tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/covid-19-myths-84062/articlesCOVID-19 myths – The Conversation2022-11-03T12:00:03Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1887842022-11-03T12:00:03Z2022-11-03T12:00:03ZUnderstanding how news works can short-circuit the connection between social media use and vaccine hesitancy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484650/original/file-20220914-1856-q5p409.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5854%2C3908&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Media literacy can help you tell the difference between real and false news.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/worried-senior-woman-browsing-bad-news-at-internet-royalty-free-image/1344763798">Zbynek Pospisil/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>People who consume a lot of news on social media are more likely to be skeptical of COVID-19 vaccines and also more hesitant about getting vaccinated, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.900386">according to our newly published research</a>. But we found that social media users with higher levels of news literacy have more confidence in COVID-19 shots.</p>
<p>Other research has found that heavy reliance on social media <a href="https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.3219">exposed individuals to misinformation related to COVID-19</a>, especially on the efficacy of vaccines.</p>
<p>In the thick of the pandemic in 2020, we measured how skeptical social media users were about the development of a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine and how likely they would be to get the shot if it were available.</p>
<p>We also assessed participants’ news literacy by asking nine questions that tested how much they knew about how journalism works – for example, identifying which outlets did their own reporting as opposed to aggregating news, and which publications were for-profit. You can take the quiz to <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2320/News_Quiz_3.pdf?1663776067">test your own level of media literacy</a>.</p>
<p>In our study, participants with low levels of news literacy, which meant correctly answering only three of the nine questions on average, were more likely to be vaccine hesitant than those with moderate (four to six correct answers) or high (seven or more correct answers) levels of news literacy.</p>
<p>We infer that mis- and disinformation about the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines that spreads via social media transforms into vaccine hesitancy, especially among people who are less savvy about distinguishing real from false news. Our conclusion fits with other researchers’ finding that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1637445">enhancing media literacy</a> is an effective intervention against misinformation.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>During the pandemic, people relied heavily on social media for recreation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00857-8">stress</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635546">reduction</a> and coronavirus-related news.</p>
<p>For instance, a 2021 report by Pew Research Center found <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/08/24/about-four-in-ten-americans-say-social-media-is-an-important-way-of-following-covid-19-vaccine-news/">about half of Americans relied on social media for news about COVID-19</a>. As a result, social media users were exposed to misinformation about the coronavirus at the same time <a href="https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.3219">skepticism of scientists and public health institutions</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01211-3">related to COVID-19</a> was on the rise. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805871115">Health misinformation</a> on social media can also lead people to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211008817">develop false beliefs about public health interventions</a> such as vaccines. </p>
<p>Despite the mass availability of vaccines in the United States, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccinations_vacc-people-additional-dose-totalpop">only 49% of the population</a> had completed the primary COVID-19 series and gotten a booster shot as of Oct. 19, 2022. A March 2022 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7112e2">unvaccinated people were 12 times more likely to be hospitalized</a> than those who were vaccinated. </p>
<p>Vaccination helps mitigate the harmful effects of COVID-19. Anything that erodes confidence in the shot matters for public health.</p>
<h2>What other research is being done</h2>
<p>One important line of work investigates who is likely to be susceptible to COVID-19 misinformation. For instance, one 2020 study found that heavy users of social media who are also politically conservative are more likely to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201199">susceptible to misinformation related to COVID-19</a> than those who are not conservative.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic reads 'Fact: Taking a hot bath does not prevent the new coronavirus disease. Taking a hot bath will not prevent you from catching COVID-19. Your normal body temperature remains around 36.5°C to 37°C, regardless of the temperature of your bath or shower. Actually, taking a hot bath with extremely hot water can be harmful, as it can burn you...'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480609/original/file-20220823-2351-tk1m8o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Myth busting via infographics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FACT-_Taking_a_hot_bath_does_not_prevent_COVID-19.svg">World Health Organization</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Researchers have also tested ways to reduce COVID-19 misconceptions. In one instance, the World Health Organization designed and publicized shareable infographics debunking various coronavirus myths. A study showed exposure to infographics <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2702.203139">lowered belief in the particular COVID-19 myth</a> being targeted. The effect was the same whether the graphic was shared by the World Health Organization or by an anonymous Facebook user.</p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>Our study relied on online survey data collected in the U.S. at two different times – once in late September 2020 and then four weeks later, just before the U.S. presidential election. Our initial sample of 2,000 participants was selected to closely match the entire U.S. population in age, gender distribution and political affiliation. Participants were rated high, moderate or low for both COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and media literacy based on our questionnaire. </p>
<p>The follow-up sampled 673 participants. Checking up on our participants a month later allowed us to confirm their beliefs were consistent on more than one occasion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188784/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers identified a connection between low levels of media literacy and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in people who consume their news via social media.Muhammad E. Rasul, Doctoral Student and Provost's Research Fellow, University of California, DavisJaeho Cho, Professor of Communication, University of California, DavisSaifuddin Ahmed, Assistant Professor of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1856662022-06-24T11:53:22Z2022-06-24T11:53:22ZMisinformation will be rampant when it comes to COVID-19 shots for young children – here’s what you can do to counter it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470619/original/file-20220623-51620-sao1c0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Talking about vaccines with trusted health care providers and with family can help wade through the sea of information – and misinformation. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pediatrician-with-girl-in-clinic-during-covid-19-royalty-free-image/1318834248?adppopup=true">Morsa Images/DigitalVison via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention endorsed both the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines for <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0618-children-vaccine.html">all children ages 6 months to 5 years</a> on June 18, 2022, it opened the door for <a href="https://theconversation.com/at-last-covid-19-shots-for-little-kids-5-essential-reads-185007">nearly 20 million children to get vaccinated</a>.</p>
<p>While this news comes as a relief to many parents who have been anxiously waiting to get their young children vaccinated, a May 2022 survey found that the majority of parents with children under 5 <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/poll-finding/kff-covid-19-vaccine-monitor-february-2022/">feel they don’t have enough information</a> about the safety and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines for this age group. About 40% also said that information from federal health agencies, such as the CDC and the Food and Drug Administration, about vaccines for this age group was confusing.</p>
<p>This is particularly concerning because confusing messaging from public health agencies opens the door for anti-vaccine activities on social media that target vulnerable parents.</p>
<p>We are a team of <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/people/maya-indira-ragavan-md-mph-ms">medical</a> and <a href="https://publichealth.pitt.edu/home/directory/jaime-sidani">public health</a> professionals at the University of Pittsburgh. We have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">extensive experience</a> researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-wHMfaIAAAAJ&hl=en">vaccine misinformation on social media</a> and <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/about-us/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/community-and-culture/pittsburgh-community-vaccine;%20https://grants.nih.gov/grants/forms/biosketch.htm">working with community partners</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">address vaccine hesitancy</a>, counter misinformation and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=8RBqepAAAAAJ&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=8RBqepAAAAAJ:TQgYirikUcIC">promote vaccine equity</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yhsLob344MY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Social media is a ripe breeding ground for vaccine misinformation.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through this work, we have seen and studied the ways that anti-vaccine activists on social media target vulnerable parents who are trying to navigate the challenges of digesting health information to make appropriate choices for their children.</p>
<h2>Social media and vaccine misinformation</h2>
<p>Anti-vaccine activists are a small but vocal group. According to research conducted by the nonprofit Center for Countering Digital Hate, <a href="https://www.counterhate.com/disinformationdozen">just 12 social media accounts</a> – the “disinformation dozen” – are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996570855/disinformation-dozen-test-facebooks-twitters-ability-to-curb-vaccine-hoaxes">behind the majority</a> of anti-vaccine posts on Facebook. Studies also show that only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0396">about 2% of parents</a> reject all vaccines for their children. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-007609">A larger group</a>, or about 20% of parents, can more accurately be described as vaccine hesitant, which means they are undecided about having their children receive vaccines <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/imz/child-adolescent.html">as recommended by the U.S. Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention</a>. </p>
<p>When it comes to COVID-19 shots, as of May 2022 about 20% of parents with children ages 6 months to 5 years said they would <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/poll-finding/kff-covid-19-vaccine-monitor-february-2022/">get their child vaccinated right away</a>. Another 25% said they would wait to see how the vaccine is working, and 35% said they would definitely not get their child vaccinated.</p>
<p>It can be difficult for parents to sort through the large amount of information available about COVID-19 vaccines – both true and untrue. In their search for answers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">some parents turn to social media platforms</a>. The problem is, these parents are often targeted by anti-vaccine activists who are better organized and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1">more skilled at tailoring their messages</a> to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">varied concerns of people who are vaccine hesitant</a> than are pro-vaccine activists. </p>
<p>Social media, in particular, has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565-X">a primary vehicle</a> for the spread of misinformation. Although sometimes misinformation is blatantly false, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.03.009">other times it is more like a game of telephone</a>. A kernel of truth gets modified slightly as it is retold, which ends up becoming something untrue. Unfortunately, exposure to COVID-19 misinformation has been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1">reduce people’s intent to get vaccinated</a>.</p>
<h2>Addressing parents’ vaccine concerns</h2>
<p>So how can pediatricians and other health care professionals empower parents to feel confident in the choice to get their children vaccinated for COVID-19? </p>
<p>The answer may lie in working with communities to promote the vaccine as trustworthy instead of simply asking communities to trust it. We are part of the Pittsburgh Community Vaccine Collaborative, which is a community-academic partnership that seeks to ensure equitable access to the COVID-19 vaccines. Through that effort, we have focused on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15248399211029954">building trustworthiness of the vaccines</a> and of the providers and health systems that are offering the vaccines in their communities. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/13/amid-coronavirus-threat-americans-generally-have-a-high-level-of-trust-in-medical-doctors/">Health care providers are a trusted source of information</a> for COVID-19 vaccine information, but they are not the only sources. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2017.1394533">Research has found</a> that it is important to lean on the expertise and voices of community partners, community health workers and religious leaders.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that pediatricians and public health professionals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">can effectively use social media</a> to promote vaccination and provide families with reputable scientific information to address their questions and concerns. Results of a survey that was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">published in Academic Pediatrics</a> found that 96% of parents used social media. Of those, 68% reported using it for health information.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://kidspluspgh.com/">a pediatric group</a> we partner with <a href="https://people.com/human-interest/dr-todd-wolynn-takes-on-anti-vaxxers-science-singing-silly/">uses comedy combined with information</a> to combat myths and answer questions about the COVID-19 vaccines. </p>
<iframe src="https://www.tiktok.com/embed/v2/6940691573801749765?lang=en-US" style="border:0;width:100%;min-height:825px;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00099228211046499">Research shows</a> that parents who report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for themselves also report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for their children. Therefore, talking about vaccines as a family may be helpful in combating misinformation around the COVID-19 vaccine. In addition, parents who have had their children vaccinated can use social media to share their experiences and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109979">make it feel more normal</a> and accepted among their peers.</p>
<p>We have also learned that promoting <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/news-and-media-literacy/what-is-media-literacy-and-why-is-it-important">media literacy</a>, which encourages people to question the media information they come into contact with, can empower parents to sift through the “<a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic">infodemic</a>” of COVID-19 vaccine information. </p>
<p>While social media platforms have announced policies of removing vaccine misinformation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306288">research suggests</a> this is not always effective at reducing the influence of such misinformation. Learning how to find the source of a piece of information and thinking about who are the intended targets may help people determine whether the information is true or distorted.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>Addressing COVID-19 vaccine misinformation can feel overwhelming. The <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> has <a href="https://healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/ask-the-pediatrician/Pages/when-can-children-get-the-COVID-19-vaccine.aspx;%20https://www.healthychildren.org/English/news/Pages/aap-applauds-approval-of-safe-effective-covid-19-vaccines-for-children-ages-6-months-and-older.aspx">helpful information for parents</a> to support making decisions around the COVID-19 vaccine. Parents can also have conversations with their children about media literacy and evaluating information. And they can talk to their children – especially adolescent-age children – about how getting the COVID-19 vaccine can protect them and others. </p>
<p>For questions around COVID-19 vaccines for children of all ages, we recommend you talk with your pediatrician or another health care provider. During that visit, you can also make sure your child is up to date on other vaccines, as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6919e2">studies have shown</a> that vaccine rates for routine childhood vaccines have decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<p>Increasing COVID-19 vaccine rates for children is important to promote their health and wellness, as well as to move closer to ending the pandemic. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-vaccines-for-children-how-parents-are-influenced-by-misinformation-and-how-they-can-counter-it-173212">an article originally published</a> on Dec. 15, 2021.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185666/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaime Sidani receives funding from the Richard King Mellon Foundation, the American Heart Association, and the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Hoffman receives funding from the Richard King Mellon Foundation and the National Institutes of Health</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maya Ragavan currently received funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. She received funding from a National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences KL2 and an Allegheny County Health Department grant. </span></em></p>With COVID-19 shots finally available for infants and preschoolers, knowing how to combat misinformation on social media and elsewhere could be more important than ever.Jaime Sidani, Assistant Professor of Public Health, University of PittsburghBeth Hoffman, Postdoctoral Associate in Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of PittsburghMaya Ragavan, Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1732122021-12-15T13:29:27Z2021-12-15T13:29:27ZCOVID-19 vaccines for children: How parents are influenced by misinformation, and how they can counter it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436843/original/file-20211210-68670-uw0s95.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C0%2C5699%2C3828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Health care providers are just one trusted source of information for parents on the safety of COVID-19 vaccines for children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/doctor-explaining-report-on-tablet-computer-to-royalty-free-image/961221674?adppopup=true"> Cavan Images/Cavan via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/s1102-PediatricCOVID-19Vaccine.html">COVID-19 vaccines became available</a> for children ages 5 to 11 in early November 2021, many families have been lining up to get their school-age kids vaccinated prior to holiday travel and gatherings.</p>
<p>As of Dec. 14, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccination-demographics-trends">5.6 million U.S. children ages 5 to 11</a> – or about 19% of this age group – have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. And 2.9 million, or about 10% of this age group, are fully vaccinated. </p>
<p>However, the <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/press-release/following-an-early-period-of-high-demand-vaccination-for-children-ages-5-11-has-significantly-slowed/">pace has begun to slow</a>. Vaccination rates in this age group <a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/an-update-on-vaccine-roll-out-for-5-11-year-olds-in-the-u-s/">vary widely across the country</a>, and the U.S. is still far from reaching a threshold that would help keep COVID-19 infections in check. </p>
<p>We are a team of <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/people/maya-indira-ragavan-md-mph-ms">medical</a> and <a href="https://publichealth.pitt.edu/home/directory/jaime-sidani">public health</a> professionals at the University of Pittsburgh. We have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">extensive experience</a> researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-wHMfaIAAAAJ&hl=en">vaccine misinformation on social media</a> and <a href="https://www.pediatrics.pitt.edu/about-us/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/community-and-culture/pittsburgh-community-vaccine">working with community partners</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">address vaccine hesitancy</a>, counter misinformation and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=8RBqepAAAAAJ&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=8RBqepAAAAAJ:TQgYirikUcIC">promote vaccine equity</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman with a frustrated expression looking at her smartphone while sitting on couch at home." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436845/original/file-20211210-188518-9l4g2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When parents turn to social media to find information about COVID-19 vaccinations for children, they can become easy targets for misinformation spread by anti-vaccine activists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/frustrated-and-depressed-young-brunette-woman-is-royalty-free-image/1329809753?adppopup=true">Povozniuk/iStock/Getty Images Plus via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Through this work, we have seen and studied the ways that anti-vaccine activists on social media target vulnerable parents who are trying to navigate the challenges of digesting health information to make appropriate choices for their children.</p>
<h2>Social media and vaccine misinformation</h2>
<p>Anti-vaccine activists are a small but vocal group. According to research conducted by the non-profit Center for Countering Digital Hate, <a href="https://www.counterhate.com/disinformationdozen">just 12 social media accounts</a> – the “disinformation dozen” – are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996570855/disinformation-dozen-test-facebooks-twitters-ability-to-curb-vaccine-hoaxes">behind the majority</a> of anti-vaccine posts on Facebook. Studies also show that only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0396">about 2% of parents</a> reject all vaccines for their children. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-007609">A larger group</a>, or about 20% of parents, can more accurately be described as vaccine hesitant, which means they are undecided about having their children receive vaccines <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/imz/child-adolescent.html">as recommended by the U.S. Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/poll-finding/kff-covid-19-vaccine-monitor-october-2021/">With regard to COVID-19 vaccines specifically</a>, as of October 2021, about one-third of parents with children ages 5 to 11 years said they would get their child vaccinated right away. Another one-third said they would wait to see how the vaccine is working, and the last one-third said they would definitely not get their child vaccinated. </p>
<p>It can be difficult for parents to sort through the large amount of information available about COVID-19 vaccines – both true and untrue. In their search for answers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">some parents turn to social media platforms</a>. The problem is, these parents are often targeted by anti-vaccine activists who are better organized and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1">more skilled at tailoring their messages</a> to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003">varied concerns of people who are vaccine hesitant</a> in comparison to pro-vaccine activists. </p>
<p>Social media, in particular, has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565-X">a primary vehicle</a> for the spread of misinformation. Although sometimes misinformation is blatantly false, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.03.009">other times it is more like a game of telephone</a>. A kernel of truth gets modified slightly as it is retold, which ends up becoming something untrue. Unfortunately, exposure to COVID-19 misinformation has been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1">reduce people’s intent to get vaccinated</a>.</p>
<h2>Addressing parents’ vaccine concerns</h2>
<p>So how can pediatricians and other health care professionals empower parents to feel confident in the choice to get their children vaccinated for COVID-19? </p>
<p>The answer may lie in working with communities to promote the vaccine as trustworthy instead of simply asking communities to trust it. We are part of the Pittsburgh Community Vaccine Collaborative, which is a community-academic partnership that seeks to ensure equitable access to the COVID-19 vaccines. Through that effort, we have focused on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15248399211029954">building trustworthiness of the vaccines</a> and of the providers and health systems that are offering the vaccines in their communities. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/13/amid-coronavirus-threat-americans-generally-have-a-high-level-of-trust-in-medical-doctors/">Health care providers are a trusted source of information</a> for COVID-19 vaccine information, but they are not the only sources. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2017.1394533">Research has found</a> that it is important to lean on the expertise and voices of community partners, community health workers and religious leaders.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that pediatricians and public health professionals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.08.021">can effectively use social media</a> to promote vaccination and provide families with reputable scientific information to address their questions and concerns. Results of a survey that was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.09.009">recently published in Academic Pediatrics</a> found that 96% of parents used social media. Of those, 68% reported using it for health information.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://kidspluspgh.com/">a pediatric group</a> we partner with <a href="https://people.com/human-interest/dr-todd-wolynn-takes-on-anti-vaxxers-science-singing-silly/">uses comedy combined with information</a> to combat myths and answer questions about the COVID-19 vaccines. </p>
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<p>Social media is also an effective way to reach adolescents who can decide for themselves if they want <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549211048784">to get a COVID-19 vaccine</a> without their parents’ consent (<a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/90671596/can-teens-get-vaccinated-without-their-parents-consent-it-depends-on-where-they-live">in some cities and states</a>). Adolescents may also be able to influence their parents. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00099228211046499">Research shows</a> that parents who report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for themselves also report high COVID-19 vaccine intention for their children. Therefore, talking about vaccines as a family may be helpful in combating misinformation around the COVID-19 vaccine. In addition, parents who have had their children vaccinated can use social media to share their experiences and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109979">make it feel more normal</a> and accepted among their peers.</p>
