</a> dislike when they are treated unfairly and have been observed to wait for several minutes to receive a better food reward. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2602707/">Rooks</a>, meanwhile, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/eth.12973">blue‐throated macaws</a> can cooperate with other individuals to together solve a string-pulling task. </p>
<p>It’s clear that cognitive abilities are important for animals to cope with all sorts of challenges in their environment. Therefore, understanding how they think can bring many valuable benefits. If we know how animals learn about predators, for example, it can help us to design more effective re-introduction programmes to conserve biodiversity. </p>
<p>And if we can assess whether an animal in a zoo, farm or kennel is feeling well or suffering, we can work to improve their living conditions and perhaps even control unwanted behaviour, such as those displayed by pets or in human-wildlife conflicts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claudia Wascher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Corvids and parrots might be the superstars of the bird world - but other species like gulls, geese and even chicken have shown some impressive skills too.Claudia Wascher, Associate Professor in Behavioural Biology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1511432021-01-07T19:09:31Z2021-01-07T19:09:31ZPhysical activity is good for your concentration – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374811/original/file-20201214-23-12333ej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C5%2C3982%2C2652&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even short periods of physical activity can improve concentration throughout the day.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-boys-girls-fitness-outdoor-concept-1661190802">Somkid Saowaros/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether it’s during the post-lunch slump or just one of those days, we all struggle to concentrate on what we’re doing sometimes, whether that’s at work, school, or home. Being able to concentrate on what we’re doing would inevitably make us more productive, but that’s often easier said than done. For people looking to improve their concentration, exercise is often recommended as the antidote – and for good reason, as research shows that physical activity can improve concentration in people of all ages.</p>
<p>I’ll define “concentration” as our ability to focus on a task and ignore distractions. So in order to have good concentration, we need to have two important aspects of cognitive function working at their best. The first is sustained attention, in which we’re able to focus on certain pieces of information for prolonged periods of time. The second is executive function, which is our ability to think and make decisions at a complex level.</p>
<p>But how does exercise help us improve these skills? Most research into the effects of exercise on concentration have studied the links in young people in schools. This is likely because of the clear effect concentration has on academic achievement, with a key priority of schools being to improve academic achievement and exam results. </p>
<p>Research shows that acute bouts of physical activity (such as walking or running during break) have a positive effect on concentration in young people. This effect has been shown after various forms of physical activity including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452209001171?casa_token=37HK-ayyiTwAAAAA:ySXJUH_4zsOWtktEyYKLusdGsLueDqHeY4Y1Sx3OioJjKKeIPWX01lbx5V4eQWGF-p4U2fPEA9Q">walking</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4929070/">running</a> and <a href="http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/33530/1/11030_Cooper.pdf">team games</a> (such as football and basketball). But this effect tends to only last for around one hour, so regular opportunities to be active across the school day are important.</p>
<p>Another really interesting discovery is that young people with higher levels of fitness demonstrate <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09484-w">superior concentration</a>, when compared with less fit children. For example, young people who have higher cardiorespiratory fitness display better concentration than those who are less fit. So based on current evidence, regular physical activity appears to be very important for improving concentration in children.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two boys challenge each other for the ball during a football match." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Team sports are especially good for concentration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boys-kicking-football-on-sports-field-172398914">Fotokostic/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although there’s less evidence in adults, research does still show that acute bouts of physical activity, such as a 20 minute walk or jog, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899312004003?casa_token=4VvVk8VEeEQAAAAA:RNAGs9jDIA2bu13i47PjgMIbP1Axyeov0GNcUGGPu_U_zqPkvOSGhiCvg0Gl9ogOreE26QUfZpQ">enhance concentration</a> for up to one hour afterwards. Studies have also shown that having people take breaks for physical activity during the work day improves self-reported concentration and mood – both of which could improve productivity. Physical activity and higher levels of physical fitness have even been shown to benefit many parts of brain function – including concentration – in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-55483-005">people aged 65 and over</a>.</p>
<p>We have less information though about the mechanisms that explain why physical activity improves our concentration. We think that it could be caused by certain psychological mechanisms – such as feeling more alert and having better mood following physical activity – that improve concentration. Increased blood flow to the brain and changes in the <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.14814/phy2.12163">parts of the brain</a> that are activated during and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-02060-009">after exercise</a> have also been suggested.</p>
<h2>Get moving</h2>
<p>But which types of exercise are best? The simple answer to this question is that it depends on a lot of things.</p>
<p>Some evidence shows that any exercise which <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0212482">requires decision making</a> (such as team games, like football and hockey) might be particularly beneficial to concentration, due to the fact that your brain is engaged during these types of exercise.</p>
<p>But research also shows that any exercise which is extremely vigorous or exhausting, such as high-intensity interval training workouts may – at least in the short-term – actually have a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504581/#:%7E:text=Maximal%20intensity%20exercise%20in%20children,improve%20following%20a%20recovery%20period.">negative effect on concentration</a>, due to the fact that it’s very difficult to concentrate when exhausted.</p>
<p>The research is clear, however, that short bouts of moderate, physical activity are great at improving concentration immediately following exercise. This might include going for a brisk walk, a run, or even a leisurely cycle. But the best type of physical activity is one that you enjoy, and can be easily incorporated into daily life. Ultimately, people need to be able to regularly perform physical activity in order to gain both immediate and long-term benefits. </p>
<p>So if you spend a lot of time sitting at your desk during the work day, regular activity breaks will help you to keep your concentration on the task in hand. Even just taking your dog for a short walk or running to the shop for a quick errand will help.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151143/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cooper has received no research funding that directly impacts upon the content of this article.</span></em></p>Research shows short bouts of physical activity can boost your concentration for up to one hour.Simon Cooper, Senior Lecturer in Sport Science, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1476662020-10-12T18:46:14Z2020-10-12T18:46:14ZWhy do some people struggle to make ‘healthy’ decisions, day after day?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362874/original/file-20201012-21-1ahvfj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=88%2C50%2C8299%2C3684&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>To navigate our way through the world, we constantly make choices. While we’ve all made our fair share of regrettable ones, most of us eventually learn from these – and we generally take this ability for granted.</p>
<p>For some people suffering from illnesses such as schizophrenia and substance use disorder – previously referred to as “<a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12060782">substance abuse</a>” – making the right choices can be extremely difficult.</p>
<p>In fact, many mental illnesses feature problems with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2020.12">cognition</a> (thinking and comprehension), including depression and bipolar disorder. Decision-making ability varies in healthy people, too, sometimes as a consequence of differences in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.08.030">genetics</a>.</p>
<p>What’s happening in the brains of these people that puts them on unequal footing to the rest of us?</p>
<h2>Even simple decisions are complex</h2>
<p>It’s important to note in day-to-day situations, there’s often no distinctly “right” or “wrong” choice to be made. However, some choices do result in healthier or more productive outcomes for us and those around us. </p>
<p>Our brains carry out a suite of complex processes when making decisions. And there are four important factors in each decision we make: value, motivation, action and strategy. </p>
<p>When choosing between two options, say A and B, we first need to understand which choice will be more rewarding, or provide more <em>value</em>. Our personal <em>motivation</em> to attain this reward then acts to bias which option we choose, or whether we make a choice at all. </p>
<p>Understanding what <em>action</em> is required to obtain A, or B, is also important. Combining all this information, we try to understand which <em>strategy</em> will maximise our rewards. And this lets us improve our decision-making ability over time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362815/original/file-20201011-17-1te41u5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are multiple decision-making processes in the brain that help determine the choices we make.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James P. Kesby</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Interrupted connections</h2>
<p>We refer to our personal history and past experiences to guide our future choices. But mental disorders often cause problems in the decision-making process. </p>
<p>Research shows people with schizophrenia can have trouble understanding the relationship between their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-017-0071-9">actions and the outcomes</a>. This means they might keep selecting A, even if they know it’s no longer as valuable as B. </p>
<p>They’re also more willing to adopt strategies based on less information, in other words “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171900357X">jump to conclusions</a>”, about outcomes. </p>
<p>Substance use disorder, particularly with stimulants such as methamphetamine or cocaine, often leads to people getting stuck when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.06.033">certain outcomes change</a>. </p>
<p>For example, if we reversed all the street lights so red meant “go” and green meant “stop” without telling anyone, most people would get an initial shock but would eventually alter their behaviour. </p>
<p>People with stimulant dependence, however, would take longer to learn to stop on the green light – even if they kept getting into car accidents. This is because excessive stimulant use impacts regions in the brain that are crucial to adapting to changing environments.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-parents-and-teachers-can-identify-and-help-young-people-self-medicating-trauma-with-drugs-and-alcohol-104482">How parents and teachers can identify and help young people self-medicating trauma with drugs and alcohol</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How the brain decodes each decision</h2>
<p>The human brain contains multiple circuits (like pathways) and chemical messengers called “neurotransmitters”. These are responsible for guiding the processes discussed above.</p>
<p>The decision-making circuits commonly associated with schizophrenia and substance use disorder include areas of the “cortex” – the outer part of our brain important for complex thought (especially the frontal lobe) – that “talk” to hub areas such as the “striatum”. The striatum lets us select and then initiate an action to achieve a specific goal.</p>
<p>Different cortical areas are used to compute different <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.010">processes</a> in the brain. The prefrontal cortex helps us understand when a strategy needed for success changes. So, if we replaced all the traffic lights with sirens, the prefrontal cortex would help us realise this and adjust. </p>
<p>When the anticipated outcome of a choice changes (such as if A was better, but then suddenly B became better), the orbitofrontal cortex helps us identify this. Similarly, the striatum is key for anticipating what an outcome will be and when we will get the reward.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A basic anatomy diagram of the human brain." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362888/original/file-20201012-17-l6gj2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cortex is the wrinkly layer that covers our brain. The striatum sits underneath the cortex, in the forebrain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dopamine helps make your choices a reality</h2>
<p>Extensive research efforts have found the brains of people experiencing schizophrenia function differently in multiple areas. It’s believed this could contribute to decision-making problems.</p>
<p>For the psychotic symptoms observed in schizophrenia (such as hallucinations and delusions), alterations in the neurotransmitter dopamine are important. <a href="https://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.24.1.1">Dopamine</a> is a chemical in the brain that’s key for anticipating rewards, making decisions and controlling the physical actions necessary to act on our choices.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.00542">research</a>, we’ve argued increases in dopamine in the striatum may cause problems with how the brain integrates information from the cortex, resulting in decision-making difficulties. However, this may only be the case in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.011">some individuals</a>.</p>
<p>Stimulants also cause excessive dopamine release. They can alter the balance between goal-directed behaviours, which are flexible and respond to environmental changes – and habits, which are automatic and hard to break.</p>
<p>Usually, when we learn something new our brain keeps adapting and incorporating new information. But this is slow and cognitively demanding. Substance dependence can accelerate a person’s progression to habitual behaviour, wherein a set strategy or response become ingrained. </p>
<p>This then makes it hard to stop seeking drugs, even if the individual no longer finds them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.010">enjoyable</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-that-cigarette-chocolate-bar-or-new-handbag-feels-so-good-how-pleasure-affects-our-brain-91773">Why that cigarette, chocolate bar, or new handbag feels so good: how pleasure affects our brain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How we can we help people make better decisions</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, problems with cognitive ability are hard to treat. There are no medications for schizophrenia or stimulant dependence shown to reliably improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.5.500">cognition</a>. This is a consequence of the human brain’s complexity. </p>
<p>That said, there are ways we can all improve our memory and decision-making, which may also help those with mental illnesses causing cognition problems. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://www.psychologytools.com/professional/techniques/cognitive-remediation/">cognitive remediation therapy</a> is a behavioural approach that trains the brain to respond to certain situations better. For people with schizophrenia, it may improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717001234">visual memory</a> and perhaps more complex decision-making. </p>
<p>Not being able to navigate decisions day-to-day is one of the most debilitating aspects of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.10.011">disorders</a> that impact cognition. This leads to difficulties in maintaining work, keeping friends and leading a fulfilling life. </p>
<p>We need more research to understand how different brains make different decisions. Hopefully then we can improve the lives of those living with mental illness.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-things-you-need-to-know-about-mental-health-32581">Five Things You Need To Know About Mental Health</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147666/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Kesby receives funding fromthe National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation (BBRF) and Philanthroic Funding through the Queensland Brain Insititute (QBI). He is affiliated with QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shuichi Suetani has received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Metro South Health Research Support, Brisbane Diamantina Health Partners Brain and Mental Health Theme, Princess Alexandra Hospital Research Foundation, Society of Mental Health Research, AVANT and Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists. Shuichi Suetani works for Queensland Health. He has received honoraria for advisory work from Seqirus and is affiliated with Queensland Brain Institute (QBI) and Griffith University.