<p>We have also learned that promoting <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/news-and-media-literacy/what-is-media-literacy-and-why-is-it-important">media literacy</a>, which encourages people to question the media information they come into contact with, can empower parents to sift through the <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic">“infodemic”</a> of COVID-19 vaccine information. While social media platforms have announced policies of removing vaccine misinformation, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306288">research suggests</a> this is not always effective at reducing the influence of such misinformation. Learning how to find the source of a piece of information and thinking about who are the intended targets may help people determine whether the information is true or distorted.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>Addressing COVID-19 vaccine misinformation can feel overwhelming. The <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> has <a href="https://healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/ask-the-pediatrician/Pages/when-can-children-get-the-COVID-19-vaccine.aspx">helpful information for parents</a> to support making decisions around the COVID-19 vaccine. Parents can also have conversations with their children about media literacy and evaluating information. And they can talk to their children – especially adolescent-age children – about how getting the COVID-19 vaccine can protect them and others. </p>
<p>Increasing COVID-19 vaccine rates for children and young people is important to promote their health and wellness, as well as to move closer to ending the pandemic. </p>
<p>[<em>Too busy to read another daily email?</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-toobusy">Get one of The Conversation’s curated weekly newsletters</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaime Sidani receives funding from the Richard King Mellon Foundation, the American Heart Association, and the PittCATS Clinical Scholars program, funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Hoffman receives funding from The Richard King Mellon Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maya Ragavan receives funding from the National Institutes of Health (through an institutional KL2) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. </span></em></p>Pediatricians and other health care providers can take some concrete steps toward building trust and counteracting anti-vaccination misinformation.Jaime Sidani, Assistant Professor of Public Health, University of PittsburghBeth Hoffman, Postdoctoral Associate in Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of PittsburghMaya Ragavan, Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1578942021-04-06T14:35:19Z2021-04-06T14:35:19ZSocial media users in Kenya and South Africa trust science, but still share COVID-19 hoaxes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393141/original/file-20210401-15-h0pyp5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kenya and South Africa have a high exposure to disinformation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic has led to widespread <a href="https://factcheck.afp.com/busting-coronavirus-myths">disinformation</a> circulating on social media globally. This includes false information about the virus, its origins and possible cures for the disease it causes. Much of the inaccurate information was related to China, the country where the first cases of an atypical pneumonia were reported in December 2019. This was determined in January 2020 to be caused by <a href="https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/interactive-timeline?gclid=CjwKCAjwu5CDBhB9EiwA0w6sLefKI1LGMZ2by2RTlJXHKT-PFdq9Q7YU4DPL5uqMKhNkp50WOF0BoBoC1qAQAvD_BwE#event-7">a novel coronavirus</a>.</p>
<p>Although the precise origin of the virus is still unknown, a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00865-8">major investigation</a> by the World Health Organisation found that markets that sold animals were a probable source. Alternative theories, such as that the virus escaped from a laboratory, were almost entirely ruled out. Yet, this is one of the misinformation theories that have been <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/02/12/china-covid-misinformation-li-meng-yan/">circulating widely</a>. The Chinese state itself <a href="https://apnews.com/article/pandemics-beijing-only-on-ap-epidemics-media-122b73e134b780919cc1808f3f6f16e8">also engaged in disinformation</a> in an attempt to overturn the narrative.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23743670.2019.1627230">Previous research</a> has shown that media users in Kenya and South Africa believe they are often exposed to disinformation. Research has also shown that Kenyan and South African social media users are very likely to share such information, even if they suspect or know it to be false. This occurs against the background of a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/recq21/40/4?nav=tocList">steep increase in disinformation in Africa</a> in recent years, often linked to a lack of trust in the news media. </p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic provides us with a useful lens through which to study attitudes and practices of disinformation particularly as they relate to China, given the prominence the country and its leaders had in media coverage of the crisis.</p>
<h2>The research</h2>
<p>In April 2020, we surveyed 970 adult social media users in Kenya and 991 in South Africa to understand how they engaged with disinformation about China and COVID-19. We focused on Kenya and South Africa as two countries with vibrant media environments. Both countries have active online communities. In South Africa, 43% of citizens <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1851387">say they regularly get their news from social media</a>, followed by Nigeria (36%) and Kenya (25%). </p>
<p>The goal of our study was to investigate the link between social media users’ attitudes towards China and their motivations to share disinformation related to COVID-19 and China. To do so, we showed participants sample hoaxes and debunked rumours related to COVID-19 and China. We then asked them whether they believed the posts were true or not, and why they would or would not share them.</p>
<p>We retrieved the four debunked social media posts from the collection of fact-checks available on the website of <a href="https://factcheck.afp.com/">AFP Fact Check</a>.</p>
<p>The findings of this project were included in <a href="http://disinfoafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/What-Motivates-The-Sharing-of-Misinformation-about-China-and-COVID-19.pdf">a paper</a> that was presented at the <a href="https://www.asc.upenn.edu/news-events/events/narratives-covid-19-china-and-world-technology-society-and-nations">Narratives of COVID-19 in China and the World: Technology, Society, and Nations symposium</a> hosted virtually by the University of Pennsylvania in March 2021.</p>
<h2>The findings</h2>
<p>We found that, at the peak of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, both Kenyans and South Africans held broadly negative views of China. They believed that China was governed less competently and honestly than the United States. Respondents appeared to acknowledge the positive impact of Chinese economic engagement with Africa, but were still relatively critical of Beijing’s policies on other domains such as its governance, respect for civic rights, protection of the environment and media freedom. </p>
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<p>Nevertheless, respondents offered resistance against certain xenophobic or racist messaging and attribution of blame to China. For example, although 39% of South Africans and 49% of Kenyans strongly supported closing their borders to foreign travellers, the majority agreed that attributing blame to China by referring to the “Chinese coronavirus” or the “Wuhan disease” was racist.</p>
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<p>These findings are important indicators of the prevailing views towards foreigners in two African countries that have often seen xenophobic conflicts. </p>
<p>The majority of South Africans and Kenyans did not believe the hoaxes or rumours, and trusted scientists. But, a significant number showed an interest in sharing the hoax or rumour posts – even if they did not necessarily believe them. For instance, 40% of Kenyans and 29% of South Africans believed the (fake) post about an alleged fight between Chinese and Kenyans on the streets of Wuhan was true.</p>
<p>The most common motivation to share these social media posts was a perceived moral or civic duty to share information (whether true or not) and raise awareness about an issue. There was also a desire to spark debate and solicit other people’s views. Many respondents also said they would share misinformation for fun or entertainment.</p>
<p>There were also some differences between the types of posts. Respondents said they were more likely to share posts about racial injustices to make a statement about their political views, for instance to highlight injustice. </p>
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<p>Overall, we did not find a significant link between negative views of China and social media users’ motivations to share disinformation about COVID-19 and China. Those who believed the posts to be true were most likely to share it out of a sense of moral duty. However, those with stronger negative views of China were not more inclined to do so than those with more positive views. </p>
<h2>Value of the study</h2>
<p>This study contributes to our growing understanding of why African media users share disinformation. The findings confirm <a href="https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/14801/3378">earlier research</a> in six African countries. That research showed that factors such as a sense of civic duty and an inclination towards humorous social media content drove the spread of disinformation.</p>
<p>Although the study encouragingly suggests that African social media users resisted disinformation they considered racist, the findings, more disconcertingly, confirm that people are willing to share disinformation even when they suspect or know the information to be false. </p>
<p>More research on these sharing motivations remains important. If organisations and fact checkers know what factors motivate people to consume and share disinformation, they can develop interventions that are better suited to particular behaviour patterns and contexts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Herman Wasserman receives funding from the National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS), project ref no BC01/2019/10.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dani Madrid-Morales does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers found that both Kenyans and South Africans have a broadly negative view of China, possibly amplified by the pandemic.Herman Wasserman, Professor of Media Studies in the Centre for Film and Media Studies, University of Cape TownDani Madrid-Morales, Assistant Professor in Journalism at the Jack J. Valenti School of Communication, University of HoustonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1532832021-01-25T13:31:48Z2021-01-25T13:31:48ZYour corner pharmacy – joining the front lines of the COVID-19 fight<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380259/original/file-20210122-17-1yxe9xd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=183%2C201%2C5922%2C3899&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A pharmacy manager at CVS Health in Massachusetts prepares to administer vaccines at a veterans center.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakMassachusettsVaccine/1bdd7bf79faa479396a45286855a08c1/photo?Query=vaccine%20AND%20pharmacy&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=149&currentItemNo=18">Associated Press</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The new year has brought the deadliest weeks of the U.S. COVID-19 epidemic thus far, with thousands of deaths every day. It’s been several weeks since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration <a href="https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-takes-key-action-fight-against-covid-19-issuing-emergency-use-authorization-first-covid-19">issued</a> the first of two emergency use authorizations for COVID-19 vaccines, but getting one isn’t easy. </p>
<p>There are no available appointments to get a vaccine in many communities. <a href="https://abc7.com/dodger-stadium-la-vaccine-covid-19-covid19/9875620/">Wait times</a> at California’s Dodger Stadium, the nation’s largest distribution site, reached five hours earlier this month. At the current rate, it <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/where-our-current-covid-19-vaccination-rate-will-take-us-11611324000">could take until 2022</a> for all <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/21/health/us-vaccination-timeline-analysis/index.html">adult Americans to be vaccinated</a>, according to some estimates. </p>
<p>The Biden administration is trying to change that. The national strategy President Biden rolled out in his first week in office includes a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/National-Strategy-for-the-COVID-19-Response-and-Pandemic-Preparedness.pdf">target of injecting 100 million vaccines during his first 100 days as president</a> and strengthening distribution to high-risk communities. </p>
<p>A key component of the president’s <a href="https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/01/biden-details-5-step-covid-vaccine-plan-names-new-lead-vaccines">five-step vaccine plan</a>, he <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-15/biden-plans-less-rules-more-shots-in-revised-vaccination-effort">said</a>, is to “fully activate the pharmacies across the country.” This will greatly expand the number of providers to administer vaccines – and <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/pharmacies-say-they-could-do-more-distribute-vaccines-states-are-n1254016">expand the role of pharmacists</a> in the pandemic in the weeks and months ahead. </p>
<p>As pharmacists who work in both rural and urban settings, we are among those who are preparing to meet this challenge. </p>
<h2>Challenges with handling and distribution</h2>
<p>With the slow rollout, community pharmacies are being brought on board <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/pharmacies-say-they-could-do-more-distribute-vaccines-states-are-n1254016">much sooner</a> than anticipated. They’ve been an underutilized resource: U.S. pharmacies have experience storing and administering many types of vaccines. In 2018, they gave about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/fluvaxview/nifs-estimates-nov2018.htm">one-third</a> of all flu shots, up from 18% in 2012. They are now preparing to handle the new Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines.html">COVID-19 vaccines</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1352405591172513793"}"></div></p>
<p>These <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines/mRNA.html">messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines</a> have a new, but not unknown, mechanism. The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/info-by-product/moderna/index.html">Moderna vaccine</a> can be kept in a traditional freezer, but the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/info-by-product/pfizer/index.html">Pfizer vaccine</a> requires ultra-cold storage at -112 to -76 F before being thawed and administered. <a href="https://www.pharmacypracticenews.com/Covid-19/Article/12-20/Pharmacists-Prepare-for-COVID-19-Vaccine-Cold-Chain-Challenges/61251">Health systems</a> and federal partner pharmacies equipped with these specialized freezers are key hubs for distribution. </p>
<p>It’s not just the vaccine that needs to be protected. Pharmacies are stockpiling personal protective equipment to keep staff safe. They have also established safety <a href="https://tinyurl.com/y57nrrvc">protocols</a> for patients – social distancing, disinfection and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/info-by-product/clinical-considerations.html">observation</a> for 15 to 30 minutes after vaccination. </p>
<p>There are also administrative requirements, issuing immunization cards to those who have been immunized and <a href="https://ncpa.org/covid-vaccine#reporting">reporting</a> the number of administered doses to state and federal officials. </p>
<p>Pharmacies are <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/reporting/vaccinefinder.html">registering</a> with the searchable <a href="https://vaccinefinder.org/find-vaccine">Vaccine Finder</a> website – where people will be able to search for participating pharmacies. The vaccine is <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/faq.html#:%7E:text=Vaccine%20doses%20purchased%20with%20US,Administration%27s%20Provider%20Relief%20Fund.">free</a>: Insurance companies will be billed an administration fee, though a national relief fund covers that cost for the uninsured. </p>
<p>Under a U.S. Department of Health and Human Services <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/licensed-pharmacists-and-pharmacy-interns-regarding-covid-19-vaccines-immunity.pdf">mandate</a>, pharmacists and pharmacist interns who have completed a minimum of 20 hours of accredited training are authorized to administer COVID-19 vaccines.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380243/original/file-20210122-19-yiicvp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The U.S. is amidst the deadliest wave of the pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/National-Strategy-for-the-COVID-19-Response-and-Pandemic-Preparedness.pdf">COVID Tracking Project</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sharing information</h2>
<p>While health departments and local officials are working to share <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/index.html">information</a>, many people are calling their local pharmacies with <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/faq.html#:%7E:text=Vaccine%%20%2020with%20US,Administration%27s%20Provider%20Relief%20Fund">questions</a>. Because the vaccine was produced, tested and approved in record time, some are questioning its <a href="https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/covid-19-vaccine-safety">safety</a>. It was produced quickly because government funding fast-tracked various phases of development, allowing them to be conducted simultaneously rather than sequentially. Thousands of volunteers signed up for clinical trials, speeding the process, and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iGkwaESsGBQ">emergency FDA approval</a> allowed for rollout while some phase 3 studies are completed.</p>
<p>People are also concerned about contracting coronavirus from the vaccine, which is impossible. Neither <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/hcp/mrna-vaccine-basics.html">mRNA vaccine</a> contains live virus; they simply teach the body to recognize the unique spike protein on the outside of the COVID-19 virus to create a faster immune response to the invader if exposed. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines/how-they-work.html">Two doses</a> must be spaced 21 to 28 days apart, and it takes another few weeks after the second dose to reach full immunity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="corner pharmacy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380275/original/file-20210122-15-h1vn58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pharmacists can administer vaccinations and also answer questions about vaccines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cc_chapman/484475540/in/photolist-JP4Gy-4nj9NH-4njaZe-4njbXD-o26gGj-Nhv63f-4njbJH-LYXkdJ-4nofxd-4noeF5-4noe9q-MFwyZ-oV4PWr-oT2Xpj-oCzdeb-7Ey28v-oUN996-bWxze-4njakx-surYS-oCzFP8-2Lgv4Z-64swKQ-oV2Xh9-oT2VeN-oT2Weo-GmGsLj-oV4Mn8-MgmRzu-wzbEjS-pLHYY9-T5fiMz-nL3zGw-YcymkT-2d5oVX-7XK56-f27XZH-obb2zU-53iEg-7XJfv-rGofxh-6o7GCa-7XJ4Q-Xu9iq8-8KCC2c-7EyYrg-9HjnZk-b9C5U-6D8qpP-7XHQc">C.C. Chapman/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some who have called us are worried about possible <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/expect/after.html">side effects</a>. The most commonly reported aftereffect is pain and swelling at the injection site; some individuals have also reported chills, fever, headache or fatigue. While this may be uncomfortable, it’s not alarming: These are all signs that the immune system is doing its job.</p>
<p>We have also helped explain to people why all are monitored after their shot. A few people have had serious allergic reactions – <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/managing-anaphylaxis.html">anaphylactic shock</a>, which is why there is an established observation period after the vaccine that is longer for anyone with a history of allergies. Pharmacists are trained to respond to these rare reactions should they occur. </p>
<p>There have also been reports of individuals who have died within days or weeks of receiving the vaccine. Researchers are investigating these rare events, but so far, there is no evidence that the vaccine is responsible. <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2020/12/28/chance-illnesses-after-covid-19-vaccinations-could-test-public-confidence-even-if-the-problems-are-unrelated/">Unrelated</a> or “incidental” illness seems to be the culprit, which is unsurprising given the demographics – many of those vaccinated in the early rollout are elderly people who are in frail health. </p>
<p>Vaccines have the power to bring this pandemic under control. They could possibly even end it, but only after some <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-people-need-to-get-a-covid-19-vaccine-in-order-to-stop-the-coronavirus-152071">70% of humanity</a> is inoculated. Almost 90% of Americans live within <a href="https://www.DOI.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183172">five miles of a local pharmacy</a> where, starting in February, many will be able to get vaccinated against this virus.</p>
<p>[<em>Research into coronavirus and other news from science</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-corona-research">Subscribe to The Conversation’s new science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153283/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two pharmacists involved in COVID-19 vaccine preparation explain the role pharmacists are poised to play in expanding vaccine access.Sarah Lynch, Director of Skills Education and Clinical Assistant Professor of Pharmacy Practice, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkDanielle Christian Mayer, Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Jefferson College of Pharmacy, Thomas Jefferson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1513242020-12-09T11:24:24Z2020-12-09T11:24:24ZConspiracy theories may seem irrational – but they fulfill a basic human need<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373352/original/file-20201207-72125-sbmwf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=326%2C31%2C594%2C437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/coronavirus-denial-pandemic-lies-virus-hidden-1678060957">Shutterstock/Lightspring</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There has been a proliferation of <a href="https://theconversation.com/film-your-hospital-the-anatomy-of-a-covid-19-conspiracy-theory-147948">conspiracy theories</a> about COVID-19 that either reject the existence of the virus altogether or question the official account of its origins, its mode of transmission, its effects and its remedies. Many of these theories are highly implausible and harmful and it has become commonplace to describe them as irrational – <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2772693">even delusional</a>. </p>
<p>But it is not plausible to describe them as signs of mental illness. Quite the opposite. Our research has shown that many irrational beliefs are attempts to <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-epistemic-innocence-of-irrational-beliefs-9780198863984">protect mental health</a> by responding to the human need for control, understanding and belonging. </p>
<p>The most radical theory about COVID-19 is denialism: the virus does not exist or is not as dangerous as is commonly believed. For some deniers, COVID-19 cannot be caught at all because <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/goop-coronavirus-kelly-brogan-expert-contributor-md-deaths-covid-19-a9421476.html">germ-based transmission</a> itself is a myth. For others, it is <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/11/19/936248527/covid-19-denial-still-rampant-in-some-virus-hotspots">just a “common cold”</a> and its alleged lethal effects are overplayed. Powerful individuals and organisations (such as <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/11/19/936248527/covid-19-denial-still-rampant-in-some-virus-hotspots">Bill Gates</a> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/14/coronavirus-viral-video-plandemic-judy-mikovits-conspiracy-theories">Big Pharma</a>) are considered responsible for the hype, with motives ranging from making money to suppressing freedom.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Scientist in biohazard protection clothing analysing a COVID-19 sample with microscope." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373356/original/file-20201207-13-1r79ixw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some conspiracy theorists believe COVID-19 was created in a lab like this one.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scientist-biohazard-protection-clothing-analyzing-covid-1651369351">Shutterstock/MongkolchonAkesin</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another popular theory denies that the virus passed from non-humans to humans accidentally. It was, instead, intentionally crafted by the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jun/09/conspiracies-covid-19-lab-false-pandemic">Chinese</a> in a lab in Wuhan. Other theories blame the quick and devastating proliferation of the virus on <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jun/09/conspiracies-covid-19-lab-false-pandemic">genetically modified crops</a> or to the roll out of <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-experts-investigate-how-the-5g-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-began-139137">5G technology</a>. </p>
<p>All these theories share some <a href="https://www.argumenta.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Argumenta-Anna-Ichino-Juha-Raikka-Non-Doxastic-Conspiracy-Theories.pdf">common features</a>. There is always some sort of murky plot that conflicts with official accounts, and they are usually based on limited or discredited evidence. But these common features are grounded in some <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/pops.12568">basic needs</a> that all humans share.</p>
<h2>Seeking hope – and an explanation</h2>
<p>Why do people fall for a plot? At the bottom, there is a powerful <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-05066-012">drive for causal understanding</a>. In a novel situation, people need a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27613333/">causal map</a> to navigate the environment. They may settle for an explanation before they have all the relevant information, because uncertainty is hard to tolerate. In a pandemic scenario, the explanation may be filling a gap caused by doubt and division among experts. This is definitely the case with COVID-19. Scientists have expressed disagreement about many aspects of COVID-19, from the severity of the threat to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7229950/">effectiveness of face coverings</a> (this is, of course, the process of scientific research).</p>
<p>As our previous research highlighted, people tend to prefer explanations that make reference to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11245-018-9620-y">a person’s intentions</a> over explanations that present the event as accidental. In particular, they tend to blame a threat on “agents” they may already have reason to distrust. This is why various COVID-19 conspiracy theories blame “the Chinese” who have long been political targets in Europe and the US, or pharmaceutical companies whose influence is criticised in the anti-vax and anti-psychiatry movements.</p>
<iframe src="https://player.acast.com/5e3bf1111a6e452f6380a7bc/episodes/expert-guide-to-conspiracy-theories-part-6-coronavirus?theme=default&cover=1&latest=1" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="110px" allow="autoplay"></iframe>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://itunes.apple.com/gb/podcast/the-anthill/id1114423002?mt=2"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321534/original/file-20200319-22606-q84y3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=182&fit=crop&dpr=1" alt="Listen on Apple Podcasts" width="268" height="68"></a> <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/265Bnp4BgwaEmFv2QciIOC?si=-WMr1ecDTsO_6avrkxZu8g"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321535/original/file-20200319-22606-1l4copl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=183&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="268" height="70"></a></p>
<p>Seeing the event as planned rather than accidental allows people to maintain a sense of control over a reality that is confusing and unpredictable. If there is someone to blame, we can restore some kind of balance to the universe by seeking to punish the culprits for their evil conduct. Also, we can prevent them from harming us next time. This illusion of control contributes to our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10677-018-9894-6">optimism about the future</a> and helps us cope effectively with adversity.</p>
<h2>Rejecting evidence</h2>
<p>But why do people commit to a theory that is incompatible with accepted wisdom even when the evidence for it is inconclusive? The conflict with an official version arises from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10677-018-9894-6">distrust</a> towards institutions such as governments, scientists, the media and medical authorities. This distrust drives the belief in a conspiracy and is central to the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.578586/full">identity of groups</a> that people already associate with.</p>