</span></em></p>During Mental Health Week, let’s look at why some people, such as those experiencing depression or substance dependency, struggle to make decisions like everyone else.James Kesby, UQ Amplify Researcher, The University of QueenslandShuichi Suetani, Psychiatrist, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1197452019-07-31T20:03:57Z2019-07-31T20:03:57ZMore teens are dropping maths. Here are three reasons to stick with it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284017/original/file-20190715-173366-vircaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If more girls studied maths, we could see a narrowing of the gender wage gap.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The numbers of secondary school students who take higher-level maths and science are low in Australia. In 2012, there were <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2-Science-and-Maths-in-Australian-Secondary-Schools-datasheet-references.pdf">30,000 more Year 12 students</a> than in 1992. But the numbers of students studying physics, chemistry and biology decreased by 8,000, 4,000 and 12,000 respectively. </p>
<p>Enrolments in intermediate and advanced mathematics also <a href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=685386398396236;res=IELHSS">fell over this period</a>, by 11% and 7% respectively.</p>
<p>The Australian Curriculum <a href="https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-12/hsc/subject-selection">mandates maths</a> until Year 10. But we’re seeing more students dropping the subject as soon as they can. </p>
<p>In 2008, 31.2% of the NSW student population were studying maths for the High School Certificate, compared to 28.9% in 2017. This was a <a href="https://amsi.org.au/preview-year-12-mathematics-participation-in-australia-2008-2017/">drop of around</a> 5,300 students.</p>
<p>But studying maths brings many benefits. Here are three reasons to persevere. </p>
<h2>1. You’ll be more likely to get a job</h2>
<p>Many industry and economic <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.632.1213&rep=rep1&type=pdf">experts predict</a> future economies – specifically those using technology to rapidly create goods and services – will be built on maths and science knowledge and skills. </p>
<p>Research on the changing nature of employment predicts that, by 2030, we will <a href="https://www.fya.org.au/report/the-new-work-smarts/">spend 77% more time</a> on average using science and mathematics skills. With youth (people aged 15-24) <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/australia/youth-unemployment-rate">unemployment in Australia on the rise</a>, maths skills may offer some protection. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-it-matters-that-student-participation-in-maths-and-science-is-declining-47559">Why it matters that student participation in maths and science is declining</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are more engineering jobs in Australia than skilled people to fill them. Between 2006 and 2016, the demand for engineers exceeded the number of local graduates. Employers <a href="https://www.engineering.unsw.edu.au/news/australia-is-desperately-short-of-engineers">often look overseas</a> for suitable applicants, with some figures showing more vacancies are filled by overseas engineering graduates than locals.</p>
<h2>2. You’ll probably earn more</h2>
<p>Some studies have shown students taking higher maths at school <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/11/will-studying-math-make-you-richer/281104/">go on to have higher earnings</a> in adulthood. </p>
<p>The relationship between studying higher-level maths and earning more may be one of causation (that maths skills lead to higher earners), correlation (that people with good maths skills are more likely to have other skills that lead to higher earnings), or a bit of both. But, either way, it exists.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jennagoudreau/2012/05/15/best-top-most-valuable-college-majors-degrees/#743070774dcc">US analysis</a> that compared university majors with median starting pay, median mid-career pay (at least ten years in), growth in salary and wealth of job opportunities, maths and engineering majors reigned supreme.</p>
<p>And a more <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/nickmorrison/2019/03/27/the-college-majors-with-the-highest-salaries-and-the-best-prospects/#2706db3a5aa2">recent analysis</a> by the US data researcher PayScale found graduates in maths, science and engineering had the highest mid-career salary.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286195/original/file-20190730-186805-ohsi6a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Girls aren’t worse than boys at maths, but they drop the subject earlier.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the biggest gender gaps in education is seen in maths. Girls in most countries complete less, or lower level, maths than boys. </p>
<p>The low numbers of girls participating in advanced maths courses is not because girls are worse at maths, as there is <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-boys-better-than-girls-at-math/">no clear gender gap</a> when it comes to maths abilities. But girls do <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-boys-better-than-girls-at-math/">show less confidence</a> in their maths skills and more maths anxiety than boys.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/women-in-stem-need-your-support-and-australia-needs-women-in-stem-113054">Women in STEM need your support – and Australia needs women in STEM</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Research suggests learning maths is often associated with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232599119_Math_Anxiety_in_Elementary_and_Secondary_School_Students/link/02bfe50ef063d8f42f000000/download">student anxiety</a>. This anxiety is related to poor performance, negative attitudes and general avoidance of the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1990-15802-001">subject</a>. If girls were encouraged to persist with the challenges presented by advanced levels of maths, we could even see a start to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ej/article-abstract/126/593/1129/5078109?redirectedFrom=fulltext">a narrowing of</a> the gender wage gap. </p>
<h2>3. You’ll probably be smarter</h2>
<p>A study examined the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289606000171">association between intelligence and educational achievement</a> in relation to 25 secondary school subjects in the UK. It showed maths was most strongly associated with the so-called “g” factor, which is a <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2008-07564-003">mark of underlying intelligence</a> (English came second). </p>
<p>The g factor, or general ability, is the foundation of cognitive abilities and affects all learning, including in maths and science. Graduates in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/STEM_AustraliasFuture_Sept2014_Web.pdf">disciplines report</a> their degrees led to them developing higher-order skills and qualities (such as logical thinking and creativity).</p>
<p>Another study showed an increase in population IQ <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289604000789">alongside a rise</a> in access to maths education in the US. Studies show higher levels of maths attainment for a population are strongly linked to <a href="https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0160289609000063?via%3Dihub">national IQ</a> and national shifts in economic development, such as <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/5eb6d99494548f1a11a1ff702d86c930/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=30967">higher GDP</a> and faster <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/National-IQ-and-economic-outcomes-Meisenberg/705cc2e57e187698e4c9dabcd20e7454a2a2c54a#paper-header">economic growth</a>. </p>
<p>A higher g factor is also associated with higher scores on international assessments of educational attainment, such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/per.634">PISA and TIMSS, and IQ tests</a>.</p>
<p>As the Australian system doesn’t require maths after Year 10, it seems it is up to individuals, families and their communities to recognise its importance and support students in persevering in maths for their own good.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-to-say-if-your-child-asks-whats-the-point-of-maths-69628">What to say if your child asks, 'what's the point of maths?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119745/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Studying maths is likely to make you smarter and more employable.Rachel Wilson, Senior Lecturer - Research Methodology / Educational Assessment & Evaluation, University of SydneyDeborah Chadwick, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1194692019-07-10T20:16:25Z2019-07-10T20:16:25ZMost people think playing chess makes you ‘smarter’, but the evidence isn’t clear on that<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282611/original/file-20190704-126360-5mctrf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We found students who played chess didn't show significant improvements in their standardised test scores.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Chess has long been an important part of school culture. Many people believe <a href="https://woochess.com/en/blog/10-benefits-of-teaching-kids-to-play-chess">chess has a range of cognitive benefits</a> including improved memory, IQ, problem solving skills and concentration. </p>
<p>But there is very little evidence supporting these conclusions. We conducted two studies (still unpublished) that found educators and parents believe chess has many educational benefits. But children in our study who played chess did not show significant improvements in standardised test scores compared to children who didn’t play.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-machines-can-beat-us-at-games-does-it-make-them-more-intelligent-than-us-60555">If machines can beat us at games, does it make them more intelligent than us?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Most people think chess improves learning</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://eprints.usq.edu.au/36711/">first study</a> looked at the perceptions of educators and parents regarding the benefits of playing chess. </p>
<p>In 2016, 314 participants – which included school principals, teachers, chess-coordinators and parents in parts of Queensland and NSW – filled out an anonymous, online survey.</p>
<p>Participants were asked to state how much they agreed or disagreed with 34 statements about the benefits of playing chess, such as: learning chess helps children develop critical thinking abilities.</p>
<p>Most participants either agreed or strongly agreed with most of the statements for chess benefits. For instance, almost 80% (249 out of 313) strongly agreed learning chess had educational benefits for children.</p>
<p>Another 87% (269 out of 310) strongly agreed learning chess helps children develop problem solving abilities. And 59% (184 out of 314) strongly agreed learning chess has benefits for Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander Children.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282618/original/file-20190704-126369-broelv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some questions in the survey and the answers given by participants.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The survey also included a space for comments. Some comments from participants included:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Chess is a great activity for all children to be involved in. It is one of a number of activities that schools can offer that assist in the academic, social and emotional development of children. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>One parent said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Since starting classes [my son] has become a full-time student and is managing social situations a lot better than before. Chess has pushed him to think in different ways.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>But does it?</h2>
<p>Previous studies that explored whether chess improves children’s cognitive abilities have had mixed results.</p>
<p>Some studies have found playing chess was linked to better thinking abilities. For instance, a significant 2012 <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED551703">New York study</a> found that children in a group that had learnt either chess or music performed slightly better than children in the group who learnt neither. </p>
<p>But the study also noted the improvement in the chess group was not statistically significant.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-music-to-fine-tune-your-child-for-school-86776">How to use music to fine tune your child for school</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A 2017 trial of more than 4,000 children in England <a href="http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2017/06/01/jhr.53.4.0516.7952R.abstract">found no evidence</a> that chess instruction had any effect on children’s mathematics, reading or science test scores.</p>
<p>We wanted to test if there was, in fact, a positive correlation between learning to play chess and learners’ verbal, numerical and abstract (visual) reasoning skills. The study explored this in Year 1 to Year 5 students in a private school in Queensland.</p>
<p>In particular, the study examined whether a range of chess-related and non-chess related variables affected the standardised test scores of the chess group as compared to the control groups.</p>
<p>The study consisted of 203 students (with approval of their parents) who opted into the study. They made up four groups (based on the same approach as the 2012 New York study mentioned above). The groups were made of: </p>
<ul>
<li>46 students who learnt to play chess </li>
<li>48 students who learnt to play music</li>
<li>37 students who learnt to play chess and music</li>
<li>72 students who neither learnt chess nor music</li>
</ul>
<p>Weekly chess lessons were given to 83 students for six months: 24 from Year 1, 20 from Year 2, 8 from Year 3, 18 from Year 4 and 13 from year 5. </p>
<p>Weekly music lessons were given to 85 students for six months: 16 from year 1, 15 from year 2, 12 from year 3, 23 from year 4 and 19 from year 5.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283446/original/file-20190710-44457-gfqogs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many schools have chess programs, and there are state and nation wide competitions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We used standardised tests to measure whether there was any significant change in the scores of the different groups. </p>