<p>Conspiracy theories tend to originate within so-called “<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/episteme/article/abs/echo-chambers-and-epistemic-bubbles/5D4AC3A808C538E17C50A7C09EC706F0">epistemic bubbles</a>”. These are social structures in which opposing voices are, more or less deliberately, excluded. This typically happens in self-selected social media networks like Facebook groups or Twitter exchanges where those with a different view are blocked. Within these bubbles, theories about COVID-19 become something that defines who the people are and what they stand for.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-experts-investigate-how-the-5g-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-began-139137">Four experts investigate how the 5G coronavirus conspiracy theory began</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Each bubble has its own standards to evaluate expertise and evidence. Some conspiracy theorists mistrust statistics and for some COVID-19 deniers the experts are not the epidemiologists, but the holistic health gurus. If people are trapped in an alternative bubble <a href="https://social-epistemology.com/2019/10/09/is-conspiracy-theorising-irrational-neil-levy/">it may not be irrational</a> (from their point of view) to endorse a theory that is consistent with their previous convictions and matches the testimony of others in their group. The theory is a way of imposing <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11245-018-9616-7">meaning</a> on a constantly changing world.</p>
<p>This suggests that to counter the spread of conspiracy theories, we should find other ways to fulfil the needs from which they arise, such as the need for control or for causal understanding. Although we have no control over the fact that there is a pandemic, it can be empowering to realise that our behaviour in response to it – such as wearing a mask or respecting social distance – can make a difference to its outcomes. And although experts cannot always provide the unfaltering certainties people crave, friendly and accessible scientific communication can help debunk conspiracy theories and satisfy the human desire for knowledge and understanding.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151324/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Implausible theories give believers control over a puzzling and threatening world.Lisa Bortolotti, Professor of Philosophy, University of BirminghamAnna Ichino, Postdoctoral Fellow in Philosophy, University of MilanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1479482020-10-15T12:06:34Z2020-10-15T12:06:34Z‘Film Your Hospital’ – the anatomy of a COVID-19 conspiracy theory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363448/original/file-20201014-17-c4310k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=916%2C584%2C3104%2C2091&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fake-pandemic-conspiracy-theory-text-on-1740541940">Shutterstock/MartaDM</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s widely believed that social media conspiracy theories are driven by malicious and anonymous “bots” set up by shadowy third parties. But <a href="https://www.jmir.org/2020/10/e22374#ref9">my new research</a> – which examined an extremely successful COVID-19 conspiracy theory – has shown that ordinary citizen accounts can be just as culpable when it comes to spreading dangerous lies and misinformation.</p>
<p>The pandemic has fuelled <a href="https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2020/04/covid-top-10-current-conspiracy-theories/">at least ten conspiracy theories</a> this year. Some linked the spread of the disease to <a href="https://www.jmir.org/2020/10/e22374#ref4">the 5G network</a>, leading to phone masts being vandalised. Others argued that <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-is-not-a-bioweapon-but-bioterrorism-is-a-real-future-threat-135984">COVID-19 was a biological weapon</a>. Research has shown that conspiracy theories could contribute to people <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/coronavirus-conspiracy-beliefs-mistrust-and-compliance-with-government-guidelines-in-england/9D6401B1E58F146C738971C197407461/core-reader">ignoring social distancing rules</a>. </p>
<p>The <em>#FilmYourHospital</em> movement was one such theory. It encouraged people to record videos of themselves in seemingly empty, or less-than-crowded, hospitals to <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/6777373/bc-man-hot-water-covid-19-test-site-hospital/">prove the pandemic is a hoax</a>. Many videos <a href="https://observers.france24.com/en/20200422-debunked-fake-film-hospital-lies-covid19">showing empty corridors and wards</a> were shared.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.jmir.org/2020/10/e22374#ref9">Our research</a> sought to identify the drivers of the conspiracy and examine whether the accounts that propelled it in April 2020 were bots or real people. </p>
<h2>Scale of the conspiracy</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-experts-investigate-how-the-5g-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-began-139137">5G conspiracy</a> attracted 6,556 Twitter users over the course of a single week. The <em>#FilmYourHospital</em> conspiracy was much larger than 5G, with a total of 22,785 tweets sent over a seven day period by 11,333 users. It also had strong international backing. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A social network graph which highlights how the conspiracy theory discussion was broken up into groups." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363172/original/file-20201013-19-tkfgaf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Graph shows how the conspiracy theory discussion was broken up into different groups.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wasim Ahmed</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The visualisation above shows each Twitter user as a small circle and the overall discussion is clustered into a number of different groups. These groups are formed based on how users were mentioning and re-tweeting each other.</p>
<p>The visualisation highlights how the three largest groups were responsible for spreading the conspiracy the furthest. For instance, the discussion in groups one and two was centred around a single tweet that was highly re-tweeted. The tweet suggested the public were being misled and that hospitals were not busy or overrun – as had been reported by the mainstream media. The tweet then requested other users to film their hospitals using the hashtag so that it could become a trending topic. The graphic shows the reach and size of these groups.</p>
<h2>Where are the bots?</h2>
<p>We used <a href="https://botometer.osome.iu.edu/faq">Botometer</a> to detect bots that draw on a machine learning algorithm. The tool calculates a score where low scores indicate human behaviour and a high score indicates a bot. Botometer works by extracting various features from an account such as its profile, friends, social network, patterns in temporal activity, language and sentiment. Our study took a 10% systematic representative sample of users to run through Botometer. </p>
<p>Our results indicated that the rate of automated accounts was likely to be low. We used the raw scores from Botometer to attach a probability label of whether the account was likely to be a bot. These ranged from very low, low, low-medium and high probability.</p>
<p>At best, only 9.2% of the sample that we looked at resembled highly suspicious account behaviour or bots. That means over 90% of accounts we examined were probably genuine. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363227/original/file-20201013-17-t4n7q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure shows how many of the accounts were suspicious or bot-like.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wasim Ahmed</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, we also found that deleted accounts and automated accounts contained keywords such as “Trump” and “Make America Great Again” in their user-bios. Around the same time President Donald Trump had been <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-52274969">in disagreement</a> with scientific advisers on when to lift lockdown rules. </p>
<h2>Where did it come from?</h2>
<p>When we examined the most influential users connected to the hashtag we found that the conspiracy theory was driven by influential conservative politicians as well as far-right political activists. <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-and-conspiracies-how-the-far-right-is-exploiting-the-pandemic-145968">Scholars</a> have noted how the far right has been exploiting the pandemic. For example, some of have set up channels on Telegram, a cloud-based instant messaging service, to discuss COVID-19 and have amplified disinformation. </p>
<p>But once the conspiracy theory began to generate attention it was sustained by ordinary citizens. The campaign also appeared to be supported and driven by pro-Trump Twitter accounts and our research found that some accounts that behaved like “bots” and deleted accounts tended to be pro-Trump. It is important to note that not all accounts that behave like bots are bots, as there might be users who are highly active who could receive a high score. And, conversely, not all bots are harmful as some have been set up for legitimate purposes. </p>
<p>Twitter users frequently shared YouTube videos in support of the theory and YouTube was an influential source.</p>
<h2>Can they be stopped?</h2>
<p>Social media organisations can monitor for suspicious accounts and content and if they violate the terms of service, the content should be removed quickly. Twitter experimented with attaching <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2020/06/09/twitter-5g-coronavirus-labels/?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAACUaeHrbj2O8wmBsfa_M97Pd-WeMv1KJyp9T0tQEGYqjrl589KeJYiiQ7GpZjZZiwvgALP-lg8JbNpdWpKM4XQi6DiAT8lkmWcS5HRW-RbGlyH9RkmprkaNtcZ43tDIom8EjdoOIW0g1Wy2CnWYmmq2ZL9iXdzFeFRGwjteG_bgQ">warning labels on tweets</a>. This was initially unsuccessful because Twitter <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/twitter-5g-coronavirus-label-blames-algorithm-encourages-conspiracy-theories-2020-6?r=US&IR=T">accidentally mislabelled some tweets</a>, which might have inadvertently pushed conspiracies further. But if they manage to put together a better labelling technique this could be an effective method. </p>
<p>Conspiracies can also be countered by providing trustworthy information, delivered from public health authorities as well as popular culture “influencers”. For instance, Oldham City Council in the UK, enlisted the help of actor James Buckley – famous for his role as Jay in the E4 sitcom The Inbetweeners – <a href="https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/showbiz-news/oldham-council-uses-inbetweeners-star-18759983">to spread public health messages</a>.</p>
<p>And other research highlights that explaining flawed arguments and describing scientific consensus may help <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0175799">reduce the effect of misinformation.</a>. Sadly, no matter what procedures and steps are put in place, there will always be people who will believe in conspiracies. The onus must be on the platforms to make sure these theories are not so easily spread.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147948/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wasim Ahmed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s not just bots which spread misinformation on social media.Wasim Ahmed, Lecturer in Digital Business, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1472162020-10-09T14:30:43Z2020-10-09T14:30:43ZHow ‘hyperlocal’ journalism can restore trust in the media<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362647/original/file-20201009-19-1x06ham.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C36%2C2333%2C1538&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/online-news-mobile-phone-close-smartphone-1204164946">Shutterstock/TeroVesalainen</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is a critical time for public interest journalism. Trust in the mainstream media is a <a href="https://www.cv-library.co.uk/recruitment-insight/10-least-trusted-professions-uk/">major problem</a> as fake news spreads unabated on social networks. </p>
<p>One of the key issues is the disappearance of local newspapers which could prove to be “<a href="https://www.pressgazette.co.uk/uk-gov-report-finds-direct-link-between-local-newspaper-circulation-and-voter-turnout-absence-of-journalism-in-some-areas-potentially-catastrophic/">catastrophic</a>” for some areas of the UK, according to a new government report. The report warns that the decline of the local press reduces scrutiny of democratic functions and that this is “unlikely” to improve without intervention.</p>
<p>So it has never been more important to support the scores of <a href="https://www.communityjournalism.co.uk/about-icnn/">independent community publishers</a> up and down the country. They amplify the issues that are important to their readers. Their stories could help restore public trust in journalism – but only if the government puts its money where its mouth is, and helps to fund them.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.communityjournalism.co.uk/about-icnn/">Independent Community News Network (ICNN)</a> – which has more than 120 members throughout the UK – a “hyperlocal” news service is one which typically pertains to “a specific geographic area such as a town, neighbourhood, village, county or even postcode”. Among their members are titles as diverse as <a href="https://www.shetnews.co.uk/">Shetland News</a> and <a href="https://cornishstuff.com">Cornish Stuff</a>.</p>
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<p>The ICNN website states that the shift to online has resulted in an upheaval of the traditional models of journalism. Jobs have been lost, revenues are in decline as advertising dries up and public service journalism has been hit hardest as publications retreat from their traditional stomping grounds. It continues:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>But this digital migration has also inspired individuals and communities to step up to provide an alternative source of information through social enterprises, businesses and voluntary services – delivering enormous civic value. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>At a recent <a href="https://www.coventry.ac.uk/research/about-us/research-events/2020/responsible-journalism/">conference</a> hosted by Coventry University, senior academics argued that the sustenance of this sector was vital to ensure local communities were aware of the nuances of issues like COVID-19 and Brexit. This aligned with recent evidence from the <a href="https://www.edelman.com/20yearsoftrust/">Edelman Trust</a>, which showed that there has been a resurgence in public trust in local journalism over the past decade – and an <a href="https://www.edelman.com/research/edelman-trust-covid-19-demonstrates-essential-role-of-private-sector">erosion of trust</a> in mainstream outlets. </p>
<p>In the UK, the BBC emerged as the most important news source for coronavirus information during the first few months of the pandemic. But survey data shows that only 45% of respondents rate news media as <a href="https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/most-uk-say-news-media-have-helped-them-respond-covid-19-third-say-news-coverage-has-made-crisis">trustworthy sources</a> of such information – a decrease of 12% between April and August. </p>
<h2>Cash needed</h2>
<p>To do their work in helping to restore public trust, these fledgling independent community publishers need money. A £2m government-backed <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/2-million-future-news-fund-to-boost-local-public-interest-journalism">Future News Fund</a> was launched in England in 2019 to boost local public interest journalism. This was a good start. But the government has resisted the innovation fund for public interest journalism that was recommended by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-cairncross-review-a-sustainable-future-for-journalism">Cairncross review</a> last year. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1221871577102462981"}"></div></p>
<p>The review <a href="https://www.pressgazette.co.uk/cairncross-review-institute-for-public-interest-news-innovation-fund-and-tax-reliefs-among-nine-proposals-to-save-uk-news-industry/">also called for</a> tax reliefs and a new Institute for Public Interest News.</p>
<p>The £35 million “<a href="https://www.societyofeditors.org/soe_news/all-in-all-together-uk-government-partners-with-newspaper-industry-on-covid-19-ad-campaign/">All in, all together</a>” campaign, set up by the government during the pandemic, was spent on advertising in national and regional newspapers – but no cash was allocated to independent publishers. </p>
<p>Matthew Abbott, the ICNN community project officer, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Unfortunately, 95% of ICNN members haven’t been able to access any of the government’s 11 support measures, including furloughing staff, VAT exemption on e-publications and the £35m that was allocated to save the newspaper industry via a public health advertising campaign. If the UK government continues to do nothing to address this imbalance, media plurality in the UK will disappear altogether, along with many hundreds of jobs and vital community resources.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>ICNN did, however, secure funding for independent community publishers from the Welsh government and Public Health Scotland, which have set the benchmark for Westminster to follow. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nuj.org.uk/news/nuj-launches-news-recovery-plan/">News Recovery Plan</a> set out by the National Union of Journalists has called for “strategic investment in government advertising, including the hyperlocal sector”. Tech giants, including Google and Facebook, as well as philanthropists and charitable trusts <a href="https://www.pressgazette.co.uk/facebook-pledges-4-5m-to-fund-80-new-uk-community-journalists-in-global-first-for-social-network/">are intervening</a> with increasing frequency to support local journalism.</p>
<p>But in the era of fake news – when it is so important for the public to understand the issues around COVID-19 and Brexit – the government needs to do more to help these independent community publishers spread the truth and to keep their readers informed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147216/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Una Murphy, a lecturer in journalism at Coventry University, is co-founder of VIEWdigital independent community publisher which specialises in social affairs journalism in VIEW magazine and on the VIEWdigital.org website. VIEWdigital has received funding from public bodies, tech companies, charitable trusts and philanthropists. VIEWdigital is a member of the Independent Community News Network. Una is a member of the National Union of Journalists. </span></em></p>Independent community publishers are helping to restore trust in journalism - but they need support.Una Murphy, Lecturer in Journalism, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1391372020-06-11T08:00:07Z2020-06-11T08:00:07ZFour experts investigate how the 5G coronavirus conspiracy theory began<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339791/original/file-20200604-67387-1uubvvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=583%2C179%2C5101%2C3718&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-may-6th-2020-5g-1724597788">Shutterstock/InkDrop</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In times of crisis conspiracy theories can spread as fast as a virus. </p>
<p>As the coronavirus pandemic tightened its grip on a world which struggled to comprehend the enormity of the situation it was facing, darker forces were concocting their own narratives. </p>
<p>Scientists and researchers were working – and continue to work – around the clock for answers. But science is slow and methodical. So far-fetched explanations about how the outbreak started began filling the vacuum. Among these strange explanations is a theory that the recent rollout of <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-5g-conspiracy-theories-prosper-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-136019">5G technology is to blame</a>. But where did this theory begin, how did it develop and mutate and what can be done to stem the tide of fake news? We asked four experts who have all done extensive research in this area to examine these questions.</p>
<p>Marc Tuters, assistant professor of new media and digital culture
at the University of Amsterdam, and Peter Knight, professor of American studies at the University of Manchester, examine the big questions and the history of conspiracy theories. Then Wasim Ahmed, lecturer in digital business at Newcastle University, and Joesph Downing, a nationalism research fellow at the London School of Economics, share the results of their new study into the origins of the 5G conspiracy theory on social media.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><strong><em>This article is part of Conversation Insights</em></strong>
<br><em>The Insights team generates <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218">long-form journalism</a> derived from interdisciplinary research. The team is working with academics from different backgrounds who have been engaged in projects aimed at tackling societal and scientific challenges.</em> </p>
<hr>
<h2>A toxic cocktail of misinformation</h2>
<p><em>Marc Tuters and Peter Knight</em></p>
<p>Conspiracy theories about mobile phone technology have been circulating since the 1990s, and have long historical roots. Doctors first talked of “<a href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/10421078/medicos-meet-radiophobia-1903/">radiophobia</a>” as early as 1903. Following on from <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/sociology/sociology-general-interest/cellular-phones-public-fears-and-culture-precaution?format=PB&isbn=9780521520829">fears about power lines and microwaves</a> in the 1970s, opponents of 2G technology in the 1990s suggested that radiation from mobile phones could cause cancer, and that this information was being covered up. Other conspiracy theories about 5G include the idea that it was responsible for the <a href="https://fullfact.org/online/birds-5G-netherlands/">unexplained deaths of birds</a> and <a href="https://fullfact.org/online/trees-not-chopped-down-for-5g/">trees</a>. The coronavirus <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-5g-conspiracy-theories-prosper-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-136019">5G conspiracy theory</a> comes in several different strains, of varying degrees of implausibility.</p>
<p>One of the first versions of the theory claimed that it was no coincidence that 5G technology was trialled in Wuhan, where the pandemic began (this is incorrect, as 5G <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-telecoms-5g/who-was-first-to-launch-5g-depends-who-you-ask-idUSKCN1RH1V1">was already being rolled out</a> in number of locations). Some claim that the coronavirus crisis was deliberately created in order to keep people at home while 5G engineers install the technology everywhere. Others insist that 5G radiation weakens people’s immune systems, making them more vulnerable to infection by COVID-19. Another mutation of the 5G conspiracy theory asserts that 5G directly transmits the virus. These different 5G stories are often combined together with other COVID-19 conspiracy theories into a toxic cocktail of misinformation.</p>
<p>At first, some conspiracy theorists insisted that the threat of the virus (and the apparent death rates) had been exaggerated. Echoing President Donald Trump’s <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/trump-coronavirus-rally-remark/">own language</a>, some of his supporters considered this as part of an elaborate “hoax” intended to harm his chances of re-election. Others, particularly on the far right in the US, framed lockdown emergency measures in terms of “Deep State” efforts at controlling the population and called for a “<a href="https://www.isdglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Covid-Briefing-2.pdf">second civil war</a>” in response. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339797/original/file-20200604-67351-fyu2pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers in a lab at the Wuhan Institute of Virology, China, in February 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webgate.epa.eu/webgate">EPA-EFE/SHEPHERD HOU CHINA OUT</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Other prominent theories include the claim that the virus was accidentally released by the Wuhan Institute of Virology, or that it was deliberately made as a biowarfare weapon, either by the Chinese or the Americans. One increasingly popular idea is that the pandemic is part of a plan by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)">global elites</a> like Bill Gates or George Soros – in league with <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/2047480613Z.000000000142">Big Pharma</a> – to institute mandatory worldwide vaccinations that would include tracking chips, which would then be activated by 5G radiowaves.</p>
<p>Polling data in various countries including the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/coronavirus-conspiracy-beliefs-mistrust-and-compliance-with-government-guidelines-in-england/9D6401B1E58F146C738971C197407461">UK</a>, the <a href="https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/why-do-people-believe-covid-19-conspiracy-theories/">US</a>, <a href="https://jean-jaures.org/nos-productions/l-epidemie-dans-l-epidemie-theses-complotistes-et-covid-19">France</a>, <a href="https://research.mci.edu/en/cshi/blog/covid19">Austria</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340967865_Erste_Ergebnisse_einer_Online-Umfrage_zur_gesellschaftlichen_Wahrnehmung_des_Umgangs_mit_der_Corona-Pandemie_in_Deutschland">Germany</a> has shown that the most popular coronavirus conspiracy theory is that the virus was man-made – 62% of respondents in the UK think that this theory is true to some degree. In that UK poll, 21% agreed, to varying extents, that coronavirus is caused by 5G and is a form of radiation poisoning transmitted through radiowaves. In comparison, 19% agreed that Jews have created the virus to collapse the economy for financial gain.</p>
<h2>Where did these theories come from?</h2>
<p>Few of these theories are new. Most of them are mutations or re-combinations of existing themes, often drawing on narrative tropes and rhetorical manoeuvres that have a long history. Conspiracy theorists usually have a complete worldview, through which they interpret new information and events, to fit their existing theory. Indeed, one of the defining characteristics of conspiracy thinking is that it is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x">self-sealing, unfalsifiable</a> and resistant to challenge. The absence of evidence is, ironically, often taken as evidence of a massive cover up.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/antisemitism-how-the-origins-of-historys-oldest-hatred-still-hold-sway-today-87878">Antisemitism: how the origins of history’s oldest hatred still hold sway today</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The dismissal of the pandemic as a hoax and the questioning of scientific experts is straight out of the playbook of <a href="https://oxfordre.com/climatescience/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228620-e-328">climate change denial</a>. The 5G theory about radiowaves transmitting or activating the virus, for example, is a reworking of long running conspiracy fears about <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801478536/the-covert-sphere/#bookTabs=1">mind control experiments</a>, subliminal messaging and supposed secret US military weapons projects (all ripe topics for Hollywood’s movie industry).</p>
<p>The 5G story shares similarities with rumours that date back to the 1990s about HAARP (the US military’s High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program). HAARP was a large radio transmitter array located in Alaska and funded by the US Department of Defence, in conjunction with a number of research universities. The programme conducted experiments into the ionosphere (the upper layer of the atmosphere) using radio waves, and was closed down in 2014. Conspiracy theorists, however, claimed that it was actually developing a weapon for weather control as well as mind control. Similarly, concerns have been expressed concerning that 5G might be in fact be a hi-tech weapon whose use represents an “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ol3tAxnNccY">existential threat to humanity</a>”. </p>
<p>There have also long been conspiracy rumours that Big Pharma is <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/1835348">suppressing a cure for cancer</a>. The idea that the virus was made in a lab mirrors claims made a quarter of a century ago about HIV/AIDS. One origin for that story was an early example of a <a href="https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/full/10.1162/jcws_a_00907">KGB disinformation campaign</a>. The allegation that the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation or George Soros planned the coronavirus pandemic is a version of familiar right-wing (and often racist and antisemitic) conspiracy fantasies about <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/03/the-origins-of-the-globalist-slur/555479/">“globalist”</a> elites threatening national and individual sovereignty. There is <a href="https://www.isdglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/20200513-ISDG-Weekly-Briefing-3b.pdf">mounting evidence</a> that far-right groups are opportunistically using fear and uncertainty surrounding the pandemic to promote their hateful politics.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Listen to a special episode on coronavirus conspiracy theories featuring Marc Tuters in The Anthill Podcast’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-there-so-many-coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-listen-to-part-six-of-our-expert-guide-136664">expert guide to conspiracy theories</a></em></p>