<p>Year 1 and 2 students were tested using the Raven’s Progressive Matrices (<a href="https://www.assessment-training.com/raven-s-progressive-matrices-test?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIgq_g4tGp4wIVzIBwCh0fzwF8EAAYASAAEgLdN_D_BwE">RPM</a>) tests, which are multiple-choice intelligence tests of abstract reasoning. </p>
<p>Grade 3, 4 and 5 students were tested using the ACER (Australian Council of Educational Research) General Ability Tests (<a href="https://www.acer.org/au/agat/year-levels">AGAT</a>), used to assess learners’ reasoning skills in three areas: verbal, numerical and abstract (visual).</p>
<p>There were small improvements in the standardised test scores of the chess and music groups but these were not statistically significant.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-good-move-to-master-maths-check-out-these-chess-puzzles-20200">A good move to master maths? Check out these chess puzzles</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our findings don’t mean learning to play chess has no benefits for cognitive skills. There are many different types of thinking and measures of intelligence we do not yet fully understand. This is especially relevant in a world where conceptual thinking has become such a vital skill. </p>
<p>The different ways of thinking associated with the benefits of chess may include creative thinking, critical thinking, logical thinking, intuition, logical reasoning, systemic thinking, strategic thinking, foresight, convergent thinking, analytical thinking, problem solving and concentration.</p>
<p>Further research should aim to explore which type of thinking chess may improve, if we are to agree with the positive views of academics, educators, parents and players.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graeme Gardiner, now retired, who has recently completed his Masters Research degree at the University of Southern Queensland, is a former President of the Australian Chess Federation (1999-2003) and founder and former owner of Gardiner Chess (2001-2015). He was also a staff member at Somerset College, where the main study was carried out, from 1989-2001. Graeme does regular voluntary work at the college, and occasional paid duties at inter-school chess tournaments.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gail Ormsby and Luke van der Laan do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Previous studies that explored whether chess improves children’s cognitive abilities have had mixed results. We found playing chess wasn’t linked to better standardised test scores.Graeme Gardiner, PhD Student, University of Southern QueenslandGail Ormsby, Researcher, University of Southern QueenslandLuke van der Laan, Senior Lecturer (Foresight) and Director; Professional Studies, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/842762017-09-25T20:11:56Z2017-09-25T20:11:56ZCognitive ability plays a role in attitudes to equal rights for same-sex couples<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/186709/original/file-20170920-19979-lusrif.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The same-sex marriage postal ballot forms have been posted to Australians on the electoral roll.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Morgan Sette</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/revealed-who-supports-marriage-equality-in-australia-and-who-doesnt-82988">Recently</a>, Alice Campbell and I revealed the demographic traits associated with people expressing support for equal rights for same-sex couples using the <a href="http://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/hilda">Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey</a> – a large, longitudinal survey that is representative of the Australian population.</p>
<p>My subsequent analyses of the HILDA Survey point to another important factor: cognitive ability. Specifically, there is a strong and statistically significant association between higher cognitive ability and a greater likelihood to support equal rights between same- and different-sex couples.</p>
<p>This may shed some light on why those who stand against equal rights may not be persuaded by evidence-based arguments in the ongoing marriage equality debate.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/revealed-who-supports-marriage-equality-in-australia-and-who-doesnt-82988">Revealed: who supports marriage equality in Australia – and who doesn’t</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Measuring cognitive ability and support for equal rights</h2>
<p>From time to time the HILDA Survey collects one-off information from participants. During the 2012 face-to-face interviews respondents participated in <a href="http://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/downloads/working_paper_series/wp2013n44.pdf">three hands-on tests</a> aimed at determining their cognitive ability. Such tests evaluated the degree to which participants were able to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>recall and recite backwards progressively longer strings of numbers;</p></li>
<li><p>correctly pronounce 50 irregularly spelled words; and</p></li>
<li><p>match symbols and numbers based on a printed key against time.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These tests are not perfect. They may contain some measurement error, may be culturally biased, and may not constitute a complete measure of cognitive ability. Yet they are widely recognised instruments routinely employed in psychological and educational research, and have been shown to be highly correlated with overall intelligence.</p>
<p>My analysis involved estimating the degree of support for the rights of same-sex couples at different levels of this measure of cognitive ability.</p>
<p>To do so, respondents’ scores in the three tests were rescaled and averaged into a composite measure of cognitive ability. Scores ranged from zero (lowest ability) to one (highest ability).</p>
<p>Support for equal rights came from a 2015 HILDA Survey question asking respondents to rate their degree of agreement with the statement “Homosexual couples should have the same rights as heterosexual couples do” on a scale from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree).</p>
<h2>A striking association</h2>
<p>Analyses based on a sample of more than 11,600 people revealed that those with lower levels of cognitive ability in 2012 were much less likely than those with high levels of cognitive ability to express support for equal rights in 2015.</p>
<p>The association was substantially and statistically significant.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/YP7YV/3/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="500"></iframe>
<p>Some population groups – older people and those from non-English-speaking backgrounds, for example – may be more opposed to equal rights and also perform worse in cognitive ability tests. For the former group, this may be due to cognitive decline, and for the latter it may be due to English not being their first language.</p>
<p>To prevent this and other factors tampering with the results, I adjusted the models for age, gender, sexual identity, highest educational qualification, religiosity, ethno-migrant background, area remoteness, and state/territory of residence.</p>
<p>After these adjustments, as expected, the association between cognitive ability and support for the rights of same-sex couples faded moderately. Yet it remained large and statistically significant. </p>
<p>It is worth emphasising that education is controlled for in the models. Therefore, the results cannot be explained by people with high cognitive ability having higher educational qualifications.</p>
<p>The results were also quite robust: the patterns remained when excluding respondents from a non-English-speaking background, measuring support in 2011, and considering the measures of cognitive ability separately. However, the magnitude of the association differed across tests.</p>
<h2>Is it only attitudes toward same-sex couples?</h2>
<p>This finding poses the question of whether the pattern extends to people’s views about social equity in other life domains.</p>
<p>To test this, I extended the HILDA Survey analysis to examine the associations between cognitive ability and supportive attitudes toward women’s emancipation, women’s capability as political leaders, and single mothers.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/85GnZ/2/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="500"></iframe>
<p>The same pattern emerged across all of the outcomes. Higher levels of cognitive ability were unambiguously associated with greater levels of support for egalitarian worldviews.</p>
<h2>What does it all mean?</h2>
<p>The findings do not mean that all who intend to vote “no” in the marriage ballot have a low level of cognitive ability. Nor do they mean that all those who intend to vote “yes” have a high level.</p>
<p>Yet the results suggest that, on average, people who stand against equal rights for same-sex couples are less likely to have cognitive resources that are important to participating in meaningful debate.</p>
<p>These may include the ability to: engage in abstract thinking and process complex chains of ideas; separate arguments based on facts from unfounded ones; not feel threatened by changes in the status quo; and critically engage with new or diverse viewpoints.</p>
<p>These results may thus shed some light over why some on the “no” side may be failing to offer or accept <a href="https://theconversation.com/evidence-is-clear-on-the-benefits-of-legalising-same-sex-marriage-82428">evidence-based arguments</a>, or why they keep relying on philosophically, historically or empirically <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-christians-arguing-no-on-marriage-equality-the-bible-is-not-decisive-82498">flawed ones</a>.</p>
<p>This applies, for instance, to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-are-children-better-off-with-a-mother-and-father-than-with-same-sex-parents-82313">scientifically unsupported</a> claim that children are worse off in same-sex households. In fact, these arguments are being exploited by a “no” advertising campaign that relies almost exclusively on <a href="https://theconversation.com/marriage-vote-how-advocacy-ads-exploit-our-emotions-in-divisive-debates-83501">emotional instead of rational arguments</a>.</p>
<p>It is possible many supporters of the “no” case could not be convinced by reason and evidence. If so, the “yes” side’s best way to minimise the possibility of a surprise “no” victory – one that’s driven by a mobilised minority – may be to target the overwhelming <a href="https://theconversation.com/revealed-who-supports-marriage-equality-in-australia-and-who-doesnt-82988">majority of Australians</a> who support equal rights to have their say.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84276/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francisco Perales receives funding from the Australian Research Council as part of its Discovery Early Career Researcher Award scheme for a project titled 'Sexual Orientation and Life Chances in Contemporary Australia'.</span></em></p>There is a strong and statistically significant association between respondents’ cognitive ability and their support for equal rights between same- and different-sex couples.Francisco Perales, Senior Research Fellow (Institute for Social Science Research & Life Course Centre) and ARC DECRA Fellow, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/655722016-10-10T08:57:07Z2016-10-10T08:57:07ZWhat happens when people with autism grow old?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138805/original/image-20160922-22502-17d43b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-141058342/stock-photo-close-up-of-elderly-male-hands-on-wooden-table.html?src=46M22iJjo0y8Hjs6ySRbmg-1-92">tomertu/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you mention autism to most people they will think about children, but it is a lifelong diagnosis. Children with autism grow up to be adults with autism. Little is known about how the symptoms change with age. This is because autism is a <a href="http://www.autism.org.uk/">relatively new disorder</a>, first described in 1943 and not regularly identified until the 1970s. It is only now that those people first diagnosed are reaching older age that we can start to learn whether the disorder changes over a lifetime.</p>
<p>There have been some <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12037/abstract">suggestions</a> that symptoms may reduce as people get older. These reports, describing fewer difficulties with older age, are often from people with autism themselves and from their families. But how much evidence is there for this? Our latest research provides some answers, and also raises some new questions.</p>
<p>Working with the Autism Diagnostic Research Centre in Southampton we assessed 146 adults who were referred to the centre seeking a diagnosis of autism between 2008 and 2015, and who consented to take part in the research. People were aged between 18 and 74 years old. A hundred of these adults were diagnosed with autism, and 46 people did not receive a diagnosis. This gave us an opportunity to explore the subtle differences between people who receive a diagnosis and those who don’t, even though they may have some other similar difficulties. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-016-2886-2">analysis showed</a>
that age and severity of autism were linked; that is, as age increased so did the severity of autism symptoms in social situations, communication and flexible thinking (such as coping with change or generating new ideas or solutions). We also found that older people with autism were more likely than younger people to extract rules from situations or prefer structure (for example, wanting to know how committees are organised or always following the same routine during a task). </p>
<p>This pattern did not occur in the group of 46 people who didn’t have autism. Whether this tendency to extract rules is a “worsening” of autism symptoms or a general trend among all older people is not yet clear.</p>
<h2>Strategies for life</h2>
<p>It may seem surprising that people who received a diagnosis much later in life had more severe symptoms, as we might expect people with severe symptoms to be more likely to seek a diagnosis earlier in life. What we found was that the older adults with autism performed better than the young adults with autism on some cognitive tests we carried out. The group diagnosed with autism were faster on tests measuring speed of thinking during a task and did better when dealing with visual and shape information. Perhaps these abilities have helped adults with autism develop strategies across their lives that have helped them to cope with their symptoms which may explain why they were not diagnosed until adulthood.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140513/original/image-20161005-14243-yxrmkt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Older adults with autism performed better on cognitive tests than younger adults.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-66972727/stock-photo-iq-test-intelligence-measuring-concept.html?src=8PH5hCjCaMsGbskKGxCt-A-1-4">Jirsak/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When the group with autism was compared with the group without autism, we found that rates of depression and anxiety were high in both groups. A third of adults diagnosed with autism report high levels of depression or anxiety – rates <a href="http://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/statistics-and-facts-about-mental-health/how-common-are-mental-health-problems/">much higher</a> than in the general population. Depression among older adults is a risk factor for developing problems in memory and cognition. Given the high rates of depression among people with autism, it may be important for doctors to monitor mood during ageing to ensure that individuals are not at risk for cognitive decline due to depression.</p>
<p>The people described in our research are not typical of people with autism. They all had cognitive abilities in the normal range and did not receive a diagnosis in childhood when autism is most often recognised. Despite this, older people in the study showed more severe symptoms of autism. This might suggest that symptoms of autism become more severe with age. However, reporting more symptoms could also reflect a change in self-awareness. Better self-awareness is generally a good thing, but might lead to greater realisation of one’s own difficulties.</p>
<p>It isn’t yet clear whether people with autism age in the same way as people without autism – it’s still early days, given the relative age of the disorder. Ageing may also be different for each person with autism. People with autism may have developed strategies to help them age better, or may be at risk for depression and cognitive decline. In future work, we aim to see people every few years so we can understand how they change over time.</p>
<p>We all deserve to age as well as we can. It’s only by understanding how people with autism change as they get older, that we can start to put services in place to support them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65572/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Charlton has previously received research funding towards this work from Goldsmiths University College Research Funds. Rebecca Charlton has received research funding from the Dunhill Medical Trust. </span></em></p>Autism first began to be routinely diagnosed in children in the 70s. It is only now that we are beginning to understand how the condition changes with age.Rebecca Ann Charlton, Senior Lecturer, Goldsmiths, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/561152016-04-21T05:13:38Z2016-04-21T05:13:38ZGenetics: what it is that makes you clever – and why it’s shrouded in controversy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115805/original/image-20160321-30912-12y3ejo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">SandraViolla/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For nearly 150 years, the concept of intelligence and its study have offered scientific ways of classifying people in terms of their “ability”. The drive to identify and quantify exceptional mental capacity may have a chequered <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hast.499/abstract;jsessionid=1C167A1612F22CDFE6340960AC893439.f04t03?userIsAuthenticated=false&deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=">history</a>, but it is still being pursued by some researchers today. </p>
<p>Francis Galton, who was Charles Darwin’s cousin, is considered the father of eugenics and was one of the first to formally study intelligence. His 1869 work <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Hereditary_Genius.html?id=1h0Ztc1q-RoC&source=kp_cover&redir_esc=y">Hereditary Genius</a> argued that superior mental capabilities were passed down via natural selection – confined to Europe’s most eminent men, a “lineage of genius”. Barring a few exceptions, women, ethnic minorities and lower socioeconomic communities were labelled as inferior in intelligence. </p>
<p>Galton’s controversial theories on race, socioeconomics and intelligence have been highly influential and shaped the ideologies of numerous researchers and theorists around the world.</p>
<p>In the UK, proponents of a Galtonian view on intelligence included educational psychologist <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/books/a-true-pro-and-his-cons/161397.article">Cyril Burt</a>, who helped formulate the 11-plus examination, and <a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-E-Spearman">psychologist Charles Spearman</a> who is best known for his creation of the concept “g” – the innate general factor of human mental ability. Spearman’s background as an engineer in the British army gave him a statistical sophistication that proved instrumental in shifting the direction of the field of intelligence study. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115800/original/image-20160321-30917-1i9hs6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spearman: statistician who delved into human intelligence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AExposition_universelle_de_1900_-_portraits_des_commissaires_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9raux-Charles_Spearman.jpg">Eugène Pirou via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Spearman hypothesised that intelligence is comprised of “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1412107?origin=crossref&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">g</a>” – or “general intelligence”, and two other specific factors: verbal ability and fluency. Spearman’s extensive work on the use of “g” within the field of statistics meant that some used the “hard” sciences and maths as instruments to argue that there were biological differences between races and social classes. “G” as a representation of the biological basis of intelligence <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hast.494/abstract">is still being used today in research</a> within the current field of behavioural genetics. </p>
<h2>Political currency</h2>
<p>The concept of inheritance, and specifically the inheritance of intelligence, has carried over into political and educational spheres. A more recent advocate of Galtonian-inspired ideas is Dominic Cummings, who served as a special advisor to the former secretary of state for education, Michael Gove. Cummings wrote the following in a <a href="http://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/804396/some-thoughts-on-education-and-political.pdf">237-page document</a> titled “Some thoughts on education and political priorities”: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Raising school performance of poorer children … would not necessarily lower parent-offspring correlations (nor change heritability estimates). When people look at the gaps between rich and poor children that already exist at a young age (3-5), they almost universally assume that these differences are because of environmental reasons (“privileges of wealth”) and ignore genetics.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>The birth of twins studies</h2>
<p>From the 1920s, when <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08856559.1932.10533098?journalCode=vzpg20">twin and adoption studies</a> set out to determine the genetic and environmental origins of intelligence differences, the study of intelligence began to converse with the early stages of human behavioural genetics. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115802/original/image-20160321-30906-1lsndvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Are you copying me?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Volt Collection/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Under the presumption that twins experience similar environmental aspects, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1001959306025">twins studies enable researchers</a> to evaluate the variance of a given outcome – such as cognitive ability – in a large group. They can then attempt to estimate how much of this variance is due to the heritability of genes, the shared environment the twins live in, or a non-shared environment.</p>
<p>The 1980s and 1990s saw another rise in twin and adoption studies on intelligence, many of which were more systematic in nature due to advances in technology. Most supported earlier research and showed intelligence to be highly heritable and polygenic, meaning that it is influenced by many different genetic markers. </p>
<p>The researchers <a href="https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/multivariate-behavioral-genetics-and-development-twin-studies%28f51376fe-96e6-4288-811f-9b44cead12c9%29.html">Robert Plomin</a>, <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ps.29.020178.002353">JC Defries</a>, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1010257512183">Nele Jacobs</a> were at the forefront of this new wave of studies. But this research was still unable to identify the specific genetic markers within the human genome that are connected to intelligence. </p>
<h2>Genome – a new frontier</h2>
<p>Genome sequencing technologies have taken the search for the genetic components of inheritance another step forward. Despite the seemingly endless possibilities brought forth by the <a href="https://www.genome.gov/12011239">Human Genome Project in 2001</a>, actually using DNA-based techniques to locate which genetic differences contribute to observed differences in intelligence <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hast.496/abstract">has been markedly more difficult</a> than anticipated. </p>
<p>Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) began to take hold as a powerful tool for investigating the human genetic architecture. These studies assess connections between a trait and a multitude of DNA markers. Most commonly, they look for single-nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These are variations between genes at specific locations throughout a DNA sequence that might determine an individual’s likelihood to develop a particular disease or trait. </p>
<p>Originally intended to identify genetic risk factors associated with <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1109557">susceptibility to disease</a>, GWAS have become a means through which to try and pinpoint the genetic factors responsible <a href="http://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2012.184">for cognitive ability</a>. But researchers have <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/340/6139/1467">shown</a> that intelligence is a trait influenced by many different genes: they have so far been unable to locate enough SNPs to predict the IQ of an individual. </p>
<h2>Ethical questions</h2>
<p>There’s a long way still to go, but this field is receiving <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/11680895/Children-should-be-genetically-screened-at-the-age-of-4-to-aid-their-education-expert-claims.html">a great deal of publicity</a>. This raises several ethical questions. We must ask ourselves if this research can ever be socially neutral given the eugenic-Galtonian history underpinning it. </p>
<p>This kind of research could have an impact on <a href="http://nautil.us/issue/18/genius/super_intelligent-humans-are-coming">human genetic engineering</a> and the choices parents make when deciding to have children. It could give parents with the money and desire to do so the option to make their offspring “smarter”. Though genetically engineering intelligence may appear to be in the realm of science fiction, if the genes associated with intelligence are identified, it could become a reality. </p>
<p>Some <a href="http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1118482786.html">researchers</a> have suggested that schools which have a child’s genetic information could tailor the curriculum and teaching to create a system of “personalised learning”. But this could lead schools to expect certain levels of achievement from certain groups of children – perhaps from different socioeconomic or ethnic groups – and would raise questions of whether richer families would benefit most. </p>
<p>Whether calling it “intelligence”, “cognitive ability”, or “IQ”, behavioural genetics research is still trying to identify the genetic markers for a trait that can predict, in essence, a person’s success in life. Given the history of this field of research, it’s vital it is conducted with an awareness of its possible ethical impact on all parts of society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56115/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daphne Martschenko does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A short history of research into the links between genes and intelligence.Daphne Martschenko, PhD Candidate, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/481662015-11-01T19:10:56Z2015-11-01T19:10:56ZWhy Aboriginal people with disabilities crowd Australia’s prisons<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99775/original/image-20151027-18458-bfmipz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability are 'managed' by police, courts and prisons due to a lack of appropriate community-based services.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/treslola/6368127913/in/photolist-aGJjyR-aGJdTt-aGJ6bx-aGJLFi-aGJabe-aGJTYc-aGJzNH-aGJ3Ea-aGJokp-aGJszc-aGJX38-aGJter-aGJfG8-aGJRCM-aGK7Fv-aGK1mr-aGJxop-aGK5BD-aGJbZX-aGJrTg-aGJNKF-aGJEm2-aGK3g2-aGJmwn-wK7jbw-wv4JVN-wMEApR-sccPz3-srUNtf-scCv7m-wt7Bo9-vNVFM4-wtffNg-9NAsCc-wtn8Gt-rxcdBE-97tA6K-rrwjr2-scCu8s-sub3YF-wt9Dih-vNQ6oA-7BtXTi-vNKvQS-wtbpJS-vNsNGS-2tkwWA-7BtY3n-7BtYne-aGevrn">Kate Ausburn/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia imprisons thousands of Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability each year. A widespread lack of understanding – and action – underpins this shameful breach of human rights.</p>
<p>The number of people in Australian prisons recently reached an all time high of 33,791, with 27% or 9,264 of those prisoners <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4517.0">identifying as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander</a>. People with mental and cognitive disability who are poor, disadvantaged, and Aboriginal are overrepresented in this increase.</p>