<iframe src="https://player.acast.com/5e3bf1111a6e452f6380a7bc/episodes/expert-guide-to-conspiracy-theories-part-6-coronavirus?theme=default&cover=1&latest=1" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="110px" allow="autoplay"></iframe>
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<p><a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319903583">Populist conspiracy theories</a> often work by dividing the world into Us vs Them, with the aim of scapegoating people and institutions and providing simple explanations for complex phenomena. The 5G coronavirus conspiracy theories are particularly challenging because they bring together people from very different parts of the political spectrum. On the one hand, they attract the far-right who see them as part of a technological assault by big government on the freedom of individuals. On the other, they appeal to the well established <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-impact-will-the-coronavirus-pandemic-have-on-anti-vaxxers-135153">anti-vaxxer community</a>, who are often allied with those distrustful of Big Pharma. </p>
<p>In the US, which is in an election year, coronavirus mitigation strategies have become a divisive <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/22/us-stores-against-face-masks">culture war issue</a>, with the president <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/12/opinions/trumps-refusal-to-mask-is-the-most-revealing-thing-ben-ghiat/index.html">refusing to wear a face mask</a>. But in countries <a href="https://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/hygiene-demo-neonazis-und-impfgegner-vereint-bei-corona-demo/25768284.html">like Germany</a> anti-lockdown issues appear to be creating connections across the political spectrum, <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/B_h_sH3g0Np/">led by social media influencers</a> who are working to connect the dots between previously separate conspiracy theory communities or tribes. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1263818537132531714"}"></div></p>
<p>As seen in the quantitative analysis below, such influencers anchor conspiracy theory communities on social media. Because these methods provide only a partial view, <a href="https://medium.com/dmrc-at-large/are-filter-bubbles-real-3be22bd9230e">it is problematic to assume</a> that the members of these communities are necessarily trapped within echo chambers, unable to access other points of view. Nevertheless the findings do correspond with the troubling patterns outlined above. And they also show that <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-believes-in-conspiracy-theories-and-why-listen-to-part-two-of-our-expert-guide-134170">those who believe in</a> and propagate conspiracy theories can come from a cross section of society. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/throwing-science-at-anti-vaxxers-just-makes-them-more-hardline-37721">Throwing science at anti-vaxxers just makes them more hardline</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Social network analysis</h2>
<p><em>Wasim Ahmed and Joseph Downing</em></p>
<p><a href="https://www.jmir.org/2020/5/e19458/">Our study</a> set out to investigate the 5G conspiracy theory on Twitter towards the beginning of April 2020 which was when the conspiracy was trending in the UK and increasing its visibility. </p>
<p>This time period coincided with reports that <a href="https://www.jmir.org/2020/5/e19458/">at least 20</a> UK 5G phone masts were vandalised, including damage reported <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/14/arsonists-attack-phone-mast-serving-nhs-nightingale-hospital">at a hospital</a>. There were also 5G arson attacks across <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/04/26/5g-mast-torchers-turn-up-in-continental-europe-210736">continental Europe</a> during this time. </p>
<p>Our research set out to uncover who was spreading the conspiracy theory, the percentage of users who believed the theory and what steps were needed to combat it. We used a tool called <a href="https://www.smrfoundation.org/nodexl/">NodeXL</a> to carry out a social network analysis. NodeXL is a Microsoft Excel plugin which can be used to retrieve data from a number of social media platforms such as Twitter. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-impact-will-the-coronavirus-pandemic-have-on-anti-vaxxers-135153">What impact will the coronavirus pandemic have on anti-vaxxers?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We captured data using the “5Gcoronavirus” keyword which also retrieved tweets with the #5GCoronavirus hashtag. Tweets we analysed were posted from March 27 to April 4. The network consisted of a total of 10,140 tweets, which are composed of 1,938 mentions, 4,003 retweets, 759 mentions in retweets, 1,110 replies, and 2,328 individual tweets.</p>
<p>We found that there was a specific Twitter account, set up as @5gcoronavirus19 with 383 followers, which was spreading the conspiracy theory and had become influential in driving it forward on social media. The account was able to send out 303 tweets in seven days. We also found that President Trump was often tagged in tweets and was influential within the network without having tweeted himself. This highlights the point about support for these theories coming from the alt-right.</p>
<p>Out of a total of 2,328 individual tweets, 34.8% of users believed the theory and/or shared views in support of it. For example, one user who we are not identifying due to the ethics on which our study was based tweeted: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>5G Kills! #5Gcoronavirus – they are linked! People don’t be blind to the truth!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But 32% denounced the theory or mocked it. For instance, one user noted: “5G is not harming or killing a single person! COVID-19 #5Gcoronavirus”.</p>
<p>A further 33% were just general tweets not expressing any personal views or opinions. Like one user who tweeted: “I have a 10AM Skype Chat on Monday, COVID-19 #5Gcoronavirus”. But this overt lack of support for the conspiracy itself became a problem because as more users joined the discussion, the profile of the topic was raised which allowed it to start trending. </p>
<h2>Network clusters</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336698/original/file-20200521-102647-rnfq9f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our social network graph shows the different groups within a network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We created a social network graph (above), clustering identified different shapes and structures within the network. The largest group in the network represented an “isolates group”. These groups are typically formed when a user mentions a hashtag in their tweets without mentioning another user. Big brands, sports events and breaking news stories will all have a sizeable isolates group. This suggests that during this time the conspiracy topic had become popular and attracted views and opinions from users who were new to the network. </p>
<p>The second largest network shape resembled a “broadcast” network and contained users that were being retweeted. Broadcast networks can typically be found in the Twitter feeds of celebrities and journalists. The Twitter handle @5gcoronavirus19, which was set up to spread the theory, formed a group of its own resembling a broadcast network shape and it received a number of retweets, showing how the conspiracy theory was being amplified as users retweeted content. Conspiracy theorists are likely to use comments made by influential figures which can add fuel to the fire. </p>
<p>A key example of this would be when the television presenter <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/eamonn-holmes-coronavirus-5g-conspiracy-coronavirus-ofcom-david-icke-london-live-a9475336.html">Eamon Holmes</a> said the media couldn’t say for sure whether the 5G theory was false. These comments fell outside of the time period we studied. But they are likely to have had an impact across social media platforms. Holmes was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-52358920">strongly criticised by Ofcom</a> which noted that his comments risked undermining the public’s faith in science.</p>
<h2>The misinformation pandemic</h2>
<p>Months before mobile phone masts were attacked in the UK, the “<a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30461-X/fulltext">infodemic</a>” (a wide and rapid spread of misinformation) was unfolding at a rapid pace. In France, news spread on Facebook of a tasty cure for the virus: <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2020/04/22/non-le-roquefort-n-est-pas-un-remede-contre-le-covid-19_6037460_4355770.html">Roquefort cheese</a>. Indeed, a far more dangerous public health prospect than blue cheese, the rumour that cocaine could cure COVID-19 caused the French Ministry of Health to <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/france-coronavirus-cocaine-social-media-disinformation-a4383181.html">release a warning statement</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1236626510703968257"}"></div></p>
<p>Some argue that strange events like this, which erupt from the online world of fake news, memes and misinformation, <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/01/23/how-jokes-won-the-election">effectively delivered</a> Trump the US presidency. Given that a survey showed 75% of Americans <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/fake-news-survey">believed fake news</a> during that election, this claim is not as outrageous as it initially sounds. But there is another theory. Rather than social media activity leading to direct “real world” action, the reverse could be true. For example, a major event like the Arab Spring was a real world action that <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1940161212471716">caused a ripple effect</a> across social media.</p>
<p>Dark forces are still at work on the internet during major events. They seek to spread a fake news agenda and change the way events are perceived and constructed in dangerous ways. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444819864572">Our other research</a>, carried out with <a href="https://www.salford.ac.uk/business-school/our-staff/business-academics/richard-dron">Richard Dron</a> from the University of Salford, examined the depictions of Muslims during the Grenfell fire and tracked how Grenfell was covered on Twitter as the fire still burned in the early hours of June 14, 2017. In the following days <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/16/scepticism-persists-over-grenfell-death-toll-despite-mets-final-figure">both celebrities</a> and <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/grenfell-tower-fire-cover-up-death-toll-stop-riot-david-lammy-mp-labour-london-prevent-a7809911.html">politicians</a> would be reprimanded for spreading distrust about official accounts of the fire.</p>
<p>A strong denunciation of the 5G and COVID-19 conspiracy from a world leader, when it surfaced, would have helped in mitigating the effect of the theory on the public. But during this time Boris Johnson, the UK’s prime minister, was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-52060791">himself sick with COVID-19</a>. So was there was no direct rebuttal from him. </p>
<p>Although this would have helped we believe the fight should ideally take place on the platform on which the conspiracy is shared. Our ongoing work on <a href="https://www2.mmu.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/story/12169/">fitness influencers</a> demonstrates how popular culture figures with large followings on Twitter and other social media platforms can sometimes have more of an appeal – and be more believable – than “official” accounts or politicians. That is why we believe that governments and health authorities should draw on social media influencers in order to counteract misinformation. </p>
<p>It is also important to note which websites people were sharing around this time, as they are likely to play a key role in the spread and existence of the theory. Unsurprisingly, “fake news” websites such as InfoWars published a number of articles which indicated that there was a link between COVID-19 and 5G technologies. YouTube also appeared as an influential domain, as Twitter users linked to various videos which were spreading the theory.</p>
<p>Worryingly, our study found that a small number of Twitter users were happy to see footage posted of 5G masts being damaged and hoped for more to be attacked. Twitter has been taking action and <a href="https://www.techtimes.com/articles/249097/20200423/twitter-blocks-5g-conspiracy-theorists-from-sharing-fake-news.htm">blocking users</a> from sharing 5G conspiracy theories on the platform. YouTube has also been <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-52388586">banning content</a> that contains medical misinformation. It has not been easy for social media platforms to keep up as the pandemic has given rise over <a href="https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2020/04/covid-top-10-current-conspiracy-theories/">ten different conspiracy theories</a>. </p>
<p>One way the public can join the fight against conspiracy theories is to report inappropriate and/or dangerous content on social media platforms and – more importantly – avoid sharing or engaging with them. Meanwhile the mainstream media on public television, newspapers and radio should be doing its part by discussing and dispelling conspiracy theories as they arise.</p>
<p>But social media platforms, citizens and governments need to work together with experts to regain trust and debunk the deluge of fake news and ever evolving theories.</p>
<h2>Mutations</h2>
<p><em>Marc Tuters and Peter Knight</em></p>
<p>The viral conspiracy video, <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-plandemic-and-the-seven-traits-of-conspiratorial-thinking-138483">Plandemic</a> is a key example as it has helped coronavirus conspiracy theories spread even more widely into the mainstream. The video – which briefly went viral on YouTube and Facebook until it was taken down – focused on a discredited virologist who promotes the theory that the coronavirus pandemic was a Big Pharma plot to sell vaccines. Although such conspiracy theories are <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.washingtonpost.com%2fpolitics%2f2019%2f10%2f28%2fits-not-easy-spot-disinformation-twitter-heres-what-we-learned-political-astroturfing-campaigns%2f">less widespread</a> than the torrent of coronavirus misinformation that is being catalogued and debunked by <a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=list:factchecknet/coronavirusfacts%20%23coronavirusfacts&src=typed_query&f=live">media watchdog groups</a>, what is particularly concerning is how they are mutating and combining into novel and potentially dangerous forms as different tribes converge and encroach in the mainstream with slick videos involving “real” experts.</p>
<p>With coronavirus, existing 5G conspiracy theories have indeed become supercharged, leading for instance to new protest movements such as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/21/germany-braced-for-more-protests-against-coronavirus-polices">the “hygiene protests” in Germany</a>. In these protests, unfamiliar configurations of left and right-wing activists are finding common cause in their shared indignance towards lockdown protocols.</p>
<p>In the past several years Deep State conspiracy theories like <a href="http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/view/1422">Pizzagate</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/qanon-conspiracy-theories-about-the-coronavirus-pandemic-are-a-public-health-threat-135515">QAnon</a> first developed within <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330021744_LARPing_Liberal_Tears_Irony_Belief_and_Idiocy_in_the_Deep_Vernacular_Web_Online_Actions_and_Offline_Consequences_in_Europe_and_the_US">reactionary “deep web” communities</a> before spreading into the mainstream, where they were amplified by <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.washingtonpost.com%2fpolitics%2f2019%2f10%2f28%2fits-not-easy-spot-disinformation-twitter-heres-what-we-learned-political-astroturfing-campaigns%2f">disinformation bots</a>, <a href="https://www.mediamatters.org/maga-trolls/mike-cernovichs-far-right-conspiracy-theories-bigotry-and-association-white">social media influencers</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2018/03/31/the-conspiracy-theory-behind-a-curious-roseanne-barr-tweet-explained/">celebrities</a>, and <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2020/05/qanon-supporter-wins-republican-senate-primary-in-oregon.html">politicians</a>. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/06/qanon-nothing-can-stop-what-is-coming/610567/">Thriving communities</a> have grown up around these theories, clustered around <a href="https://www.cairn-int.info/abstract-E_DIO_249_0099--remarks-on-conspiracy-entrepreneurs.htm">conspiracy theory entrepreneurs</a>. A <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQ7VgW7XgJQjDEPnOR-Q0Qw">significant</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCMVTRzCXvIbdK0Y1ZxD-BlA">number</a> of these figures, <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2020/03/coronavirus-mike-cernovich/">with some notable exceptions</a>, have pivoted to interpret the coronavirus pandemic through their particular conspiratorial lens. With coronavirus as a common strand connecting these various tribes, the result has been a cross-fertilisation of ideas. Such <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CAQiIxXni3h/">hybridised conspiracy theories</a> appear to be popping up across all points of the political spectrum and of the web, in contrast to previous cases when they emerged primarily from the margins and spread to the mainstream. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339851/original/file-20200604-67351-1s50k8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social media platforms are taking actions against fake news.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bangkok-thailand-02-july-2018-hands-1155245371">Shutterstock/VasinLee</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In comparison with previous outbursts of fake news, social media platforms have responded quite proactively to the abundance of coronavirus-related <a href="https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/DataAndSociety_LexiconofLies.pdf">problematic information</a>. Google, for example, <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dnnjxjFf5dyh58RkgrlDlF4QfuHXkwty/view">curates</a> coronavirus-related search results, meaning that they only return authoritative sources and feature links to those sources where advertisements would usually have appeared.</p>
<p>Platforms have also been much more willing to delete problematic trending content, as with the case of the Plandemic video which <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/05/07/plandemic-youtube-facebook-vimeo-remove/">YouTube removed within 24 hours</a> – although not before it had reached 2.5 million views. While this kind of banned content inevitably migrates to an “<a href="https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/47402210/Rogers_Deplatforming_EJC_0267323120922066.pdf">alternative social media ecology</a>” of sites like Bitchute and Telegram, their much smaller audience share diminishes the reach of these conspiracy theories as well as undermining the revenue streams of their entrepreneurs.</p>
<p>In an era in which public distrust of institutions and suspicion of elites is one of the contributing factors in the global rise of <a href="https://books.google.nl/books/about/National_Populism.html?id=pFZaDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y">national populism</a>, the communication of authoritative knowledge is undoubtedly a challenge for governments. </p>
<p>In this time of enormous uncertainty, capable and honest leadership is one of the only truly effective measures which will help manage the spread of coronavirus misinformation and politicians should be putting party allegiances to one side while confronting the problem. For everyone else this means accepting that short term solutions are unlikely and that people should trust the experts, think before sharing social media content and care for one another. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>For you: more from our <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">Insights series</a>:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/lockdown-lessons-from-the-history-of-solitude-134611?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">Lockdown lessons from the history of solitude</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-will-the-world-be-like-after-coronavirus-four-possible-futures-134085?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">What will the world be like after coronavirus? Four possible futures</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-end-of-the-world-a-history-of-how-a-silent-cosmos-led-humans-to-fear-the-worst-120193?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">The end of the world: a history of how a silent cosmos led humans to fear the worst</a></em></p></li>
</ul>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc Tuters received funding from the ODYCCEUS Horizon 2020 project, grant agreement number 732942.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Downing, Peter Knight, and Wasim Ahmed do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Conspiracy theories about mobile phone technology have been circulating since the 1990s and the imagined potential of radio waves to remote control a population.Wasim Ahmed, Lecturer in Digital Business, Newcastle UniversityJoseph Downing, LSE Fellow Nationalism, London School of Economics and Political ScienceMarc Tuters, Department of Media & Culture, Faculty of Humanities, University of AmsterdamPeter Knight, Professor of American Studies, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1385152020-05-26T02:39:23Z2020-05-26T02:39:23ZSeeing is believing: how media mythbusting can actually make false beliefs stronger<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337476/original/file-20200526-106862-12gbnn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5368%2C3575&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the COVID-19 pandemic has swept the world, politicians, medical experts and epidemiologists have taught us about flattening curves, contact tracing, R<sub>0</sub> and growth factors. At the same time, we are facing an “<a href="https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/srp-04022020.pdf">infodemic</a>” – an overload of information, in which fact is hard to separate from fiction.</p>
<p>Misinformation about coronavirus can have serious consequences. Widespread myths about “immune boosters”, <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/health/false-virus-cure-kills-hundreds-in-iran-c-768920">supposed “cures”</a>, and conspiracy theories linked to <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-5g-radiation-doesnt-cause-or-spread-the-coronavirus-saying-it-does-is-destructive-135695">5G radiation</a> have already caused <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-05/church-selling-bleach-claims-cures-coronavirus-australia/12201348">immediate harm</a>. In the long term they make may people more complacent if they have false beliefs about what will protect them from coronavirus. </p>
<p>Social media companies are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-17/facebook-to-alert-users-when-they-interact-with-false-virus-info/12156188">working</a> to reduce the spread of myths. In contrast, mainstream media and <a href="https://www.kidneyfund.org/kidney-today/covid-19-myths-vs-facts.html">other information channels</a> have in many cases ramped up efforts to address misinformation. </p>
<p>But these efforts may backfire by unintentionally increasing public exposure to false claims.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/were-in-danger-of-drowning-in-a-coronavirus-infodemic-heres-how-we-can-cut-through-the-noise-131303">We're in danger of drowning in a coronavirus 'infodemic'. Here's how we can cut through the noise</a>
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<h2>The ‘myth vs fact’ formula</h2>
<p>News media outlets and health and well-being websites have published countless articles on the “myths vs facts” about coronavirus. Typically, articles share a myth in bold font and then address it with a detailed explanation of why it is false. </p>
<p>This communication strategy has been used previously in attempts to combat other health myths such as the ongoing anti-vaccine movement. </p>
<p>One reason for the prevalence of these articles is that readers actively seek them out. The Google search term “myths about coronavirus”, for example, saw a prominent global spike in March.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337457/original/file-20200525-106842-1gwzo0u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">According to Google Trends, searches for ‘myths about coronavirus’ spiked in March.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?q=myths%20about%20coronavirus">Google Trends</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Debunking false information, or contrasting myths with facts, intuitively feels like it should effectively correct myths. But research shows that such correction strategies may actually backfire, by making misinformation seem more familiar and spreading it to new audiences. </p>
<h2>Familiarity breeds belief</h2>
<p>Cognitive science research shows people are biased to believe a claim <a href="https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2017/08/gut-truth">if they have seen it before</a>. Even seeing it once or twice may be enough to make the claim more credible. </p>
<p>This bias happens even when people originally think a claim is false, when the claim is not aligned with their own beliefs, and when it seems relatively implausible. What’s more, research shows thinking deeply or being smart does not make you immune to this cognitive bias. </p>
<p>The bias comes from the fact humans are very sensitive to familiarity but we are not very good at tracking where the familiarity comes from, especially over time. </p>
<p>One <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/426605?seq=1">series of studies</a> illustrates the point. People were shown a series of health and well-being claims one might typically encounter on social media or health blogs. The claims were explicitly tagged as true or false, just like in a “myth vs fact” article. </p>
<p>When participants were asked which claims were true and which were false immediately after seeing them, they usually got it right. But when they were were tested a few days later, they relied more on feelings of familiarity and tended to accept previously seen false claims as true. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337493/original/file-20200526-106866-1dv21ow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Older adults were especially susceptible to this repetition. The more often they were initially told a claim was false, the more they believed it to be true a few days later.</p>
<p>For example, they may have learned that the claim “shark cartilage is good for your arthritis” is false. But by the time they saw it again a few days later, they had forgotten the details. </p>
<p>All that was left was the feeling they had heard something about shark cartilage and arthritis before, so there might be something to it. The warnings turned false claims into “facts”.</p>
<p>The lesson here is that bringing myths or misinformation into focus can make them more familiar and seem more valid. And worse: “myth vs fact” may end up spreading myths by showing them to new audiences.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-hard-to-stop-covid-19-misinformation-spreading-on-social-media-134396">Why is it so hard to stop COVID-19 misinformation spreading on social media?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What I tell you three times is true</h2>
<p>Repeating a myth may also lead people to overestimate how widely it is accepted in the broader community. The more often we hear a myth, the more we will think it is widely believed. And again, we are bad at remembering where we heard it and under what circumstances. </p>
<p>For instance, hearing one person say the same thing three times is <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp-925821.pdf">almost as effective</a> in suggesting wide acceptance as hearing three different people each say it once.</p>
<p>The concern here is that repeated attempts at correcting a myth in media outlets might mistakenly lead people to believe it is widely accepted in the community. </p>
<h2>Memorable myths</h2>
<p>Myths can be sticky because they are often concrete, anecdotal and easy to imagine. This is a cognitive recipe for belief. The details required to unwind a myth are often complicated and difficult to remember. Moreover, people may not scroll all the way through the explanation of why a myth is incorrect. </p>