<p>To clarify, mental disabilities include disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, anxiety, personality disorders and psychosis. People can experience these for a short time or throughout their lives. While cognitive disability covers impairments such as intellectual disability, acquired brain injury, dementia and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). These are ongoing impairments in comprehension, reason, judgement, learning or memory. </p>
<h2>A predictable path</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au/sites/www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au/files/u18/pdf/a_predictable_and_preventable_path_2Nov15.pdf">study</a> we released today shows how Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability are being “managed” by police, courts and prisons due to a dire lack of appropriate community-based services and support. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.mhdcd.unsw.edu.au/">Indigenous Australians with Mental Health Disorders and Cognitive Disability in the Criminal Justice System (IAMHDCD) Project</a> draws on a unique data set of 2,731 people who’ve been imprisoned in New South Wales, which holds <a href="http://www.bocsar.nsw.gov.au/Documents/custody/Q22015Custodyreport.pdf">more than a third</a> of Australia’s prison population. A quarter of people in the data set are Indigenous. </p>
<p>Throughout this article, we use “Indigenous” to match government data collection terms, and “Aboriginal” in our study findings to reflect the preference of the communities we worked with. </p>
<p>Our study includes data from police, courts, legal aid, juvenile justice and corrective services as well as government housing, disability, health and community services. The data shows that Indigenous people experience earlier and greater contact with the criminal justice system and are more disadvantaged generally than non-Indigenous people with mental and cognitive disabilities.</p>
<p>Aboriginal researchers in our team also spoke with Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability, their families, communities and service providers in four sites across NSW and the Northern Territory so we could better understand their experiences.</p>
<p>We found Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability are forced into the criminal justice system early in life. Coming from poor and disadvantaged backgrounds, they receive little support from community and disability services or the education system. </p>
<p>These people are often seen as badly behaved or too hard to control, and left to police to manage. While this also applies to non-Indigenous people with disability from disadvantaged backgrounds, we found it’s much more serious for Indigenous people. </p>
<p>Indigenous people in the group we studied were 2.6 times more likely to have been in out-of-home care as children. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/FmKBI/6/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="450"></iframe>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/VFNy9/5/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="220"></iframe>
<p>Their age of first contact with police was 3.4 years younger than non-Indigenous people, and they had a higher rate of contact with police as both victim and offender. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/VeMR2/4/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="450"></iframe>
<p>Indigenous people were 2.4 times more likely to be in juvenile justice custody than non-Indigenous people. </p>
<p>And they had higher numbers and rates of convictions and more episodes of remand in prison (unsentenced). </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/gu6ns/3/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="450"></iframe>
<p>Indigenous people had higher rates of hospital admissions and were 1.2 times more likely to have been homeless – in a group with very high rates of homelessness generally. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/damx4/3/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="450"></iframe>
<p>Those with complex needs (multiple diagnoses and disability) – particularly women – were the most disadvantaged. And Indigenous people from highly disadvantaged areas, especially regional and remote areas, fared the worst.</p>
<h2>Four key drivers</h2>
<p>Our research shows four major issues underlie these shocking statistics:</p>
<p><strong>1. People don’t understand what cognitive disability is</strong></p>
<p>Families, service workers, teachers, police, lawyers and magistrates don’t understand enough about cognitive impairment. They often think cognitive impairment and mental illness are the same. People with cognitive impairment, for instance, are often dealt with under mental health laws. </p>
<p>But imprisonment has serious consequences for people with cognitive impairment. People with FASD face difficulties due to low levels of understanding and diagnosis, as do those with borderline intellectual disability, because they are not recognised as having a disability by services and may not be supported by the new National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS). </p>
<p><strong>2. High levels of stress in some Aboriginal communities</strong></p>
<p>Aboriginal communities are under a great deal of stress from socioeconomic disadvantage, loss, grief and trauma. This comes from generations of Aboriginal people experiencing dispossession, racism, forcible removal of children, poor education and health care, overcrowded housing, early deaths of family and community members, over-policing, and high rates of incarceration.</p>
<p><strong>3. Many Aboriginal people in the criminal justice system have ‘complex support needs’</strong> </p>
<p>Aboriginal people with more than one type of impairment or disability are <a href="http://www.lawreform.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/report_135_final.pdf">more likely</a> to be involved in the criminal justice system. Families and communities are overwhelmed, and services are not set up to provide the kind of specialist support needed by people who experience multiple mental and cognitive disabilities, as well as drug and alcohol dependency. </p>
<p>Different diagnoses and disorders can become meshed together and masked by each other (this is known as “complex support needs”). It’s difficult for Aboriginal people with complex support needs to get appropriate help because services often focus on only one area – mental health, or intellectual disability, or drug and alcohol rehabilitation – and also because of racism and poverty. </p>
<p><strong>4. A lack of appropriate support for Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability</strong></p>
<p>From a young age, Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability are dealt with by systems of control rather than systems of care or protection. They can face discrimination on the basis of race and disability as well as having a criminal record; feel isolated and disconnected from family and community; and have limited access to appropriate community-based support options. </p>
<p>There are very few alternatives to prison and a lack of appropriate programs in prison or after release, particularly for those from regional or remote areas. And that makes return to prison very likely.</p>
<p>Our research found police and prisons have become governments’ default way of managing this vulnerable group rather than appropriately supporting them to have a life of stability and self-worth in the community. Australia’s imprisonment and re-imprisonment of Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disability is not only shameful, it’s entirely predictable and preventable.</p>
<p><em>This is the first in a series of articles by this research team. Click <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/aboriginal-people-with-mental-and-cognitive-disability-43089">here</a> to read more on the Indigenous Australians with Mental Health Disorders and Cognitive Disability in the Criminal Justice System (IAMHDCD) Project.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48166/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eileen Baldry receives funding from The Australian Research Council, FaCS NSW, Dept of Justice NSW. She is affiliated with PIAC & CRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth McEntyre was the Australian Postgraduate Award Industry recipient for the IAMHDCD Project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruth McCausland is Vice-President of the Board of the Community Restorative Centre.</span></em></p>Australia’s high rates of imprisonment and re-imprisonment of Aboriginal people with mental and cognitive disabilities is not only shameful, it is entirely predictable and preventable.Eileen Baldry, Professor of Criminology, UNSW SydneyElizabeth McEntyre, PhD Candidate in Social Work and Criminology, UNSW SydneyRuth McCausland, Research Fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/464772015-08-27T05:37:48Z2015-08-27T05:37:48ZModafinil – the ‘smart drug’ leading the charge towards a future of neuroenhancement<p>Extension of our “natural” capacities through science and technology is not a new phenomenon – it has been a key driver of many evolutions of human society throughout history: movement with the wheel; navigation with the compass; communication with the wire. The field of “neuroenhancement” – using our understanding of how the brain works more directly to try to improve the way it functions – might well be the next such catalyst. </p>
<p>Our new <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X15002497">research</a> reviewing the cognitive effects of the “smart pill” modafinil has found that it <em>can</em> improve the performance of healthy people on cognitive tasks, meaning it can be considered the first of these “neuroenhancement agents”. But, what is also clear is that we need to radically improve the way that we analyse the effect this kind of drug has on both healthy brains and wider society. </p>
<p>Modafinil is a stimulant drug, licensed by the Food and Drug Administration to help people with sleep disorders stay awake. This means that its safety in humans has been confirmed in a clinical context, over a relatively long time period, and multiple doses. In these individuals, as well as many others with neuropsychiatric disease, modafinil intake has been found to improve a wide range of cognitive functions, bringing them <a href="http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v33/n7/abs/1301534a.html">closer to “normal”</a>. In sleep-deprived individuals, including <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15460629">pilots</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21997802">doctors</a>, modafinil also appears to have this effect. </p>
<p>But, we wanted to find out what affect it had on healthy people, who were not sleep-deprived. Over the 24 studies we reviewed between 1990 and 2015, modafinil intake appeared to also be able to improve cognitive functions, in particular “higher” cognitive functions, such as problem solving and planning. This improvement was not seen every time, on every test, for every person; and, for some cognitive functions, like attention and learning and memory, many studies failed to show any difference at all. </p>
<p>We were even able to make a few suggestions of how it might be doing this: for instance, the effects we observed could be explained by a “top-down” effect on cognitive processing, driven by amplification of activity in the pre-frontal brain regions. Critically, in the studies we examined people taking modafinil reported a very low number of side effects, all of which were seen in equal proportions in placebo groups taking the same tests.</p>
<h2>The ‘ceiling effect’</h2>
<p>While collecting the data for our study, we were surprised by the methodology used by the studies we were examining. First, the total number of studies that focused on healthy people was very low, as was the number of people they each assessed – around 30 participants per study, on average. Second, many of the studies used cognitive tests that seemed inappropriate – tests normally used to assess cognitive defects in people with neuropsychiatric illness or neurological disorders. The problem with this is that healthy people perform very well in them without taking the drug – known in science as a “ceiling effect” – and so improvements in performance on a substance are harder, if not impossible, to detect. </p>
<p>When we reassessed our findings in this context, the cognitive benefits of modafinil appeared much stronger, over a wider range of domains, including attention, executive function, and learning and memory. This was one of our paper’s main differences from previous reviews, which had not given as strong support for modafinil’s status as a cognitive enhancer because they had not included any deeper examination of the cognitive tests used. </p>
<p>Our study indicates that, in controlled scientific environments, the use of modafinil for cognitive enhancement is safe <em>and</em> effective – keeping in mind that most of the studies we looked at only gave the drug once, reducing our ability to make longer-term claims</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92817/original/image-20150824-17793-l2yedu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What potential do ‘smart drugs’ have?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Frame of mind via agsandrew/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>. </p>
<h2>A new approach to cognitive testing needed</h2>
<p>There is a strong case to be made for continuing this assessment using classical scientific approaches, with improved testing regimes, a larger participant pool, prolonged administration periods, use in combination with other interventions – such as cognitive training and noninvasive brain stimulation – and monitoring physiological changes and differences relating to a person’s age. </p>
<p>However, given the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rise-of-cognitive-enhancers-is-a-mass-social-experiment-40072">extensive unlicensed use</a> of modafinil by people without sleep disorders, a more useful and ethical approach might be to use a more life-like testing context to explore its effects. So, perhaps the <em>more</em> important finding of our study is that the infrastructure we currently use to assess neuroenhancement is inadequate. We need to design, improve, and standardise cognitive testing regimes for high-functioning people. </p>
<h2>The future of neuroenhancement</h2>
<p>Even the issues outlined above pale in comparison to the question of how best to integrate technologies and pharmaceuticals that interact more directly with the brain into everyday life. These agents are undoubtedly coming, and soon: consider the next generation of smart pills and smartphones; <a href="https://theconversation.com/google-glass-augmenting-minds-or-helping-us-sleepwalk-11784">Google Glass</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-hololens-the-future-of-reality-is-augmented-37104">Microsoft HoloLens</a>. </p>