<p>Take for example <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/health/2020-04-04/coronavirus-three-pervasive-health-myths-busted/12106820">this piece on coronavirus myths</a>. Although we’d rather not expose you to the myths at all, what we want you to notice is that the fine details needed to debunk a myth are generally more complicated than the myth itself. </p>
<p>Complicated stories are hard to remember. The outcome of such articles may be a sticky myth and a slippery truth.</p>
<h2>Making the truth stick</h2>
<p>If debunking myths makes them more believable, how do we promote the truth? </p>
<p>When information is vivid and easy to understand, we are more likely to recall it. For instance, we know placing a photograph next to a claim increases the chances people will remember (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/news/all-news/photos-make-people-believe-anu-study">and believe</a>) the claim. </p>
<p>Making the truth concrete and accessible may help accurate claims dominate the public discourse (and our memories). </p>
<p>Other cognitive tools include using concrete language, repetition, and opportunities to connect information to personal experience, which all work to facilitate memory. Pairing those tools with a focus on truth can help to promote facts at a critical time in human history.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138515/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Norbert Schwarz has received funding for related research from National Institute of Aging (USA). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Dawel, Eryn Newman, and Madeline Jalbert do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Instead of debunking false claims, psychology shows promoting the facts is a more effective way to fight the spread of misinformation.Eryn Newman, Lecturer, Australian National UniversityAmy Dawel, Lecturer, Australian National UniversityMadeline Jalbert, PhD Candidate in Social Psychology, University of Southern CaliforniaNorbert Schwarz, Provost Professor of Psychology and Marketing and co-director of the Dornsife Mind & Society Center, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1384832020-05-15T18:40:50Z2020-05-15T18:40:50ZCoronavirus, ‘Plandemic’ and the seven traits of conspiratorial thinking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335443/original/file-20200515-138620-zse7ka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=741%2C0%2C6797%2C4857&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No matter the details of the plot, conspiracy theories follow common patterns of thought.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-man-with-tin-foil-hat-thinking-while-using-royalty-free-image/1209163064">Ranta Images/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The conspiracy theory video “Plandemic” recently <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/09/technology/plandemic-judy-mikovitz-coronavirus-disinformation.html">went viral</a>. Despite being taken down by YouTube and Facebook, it continues to get uploaded and viewed <a href="https://www.mediamatters.org/coronavirus-covid-19/coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-film-attacking-vaccines-has-racked-million-views">millions of times</a>. The video is an interview with conspiracy theorist Judy Mikovits, a <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/12/updated-rare-move-science-without-authors-consent-retracts-paper-tied-mouse-virus">disgraced former</a> <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/334/6057/814">virology researcher</a> who believes the COVID-19 pandemic is based on vast deception, with the purpose of profiting from selling vaccinations.</p>
<p>The video is rife with misinformation and conspiracy theories. Many high-quality fact-checks and debunkings have been published by reputable outlets such as <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/fact-checking-judy-mikovits-controversial-virologist-attacking-anthony-fauci-viral">Science</a>, <a href="https://www.politifact.com/article/2020/may/08/fact-checking-plandemic-documentary-full-false-con/">Politifact</a> and <a href="https://www.factcheck.org/2020/05/the-falsehoods-of-the-plandemic-video/">FactCheck</a>.</p>
<p>As scholars who research how to counter science misinformation and conspiracy theories, we believe there is also value in exposing the rhetorical techniques used in “Plandemic.” As we outline in our <a href="https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/conspiracy-theory-handbook/">Conspiracy Theory Handbook</a> and <a href="https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/how-to-spot-covid19-conspiracy-theories/">How to Spot COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories</a>, there are seven distinctive traits of conspiratorial thinking. “Plandemic” offers textbook examples of them all.</p>
<p>Learning these traits can help you spot the red flags of a baseless conspiracy theory and hopefully build up some resistance to being taken in by this kind of thinking. This is an important skill given the current <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-are-dangerous-heres-how-to-stop-them-spreading-136564">surge of pandemic-fueled conspiracy theories</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334497/original/file-20200512-82361-1hb74ss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The seven traits of conspiratorial thinking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Cook</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>1. Contradictory beliefs</h2>
<p>Conspiracy theorists are so committed to disbelieving an official account, it doesn’t matter if their <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/10634516.pdf">belief system is internally contradictory</a>. The “Plandemic” video advances two false origin stories for the coronavirus. It argues that SARS-CoV-2 came from a lab in Wuhan – but also argues that everybody already has the coronavirus from previous vaccinations, and wearing masks activates it. Believing both causes is mutually inconsistent.</p>
<h2>2. Overriding suspicion</h2>
<p>Conspiracy theorists are <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2564659">overwhelmingly suspicious toward the official account</a>. That means any scientific evidence that doesn’t fit into the conspiracy theory must be faked.</p>
<p>But if you think the scientific data is faked, that leads down the rabbit hole of believing that any scientific organization publishing or endorsing research consistent with the “official account” must be in on the conspiracy. For COVID-19, this includes the World Health Organization, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration, Anthony Fauci… basically, any group or person who actually knows anything about science must be part of the conspiracy.</p>
<h2>3. Nefarious intent</h2>
<p>In a conspiracy theory, the conspirators are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611434786">assumed to have evil motives</a>. In the case of “Plandemic,” there’s no limit to the nefarious intent. The video suggests scientists including Anthony Fauci engineered the COVID-19 pandemic, a plot which involves killing <a href="https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html">hundreds of thousands of people so far</a> for potentially billions of dollars of profit.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335446/original/file-20200515-138615-16n12qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Conspiratorial thinking finds evil intentions at all levels of the presumed conspiracy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dr-anthony-fauci-director-of-the-national-institute-of-news-photo/1211277535">MANDEL NGAN/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>4. Conviction something’s wrong</h2>
<p>Conspiracy theorists may occasionally abandon specific ideas when they become untenable. But those revisions tend not to change their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-016-1198-6">overall conclusion that “something must be wrong”</a> and that the official account is based on deception.</p>
<p>When “Plandemic” filmmaker Mikki Willis was <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/im-an-investigative-journalist-these-are-the-questions-i-asked-about-the-viral-plandemic-video">asked if he really believed</a> COVID-19 was intentionally started for profit, his response was “I don’t know, to be clear, if it’s an intentional or naturally occurring situation. I have no idea.”</p>
<p>He has no idea. All he knows for sure is something must be wrong: “It’s too fishy.”</p>
<h2>5. Persecuted victim</h2>
<p>Conspiracy theorists think of themselves as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v3i1.443">victims of organized persecution</a>. “Plandemic” further ratchets up the persecuted victimhood by characterizing the entire world population as victims of a vast deception, which is disseminated by the media and even ourselves as unwitting accomplices. </p>
<p>At the same time, conspiracy theorists see themselves as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662510393605">brave heroes taking on the villainous conspirators</a>.</p>
<h2>6. Immunity to evidence</h2>
<p>It’s so hard to change a conspiracy theorist’s mind because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x">their theories are self-sealing</a>. Even absence of evidence for a theory becomes evidence for the theory: The reason there’s no proof of the conspiracy is because the conspirators did such a good job covering it up. </p>
<h2>7. Reinterpreting randomness</h2>
<p>Conspiracy theorists see patterns everywhere – they’re all about connecting the dots. Random events are reinterpreted as being caused by the conspiracy and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1583">woven into a broader, interconnected pattern</a>. Any connections are imbued with sinister meaning.</p>
<p>For example, the “Plandemic” video suggestively points to the U.S. National Institutes of Health funding that has gone to the Wuhan Institute of Virology in China. This is <a href="https://www.factcheck.org/2020/05/the-falsehoods-of-the-plandemic-video/">despite the fact</a> that the lab is just one of many international collaborators on a project that sought to examine the risk of future viruses emerging from wildlife.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Rban0JGEimE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Learning about common traits of conspiratorial thinking can help you recognize and resist conspiracy theories.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Critical thinking is the antidote</h2>
<p>As we explore in our <a href="https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/conspiracy-theory-handbook/">Conspiracy Theory Handbook</a>, there are a variety of strategies you can use in response to conspiracy theories.</p>
<p>One approach is to inoculate yourself and your social networks by <a href="https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/how-to-spot-covid19-conspiracy-theories/">identifying and calling out the traits of conspiratorial thinking</a>. Another approach is to “cognitively empower” people, by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006">encouraging them to think analytically</a>. The antidote to conspiratorial thinking is critical thinking, which involves healthy skepticism of official accounts while <a href="https://doi.org/10.23811/52.arg2017.lew.llo.bro">carefully considering available evidence</a>.</p>
<p>Understanding and revealing the techniques of conspiracy theorists is key to inoculating yourself and others from being misled, especially when we are most vulnerable: in times of crises and uncertainty.</p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=upper-coronavirus-facts">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.</a>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138483/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sander van der Linden has consulted on fake news for the UK and US government, European Commission, and Google. He receives funding from WhatsApp for research on misinformation. He also receives funding from the Trust and Technology initiative.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephan Lewandowsky consults for, and collaborates with, the Joint Research Center of the European Commission. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the ESRC (via CREST), and the Volkswagen Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ullrich Ecker receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Cook does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Conspiracy theories about COVID-19, such as those advanced in the video ‘Plandemic,’ tend to pull from the same playbook. Recognizing that can help keep you from falling for this kind of thinking.John Cook, Research Assistant Professor, Center for Climate Change Communication, George Mason UniversitySander van der Linden, Director, Cambridge Social Decision-Making Lab, University of CambridgeStephan Lewandowsky, Chair of Cognitive Psychology, University of BristolUllrich Ecker, Associate Professor of Cognitive Science, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1374242020-04-30T15:56:49Z2020-04-30T15:56:49ZPentecostals and the spiritual war against coronavirus in Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331361/original/file-20200429-51485-1rqyap8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stefan Heunis/AFP/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the emergence of <a href="https://theconversation.com/africa/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=COVID-19&sort=relevancy&language=en&date=week&date_from=&date_to=">COVID-19</a>, a number of <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/7c3a17c6-f130-4659-972f-0fe9ebc7102b">media commentators</a> and <a href="https://www.theelephant.info/features/2020/03/23/religion-in-the-age-of-coronavirus/">academics</a> have reflected on the “<a href="https://religiousmatters.nl/dealing-with-a-spiritual-virus-whither-the-prophetic/">spiritualisation</a>” of the pandemic among responses in different African settings. </p>
<p>There’s been particular interest in the influence of prominent <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> pastors on public health messaging. Some have expressed concern about the possible consequences of their invocations of spiritual warfare. </p>
<p>We’ve examined how <a href="https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/idiom.htm">idioms</a> of (spiritual) warfare have been deployed in response to the coronavirus pandemic and wish to bring a broader perspective to recent debates about these dynamics. We consider examples from Tanzania and Zimbabwe, drawing on our ongoing research in these settings.</p>
<p>Many Pentecostal Christians, in Africa as well as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/apr/04/america-rightwing-christian-preachers-virus-hoax">other continents</a>, portray the coronavirus as a “<a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians+6%3A12&version=NRSV">spiritual force of evil</a>” rather than as a biomedical disease. </p>
<p>Through this lens, the world is presented as a <a href="https://www.academia.edu/31074897/Occupying_the_Global_City_Spatial_Politics_and_Spiritual_Warfare_among_African_Pentecostals_in_Hong_Kong">battleground</a> between God and the agents of Satan. For those who enlist to “fight for Jesus”, the most effective weapon is prayer. </p>
<p>Spiritual warfare provides a <a href="https://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-study/topical-studies/spiritual-warfare-lesson-1-understanding-the-battle-11554631.html">framework</a> for explaining and responding to both mundane and extraordinary events – from a cancelled flight to a global pandemic. But despite their close association with Pentecostals, these militarised idioms may also <a href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004281875/B9789004281875-s008.xml">resonate</a> with other groups.</p>
<h2>The prophet</h2>
<p>In Zimbabwe, <a href="https://emmanuelmakandiwa.com/">Prophet Emmanuel Makandiwa</a> has been <a href="https://www.thezimbabwemail.com/zimbabwe/outrage-as-emmanuel-makandiwa-goes-blasphematory/">criticised</a> for reassuring his congregants that they will be “spared” from the virus. This will happen through prayer and the divine protection he mediates. “You will not die, because the Son is involved in what we are doing,” he says, calling it </p>
<blockquote>
<p>the freedom that no medication can offer. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This <a href="https://www.zimeye.net/2020/04/06/watch-video-makandiwa-vows-he-will-never-take-coronavirus-vaccine/">declaration</a> epitomises a sense of Pentecostal “exceptionalism”, embodied in the claim to be “<a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+17%3A16&version=NRSV">in this world but not of this world</a>”. It clearly risks instilling a level of complacency among his followers about the threat of the virus. It amplifies the possibility of <a href="https://religioninpublic.com/2020/04/03/pentecostalism-public-health-and-covid-19-in-nigeria/">noncompliance</a> with government <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-zimbabwe/zimbabwe-locks-down-to-fight-coronavirus-amid-economic-crisis-idUSKBN21H2DF">safety measures</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331030/original/file-20200428-110779-17g9fw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Advert for online service led by Prophet Makandiwa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christ TV Channel/Twitter</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Prophet Makandiwa has also been accused of perpetuating <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-anthill-podcast-27460">conspiracy theories</a>. Drawing Biblical allusions to the “<a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation+13%3A16-18&version=NRSV">mark of the beast</a>”, he has warned followers about “microchip” implants. These, he predicts, will accompany future vaccination campaigns. This claim has also been made by pastors <a href="https://religioninpublic.com/2020/04/03/pentecostalism-public-health-and-covid-19-in-nigeria/">elsewhere</a> in the <a href="http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/covid-19-fuels-5g-conspiracy-theories/">African</a> continent. </p>
<p>In Uganda, steps have already been taken to <a href="https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1517283/pastor-yiga-spend-seven-prison">prosecute</a> pastors spreading misinformation.</p>
<h2>The president</h2>
<p>Efforts to “spiritualise” the virus have also been pursued by some African leaders. For example, Tanzanian President <a href="https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/news/PROFILE--John-Pombe-Joseph-Magufuli-/1840340-2927326-k4xewcz/index.html">John Pombe Magufuli</a> described COVID-19 as a demon (<em>shetani</em>). Through it Satan seeks to “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7r8T0Wx4sQI">destroy</a>” Tanzanian citizens. </p>
<p>Despite the government promoting physical distancing, he declared that churches or mosques would not be closed because this is where God and “true healing” (<em>uponyaji wa kweli</em>) are found.</p>
<p>Invoking the idiom of spiritual warfare, Magufuli explained that COVID-19</p>
<blockquote>
<p>cannot survive in the Body of Jesus (and) will be burned away.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://mg.co.za/africa/2020-04-27-crisis-what-crisis-how-not-to-handle-a-pandemic/?utm_medium=Social&utm_source=Facebook#Echobox=1588004073">Commentators</a> have observed that Magufuli is himself a Roman Catholic (albeit with Pentecostal <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SqP_XHggKO4&feature=emb_title">ties</a>). Yet few have acknowledged his implication that God can also be “found” in mosques, nor his <a href="https://kenyanbreaking.co.ke/others/chemsheni-mwarubaini-magufuli-tells-tanzanians/">recommendation</a> that Tanzanians also embrace indigenous medicinal practices for protection. </p>
<p>In a country where Christians don’t constitute a clear religious majority, Magufuli invokes the rhetoric of spiritual warfare to articulate a sense of national religious identity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331367/original/file-20200429-51495-5pp5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman walks past an election billboard featuring now president of Tanzania, John Magufuli in Dar es Salaam.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Hayduk/AFP/Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These invocations mostly adopt a rhetorical style reminiscent of Pentecostal pastors but maintain a broad, inclusive focus on God (<em>Mungu</em>). </p>
<p>Tanzanians responded enthusiastically to Magufuli’s <a href="https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/tanzanian-president-declares-3-days-national-prayer-help-defeat-coronavirus">call for</a> citizens “of every faith” to participate in three days of national prayer. Many took to social media to circulate photos and <a href="https://twitter.com/MsigwaGerson/status/1251444039376920577?s=20">videos</a> featuring the Tanzanian flag and words of prayer. </p>
<h2>Some perspective</h2>
<p>Yet a growing number of <a href="https://africanarguments.org/2020/04/27/president-magufuli-covid-19-we-need-leadership-not-prayers/">commentators</a> have criticised Magufuli. As with Makandiwa, they argue that his use of spiritual warfare rhetoric generates a dangerous expectation of viral immunity. </p>
<p>Some <a href="https://africasacountry.com/2020/04/the-devil-coronavirus">commentators</a> have taken Magufuli’s emphasis on prayer to be <a href="https://twitter.com/MsigwaPeter/status/1252894425124126720">emblematic</a> of the government’s perceived <a href="https://twitter.com/fatma_karume/status/1253583821116715009?s=20">failure</a> to <a href="https://www.newframe.com/tanzanias-state-response-to-covid-19-under-fire/">adequately address</a> the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-23/tanzanian-president-says-country-can-ill-afford-a-virus-lockdown">pandemic</a>. </p>
<p>The government, say critics, has fallen prey to “<a href="https://twitter.com/ThatBoyKhalifax/status/1241789034231484425">superstitious</a>” thinking. <a href="https://twitter.com/IanBabi/status/1252312358535471105?s=20">Some</a> draw allusions to the use of water-based medicine in the <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6df4/70fd66fbb5cd32e13802f54e4b91324504ad.pdf">Maji Maji</a> rebellion against German colonial rule. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://africasacountry.com/2020/04/praying-through-the-pandemic">others</a> have <a href="https://africasacountry.com/2020/04/the-devil-coronavirus">observed</a>, the act of giving spiritual agency to the virus as a “personal demon” can also serve to downplay structural failures which have contributed to its spread. It <a href="https://www.academia.edu/39252346/Pentecostalism_economics_capitalism_putting_the_Protestant_Ethic_to_work">divests responsibility</a> to both COVID-19 as a sentient “enemy” and citizens.</p>
<p>There is a risk, however, that exaggerating the “idiosyncrasy” of the Tanzanian government’s response to COVID-19 – and indeed that of Prophet Makandiwa – may perpetuate another myth of “exceptionalism”. One which echoes colonial depictions of African populations as singularly “superstitious” and “<a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/exch/32/2/article-p123_4.xml">incurably religious</a>”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331415/original/file-20200429-51474-1l1zfhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A billboard in Lagos, Nigeria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Markus Matzel/ullstein bild/Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In truth, spiritual warfare idioms have been diversely invoked – and unevenly received – across the continent. They have <a href="https://www.theelephant.info/features/2020/03/23/religion-in-the-age-of-coronavirus/">prompted</a> lively “<a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2020/04/20/covid19-religious-institutions-public-health-science-africa/">religion and science</a>” debates. </p>
<p>Moreover, the plausibility of spiritual warfare idioms should not be exclusively attributed to people’s religious sensibilities. After all, “warfare” is the <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/in-defence-of-war-metaphors-in-the-covid-19-conflict-k8l08nngv">signature trope</a> with which global political figures, health experts, and media commentators have framed COVID-19. </p>
<p>Like Magufuli, world leaders like the UK’s <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/politics/boris-johnson-declares-coronavirus-war-21707803">Boris Johnson</a>, France’s <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/17/coronavirus-france-president-macron-warns-we-are-at-war.html">Emmanuel Macron</a> and the US’s <a href="https://time.com/5806657/donald-trump-coronavirus-war-china/">Donald Trump</a> have all invoked warfare motifs against the single, identifiable “enemy”. </p>
<p>European governments have also been <a href="https://economicsociology.org/2020/04/24/herd-immunity-is-epidemiological-neoliberalism/">accused</a> of using this framing to shift responsibility onto citizens as “combatants”, whether for failing to adhere to physical distancing or for their biomedical frailty. Narratives of individuals heroically “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/apr/07/horror-coronavirus-real-imaginary-war-britain">winning their war</a>” against a decidedly personal demon are no less persuasive to some in Europe than to some in Africa.</p>
<p>None of this is intended to take away from the ambivalent and sometimes plainly harmful effects of attempts to spiritualise the pandemic. Nor is it to imply that religiously informed strategies of communication and implementation are incompatible with more “temporal” methods. </p>
<p>Religious groups like Pentecostal congregations may indeed constitute an important “<a href="https://religionanddiplomacy.org.uk/2020/03/30/covid-19-and-pentecostals-in-africa/">public health resource</a>” when it comes to delivering <a href="https://www.rug.nl/research/centre-for-religious-studies/religion-conflict-globalization/blog/wash-your-hands-and-be-washed-in-the-blood-of-the-lambpentecostalism-and-the-coronavirus-30-03-2020">services</a> and <a href="https://www.rug.nl/research/centre-for-religious-studies/religion-conflict-globalization/blog/wash-your-hands-and-be-washed-in-the-blood-of-the-lambpentecostalism-and-the-coronavirus-30-03-2020">messaging</a>. And they can cultivate a sense of hope and <a href="https://www.newframe.com/thoughts-on-the-planetary-an-interview-with-achille-mbembe/">mutual care</a> in the face of uncertainty. </p>
<p>Rather, we suggest as anthropologists and scholars of religion, this warfaring rhetoric might stem from a shared discomfort among Africans and Europeans alike at the prospect of an adversary without discernible self-will or conscience. An impersonal demon. </p>
<p>As literary critic <a href="http://www.boundary2.org/2020/04/anders-engberg-pedersen-covid-19-and-war-as-metaphor/?fbclid=IwAR2HThyE2hfKiLUVNj9IaQPwL89uVyoJL1KG0FNFCWR8LeZBdb-a9EoBKMw">Anders Engberg-Pederson</a>
articulates it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We declare war on the virus, because we want it to be something that it is not.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137424/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Benjamin Kirby receives funding from the British Academy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Josiah Taru has previously received funding from a Human Economy Programme (University of Pretoria) to conduct fieldwork between 2015-17. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tinashe Chimbidzikai receives funding from Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity, Germany. </span></em></p>Framing the fight against coronavirus as a spiritual war may stem from a shared sense of discomfort about an adversary without discernible conscience; an impersonal demon.Benjamin Kirby, British Academy Postdoctoral Research Fellow, University of LeedsJosiah Taru, Lecturer, Great Zimbabwe UniversityTinashe Chimbidzikai, Doctoral Research Fellow, Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic DiversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1358702020-04-20T17:20:05Z2020-04-20T17:20:05ZThere is no evidence that the coronavirus was created in a laboratory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/326087/original/file-20200407-91406-46z6bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C305%2C12000%2C7706&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No, this person is not creating a deadly virus.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/_HvUN5xlv7I">CDC / Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_coronavirus_pandemic">Covid-19</a> pandemic, which is disrupting our lives and shaking our health systems and economies, is at the root of what Dr. Sylvie Briand, director of the Department of Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases of the World Health Organization (WHO), rightly described as an <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30461-X/fulltext">infodemic</a> – the viral circulation of rumours and false information.</p>
<h2>The Covid-19 infodemic</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.msn.com/it-it/video/amici/paolo-liguori-questo-virus-nasce-in-un-laboratorio/vi-BBZjDhw">Journalists</a> and <a href="https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2020/jan/26/coronavirus-link-to-china-biowarfare-program-possi/">so-called experts</a> have seriously suggested that the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus at the heart of the epidemic could have been produced in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level">Level 4 Biosafety Laboratory</a> (BL4) in China’s Wuhan region, the epicentre of the epidemic.</p>
<p>These theories have gone viral, to the point that <a href="https://jean-jaures.org/sites/default/files/redac/commun/productions/2020/2803/117275_rapport_covid_19.pdf">recent polls</a> show that 23% of Americans and 17% French believe that the new coronavirus was made intentionally in a laboratory.</p>
<p>The wave of conspiracy theories surrounding the Covid-19 epidemic has also been spurred on by a few governments waging a veritable information war by politicizing the epidemic. In a speech on March 11, 2020, US president Donald Trump called Covid-19 the “Chinese virus”. In response, a spokesperson for the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs posted on <a href="https://twitter.com/zlj517/status/1238269193427906560?s=20">his Twitter account</a> an article allegedly demonstrating that SARS-CoV-2 was already present in 2019 in the United States and was brought to China by American soldiers.</p>
<p>The spread of such false information can hamper the response to real epidemics, and it is therefore crucial to establish the verifiable facts about SARS-CoV-2 virus.</p>
<h2>What do we know about the origins of Covid-19?</h2>
<p>The results of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-0820-9">genomic analysis of SARS-CoV-2</a> are clear: its sequence is 96% identical to that of the RaTG13 coronavirus isolated from a bat collected in the Chinese province of Yunan. The sequence of the receptor binding domain (RBD) present on the surface of SARS-CoV-2 that allows it to infect human cells, however, diverges strongly from the equivalent sequence observed in RaTG13. On the other hand, the RBD sequence of SARS-CoV-2 is very close (99%) to that of a coronavirus isolated in the pangolin. This suggests that SARS-CoV-2 is the result of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-origins-genome-analysis-suggests-two-viruses-may-have-combined-134059">recombination of two viruses</a>. This recombination mechanism has <a href="https://jvi.asm.org/content/84/7/3134">already been observed</a> in coronaviruses.</p>
<p>Comparison of coronavirus sequences present in nature supports a natural origin for SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 contains no trace of any human-mediated genetic manipulation. More specifically, it does not contain residual sequences related to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering">vector systems</a> conventionally used for genetic manipulation, which suggests that it is indeed the product of natural random selection.</p>
<h2>BL4 laboratory, genetic manipulation: reality and myths</h2>
<p>There is indeed a BL4 laboratory in Wuhan: the Wuhan National Biosafety Laboratory. Built in partnership with France, it obtained certification in 2017. Following the SARS epidemics of 2002-2004 and H1N1 in 2009, China wanted to improve its capacity to fight epidemics. The laboratory primarily carries out research on Ebola, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever and SARS. The only documented accident linked to a laboratory working on coronaviruses in China was the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/sars/media/2004-05-19.html">infection of nine individuals in April 2004 with the SARS-CoV-1 virus</a> responsible for the SARS epidemic of 2002-2004. The people infected were two students working at the National Institute of Virology Laboratory and their relatives.</p>
<p>There are almost 30 BL4 laboratories listed worldwide. Their operations have always been a source of controversy and suspicion, in particular because some were previously involved in the manufacture of biological weapons. With the signing of the 1972 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention">Convention on the Prohibition of Biological Weapons</a>, which banned the development, acquisition, stockpiling and use of biological weapons, the purpose of the laboratories changed. They now officially work to fight epidemics and biological weapons. However, it has been shown that certain countries, including the former Soviet Union, continued to fund biological-weapons research programs, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopreparat">Biopreparat</a>, despite having signed the convention.</p>
<p>These BL4 laboratories have indeed already been linked to accidents. For example, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdlovsk_anthrax_leak">1979 Sverdlovsk disaster</a>, which involved the <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/266/5188/1202">accidental spread of spores of the bacterium <em>Bacillus anthracis</em></a> that causes anthrax, caused dozens of deaths. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_anthrax_attacks">2001 anthrax attacks</a> in the United States were linked to a microbiologist, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Edwards_Ivins">Bruce Ivins</a>, who was working in a US Army BL4 laboratory. These high security laboratories have thus provided fertile ground for the development of highly extravagant conspiracy theories.</p>
<p>It is also true that ancient deadly viruses have been resuscitated in the laboratory, that new viruses are created by genetic manipulation for research purposes, and that some viruses have already been disseminated in the wild by countries. In 2005, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu">1918 Spanish influenza virus</a> was <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/310/5745/77.long">genetically engineered and tested in the laboratory</a> to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042682218302502?via%3Dihub">better understand its exceptional virulence</a>. In 2012, the H5N1 flu virus was modified in the laboratory to give it the ability to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10831">infect ferrets by air</a> to understand how the virus could mutate to infect humans by the same route. In 2017, the Australian government authorised the spread of a <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/biological-control/rabbit-biocontrol-rhdv1-k5-national-release">strain of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus</a> (RHDV1 K5) to reduce the population of wild rabbits on its territory. These well-documented events have also provided good fodder for an infinite variety of scenarios.</p>
<h2>Russel’s teapot and Covid-19</h2>
<p>What do a “celestial teapot” and the conspiracy theories surrounding Covid-19 have in common? More than you might think at first glance.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot">metaphor of the celestial teapot</a> was proposed by the philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> to challenge the idea that it is up to the sceptic to refute the unverifiable bases of religion and to affirm that the burden of proof falls instead to the believer. Russell suggested that a teapot is in orbit around the sun, precisely between Earth and the planet Mars. We cannot demonstrate that this teapot does not exist, so we have to believe it is there. Russel’s teapot is the cosmic version of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor">Ockham’s razor</a>, also known as the principle of parsimony or simplicity. This principle recommends eliminating complex explanations for a phenomenon from reasoning if simpler explanations prove plausible. There remains a fundamental principle of logical reasoning in science: it does not state that the simplest explanation is necessarily true, only that it must be considered first.</p>
<p>In the case of Covid-19, there is no verifiable fact to support the hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2 was intentionally manufactured in a laboratory. Various conspiracy theories are only supported by correlations, such as the existence of a BL4 in Wuhan. The RBD sequences of the virus could, in theory, result from an adaptation of the virus in the laboratory when cultured in human cells. But the existence of an RBD sequence that is 99% identical in a coronavirus infecting the pangolin supports a more parsimonious hypothesis: the infection of a bat or a pangolin with two coronaviruses that recombined to form a new virus that in turn infected a human, who would then be the famous and still unknown patient zero behind the Covid-19 epidemic.</p>
<p>The success of conspiracy theories about Covid-19 reveals much about our visceral need to reassure ourselves by inventing simplistic explanations for terrifying natural phenomena. Which hypothesis is the most unbearable – that mad scientists subsidised by a foreign power sparked an epidemic capable of shaking our modern societies, or that new epidemics emerge because of our invasion and destruction of natural ecosystems? In the first case, it would be easy to end the nightmare. In the second, it is our way of life and our economic system that must change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135870/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Muraille received funding from Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (FNRS-FRS), Belgium.</span></em></p>The conspiracy theory that Covid-19 was created in a laboratory has been widely reported, yet there is no evidence to support it. Why such theories thrive can easily be explained, however.Eric Muraille, Biologiste, Immunologiste. Maître de recherches au FNRS, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1366642020-04-20T11:21:06Z2020-04-20T11:21:06ZWhy are there so many coronavirus conspiracy theories? Listen to part six of our expert guide<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329062/original/file-20200420-152558-10v9zkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthcare-workers-dealing-new-coronavirus-crisis-1689412909">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A number of conspiracy theories <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-are-dangerous-heres-how-to-stop-them-spreading-136564">have sprung up</a> in relation to the coronavirus pandemic. The false idea that the virus is somehow <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-5g-conspiracy-theories-prosper-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-136019">linked to the rollout of 5G technology</a> has led to a number of attacks on broadband infrastructure and engineers. We explore this and many other strange interpretations of the pandemic in the sixth and final part of our <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/expert-guide-to-conspiracy-theories-83678">Expert guide to conspiracy theories</a> from <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-anthill-podcast-27460">The Anthill Podcast</a>. </p>
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<p><a href="https://itunes.apple.com/gb/podcast/the-anthill/id1114423002?mt=2"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321534/original/file-20200319-22606-q84y3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=182&fit=crop&dpr=1" alt="Listen on Apple Podcasts" width="268" height="68"></a> <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/265Bnp4BgwaEmFv2QciIOC?si=-WMr1ecDTsO_6avrkxZu8g"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321535/original/file-20200319-22606-1l4copl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=183&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="268" height="70"></a> </p>
<p>Media expert Marc Tuters talks us through the main coronavirus conspiracy theories that are doing the rounds and how they differ on various social media platforms. He tells us how some started to circulate back in January on the fringe message board website 4chan but others have been more prominent on mainstream sites like Twitter. We also discuss what social media companies are doing to limit the spread of this misinformation – and how effective it can be.</p>
<p>Psychologist Karen Douglas is also on hand to explain why the different coronavirus conspiracy theories gained so much traction, so quickly. She outlines the three main psychological reasons why people find solace in these alternative explanations for what’s going on. And what research tells us about how dangerous these conspiracy theories are for public health and society.</p>
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<p><em>The Anthill podcast is produced by Annabel Bligh and Gemma Ware. Sound design is by Eloise Stevens, with original music from Neeta Sarl and audio from <a href="https://www.epidemicsound.com/">Epidemic Sound</a>. A big thanks to City, University of London, for letting us use their studios.</em></p>
<p><a href="https://pca.st/5Hul"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321533/original/file-20200319-22598-afljnr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=1" alt="Listen on Pocket Casts" width="268" height="68"></a> <a href="https://castbox.fm/channel/The-Anthill-id2625863?country=gb"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321531/original/file-20200319-22632-t8ds9t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="268" height="70"></a> </p>
<p><a href="https://www.google.com/podcasts?feed=aHR0cHM6Ly90aGVjb252ZXJzYXRpb24uY29tL3VrL3BvZGNhc3RzL3RoZS1hbnRoaWxsLnJzcw%3D%3D"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233720/original/file-20180827-75978-3mdxcf.png" alt="" width="268" height="68"></a> <a href="https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/the-conversation/the-anthill"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233716/original/file-20180827-75981-pdp50i.png" alt="Stitcher" width="300" height="88"></a> </p>
<p><a href="https://tunein.com/podcasts/Technology-Podcasts/The-Anthill-p877873/"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233723/original/file-20180827-75984-f0y2gb.png" alt="Listen on TuneIn" width="318" height="125"></a> <a href="https://radiopublic.com/the-anthill-GOJ1vz"><img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-152" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233717/original/file-20180827-75990-86y5tg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=268&fit=clip" alt="Listen on RadioPublic" width="268" height="87"></a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Annabel Bligh works for The Conversation, which received funding from the Comparative Analysis of Conspiracy Theories research network (COST Action COMPACT) to make this podcast.</span></em></p>PODCAST: We explore the strange interpretations of where the coronavirus came from and why people are drawn to them in the final episode of The Anthill’s Expert guide to conspiracy theories.Annabel Bligh, Host of The Anthill Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1357652020-04-13T12:19:06Z2020-04-13T12:19:06ZCOVID-19 may hit rural residents hard, and that spells trouble because of lack of rural health care<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327003/original/file-20200409-174746-8w8kvt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C2982%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The empty streets of Hebron, Illinois, population 1,200, a village three miles south of the Illinois/Wisconsin border.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-aerial-view-from-a-drone-shows-empty-streets-on-april-06-news-photo/1217271835?adppopup=true">Scott Olson/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The burden of COVID-19 in rural areas has been under the radar, as the toll of the disease so far has been heaviest in dense urban areas. But up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00910">30% of the U.S. population</a> lives in rural America, which already has experienced <a href="https://www.shepscenter.unc.edu/programs-projects/rural-health/rural-hospital-closures/">more than 128 hospital closures since 2010</a>, including 19 last year.</p>
<p>COVID-19 could lead to more closures and instability in rural America, even though the lower density of rural areas may help keep transmission rates of the disease down. With fewer people living across relatively large areas, social distancing is <a href="https://nypost.com/2020/03/26/social-distancing-a-different-phenomenon-for-rural-americans/">easier to accomplish</a>. </p>
<p>And yet, we’ve seen some rural communities quickly, tragically become hot spots. Dougherty County, Georgia, in the southwestern part of Georgia, <a href="https://www.ajc.com/news/breaking-news/breaking-georgia-reports-more-coronavirus-deaths-cases-reach-818/5zgV6PrEkYAqTXLegJvpmJ/">has had more deaths</a> than Atlanta’s Fulton County. <a href="https://www.ajc.com/news/mobile-morgues-suggest-georgia-coronvirus-crisis-far-from-over/sooG3CY0uYCQppNo5oJplO/">At least 50 people have died</a> in Dougherty’s Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital. The virus began to spread after the funeral for a beloved resident in Albany, overwhelming not only the circle of bereaved loved ones but also the health care system. <a href="https://www.postandcourier.com/business/rural-clarendon-county-is-suddenly-a-sc-coronavirus-hotspot-nobody-knows-why/article_4fd5c066-7412-11ea-b7dc-3b607343b699.html">Kershaw and Clarendon counties</a>, both in rural South Carolina, also have been hit disproportionately hard. These areas have unique needs, and compared to urban areas, COVID-19 may be a very different experience for them. </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z_yvWV0AAAAJ&hl=en">I am a professor</a> at the University of South Carolina School of Medicine in Columbia. I’m also the director of research and evaluation for the South Carolina Center for Rural and Primary Health Care. Having worked in rural health policy, research and advocacy for nearly 20 years, I see how vital our rural communities are to this nation. I also see how this crisis will make the existing problems in these communities – already challenging – even worse. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327013/original/file-20200409-106145-cmtil1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The recently closed Pickens County Medical Center in Carrollton, Alabama, one of the latest health care facilities to fall victim to a wave of rural hospital shutdowns across the United States.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Virus-Outbreak-Rural-Hospitals/679eae6576054acf8695ea46156a6837/12/0">AP /Jay Reeves</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rural areas lack providers, services and money</h2>
<p>Compared to most urban areas, rural communities typically have <a href="https://www.ruralhealthweb.org/about-nrha/about-rural-health-care">less of most everything</a> when it comes to health care – fewer providers, <a href="https://www.ruralhealthweb.org/NRHA/media/Emerge_NRHA/PDFs/db151.pdf">physicians</a>, <a href="https://bhw.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/bhw/nchwa/projections/nursingworkforcetrendsoct2013.pdf">nurses</a>, resources and <a href="https://www.shepscenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/2018/01/AccesstoPrimaryCare.pdf">clinics</a>. Less personal protective equipment is practically a given. Some communities have no hospital at all. </p>
<p>The hospitals that have remained are often lacking; fewer <a href="https://khn.org/news/as-coronavirus-spreads-widely-millions-of-older-americans-live-in-counties-with-no-icu-beds/">ICU beds</a> are just one example. Most have low, even negative, <a href="https://www.shepscenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/2016/08/Profitability-of-Rural-and-Urban-Hospitals-HD-1.png">profit margins</a>. More than 450 rural hospitals are <a href="https://www.ivantageindex.com/rural-hospital-vulnerability-study/">financially vulnerable</a> to closure. With the added costs of COVID-19, many of these facilities are now at higher risk. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/coronavirus-strains-rural-hospitals-absolute-limit-n1172416">At best</a>, <a href="https://www.kentucky.com/news/coronavirus/article241565211.html">services are cut</a> and staffing is reduced. Many health organizations have begun to <a href="https://www.kentucky.com/news/coronavirus/article241565211.html">furlough employees</a> working in nonurgent settings.</p>
<p>Rural residents – <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2019/acs/acs-41.html">typically older</a> – are more susceptible to COVID-19. They are also economically at risk: <a href="https://www.sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/public_health/research/research_centers/sc_rural_health_research_center/documents/134vulnerableruralcounties2000to20102016.pdf">They live in areas</a> with higher poverty rates and lower rates of insurance coverage. Those with lower incomes are less able to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/04/03/us/coronavirus-stay-home-rich-poor.html?referringSource=articleShare">quickly self-isolate</a>. They are more likely to work in the <a href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2016/12/beyond_the_farm_rur.html">service or tourism industries</a>, often jobs with limited or no paid time off. Those jobs are also impossible to do from home. Unemployment is frequently the result.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327019/original/file-20200409-72664-1sdbsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Greensburg, Indiana, an empty town square, with only a teenager walking his dog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Virus-Outbreak-Rural-Indiana/02620f11b2174be2901a66639986ff9d/3/0">AP / Darron Cummings</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Virtual options often don’t exist</h2>
<p>Although <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-telemedicine-is-great-when-you-want-to-stay-distant-from-your-doctor-but-older-laws-are-standing-in-the-way-134885">COVID-19 has brought more attention to telehealth</a> and telemedicine options – the Trump administration has <a href="https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/fact-sheets/medicare-telemedicine-health-care-provider-fact-sheet">loosened regulations and restrictions</a> during this emergency – it’s not an ideal solution for rural residents. Many communities still <a href="https://theconversation.com/reaching-rural-america-with-broadband-internet-service-82488">lack broadband</a> internet capabilities. Even places with broadband, such as hospitals, schools and businesses, often don’t run at speeds available to many residents. Some areas don’t even have <a href="https://www.theamericanconservative.com/urbs/how-cellular-dead-zones-hurt-rural-towns/">cellphone or data coverage</a>, much less internet coverage. Expand these capabilities and rural providers will be able to do more, with patients able to seek care without leaving home. </p>
<p>COVID-19 testing availability is also an issue in rural areas; large cities <a href="https://www.khou.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/rural-hospitals-desperate-for-coronavirus-medical-supplies/285-a8438a49-c178-43b0-95f5-1f3c4583be85">get preference</a> with test kits. Testing becomes even more problematic if there’s no local hospital to serve as a coordinating center. And new legislation often doesn’t help the needs of rural providers, who operate under different regulatory and reimbursement requirements; that legislation is usually tilted in favor of assisting the majority. And rural communities are more dependent upon their neighbors to function. What happens if the only plumber in town closes shop? The only laundry? The only drugstore?</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>One reason rural providers struggle financially is because of the transactional nature of our health care system – that is, you’re paid only when services are provided. This is difficult to maintain in areas with relatively low volume and low insurance coverage. Why not a financial model where providers receive support regardless of patient volume? </p>
<p>Better efforts to provide health care insurance for rural populations will help. The uninsured rate, higher in rural areas, reduces the ability of providers to get paid for care. Achieving this would involve a coordinated approach – improve employment opportunities, help employers offer insurance to employees and expand Medicaid coverage. Continued efforts to create incentives and reward providers should be expanded, such as the <a href="https://nhsc.hrsa.gov">National Health Service Corps</a> or State Loan Repayment Programs. </p>
<p>Finally, a willingness to explore alternative models for care delivery for rural populations could help fix what’s wrong with the system today. </p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135765/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin J. Bennett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rural America has special problems as it copes with the COVID-19 pandemic.Kevin J. Bennett, Professor, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1345202020-04-08T12:14:39Z2020-04-08T12:14:39ZMath misconceptions may lead people to underestimate the true threat of COVID-19<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323039/original/file-20200325-168876-1unmmo4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Americans have been advised to keep six feet away from everyone else when they can't stay home.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-of-a-daily-life-in-new-york-city-amid-the-covid-19-news-photo/1207940109?adppopup=true">Nur Photo/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People all across the U.S. claim that they are “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/the-myth-of-im-bad-at-math/280914/">not math people</a>.” They even readily admit to their hatred for some math fundamentals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2019.1653815">such as fractions</a>. For instance, a participant in one of our research studies on how well adults understand fractions proclaimed: “Fractions are my worst nightmare!” </p>
<p>Could people’s fear and avoidance of math, and their common mathematical mistakes in school, also lead to misunderstandings in the real world about just how <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-coronavirus-does-to-your-body-that-makes-it-so-deadly-133856">dangerous COVID-19 is</a> to their own health and to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-coronavirus-recession-puts-service-workers-at-risk-134869">society in general</a>?</p>
<p>We are psychology scholars, and two of us – <a href="http://clarissathompson.com/">Clarissa Thompson</a> and <a href="http://poojasidney.com/">Pooja Sidney</a> – are experts in the field of mathematical cognition. It is our job to investigate how people of all ages learn about math. We also identify good and bad strategies that people often use when they try to solve hard math problems. Based on these observations, we have come up with several ways to help everyone gain more insight into how math works.</p>
<p>One very common misconception we’re concerned about is known as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.01.003">whole number bias</a>.” Based on <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Health/coronavirus-live-updates-trump-discussed-crisis-great-detail/story?id=69829226">headlines</a> and <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Health/coronavirus-live-updates-china-reports-1541-asymptomatic-cases/story?id=69911683">news accounts</a> about the novel coronavirus, we wonder if this bias might lead people to underestimate their own and others’ risks associated with COVID-19.</p>
<h2>Breaking down the numbers</h2>
<p>Fractions are made up of two parts: the numerator – for instance, the 3 in the fraction ¾ – and the the denominator – for instance, the 4 in the fraction ¾. Another way to think about this fraction is: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00526">“of 4 parts, 3.”</a> </p>
<p>Whole number bias happens when people tend to automatically think about the numerators and denominators of fractions as whole numbers before they process the numbers more deeply to grasp their actual <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fractions-where-it-all-goes-wrong/">size</a>.</p>
<p>For example, people may mistakenly believe that 1/14 is smaller than 1/15 because 14 is less than 15. That is, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.03.001">apply what they know about whole numbers</a> to all other numbers, including fractions.</p>
<p>Research has shown that people of all ages can harbor whole number bias – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12541">children</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2018.1475303">college students</a> and even some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.05.003">expert mathematicians</a>.</p>
<p>In one study, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26147669">community college students</a> were shown a series of two fractions at a time and asked to decide which was larger. In some of these pairs of fractions, the larger one had a bigger numerator but a smaller denominator. So, if shown the two fractions 3/7 and 2/9, the students who answered that 3/7 was larger were correct. </p>
<p>Only 54% of the students who took part in the study answered correctly.</p>
<p>When asked how they decided which fraction was larger, many students said they paid attention to one part of the fraction in isolation, rather than considering the entire ratio. Those who incorrectly answered that 2/9 was larger than 3/7 did so because they compared only the denominators and concluded that 9 was bigger than 7. </p>
<p>That’s because whole number bias – which can manifest as considering only one part of a ratio in isolation – leads to incorrect conclusions about how big numbers are.</p>
<h2>Solutions start in school</h2>
<p>Why does this matter? Students learn about fractions in school so they can apply this knowledge to the real world.</p>
<p>In daily life, people are presented with numbers, including fractions, and asked to make sense of them. When it comes to health statistics, misinterpreting the size of numbers may lead to negative consequences – such as underestimating the deadliness of COVID-19.</p>