<p>These developments have huge potential to alter our inner selves: extension of the range and depth of human comprehension and action could allow us to more deeply appreciate the mysteries and beauty of the world around us, redefine relations and relationships, and gain a greater understanding of our mental drives and afflictions. Equally, it could allow us to become more productive, innovative, and resilient. </p>
<p>However, as always, accompanying this positive potential is a serious risk of harm: issues of who <a href="https://theconversation.com/sci-fi-becomes-reality-with-the-rise-of-smart-drugs-at-work-36645">gets to use the drugs</a>, dependence, and manipulation abound. But, rather than immediately referring to these issues as a means of ultimate rejection, we need to consider advances fairly, fully, and in light of the benefits they could deliver. </p>
<p>To do this effectively and justly, we need to create a better platform for societal debate on this topic – where the development, assessment, and regulation of such agents can be influenced by all equally, before they reach consumers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46477/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna-Katharine Brem received funding in the past from the Young Academics Support and the Stiefel-Zangger Foundation of the University of Zurich, Switzerland, and the Swiss National Foundation (PBZHP1_147196).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruairidh McLennan Battleday does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We’re only just beginning to understand the effects of cognitive enhancers on healthy brains.Ruairidh McLennan Battleday, PhD candidate, University of California, BerkeleyAnna-Katharine Brem, Postdoctoral researcher, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/427702015-06-19T04:22:06Z2015-06-19T04:22:06ZDropping the volume around schools can improve learning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85542/original/image-20150618-23239-1fz9nnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When children are bombarded with outside noises, it becomes harder to hear in class – and to learn.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">From www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s no escaping noise, whether it’s caused by traffic, construction, or planes flying overhead. Usually we have no choice but to get on with our daily lives and in many instances noise is little more than an annoyance. But children may be affected differently to adults, particularly when continuous noise is an environmental feature of their place of learning. </p>
<p>There’s been an increased interest in noise during school hours recently, particularly in Europe where there is <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/noise/home.htm">stringent legislation</a> about noise pollution. In South Africa, there is no legislation prohibiting the operation of schools near loud noise sources. The only protection comes in the form of guidelines for different types of land uses in noisy areas. It is up to the authorities to ensure that recommendations in the guidelines are followed. </p>
<p>This is further complicated because in the past, schools were built near airports which originally only had a few flights. Many of these airports have become very busy, transforming previously quiet neighbourhoods into places which are not optimal learning environments. Often, as a result of <a href="http://www.southafrica.info/news/urbanisation-240113.htm#.VXryvvmqqko">urbanisation</a>, schools sit alongside busy traffic intersections, noisy taxi ranks and large airports. </p>
<h2>Noisy vs quiet school environments</h2>
<p>School learning still relies heavily on oral communication even though there’s an increasing use of blended learning approaches incorporating multimedia and the internet. This means the acoustic conditions under which teaching occurs are important, especially for younger children - the ability to concentrate on speech under <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20215967">adverse listening conditions</a> only reaches adult levels in adolescence. </p>
<p>Children also <a href="https://www.openaire.eu/search/publication?articleId=dedup_wf_001::f7a8b6de6efc8ca8ce1db73b58f105a0">appear</a> to have a reduced cognitive capacity to anticipate and cope effectively with noise. In a noisy environment, children have to use increased cognitive capacity to decode verbal information. This information can easily be misheard, misunderstood or not heard at all.</p>
<p>We conducted a three year study of children attending primary schools - an average age of 11 years and seven months – near the old Durban international airport both before and after it was <a href="http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Use-found-for-Durban-airport-20110222">decommissioned</a>. </p>
<p>More complex abilities were far poorer in the children attending noisy schools. These included prospective memory – remembering to do something in the future, like homework after school - and reading comprehension. They faced a double struggle, as many were reading in their second language and so lacked proficiency. These children also had poorer attention spans, motivation and higher levels of annoyance towards noise than the children at schools in quiet locations. </p>
<p>But the results were surprising in parts. While the airport was still operating, children at the noisy schools fared better on several aspects of simple memory ability when compared to their peers of matched age, grade and socioeconomic status at similar but quieter schools. </p>
<p>A possible explanation is that children at the noisy schools may have become used to the noise, a process referred to as habituation. They may have developed some coping mechanisms to deal with it, as they had also all been living in the area for at least two years. </p>
<p>We concluded that children’s memory capacities appear to be amazingly resilient, but there are limits to this. Children seem able to cope with the effects of chronic noise so that it doesn’t negatively impact simple aspects of cognition such as basic memory. But noise does affect the performance of tasks that place greater demands on cognitive processes.</p>
<h2>Creating quiet spaces</h2>
<p>After the airport had been closed for two years, children from noisy schools struggled less with reading comprehension, attention, motivation and annoyance. This means that the simplest solution to dealing with the effects of noise on learning is to remove the source of the noise or move away from it. </p>
<p>Ideally, schools should not be located near busy airports. The new King Shaka Airport in Durban is sufficiently far away from any schools to pose a problem, but this could change because of future development.</p>
<p>If the noise source can’t be removed there are still practical solutions. These include interventions to target specific components of the noise problem – like phasing out noisy aircraft and providing soundproofing for school buildings. This can be paired with strategies like cognitive training to improve children’s focus as well as specific activities to improve prospective memory and reading comprehension.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This material is based on work supported by the National Research Foundation of South Africa. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and therefore the NRF does not accept any liability. Kate Cockcroft receives funding from the NRF.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Seabi receives funding from the National Research Foundation and this project was funded in part by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Goldschagg receives funding from the National Research Foundation (NRF).</span></em></p>Chronic environmental noise, like cars zooming past or airplanes overhead, can make children struggle with reading comprehension and affect their memory.Kate Cockcroft, Professor of Psychology, University of the WitwatersrandJoseph Seabi, Associate Professor of Psychology, University of the WitwatersrandPaul Goldschagg, Lecturer, Geography and Environmental Studies, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/393502015-04-09T05:32:54Z2015-04-09T05:32:54ZDoes the food children eat for breakfast fuel exam grades?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76803/original/image-20150401-31309-l8cksf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eat up. You'll get an A. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Healthy breakfast via ISchmidt/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We don’t have to look far to find <a href="http://www.nhs.uk/Change4Life/Pages/healthy-eating.aspx">information</a> on the benefits of eating a healthy, balanced diet. Good eating habits, like <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20683459">regularly having breakfast</a> and <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g4490">eating fruit and vegetables</a>, have been linked to positive outcomes for our bodies. But how does food influence how we think?</p>
<p><a href="http://now.uiowa.edu/2015/03/better-breakfast-better-grades">A recent US study</a> showed that giving free school breakfast to poorer students can lead to improvements in maths, reading and science. These improvements were related to better eating habits and didn’t happen as a result of more time spent in school. The findings of the study support other research, which has also found a link between <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9743037">good nutrition and improvements in school grades</a>. </p>
<h2>Why nutrition makes a difference</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx?tab=3">Cognition</a>, which is the way we think about, remember and use information, is an <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055653">important part of learning</a>. For example, to learn skills such as <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3058530/">reading</a> and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01443410500341056#abstract">maths</a> we need to be able to pay attention to certain facts, hold thoughts in our memory and switch between different pieces of information. Research has shown that food, <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=AAF80355E1110F8AFD7A8F70A3A52B64.journals?aid=6845716&fileId=S0954422409990175">especially breakfast</a>, can influence how well we are able to perform these cognitive tasks. </p>
<p>In a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666312002541">2012 UK study</a> of 1,386 children aged between six and 16, those who had breakfast performed better on tests of memory and attention than those who didn’t have breakfast.</p>
<p>But, further research has shown that what we eat is also important. For example, the <a href="http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/1862.aspx?categoryid=51">glycaemic index</a> of food, which shows how quickly the carbohydrates from foods are used up by the body, has been found to have an effect on cognitive performance. When children eat foods with a low glycaemic index, such as bran flakes, which release energy more slowly, their <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666306006398">attention and memory performance</a> is better than when they eat high glycaemic foods, such as chocolate-coated cereal.</p>
<p>When it comes to school grades, some researchers have suggested that memory and attention are especially <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055653">important for learning</a> and these are cognitive processes that seem to be influenced by food intake. </p>
<h2>Mixed results</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76804/original/image-20150401-31287-1w3h2xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mixed bowl.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Fruity cereal via Tootles/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the relationship between food and performance is not straightforward. In <a href="http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/100268801/breakfast-beyond-dietary-social-practical-impacts-universal-free-school-breakfast-scheme-north-west-england-uk">a 2014 study</a> carried out by myself and my colleagues of a free school breakfast scheme in the UK, some school staff believed that having breakfast at school led children to be able to concentrate better in class but other staff had noticed no difference. Similarly, not all studies have found an effect of food on cognitive performance and school grades. </p>
<p><a href="http://journals.lww.com/jrnldbp/Abstract/2012/01000/Effects_on_Cognitive_Performance_of_Eating.3.aspx">In a 2012 study</a>, children’s cognitive performance was measured after breakfast and no breakfast. Results showed that skipping breakfast didn’t have an impact on how well children did at the cognitive tasks. All the children who took part in the study normally ate breakfast – so one day of breakfast skipping might not be enough to have an impact on children’s cognitive performance. </p>
<p>However, a separate <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/49/4/646.long">study</a> has shown that for children who are already poorly nourished, skipping one day of breakfast can lead to poorer cognitive performance. This shows that the effect of having breakfast or not on cognitive performance could depend on how well-nourished children are already. </p>
<p>In terms of school grades, studies have also found mixed results. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3275817/">A 2002 US study</a> found improvements in children’s nutrition six months after the introduction of universal free school breakfast. These improvements were related to better maths grades but made no difference to reading, social studies and science scores. School breakfast was also recently reported to have <a href="http://jech.bmj.com/content/67/3/257.full.pdf+html">no effect</a> on children’s literacy and numeracy scores. </p>
<p>So, another factor that might influence whether food helps children’s school grades is the type of task that children are being asked to complete. This idea is supported by the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21439306">findings</a> of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3834293/#B14">studies</a> showing that breakfast might help children to perform better in more difficult tasks. </p>
<h2>Something to chew over</h2>
<p>The link between food and school grades is complicated. When thinking about how food might make a difference to children’s school performance it’s important to look in detail at a range of factors like what children are eating, their usual food habits and the type of task they have to complete. </p>