<p>News stories are rife with complex statistics that pertain to the COVID-19 pandemic. Many of these statistics involve ratios, which are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21569877">hard</a> to understand and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2019.1653815">disliked</a>.</p>
<p>Further, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00196">math anxiety</a> – a feeling of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2018.1475303">apprehension when it comes to mathematics</a> – leads people to choose to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194059">completely avoid</a>, or fail to think deeply about, numbers encountered in everyday life. In our own research <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/13546783.2018.1475303">across two samples of adults</a>, we found that people with more anxiety about doing math were worse at estimating how big specific fractions were.</p>
<p>Early on in the COVID-19 pandemic, there were several stories that noted that <a href="https://www.latimes.com/science/story/2020-03-05/flu-killed-more-people-coronavirus-covid-19">the flu was more deadly than the new coronavirus</a>. President Donald Trump himself <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/03/11/anthony-fauci-undercuts-trump-flu-other-coronavirus-assertions/">made this claim several times</a>.</p>
<p>We believe this confusion persists as the nation struggles to come to terms with <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/opinion/op-ed/bs-ed-op-0325-coronavirus-hopkins-social-distancing-20200324-b75k465kdfcq3jt235mr7uzaba-story.html">calls for more social distancing</a> and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/us/coronavirus-which-states-stay-at-home-order-trnd/index.html">orders to stay home</a> to fight the spread of COVID-19. Specifically, the number of deaths or the number of infections of COVID-19 compared to the flu might be mentioned in isolation, rather than <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/governments-clamp-down-as-coronavirus-infections-surge-11585218656">the proportion of deaths out of the total population</a>. We believe focusing on total numbers of deaths or numbers of infected people rather than proportions – or fractions – is a reflection of whole number bias. </p>
<p>In another recent example, President Donald Trump <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/03/30/824202653/fact-check-trumps-claims-on-u-s-testing-and-seoul-s-population">claimed</a> that the U.S. tested more people for COVID-19 than anywhere else in the world. While this could be true in terms of absolute numbers, this does not take into consideration <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/3/31/21200994/coronavirus-testing-shortage-trump-governors-call">population totals</a> and how densely packed the population is in other countries. </p>
<h2>Calculating the risk</h2>
<p>How big of a risk do we all face?</p>
<p>To figure this out, we believe you should compare the number of COVID-19 deaths to the total number of people infected. Both of these numbers are updated daily by a team of researchers at <a href="https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html?%20fbclid=IwAR3lS7lAD2wWwXJtJj2zhnFt5r-iVEgmvz0GPxepcZrLAslR9pk8-KGR9VE#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6">Johns Hopkins University</a>.</p>
<p>Then, compare this fatality rate with the fatality rates of more familiar illnesses, such as the flu as updated by the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/burden/preliminary-in-season-estimates.htm">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>.</p>
<h2>Comparing fatality rates</h2>
<p>If you want to try to calculate how deadly this pandemic is compared with the flu, you need to divide the number of deaths caused by COVID-19 by the total number of people infected by it. Keep in mind, it’s impossible to know the true denominator, or <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp2002125?query=TOC">the total number of infected individuals</a>, in the midst of a pandemic because these numbers change daily, and testing is limited.</p>
<p>We are basing these fatality estimates on data as of April 2. Based on the most up-to-date statistics from Johns Hopkins, the fatality rate for COVID-19 is 5% – 49,236 divided by 965,246 equals 5%. Currently, the flu fatality rate according to the CDC is 0.1% (62,000 divided by 54,000,000 equals 0.1%). Take a moment to digest these calculations. As of the end of March 2020, the fatality rate for COVID-19 is 50 times greater than the fatality rate for the flu – a drastic difference, but one that may change over time as more data become <a href="https://www.cleveland.com/open/2020/04/ohio-plans-random-population-testing-to-help-determine-how-many-people-have-coronavirus.html?fbclid=IwAR28m8qRwzftjfqdf2g_ocmTiXO1TTGB3LcBBM3EGs5UqVb8YXYYDx1kXWg">available</a>.</p>
<p>Because of these unknowns, the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/how-many-coronavirus-cases-are-there">fatality rate could ultimately be lower</a> than early figures because so many infected people <a href="https://apnews.com/c335958b1f8f6a37b19b421bc7759722">were not immediately tested or officially diagnosed</a>. While it may be too early to tell exactly how much deadlier than the flu COVID-19 will be, <a href="https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/global-covid-19-case-fatality-rates/">some current estimates</a> suggest COVID-19 may be closer to <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/03/20/815408287/how-the-novel-coronavirus-and-the-flu-are-alike-and-different">10 times more deadly</a>. It’s important to note that researchers around the world have found a <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30243-7">broad range of estimates</a> for the fatality rate for COVID-19, which <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2239497-why-we-still-dont-know-what-the-death-rate-is-for-covid-19/">remains unclear</a>. </p>
<p>To reduce <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4001_3">whole number bias</a>, we recommend that everyone consider whether both the numerator and denominator of a fraction have been reported, or whether one or the other was presented in isolation. This can help people avoid making a whole number bias error.</p>
<p>With the need to make <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/poll-finds-universal-lifestyle-changes-rising-stress-and-growing-fears-about-catching-coronavirus/2020/03/26/11360bb2-6f5e-11ea-b148-e4ce3fbd85b5_story.html">all people take this pandemic seriously</a>, we believe that doing this math right just might save lives.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134520/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clarissa A. Thompson receives funding from the U.S. Department of Education and Top Hat Publishers. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karin Coifman receives funding from National Institute of Mental Health</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Taber and Pooja Sidney do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Comparing death tolls between COVID-19 and the flu is the wrong way to gauge which disease is a bigger threat, according to researchers who study how people understand math.Clarissa A. Thompson, Associate Professor of Cognitive Psychology, Kent State University Jennifer Taber, Assistant Professor of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University Karin Coifman, Associate Professor of Psychology, Kent State University Pooja Sidney, Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of KentuckyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1356952020-04-07T06:30:04Z2020-04-07T06:30:04ZNo, 5G radiation doesn’t cause or spread the coronavirus. Saying it does is destructive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325969/original/file-20200407-160446-1y4febn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=158%2C93%2C6071%2C3932&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A conspiracy theory claiming 5G can spread the coronavirus is making the rounds on social media. The myth supposedly <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/5g-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory">gained traction</a> when a Belgian doctor linked the “dangers” of 5G technology to the virus during an <a href="https://pbs.twimg.com/media/EPwP-LCW4AA8ccM?format=jpg&name=small">interview in January</a>. </p>
<p>Closer to home, Facebook group <a href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/Stop5GAustralia/?ref=br_rs">Stop5G Australia</a> (with more than 31,700 members) has various posts linking the disease’s spread to 5G technology.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325975/original/file-20200407-110267-106xe3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=621&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Stop5G Australia Facebook group share posts and videos claiming 5G helps spread COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Facebook</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Peddling such misinformation is not only wrong, it’s destructive. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/06/at-least-20-uk-phone-masts-vandalised-over-false-5g-coronavirus-claims">The Guardian</a> reported that since Thursday at least 20 mobile phone masts across the UK have been torched or otherwise vandalised. Mobile network representative MobileUK published an open letter stating: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We have experienced cases of vandals setting fire to mobile masts, disrupting critical infrastructure and spreading false information suggesting a connection between 5G and the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Celebrities - stick to what you know</h2>
<p>Many outlets and people have rushed to debunk this myth, including federal minister for communications, cyber safety and the arts <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCode=TAWEB_WRE170_a_GGL&dest=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fbusiness%2Ftechnology%2F5g-corona-link-debunked%2Fnews-story%2F011e09098e643ff69dfb32263a43097f&memtype=anonymous&mode=premium&nk=a80e4b5a16e30164cae58f0eae09803d-1586226027">Paul Fletcher</a>. But myriad groups and public figures continue to perpetuate it.</p>
<p>Actor <a href="https://nypost.com/2020/04/05/woody-harrelson-sharing-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-tied-to-5g/">Woody Harrelson</a> and singer Keri Hilson have both shared content with fans suggesting a link between 5G and COVID-19. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1239560157232758784"}"></div></p>
<p>Stop5G Australia members have claimed the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/criminal-investigation-launched-ruby-princess-cruise-ship-coronavirus-disaster">Ruby Princess</a> cruiseliner’s link to 600 reported infections and 11 deaths is because cruises are “radiation saturated”. That’s wrong.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325974/original/file-20200407-182957-1finj3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A screenshot of posts from the Stop5G Australia Facebook group.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">https://www.facebook.com/groups/Stop5GAustralia/?ref=br_rs</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While cruise passengers <a href="https://www.princess.com/come-back-new/top-ten-faq/">can access</a> roaming wifi services on board, these are not <a href="https://www.cruiseandferry.net/articles/how-wireless-maritime-services-is-leading-innovation">5G services</a>. Maritime cruises have <a href="https://www.wmsatsea.com/solutions.html">yet to implement 5G technology</a>.</p>
<p>One <a href="https://www.change.org/p/stop-the-5g-roll-out-turn-off-5g-australia?recruiter=156941140&utm_source=share_petition&utm_medium=facebook&utm_campaign=psf_combo_share_initial&utm_term=psf_combo_share_abi&recruited_by_id=0c09a55e-8394-4239-b247-d19daf56a222&utm_content=fht-21273949-en-au%3Av2&use_react=false">petition</a> is calling on the Australia government to stop 5G’s rollout because the technology can supposedly “negatively affect your immune system” (a claim for which there is exactly <a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/news/5g-and-other-telecommunications-do-not-affect-immune-system">zero evidence</a>). It has received more than 27,000 signatures. </p>
<h2>How 5G radio signals (radiation) work</h2>
<p>The difference between 5G and previous generations of mobile services (4G, 3G) is that the latter use lower radio frequencies (<a href="https://www.finder.com.au/will-my-phone-work-in-australia-carrier-network-frequencies">below the 6 gigahertz range</a>), whereas 5G <em>also</em> uses frequencies in the 30–300 <a href="https://www.lifewire.com/5g-vs-4g-4156322">gigahertz range</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325933/original/file-20200407-104477-svz9ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This diagram shows different frequencies along the electromagnetic spectrum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/pubs/emr/spectrum.pdf">Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency/AUS GOV.</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the 30-300 gigahertz range, there’s not enough energy to break chemical bonds or remove electrons when in contact with human tissue. Thus, this range is referred to as “non-ionising” electromagnetic radiation. </p>
<p>It’s approved by the federal government’s Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency as not having the negative health effects of more intense <a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/regulation-and-licensing/regulatory-publications/radiation-protection-series/codes-and-standards/rps3">radiation</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-no-evidence-5g-is-going-to-harm-our-health-so-lets-stop-worrying-about-it-120501">There's no evidence 5G is going to harm our health, so let's stop worrying about it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Radiation can come into contact with the skin, for example, when we put a 5G mobile to our ear to make a call. This is when we’re most exposed to <a href="https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/what-is-radiation/non-ionising-radiation/radiofrequency-radiation">non-ionising radiation</a>. But this exposure is well below the recommended safety level. </p>
<p>5G radiation can’t penetrate skin, or allow a virus to penetrate skin.
<a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/5g-mobile-networks-and-health">There is no evidence</a> 5G radio frequencies cause or exacerbate the spread of the coronavirus.</p>
<p>Also, the protein shell of the virus <a href="https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2020/04/02/whats-a-virus-anyway-part-1-the-bare-bones-basics/">is incapable of hijacking</a> 5G radio signals. This is because radiation and viruses exist in different forms that do not interact. One is a biological phenomenon and the other exists on the electromagnetic spectrum.</p>
<p>5G radio waves are called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/millimeter-wave">millimetre waves</a>, because their wavelength is measured in millimetres. Because these waves are short, 5G cell towers need to be relatively close together - about <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/video/telecom/wireless/everything-you-need-to-know-about-5g">250 metres</a> apart. They are organised as a collection of small cells (a cell is an area covered by radio signals). </p>
<p>For 5G to cover a larger geographic area, more base stations are needed in comparison to 4G. This increase in the number of base stations, and their proximity to humans, is one factor that may stir unfounded fears about 5G’s potential health impacts. </p>
<h2>Your phone may be dangerous, but its radiation isn’t</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1">COVID-19 spreads</a> through small droplets released from the nose or mouth of an infected person when they cough, spit, sneeze, talk or exhale. Transmission occurs when the droplets come into contact with the nose, eyes or mouth of a healthy person.</p>
<p>So if an infectious person speaks through a phone held near their mouth, enough infectious droplets may land on its surface to make it capable of spreading the virus. This is why it’s not advisable to share mobiles during a pandemic. You should also regularly disinfect your mobile.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-i-get-coronavirus-from-mail-or-package-deliveries-should-i-disinfect-my-phone-134535">Can I get coronavirus from mail or package deliveries? Should I disinfect my phone?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why are we having this discussion?</h2>
<p>To many of us, it’s obvious a human virus can’t spread via radio signals, and such a conspiracy may be linked to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/trust-in-politicians-and-government-is-at-an-all-time-low-the-next-government-must-work-to-fix-that-110886">wider distrust of the government in general</a>. </p>
<p>Addressing this myth is critical as property is now being damaged, and individuals attacked. Physical and verbal threats to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/youtube-to-suppress-content-spreading-coronavirus-5g-conspiracy-theory">broadband engineers</a> can be added to a long list of assaults on <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-05/nsw-nurses-midwives-abused-during-coronavirus-pandemic/12123216">health workers</a>. </p>
<p>At a time when millions are relying on fast internet to work and study from home, vital telecommunications infrastructure is at risk of being destroyed. Conspiracy theories have motivated arson attacks on 5G towers in Belfast, Liverpool and <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2020/04/04/masts-set-alight-baseless-conspiracy-theories-linking-5g-spread-coronavirus-12508127/">Birmingham</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/youtube-to-suppress-content-spreading-coronavirus-5g-conspiracy-theory">Youtube has announced</a> it will devote resources to removing content linking 5G technology to COVID-19. </p>
<p>The announcement came after fingers <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/tech/11311306/bizarre-5g-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-whatsapp/">were</a> <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/fact-check-viral-video-coronavirus-1.5506595">pointed</a> at <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUw1Rzbde5U">one video</a>, published on March 18 (and viewed more than 668,000 times), in which an American doctor claims incorrectly that Africa is less affected by COVID-19 because it’s not a 5G region. The video remained online at the time of publishing this article.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1247374072822071297"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: this article was amended to make clear that, while millimeter waves lie within the frequency range of 30–300 gigahertz, 5G technology is also rolled out at lower frequencies than this.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135695/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stanley Shanapinda does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As if attacks on health workers weren’t upsetting enough, reports indicate broadband engineers are now also being abused - as conspiracy theorists link 5G technology with to COVID-19’s spread.Stanley Shanapinda, Research Fellow, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1351792020-04-06T12:07:40Z2020-04-06T12:07:40ZSocial media fuels wave of coronavirus misinformation as users focus on popularity, not accuracy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325070/original/file-20200402-74885-4qjabi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C151%2C1746%2C1222&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Misinformation and unfounded claims about COVID-19 have flooded social media sites as the new coronavirus has spread. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com">Alain Jocard/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past few weeks, misinformation about the new coronavirus pandemic has been spreading across social media at an alarming rate. One video that went <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dBgM_yAkbQk">viral</a> claimed breathing hot air from a hair dryer could treat COVID-19. A Twitter post <a href="https://twitter.com/jasonizumiKona/status/1240744287207211008">touted</a> injecting vitamin C to the bloodstream to treat the viral disease. <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/colloidalsilver?lang=en">Other threads</a> hyped unfounded claims that vaping organic oregano oil is effective against the virus, as is using colloidal silver.</p>
<p>The sheer number of false and sometimes dangerous claims is worrying, as is the way people are unintentionally spreading them in ever wider circles.</p>
<p>In the face of this previously unknown virus, <a href="https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/3/12/21175570/coronavirus-covid-19-social-media-twitter-facebook-google">millions</a> of people have been turning to social media platforms in an attempt to stay informed about the latest developments and connected to friends and family. <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-23/twitter-lowers-quarterly-sales-forecast-warns-of-loss-in-period">Twitter reported</a> having about 12 million more daily users in the first three months of 2020 than in the last three of 2019. <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-24/facebook-says-ads-business-weakening-despite-surge-in-usage">Facebook also has reported</a> unprecedented surges in user activity.</p>
<p>What people see, follow, express and repost on social media platforms are all communications that I study as the director of the <a href="http://somalab.usc.edu/">Social Media Analytics Lab</a> at the Keck School of Medicine of USC. My lab’s goal is to harness publicly accessible data from <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305461">Twitter</a>, <a href="https://publichealth.jmir.org/2020/1/e16833/">Instagram</a>, Reddit, YouTube and others to better understand health-related attitudes and behaviors. </p>
<p>We have spotted some troubling trends as the coronavirus pandemic spreads.</p>
<h2>Why do people perpetuate misinformation online?</h2>
<p><a href="https://psyarxiv.com/uhbk9/">Initial evidence suggests</a> that many people are unintentionally sharing misinformation about COVID-19 because they fail to stop and think sufficiently about whether the content is accurate. </p>
<p>There are many reliable sources on social media, such as the <a href="https://twitter.com/CDCgov">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> and the <a href="https://twitter.com/WHO">World Health Organization</a>, but most social media platforms aren’t designed to prioritize the best information: They’re designed to show <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/17/21183341/facebook-misinformation-report-nathalie-marechal">content most likely to be engaged with</a> first, whether accurate or not. Content that keeps users on the platform gets priority. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0206076">My team’s research</a> suggests that people’s motivations for sharing might also be part of the problem. We have found that Twitter users tend to retweet to show approval, argue, gain attention and entertain. Truthfulness of a post or accuracy of a claim was not an identified motivation for retweeting. That means people might be paying more attention to whether a tweet is popular or exciting than whether its message is true. </p>
<h2>Artificial intelligence isn’t stopping it</h2>
<p>Social media companies have been <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2020/03/16/facebook-reddit-google-linkedin-microsoft-twitter-and-youtube-issue-joint-statement-on-misinformation/">promising</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/social-media-companies-are-taking-steps-to-tamp-down-coronavirus-misinformation-but-they-can-do-more-133335">combat misinformation</a> on their platforms. However, they are relying on artificial intelligence more than ever to <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/490257-as-misinformation-surges-coronavirus-poses-ai-challenge">moderate content</a> as concerns about coronavirus keep human reviewers at home, where they don’t have the support necessary to review sensitive content safely. This approach increases the chances of mistakes, such as when accurate content is accidentally flagged or cases where problematic content is not quickly detected.</p>
<p>Until misinformation can be identified in close to real time on social media platforms, everyone needs to be careful about where they get their news about coronavirus. <a href="https://www.snopes.com/about-snopes/">Fact-checking organizations</a> are available to help debunk false claims. But they, too, are <a href="https://www.snopes.com/2020/03/20/snopes-on-covid-19-fact-checking/">getting overwhelmed</a> battling the flood of coronavirus misinformation. </p>
<p>Even when the leading social media companies have plans of action to flag, curb and remove misinformation across their platforms, problematic content will slip through the cracks, exposing social media users to potentially dangerous information.</p>
<h2>Social policing can backfire</h2>
<p>Another troubling trend is a form of <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/wireStory/quarantine-shaming-us-navigates-radical-social-norms-69684461">social policing</a> on social media platforms that may have unintended consequences. </p>
<p>It is nothing new for social media users to try to shame people they don’t agree with and condemn them on social media for violating perceived social norms. During the current pandemic, people on social media have shamed others for socializing and ignoring social distancing recommendations, such as <a href="https://mobile.twitter.com/cbsnews/status/1240371160078000128?ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2F">posting images</a> of college students in bars or on crowded beaches. </p>
<p>However, when social media users seek to persuade their followers to behave in accordance with existing norms, they need to be aware of how they do it and the subliminal messages they might be sending.</p>
<p>Posting, forwarding or lamenting over captured moments of people ignoring social distancing measures is not the most effective way to curb these behaviors. The reason is that the underlying message one could walk away with is that people are still being social. This impression could lead people to continue being social, negating the intended effect of such social policing.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.uky.edu/%7Engrant/CJT780/readings/Day%2013/Cialdini2003.pdf">Research has shown that public officials</a> often try to mobilize action against disapproved conduct by depicting it as distressingly frequent. As a result, they install a counterproductive descriptive norm in the minds of their audiences. In the case of social distancing, examples abound, including posts of crowded parks or markets or churches or hiking trails or backyards.</p>
<p>Instead, social media users attempting to reduce such conduct should focus attention on approved behavior. This could materialize with posts of people from home abiding by social distancing measures without mentioning others who are ignoring them.</p>
<h2>What’s being done right?</h2>
<p>Social media can be a powerful tool for behavior change when used wisely.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTsBM-GRx6U&feature=youtu.be">Intensive care unit doctors</a> on the frontlines are sharing coronavirus information on social media well. They provide useful information on ways to protect ourselves and our families from this disease. Other <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMZ-o2nTbX4">leading physician scientists</a> are taking to social media to debunk rumors. </p>
<p>Communication campaigns from public health officials could also start reinforcing normative behaviors by recommending healthy activities that can reduce the boredom or loneliness of social distancing measures. Social sharing and social policing are going to continue. How the public engages on social media could make a difference.</p>
<p>[<em>You need to understand the coronavirus pandemic, and we can help.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=upper-coronavirus-help">Read The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jon-Patrick Allem receives funding from Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program (TRDRP) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). </span></em></p>Social media analysts are seeing some alarming trends on Twitter, Facebook and other platforms as the new coronavirus spreads.Jon-Patrick Allem, Assistant Professor of Research, University of Southern CaliforniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1330692020-03-31T19:16:20Z2020-03-31T19:16:20ZHow not to fall for coronavirus BS: avoid the 7 deadly sins of thought<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/324175/original/file-20200331-65547-1c7lbbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the COVID-19 pandemic causing a great deal of anxiety, we might come to think people are irrational, selfish or downright crazy. We see people showing up to public venues en masse or clearing supermarket shelves of toilet paper. </p>
<p>Experts are often ignored. We hear inconsistent information and arguments filled with fallacious reasoning being accepted by a seemingly large number people. </p>
<p>The answer for the kind of panicked flurry in reasoning may lie in a field of critical thinking called vice epistemology. This theory argues our thinking habits and intellectual character traits cause poor reasoning. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_2316308/component/file_2316307/content">thinking habits are developed over a lifetime</a>.