<p>It’s not just a simple case that feeding children will make them do better at school; but evidence shows that <a href="http://now.uiowa.edu/2015/03/better-breakfast-better-grades">school food schemes might help</a>, especially for poorer children. This is promising for those working hard to help children get the best results from their time at school, but it also leaves us with much more to think about. </p>
<p>School food offered during term time is only available to children for around three quarters of the year leaving <a href="http://www.barnardos.org.uk/foodpovertyreportv3.qxd.pdf">many families struggling</a> to eat a balanced diet <a href="http://accordgroup.org.uk/filemanager/resources/Filling%20the%20holiday%20hunger%20gap%20report.pdf">during the school holidays</a>. This leaves us with questions about how children’s food habits at different times of the year might influence how well they do at school and whether better food habits during the school holidays might help to reduce <a href="https://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6437852">summer learning loss</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>Next read: <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-food-diets-impacts-on-students-are-too-big-to-ignore-33895">Brain food: diet’s impacts on students are too big to ignore</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pam L Graham has worked on school breakfast projects funded by Kellogg's, Blackpool Council and the Economic & Social Research Council. The views expressed in this article are her own. </span></em></p>Give your children bran for breakfast and they could concentrate better at school.Pamela L Graham, Postdoctoral Researcher, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/338952014-11-19T19:26:30Z2014-11-19T19:26:30ZBrain food: diet’s impacts on students are too big to ignore<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/64969/original/image-20141119-31597-1a4be40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">High intake of take-away foods, red and processed meat, soft drinks, and fried and refined food is a risk factor for poor academic performance. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jaypeg/4314279074">Jay Peg/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As their children submit themselves to the ordeal of all-important end-of-year exams, parents of high school and university students may be wondering what they can do to help. One thing they ought to consider in particular is diet and its potential impact on academic outcomes.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, there’s relatively little research into the effect of nutrition on scholastic performance in young adults. But we do know that what we eat affects brain power. </p>
<h2>Research findings</h2>
<p>Let’s start with a brief overview of what the research says. Regular meals three times a day have been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12810409">linked to higher academic performance</a> in Korean adolescents, in a study from 2003. </p>
<p>In Norwegian teenagers, regular meals (lunch and dinner) <a href="http://sjp.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/05/15/1403494813487449">were negatively associated</a> with self-reported learning difficulties in mathematics. While foods reflecting a less healthy diet (including soft drinks, sweets, snacks, pizza, and hot dogs) were linked with learning difficulties in maths. </p>
<p>In the same 2013 Norwegian study, regular breakfast was associated with fewer learning difficulties, not only in maths but also in reading and writing.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18783639">a 2008 Canadian study</a>, higher academic achievement was reported in adolescents who consumed more fruits, vegetables and milk. Increased fish consumption positively influenced academic grades in Swedish teens, according to a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817726">paper published in 2010</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18541647">Another 2010 paper showed</a> that, in Iceland, adolescents who had poor dietary habits (with higher consumption of chips, hamburgers and hot dogs) had lower academic achievement. In contrast, adolescents with higher fruit and vegetable consumption achieved higher academic scores. </p>
<p>In Australia, data from the <a href="http://www.rainestudy.telethonkids.org.au/">long-running Western Australian Raine study</a> have shown teenagers’ diet impacts cognitive performance, which is a significant predictor for academic achievement. </p>
<p>Specifically, my colleagues and I found a “Western” dietary pattern (high intake of take-away foods, red and processed meat, soft drinks and fried and refined food) at age 14 is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24673485">associated negatively</a> with 17-year-olds’ thinking abilities, especially reaction time and memory. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/64817/original/kmxy9p8w-1416292523.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A healthy diet may be key to good cognitive performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/104762645@N07/13384051455">Kayla Seah/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also evaluated the school performance of teenagers in the Raine study. A higher intake of the kind of unhealthy food described above was linked to worse scholastic performance. The adolescents we looked at had poorer scores in mathematics, reading and writing, even after we had corrected for their body mass index and physical activity levels. </p>
<p>In contrast, we found a diet richer in fruit, yellow and red vegetables and whole grains was associated with better academic performance.</p>
<h2>Diet and the brain</h2>
<p>How exactly does diet affect mental performance? Adolescence is a sensitive time for the developing brain, particularly for the prefrontal cortex and other important brain structures, such as the hippocampus, which are critically involved in learning and memory. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23532379">Research shows</a> diet is likely to be a significant influence on brain capacity during this stage of life.</p>
<p>The Western dietary pattern appears to provide particular reason for concern at this critical time. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19161648">This diet correlates</a> with a high overall intake of total fat, saturated fat, refined sugar and sodium but lower levels of significant micronutrients, including folate and iron. </p>
<p>Folate has been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21746721">positively linked to academic achievement</a> in adolescents while <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11389261">iron deficiency has been associated with</a> poorer mathematics scores in children and adolescents. </p>
<p>More generally, the Western dietary pattern is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19748245">associated in young people with</a> biological changes linked to <a href="http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/ms/">metabolic syndrome</a>, a term used to refer to a range of bodily changes associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22895667">And this</a> as well as high levels of fat and carbohydrate consumption are linked with <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21167850">impaired thinking skills</a> through changes to key areas in the brain.</p>
<p>All these research findings are consistent with the idea that diet has impacts on teenagers’ thinking skills. In particular, they suggest the Western dietary pattern is a risk factor for poor academic performance. </p>
<p>Getting young people to take any advice from their parents is always challenging. But parents who can ensure their teenagers eat well may be conferring significant benefits on their academic performance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33895/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Foster has received funding to undertake research from the Australian Research Council and National Health and Medical Research Council and from similar government and not-for-profit funding agencies in the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States. He has received previous private sector funding from Unilever and Pfizer.</span></em></p>As their children submit themselves to the ordeal of all-important end-of-year exams, parents of high school and university students may be wondering what they can do to help. One thing they ought to consider…Jonathan Foster, Curtin Senior Fellow, Professor & Clinical Neuropsychologist, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/316002014-09-18T05:26:32Z2014-09-18T05:26:32ZBrain training can help develop building blocks needed for maths and reading<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59312/original/y5r9c9j7-1410963220.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Don't understand? Do a bit of brain training. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mfhiatt/6023620361/sizes/l">mfhiatt</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-training-games-wont-help-children-do-better-at-school-30227">article</a> in The Conversation by Emma Blakey addressed a widespread concern about exaggerated claims made by developers of brain training products. </p>
<p>Blakey correctly pointed out that the evidence for the effects of brain training on children’s performance at school is weak. But there is a real danger that such articles can swing public opinion too far in one direction. The fact is that developments in the science underlying brain training are pretty exciting.</p>
<p>It would be hard to dispute the negative effect of industry spin, or “neurojargon”, on the public understanding and misunderstanding of brain training. It appears that any claim containing the words “brain” or “neuroscience” gains extra weight.</p>
<p>Brain training developers know that to sell their products they need to use these “neuro” terms, provide meaningless images of brains on their web pages, and talk about “laboratory research”. This is indeed an abuse of science and it should be challenged, as <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21507740.2011.611123#.VBBiwUJiZ-g">some psychologists</a> have begun to do. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59313/original/hfsbcvdz-1410963824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain pictures help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/18924124@N00/8071905112/sizes/l">Jack Mallon</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Blakey’s article correctly focused on perhaps the biggest challenge for brain training developers, of which I am one: to increase our ability to perform intellectual tasks <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-training-apps-just-make-you-better-at-playing-games-22301">other than those targeted in brain training</a>. Put simply, brain training is not of much use if all it does it make the user better at brain training.</p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2008/04/25/0801268105.abstract">some researchers</a> have found that the effects of brain training can be extended to tests that do <a href="https://theconversation.com/ignore-the-iq-test-your-level-of-intelligence-is-not-fixed-for-life-30673">not look similar to the tasks practiced</a> during brain training. </p>
<h2>Understanding basic concepts</h2>
<p>In addition to these developments, new research in my own field is attempting to find the best ways to hone the basic skills a person requires to excel at any type of verbal and mathematical task. We are not too concerned about how the brain works, rather how and what to teach people in order for these tasks to become easier.</p>
<p>Using a concept called <a href="http://contextualscience.org/what_is_rft">relational frame theory</a>, many researchers believe they have identified the basic building block skills of verbal and mathematical abilities. These skills are called relational framing skills and they involve the comprehension of some basic relational concepts: sameness, difference, oppositeness, more and less, along with a few others. </p>
<p><a href="http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1085&context=tpr">Research has shown</a> that the more complex our understanding of these concepts is, the higher our intelligence is, as measured on the <a href="http://wechsleradultintelligencescale.com/">WAIS IQ test</a>. <a href="http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=tpr">Further research</a> has shown relational skill levels to be predictive of scores on <a href="http://jpa.sagepub.com/content/28/2/167.full.pdf">Kaufman’s brief test for intelligence</a>, which measures both the ability to solve new problems (fluid intelligence) as well as acquired knowledge and skills (also referred to as crystallised intelligence).</p>
<h2>Building blocks for children</h2>
<p>Crucially, <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Derived_Relational_Responding_Applicatio.html?id=D67KbxldS88C&redir_esc=y">research</a> appears to show that relational skills are acquired before the intellectual skills with which they are associated – and therefore may well underlie them. Many of these basic building block skills have been used to establish foundational reading and reasoning skills in children across <a href="http://contextualscience.org/rft_empirical_support">a wide variety of studies</a>.</p>
<p>But now researchers have begun to show that they can also increase general intelligence using brain training-style software that targets our level of relational skill. For example, a child might be taught to answer a question such as: if A is opposite to B, and B is opposite to C, is A the same as or opposite to C? </p>
<p>When exposed to large amount of such training, across a sufficiently large and varied range of examples, improvements are seen in every part of the WISC IQ test, even though the IQ test items look nothing like the items contained in the relational skills training.</p>
<h2>Boost to IQ</h2>
<p>In one <a href="http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol61/iss2/2/">small study</a> of this new method in which I was involved, 12 children were exposed to a fully computerised relational skills-training course in once to twice-weekly sessions across several months. The WISC IQ test was administered before and after the completion of the training. </p>
<p>Before training began, four normally developing children in the sample had an average IQ of 105, but this was raised above 130 following three to four months of training. These kids moved from the normal to the “high functioning” range in a period of a few months as assessed by an IQ test that looked nothing like the relational skills training provided. </p>
<p>Eight further children with intellectual difficulties started the training with an average IQ of 82, well below the average IQ score of 100. Following training in basic relational skills that are foundational to verbal and numerical ability, these IQs were moved to an average of 96, well within the normal range. It is of course early days yet, but these kinds of findings are surely very exciting. </p>
<p>A healthy dose of scepticism is most certainly required when listening to the pseudo-scientific spin of brain training developers. But let’s also be mindful that many great breakthroughs in science were preceded by periods of unease and suspicion before the weight of the evidence finally tipped the balance of opinion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31600/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryan Roche is founder of RaiseYourIQ.com and a director of Relational Frame Training Ltd. trading as raiseyouriq.</span></em></p>A recent article in The Conversation by Emma Blakey addressed a widespread concern about exaggerated claims made by developers of brain training products. Blakey correctly pointed out that the evidence…Bryan Roche, Lecturer in Behavioral Psychology, National University of Ireland MaynoothLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/226952014-05-06T20:37:56Z2014-05-06T20:37:56ZThink positively about sleep by all means, but you can’t fool your body<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47272/original/7fm4b9nq-1398755965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Just telling yourself you're well rested doesn't mean you can override how your body is experiencing lack of sleep.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/williambrawley/4045524560">William Brawley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sleep – elusive, precious, restful sleep – is a topic close of many of our hearts. Such is the importance of this activity that sometimes people cling on to half-baked ideas about it with an unnatural fervour.</p>
<p>Consider a paper on <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24417326">sleep research published</a> early this year, for instance, which garnered widespread media coverage. Thinking positively about how you slept may help you perform better at school and work, it claimed. </p>
<p>That’s a novel idea and it’s based on some truth - but really? Can positive thinking about sleep quality fool both the body and mind into doing better than if they “knew” they were exhausted?</p>
<p>Like all attractive but false ideas, this notion of placebo sleep has a grain of truth in it. Research shows insomniacs <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3277880/">misperceive their sleep</a>, often overestimating the amount of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12150323">time they spend awake</a>. And if they feel they haven’t slept well, this may make them feel worse when awake.</p>
<p>Still, sleep – and the lack of it – has physiological impacts. And just telling yourself you’re well rested doesn’t mean you can override how your body is experiencing its lack.</p>
<h2>How sleep works</h2>
<p>Sleep is comprised of two core stages, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The former is divided into four sub-stages that typically become deeper. </p>
<p>In adults, a normal nocturnal sleep period involves four to five cycles of both types of sleep, each lasting about 90 to 100 minutes. </p>
<p>While <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16251951">NREM and REM sleep</a> may serve slightly different functions – NREM sleep is thought to be important for tissue growth and repair, immunity to help fight disease and illness, and energy conservation, whereas REM sleep may be involved in brain development, memory and learning – most researchers generally agree both are equally important to maintain optimal waking functions.</p>
<p>Sleep loss, whether from staying up all night or simply not getting enough (for instance due to work, or a new baby, or staying up late), is widely associated with cognitive impairment, including increased reaction time and poor vigilance, concentration and decision-making.</p>
<p>It also has consequences for physiological functioning, such as changes to stress hormones (cortisol), metabolic factors (glucose metabolism, growth hormone secretion, appetite hormones) and immunity. These are critical for health and well-being, and for maintaining optimum performance at school and work.</p>
<h2>‘Placebo sleep’?</h2>
<p>The placebo sleep study suggests you can improve your cognitive performance by changing how you think about your sleep quality. But there are many holes in how the study authors reached that conclusion.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/47273/original/kdr9s4vc-1398756382.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There’s no substitute for sleep when it comes to good health and optimal performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/davidwithacamera/8575714726">David Simmonds</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers randomly assigned 164 students to either an above or below average sleep quality condition or a control condition. Participants were not aware the experiment was focusing on sleep quality.</p>
<p>All students were given a brief lesson on sleep and told that, on average, adults spend between a fifth and a quarter of their total sleep in REM sleep, and that people with less than 20% REM sleep perform worse on tests of learning and memory while those who get 25% or more perform better. </p>
<p>All were then briefly attached to equipment measuring their waking brainwave activity and told it would determine the amount of REM sleep they had the night before.</p>
<p>Although students were asked to report how they’d slept the night before, the actual amount wasn’t recorded. So, there’s no way of knowing if the results of the performance measures were because of the experiment and not simply due to the amount of sleep the students got the night before.</p>
<p>The group assigned to above average sleep quality were told they spent 28.7% of their total sleep time in REM sleep, while the below average group was told they spent 16.2%. When cognitive performance was assessed, students in the first group tended to perform better than those who thought they had less REM sleep.</p>
<p>Although the results indicated performance was correlated to how participants perceived their sleep quality, the differences between the two groups were only small. It’s unlikely such small differences would have a significant effect on performance in the real world. </p>
<h2>The prosaic truth</h2>
<p>Still, the authors interpreted this to indicate that mindset about sleep quality influences cognitive performance.</p>
<p>If you agree with that conclusion, it seems the way you think about how you slept can change the way we feel when awake. In other words, if you think you had a restless sleep the night before, you might feel worse during the day, and vice versa.</p>
<p>But while changing what you think about the sleep you’ve had may make you feel better, and maybe even perform better in tests and the like in the short term, biology and the drive for sleep will ultimately determine how well or poorly people perform during the day.</p>
<p>There’s no substitute for sleep when it comes to good health and optimal performance. There’s no fancy fix; the best thing you can do for this is have a regular routine that gives you seven hours of sleep every night.</p>
<p>Going to bed and getting up at the same time each day, natural light in the morning and exercise can all help improve sleep quality over the long term, and maximise cognitive performance at school and work. Perhaps the best lesson from this study is that you shouldn’t think too much about sleep, it’ll just make matters worse.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22695/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gemma Paech has no conflicts of interest to disclose. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Siobhan Banks does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sleep – elusive, precious, restful sleep – is a topic close of many of our hearts. Such is the importance of this activity that sometimes people cling on to half-baked ideas about it with an unnatural…Gemma Paech, Research Associate, Centre for Sleep Research, University of South AustraliaSiobhan Banks, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Sleep Research, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/245652014-04-15T04:37:35Z2014-04-15T04:37:35ZWhat to do at home so your kids do well at school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44865/original/gyp84ww9-1395887851.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In simple ways at home, parents can improve their child's cognitive ability and ready them for learning.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=179905424&size=medium&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTM5NTkxNjU3NSwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTc5OTA1NDI0IiwicCI6InYxfDEwMTI3NTg4fDE3OTkwNTQyNCIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xNzk5MDU0MjQvbWVkaXVtLmpwZyIsIm0iOiIxIiwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJuTDlOS1JWRWk1akZBSUNSV25qWVFSa2tUenciXQ%2Fshutterstock_179905424.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=q6U_CTDbgMTyswGLGOSieA-1-13">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Student achievement <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Visible-Learning-Synthesis-Meta-Analyses-Achievement/dp/0415476186">has been found</a> to be most influenced by parents’ aspirations and expectations for their children’s development along with active involvement in their learning.</p>
<p>Parents must be supporters, not teachers, but there are simple things a parent can do to ensure a child is well-adjusted and ready to learn in a school environment. </p>
<p>These expectations and aspirations, however, should not turn into dominating parenting that checks up on homework and hours on the computer. High expectations best appear in taking an interest in the child’s activities, discussing them, and supporting the child in developing further.</p>
<h2>Activities in the home can enhance a child’s cognitive development</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Homework.</strong> <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2005-01890-004">Research tells us</a> students do better if they are expected to complete homework and do well, <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674725102">but only when they are not watched</a>, timetabled or controlled by their parents.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Read to your child.</strong> Listen to their reading, tell stories, change the ending, add a character, experiment with ideas.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Set appropriate limits</strong> for behaviour and appropriate times for activities that fit the child’s age. Limits give a sense of security, if children know what they are supposed to do they can be happy they will not make a mistake. As you have decided on these limits with care and consideration of the child’s best interests, explain them to your child and apply them consistently. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>When learning new things, start from the very beginning.</strong> There is no point trying to learn new material without the correct foundations. If issues arise with literacy or numeracy, it could mean some of the basics were missed at school.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Build a positive mindset.</strong> Learning needs to be a positive experience even if there are challenges along the way. Seeing learning as fun and enjoyable sets an expectation. Children need to know they can “have a go” and if they make a mistake it is all part of the positive learning experience. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Talk.</strong> Use your time together to talk and explain (not lecture). Use every activity as an opportunity to talk with them, this will help to build their knowledge.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Play.</strong> Children love playing games with their parents, use play to teach concepts such as the meanings of words, maths, problem solving, and doing experiments.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45924/original/m5xc2tym-1397014134.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reading to your kids from an early age can improve cognitive ability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=125154374&size=medium&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTM5NzA0MjQ3NywiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTI1MTU0Mzc0IiwicCI6InYxfDEwMTI3NTg4fDEyNTE1NDM3NCIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xMjUxNTQzNzQvbWVkaXVtLmpwZyIsIm0iOiIxIiwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJrdTkvYk1YUER1TmVablVmOXZlVUlIb0djSkEiXQ%2Fshutterstock_125154374.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=q6U_CTDbgMTyswGLGOSieA-1-0">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>There are 3 essentials for child development</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Security.</strong> Children first and foremost need to feel that they are loved and that they belong.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Self-worth</strong>. Children need to feel pleased with the person they are.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Competence</strong>. Adults are essential mirrors for children’s self-evaluation. Parents who acknowledge and enhance their child’s sense of competence in very simple and effective ways ensure their child can take risks, and deal with setbacks and mistakes. Parents can affirm their child by listening respectfully to their views and ideas, echoing these ideas so the child feels truly understood, asking open questions (what will you do about that? How do you think that will help?), and affirming a child’s ideas with positive statements like “that sounds like an impressive set of ideas”.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Nurturing a child’s development, along with their cognitive development in the early formative years will get them ready for learning in a social sense, and ensure the type of content they will be presented with at school seems familiar to them. This is imperative for good results not only in their academic abilities, but in their development as happy and healthy kids. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/24565/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vicki McKenzie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Student achievement has been found to be most influenced by parents’ aspirations and expectations for their children’s development along with active involvement in their learning. Parents must be supporters…Vicki McKenzie, Educational Psychologist, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.