When these habits are poorly developed, we can end up with <a href="https://academic.oup.com/monist/article-pdf/99/2/159/8031931/onv034.pdf">intellectual vices</a>. The more we think viciously (as a vice), the harder it is for us to effectively inquire and seek truth. </p>
<p>Vice epistemology <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00048402.2017.1394334?casa_token=GJWjdiEJp0AAAAAA:ezVjujXTpkm_2vLYwxKjLjTfZYTCeCnBZhDchvY5GPFEKJ2BBAjef0fxaD0v-_47a_8oT_WVnNs">points to many</a> <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/meta.12301?casa_token=bzYrI9QTR0sAAAAA:rLseZETKYGtx4iQeMW0AcjvjTFLrMTK6j3lUjlhm88iwSR1Wzn-cb2dJGPUBFiqxHIZvOmQh_lVU">thinking vices</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40380439.pdf?casa_token=QdlTUNN4u8cAAAAA:pMNuEKTKQnTqMnrc1SONdAwJKwnHCIqv-C7Ibv7QtCe3J-_RvVskzMCeUDbb71cdmJQc6OoazVIlTDWnzMlXQ-6ix03sgHOlirpLROoH8RbKeIjX3A">and sins</a> that cause problems for inquiry. I have chosen seven that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Quassim_Cassam/publication/301788560_Stealthy_Vices/links/5728617608aef9c00b8bd90b.pdf">show up regularly</a> in the literature:</p>
<h2>1. Sin of gullibility</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I heard coronavirus particles can stay in the air for up to five days!</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2004973">Researchers found</a> SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes the disease COVID-19, remains infectious in airborne droplets for at least three hours.</p>
<p>But all sorts of claims are being touted by people and we’re all guilty of having believed someone who isn’t an expert or simply doesn’t know what they’re talking about. Gullibility as a thinking sin means that we lack the ability to determine the credibility of information. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-how-long-does-it-take-to-get-sick-how-infectious-is-it-will-you-always-have-a-fever-covid-19-basics-explained-132963">Coronavirus: how long does it take to get sick? How infectious is it? Will you always have a fever? COVID-19 basics explained</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Relevant expertise and experience are essential qualities when we’re listening to someone’s own argument. But with something like COVID-19, it’s also important we look at the type of expertise someone has. A GP might be able to tell us how we get the infection – but they wouldn’t count as an expert in infectious disease epidemiology (the way an infectious disease spreads across a population).</p>
<h2>2. Sin of cynicism</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I’d better stock up on toilet paper before everyone else buys it.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In many ways, cynicism is the opposite of gullibility. It is being overly suspicious of others in their arguments and actions. </p>
<p>If you’ve suddenly become suspicious of your neighbours and what they might do when supermarket stocks are limited, that’s a cynical way to think.</p>
<p>If we think the worst interpretation of arguments and events is correct, we can’t inquire and problem-solve effectively.</p>
<h2>3. Sin of pride</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I know what’s best for my family!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Pride is an intellectual sin (though it’s more popular as a spiritual one). In this particular case, it is the habit of not admitting to ourselves or to others that we don’t know the answer. Or perhaps that we don’t understand the issue. </p>
<p>We obstruct a genuine search for truth if we are dogmatic in our self-belief. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/324176/original/file-20200331-65522-1mo7wzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Do you think you know better than everyone else?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pedantic-man-having-coffee-291649280">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s effective reasoning to take what the evidence and experts say and then apply it specifically to our individual needs. But we have gone astray in our thinking if we contradict those who know more than us and are unwilling to admit our own limitations.</p>
<h2>4. Sin of closed-mindedness</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I won’t accept that.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Closed-mindedness means we’re not willing to see things from different perspectives or accept new information. It’s a serious intellectual vice as it directly interferes with our ability to adjust our beliefs according to new information. </p>
<p>Worse still, being close-minded to new ideas and information means it’s even more challenging to learn and grow – we’d be closed minded to the idea that we’re closed minded.</p>
<h2>5. Sin of prejudice</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I’ve stopped buying Chinese food - just in case.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Prejudiced thinking is an intellectual vice we often start developing early in life. Children can be incredibly prejudiced in small ways – such as being unwilling to try new foods because they already somehow know they’re gross. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-fears-can-trigger-anti-chinese-prejudice-heres-how-schools-can-help-130945">Coronavirus fears can trigger anti-Chinese prejudice. Here's how schools can help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As a character flaw, it means we often substitute preconceived notions for actual thinking. </p>
<h2>6. Sin of negligence</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>SARS was more deadly than COVID-19 and that wasn’t that big a deal</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Creating a poor analogy like this one is not a substitute for thoughtful research and considered analysis. </p>
<p>Still, it is difficult to explore every single topic with thorough evaluation. There’s so much information out there at the moment it can be a real chore to investigate every claim we hear. </p>
<p>But if we’re not willing to check the facts, we’re being negligent in our thinking. </p>
<h2>7. Sin of wishful thinking</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>This will all be over in a week or two and it’ll be business as usual.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Our capacity to believe in ourselves, our hard work, our friends and culture can often blind us to hard truths. </p>
<p>It’s perfectly fine to aim for a certain outcome but we need to recognise it doesn’t matter how much we hope for it – our desire doesn’t affect the likelihood of it happening. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thinking-about-thinking-helps-kids-learn-how-can-we-teach-critical-thinking-129795">Thinking about thinking helps kids learn. How can we teach critical thinking?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A pandemic like COVID-19 shows our way of life is fragile and can change at any moment. Wishful thinking ignores the stark realities and can set us up for disappointment.</p>
<h2>So, what can we do about it?</h2>
<p>There are some questions we can ask ourselves to help improve our intellectual character traits:</p>
<p><strong>What would change my mind?</strong></p>
<p>It’s a red flag for sin of pride if nothing will change your mind.</p>
<p><strong>What is the strongest argument the other side has?</strong></p>
<p>We often hold each piece of the truth in our own perspective. It’s worth keeping in mind that unless there’s wanton cruelty involved, chances are differing arguments will have some good points. </p>
<p><strong>What groups would gain or lose the most if we keep thinking this way?</strong></p>
<p>Sometimes we fail to consider the practical outcomes of our thoughts for people who aren’t like us. We’ve seen in the last few weeks that the people who have a lot to lose (such as casual workers) matter when it comes to the way we respond to the pandemic. </p>
<p>It’s worth taking a moment to consider their perspectives.</p>
<p><strong>How much do you actually know about an issue? Who is an expert?</strong></p>
<p>The experts always have something to say. If they agree on it, it’s a good indication we should believe them. If there isn’t general consensus, we should be dubious of one-sided claims to truth. </p>
<p>And remember the person’s actual expertise – it’s too easy to mistake a political leader or famous person with an expert.</p>
<p>In challenging days like these, we may be able to help ensure a better outcome for everyone if we start by asking ourselves a few simple questions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Zaphir does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Gullibility, cynicism, pride, closed mindedness, negligence and wishful thinking. If you can use any of these to describe your reasoning, it’s likely you’re committing a sin of thought.Luke Zaphir, Researcher for the University of Queensland Critical Thinking Project, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1347652020-03-31T12:19:01Z2020-03-31T12:19:01ZCOVID-19 could shrink the earnings of 2020 graduates for years to come<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323694/original/file-20200327-146683-192xywh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=346%2C500%2C3931%2C2218&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jobs could be hard to keep or find for quite a while.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/graduates-during-commencement-ceremony-royalty-free-image/532462384?adppopup=true">Chuck Savage/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Before the coronavirus pandemic forced <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2020/03/18/coronavirus-what-stores-are-open-and-who-is-closed/2865166001/">businesses</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/10/us/coronavirus-closings.html">schools</a> to close, high school and college graduates from the Class of 2020 could have expected to graduate into the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/07/business/january-jobs-report.html">strongest job market</a> in 50 years.</p>
<p>Now, due to massive <a href="https://www.imf.org/en/News/Podcasts/All-Podcasts/2020/03/20/martin-muhleisen-coronavirus">economic fallout</a>, the Class of 2020 is at risk of <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/business/markets/we-may-well-be-recession-says-fed-chairman-jerome-powell-n1169291">graduating into a recession</a>.</p>
<p>This souring economy has important implications for more than 3.5 million students expected to <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2019001">graduate from high school</a> in 2020, and the more than 1.3 million students expected to graduate from a two-year or four-year <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/Search?query=&query2=&resultType=all&page=1&sortBy=date_desc&overlayTableId=25416">college</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/coronavirus-social-distancing-and-self-quarantine">social distancing</a> <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/03/emergencies-closures-states-handling-coronavirus-200317213356419.html">that has upended business as usual</a> is causing a wave of <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-layoffs-furloughs-hospitality-service-travel-unemployment-2020#scandinavian-airlines-sas-announced-that-it-would-temporarily-lay-off-10000-employees-90-of-its-staff-on-march-15-sas-also-halted-the-majority-of-its-flights-and-is-operating-with-limited-service-1">layoffs and furloughs</a>, with an unprecedented <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/us-weekly-jobless-claims-record-coronavirus-unemployment-insurance-labor-recession-2020-3">3.3 million</a> new unemployment claims filed in the week ending March 21.</p>
<p>And that’s just the beginning. Experts predict the unemployment rate will eventually rise from 3.5% in February to <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-22/fed-s-bullard-says-u-s-jobless-rate-may-soar-to-30-in-2q">as much as 30%</a> by June.</p>
<p>We are <a href="http://volweb2.utk.edu/%7Elkessle2/">economists</a> who study the link between <a href="https://volweb.utk.edu/%7Eccarrut1/">education</a> and <a href="https://web.utk.edu/%7Emwanamak/">employment</a>. Should a recession occur, we believe young workers and new grads may be hit hard. History and research also show that the looming economic downturn could have distinct consequences for the Class of 2020 that outlast the economic downturn itself.</p>
<h2>Bigger toll for young workers</h2>
<p>Younger workers typically have more trouble finding and maintaining employment in a recession. For example, during the Great Recession, the unemployment rate for all workers <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/01/cls1001.pdf">peaked at 10%</a> – about half of the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/01/cls1001.pdf">19.2% peak for workers between 16 and 24 years old</a>.</p>
<p>During a recession, people attempting to enter or re-enter the labor market will have a harder time finding employment and therefore have less access to employer-provided health insurance, potentially leaving both their physical and financial well-being at greater risk. <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2019/demo/p60-267.html">About 14% of Americans age 19-24 are uninsured</a>, much higher than the 8.5% nationwide rate of uninsurance. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323699/original/file-20200327-146683-sncder.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unemployment was nearly twice as high for young workers during the Great Recession.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/graduating-class-royalty-free-image/157180551?adppopup=true">Lawrence Sawyer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, younger Americans <a href="https://qwiexplorer.ces.census.gov/">disproportionately work</a> in the food, retail, leisure and hospitality industries. Those workplaces are all being <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/these-industries-are-more-likely-to-shed-jobs-if-the-coronavirus-pandemic-worsens-but-one-sector-looks-recession-proof-2020-03-11">hit hard</a> as consumers follow government orders to stay home.</p>
<p>Finally, new graduates are not in the best position to benefit from the US<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/27/politics/coronavirus-stimulus-house-vote/index.html">$2 trillion federal coronavirus relief package</a> that, among other things, is designed to help employers keep or rehire workers. This relief will do more for people who were already working than new graduates seeking to enter the job market or find a better paying job.</p>
<h2>Effects could last several years</h2>
<p>The Class of 2020 could feel the effects of a recession well after the recession has ended. Prior research has found that U.S. college students who graduated during a recession <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/682938">earned 10% less</a> the first year after they completed their studies than would otherwise be expected. And the negative effects lasted over the next seven years.</p>
<p>Why? Researchers attribute these losses to college graduates <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/682938">taking jobs that pay less</a> right after they graduated.</p>
<p>Research on Canadian students suggests the effects <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.4.1.1">may be long-lasting</a> – those who graduated in recession years had initial income 9% below students who graduated in better economic conditions, with the gap closing to zero over the next 10 years.</p>
<p>In the past, the negative effects of graduating in a recession did not affect everyone the same. Highly skilled graduates, those graduating from more selective colleges and universities or who majored in fields that usually lead to high salaries, tend to recover early hits to their earnings by changing jobs and employers once the economy rebounds. All else equal, it <a href="https://cew.georgetown.edu/cew-reports/whats-it-worth-the-economic-value-of-college-majors/">pays more</a> to major in engineering than theater. And these differences are magnified after recessions.</p>
<h2>What young workers can do</h2>
<p><strong>1. Stay healthy</strong></p>
<p>While the individual risks of COVID-19 may seem low for them, <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/488325-cdc-data-show-coronavirus-poses-serious-risk-for-younger-people">young people can nevertheless get quite sick</a>, and they can transmit the virus throughout their communities – including to their more vulnerable friends, neighbors and relatives. It is worth stating the obvious that becoming ill with COVID-19 would make it much harder to work or to find work, and that becoming infectious could worsen the health and financial security of others.</p>
<p><strong>2. Pay attention to relief efforts</strong></p>
<p>Grads can actively seek out benefits for which they or their employers may be eligible. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/congress/coronavirus-unemployment-benefits-here-s-who-qualifies-how-much-they-n1169846">Unemployment relief</a>, for example, may be available to students who have lost jobs, even if they were working part-time, and partial benefits may be available for those whose hours were reduced as a result of the virus. In addition to expanded <a href="https://www.finance.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/CARES%20Act%20Section-by-Section%20(Tax,%20Unemployment%20Insurance).pdf">unemployment insurance provisions</a>, federal relief efforts include <a href="https://taxfoundation.org/cares-act-senate-coronavirus-bill-economic-relief-plan/">payroll support for businesses</a>, direct <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/coronavirus-stimulus-package-questions-answers.html">cash support</a> to all individuals, temporary <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/yes-you-still-have-to-pay-your-student-loans-but-you-may-be-able-to-suspend-them-or-lower-the-payment-2020-03-25">suspension of student loan payments</a>, and a pause on foreclosures and evictions for both <a href="https://www.fhfa.gov/Media/PublicAffairs/Pages/FHFA-Suspends-Foreclosures-and-Evictions-for-Enterprise-Backed-Mortgages.aspx">homeowners</a> and <a href="https://www.barrons.com/articles/fannie-mae-and-freddie-mac-released-coronavirus-relief-plans-heres-what-it-means-for-landlords-and-renters-51585081954">renters</a>. Diverse state, local, and private benefits are popping up as well, such as <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/488423-grocery-store-workers-in-minnesota-classified-as-emergency-workers">child care</a> for a broader definition of emergency workers, and <a href="https://www.wate.com/health/coronavirus/knox-county-schools-announces-meals-will-be-provided-to-any-child-18-under-during-school-closure/">meals for children</a> whose schools are closed.</p>
<p><strong>3. Consider staying in school</strong></p>
<p>Some graduates may be better off by staying in school to pursue another degree. They may have plenty of company: Enrollment <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.12.009">typically rises</a> during recessions. Staying in school will make graduating during a recession less likely and could help graduates land a higher-paying job later on. Continuing students should be cognizant of additional student debt, but also the potential <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/508220">boost in earnings</a> from further education. Another consideration is that the implicit cost of being in school – the income given up because an individual is in school instead of working – is now lower than normal. </p>
<p>We close on a note of optimism. Despite dire short-run predictions for the labor market, economic improvement is <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/03/26/jerome-powell-we-may-well-be-in-a-recession-150036">expected throughout the second half of 2020 and into 2021</a>. Although we have yet to see the full extent of layoffs and overall economic slowdown induced by COVID-19, <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/03/26/jerome-powell-we-may-well-be-in-a-recession-150036">analysts</a> currently expect that the U.S. will get back to work once the virus is under control.</p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=upper-coronavirus-facts">Sign up for our newsletter.</a>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134765/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The economic fallout from COVID-19 will likely harm new workers in distinct ways with long-term effects, three economists say.Celeste K. Carruthers, Associate Professor of Economics, University of TennesseeLarry Kessler, Research Associate Professor - Economics, University of TennesseeMarianne Wanamaker, Associate Professor of Economics, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1349872020-03-28T11:31:38Z2020-03-28T11:31:38ZAll Australians will be able to access telehealth under new $1.1 billion coronavirus program<p>Scott Morrison will unveil on Sunday a $1.1 billion set of measures to make Medicare telehealth services generally available during the coronavirus pandemic and to support mental health, domestic violence and community services.</p>
<p>The “Medicare support at home” initiative will extend telehealth to the whole population. In the early stages of the pandemic, the government announced limited telehealth access.</p>
<p>The $669 million medical spending will also include extra incentives for doctors.</p>
<p>People will be able to get consultations from their homes via telephone or video conferencing for GP services, mental health treatment, chronic disease management, and a wide range of other services that do not require face-to-face contact</p>
<p>This will include after hours consultations and access to nurse practitioners.</p>
<p>The broad telehealth service limits the exposure of patients and health professionals to the coronavirus and will take pressure off hospitals and emergency departments, while supporting self-isolation and quarantine policies.</p>
<p>The GP bulk billing incentive is to be doubled for GPs, whether it is a telehealth consultation or not, and an incentive payment given to ensure practices stay open for face-to-face services where patients cannot be treated through telehealth.</p>
<p>The new arrangements will run until September 30, when they will be reviewed.</p>
<p>The government is spending an initial $74 million to help with the mental health impact of the virus crisis.</p>
<p>The government’s digital health portal, <a href="https://headtohealth.gov.au/">Head to Health</a>, will be a source of authoritative information on how to maintain good mental health during the pandemic and in self-isolation, and how to support children and others.</p>
<p>A national communications campaign will also provide guidance about mental wellbeing.</p>
<p>Money will go to bolstering the capacity of mental health support providers, who are experiencing an unprecedented surge in calls.</p>
<p>Health workers are to get dedicated mental health support. </p>
<p>To support people in aged care, who risk becoming socially isolated due to restrictions on visitors, funds will be provided to the Community Visitors Scheme, to train extra volunteers, who will connect with older people online and by telephone. </p>
<p>Funding will also go to assisting young people “stay on track” in their education and training, via the headspace digital work and study service and eheadspace.</p>
<p>For indigenous Australians, culturally appropriate mental health support will also receive funding.</p>
<p>An initial $150 million will go to supporting people experiencing domestic, family, and sexual violence due to the fallout from coronavirus. </p>
<p>Some $200 million will support charities and other community organisations that provide emergency and food relief as demand increases.</p>
<p>Vulnerable people will be helped with bills, food, clothing and other needs such as financial counselling through this community support package.</p>
<p>Scott Morrison said: “As we battle coronavirus on both the health and economic fronts with significant support packages in place and more to come, I am very aware many Australians are understandably anxious, stressed and fearful about the impacts of coronavirus and what it brings.</p>
<p>"This new support package will provide much needed care and help to so many Australians facing hardship”</p>
<p>Family and Social Services Minister Anne Ruston said given the unprecedented situation, emergency relief services would likely be relied on more heavily in coming months “than we have seen in our lifetimes.”</p>
<p>“Many people reaching out to these services may have never needed this type of assistance before,” she said.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134987/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scott Morrison will unveil a $1.1 billion package to make Medicare telehealth services available during the coronavirus pandemic and to support mental health, domestic violence and community services.Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1349012020-03-27T07:50:34Z2020-03-27T07:50:34ZWhat is orthohantavirus? The virus many are Googling (but you really don’t need to worry about)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323532/original/file-20200327-146724-1jn0w6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3003%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>According to Google Trends, the top globally trending topic this week is “orthohantavirus”, as spurious sites claim it’s the next pandemic on the horizon.</p>
<p>Take it from me: it’s not. </p>
<p>This baseless claim circulating online underscores the need to get health information from reputable sources – and that you shouldn’t believe everything you read on social media.</p>
<h2>What is orthohantavirus?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hps/transmission.html">“Orthohantavirus”</a> - commonly known as hantavirus – is a very, very rare virus. There have never been confirmed human cases in Australia. The last two reported confirmed cases worldwide were in January in <a href="http://www.promedmail.org/post/6914213">Bolivia</a> and <a href="http://www.promedmail.org/post/6883493">Argentina</a>. </p>
<p>It is in a class of diseases called zoonoses, meaning it is a virus transmitted from animals to human. In this case, the animal in question is rodents (usually rats). Hantaviruses can cause severe disease, including bleeding and kidney failure.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-bugs-can-you-catch-from-your-pets-40954">Health Check: what bugs can you catch from your pets?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How does hantavirus spread?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hps/transmission.html">According</a> to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), hantavirus is spread from several species of rodents in their urine, droppings, and saliva. It is thought that transmission occurs when they breathe in air contaminated with the virus.</p>
<p>CDC also <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hps/transmission.html">reports</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>if a rodent with the virus bites someone, the virus may be spread to that person, but this type of transmission is rare;</li>
<li>scientists believe that people may be able to get the virus if they touch something that has been contaminated with rodent urine, droppings, or saliva, and then touch their nose or mouth;</li>
<li>scientists also suspect people can become sick if they eat food contaminated by urine, droppings, or saliva from an infected rodent.</li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/323536/original/file-20200327-146724-la0tcy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Don’t believe everything you read on social media.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>How worried should I be about hantavirus?</h2>
<p>Not very. In general, infectious disease specialists do worry about zoonoses – the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 and Ebola are both important recent examples of animal-associated diseases that have crossed the species barrier. </p>
<p>Hantavirus, however, is not thought to be a big threat at the moment.</p>
<p>There’s certainly no chatter among infectious disease physicians about hantavirus right now. I’m not seeing anything concerning about it on any of my researcher networks and mailing lists that warn about virus outbreaks.</p>
<p>There was a recent report of a single case in China but there’s no indication of any sort of spread. </p>
<p>I think, for now, let’s concentrate on the pandemic we have – which is coronavirus and also the annual influenza season – rather than worry about uncommon viruses. </p>
<p>However, this coronavirus outbreak and everything that’s come before reinforces that we need early warning systems to work out what’s out there that could be threatening. </p>
<p>Yes, it is true that animals carry a lot of viruses but very few come across to humans.</p>
<p>Hantavirus is certainly not one we are particularly concerned about right now. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-does-coronavirus-kill-130864">How does coronavirus kill?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134901/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Allen Cheng receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council. He is affiliated with the Australasian Society of Infectious Diseases, and is a member of government advisory committees, including those involved with COVID-19.
</span></em></p>According to Google Trends, the top globally trending topic this week is ‘orthohantavirus’, as spurious sites claim it’s next pandemic on the horizon. The claim is baseless.Allen Cheng, Professor in Infectious Diseases Epidemiology, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1347022020-03-25T14:59:40Z2020-03-25T14:59:40ZCoronavirus and the politics of crisis fatigue<p>The new coronavirus pandemic is affecting our daily lives in many unexpected ways. We are particularly trying to understand why some people are not heeding official advice about social isolation. I believe this relates to a particular kind of political malady that has been emerging in recent years – something we might call “crisis fatigue”. </p>
<p>After two decades that have almost been defined by wave upon wave of crises, it’s possible that the public has simply become immune to warnings from politicians and habitually distrustful of their claims.</p>
<p>I propose that crisis fatigue is a sociopolitical condition. It’s the tiredness that comes as result of the constant fear associated with repeated warnings about crisis, disaster or catastrophe. It also refers to the weakening of political or other social structures caused by repeated narratives of impending doom. That is, falling levels of trust in politicians, political institutions and political processes as a succession of crises gradually saps the public’s confidence that their representatives actually have the ability to respond. </p>
<p>There’s no doubt that Covid-19 represents a global health pandemic. Its implications for older and vulnerable people are stark. It feels like a war without a conventional enemy. There is a certain fearfulness and uncertainty “out there” which is itself almost tangible. Nevertheless, there continues to be a problem with people not taking seriously the advice to stay indoors.</p>
<p>It’s hardly surprising that politicians and senior officials are responding with exasperated frustration. And yet I can’t help wondering if part of the problem is that the notion of crisis has simply become the new normal, particularly for millennials. Life for them must be a bit like living through a Billy Bragg song: “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnwQ6zvoG4g">Crisis after crisis, with such intensity”</a>. </p>
<p>Since the millennium, they’ve survived against a backdrop of global financial crisis, mass refugee movement, violent revolutions in the Middle East, constant terror threats, a succession of global pandemics – SARS in 2003, bird flu in 2005, swine flu in 2009, MERS in 2012, Ebola in 2014 and now Covid in 2019. They absorb doom-laden narratives about globalisation and suffer from the growth of economic precarity. They hear about the “<a href="https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/democratic-theory/6/2/dt060209.xml">death</a>” or “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/K-08-2018-0452/full/html?casa_token=GTkgWlUpAUkAAAAA:zil1ThYAC17NNCS13qJTUvclA9fzV6d7ZDKyeaC50GVjzdtGUNHXLyc7BKtctN_bNfpMtPCUrvxmwlJkZBkaRj4c2AI5EXZk1Cm7j_cpGoreNZl2ctg">end</a>” of democracy and catastrophic climate change. Is it any wonder that mental health and wellbeing services are generally discussed in crisis-laden terms?</p>
<p>Coronavirus brings an additional layer of pressure, strain and stress on sections of society that were already feeling anxious or were struggling to survive.</p>
<h2>‘Liquid fear’</h2>
<p>Many people now simply live in fear all the time. Life resembles a constant flow of crises and disasters – real, perceived and artificially engineered for gain. All too often this fear appears to defeat enlightenment ideas about human progress. I can’t help but think about my old friend Zygmunt Bauman and his notion of “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1367877907086355?journalCode=icsa">liquid fear</a>”:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Modernity was supposed to be the period in human history when the fears that pervaded social life in the past could be left behind and human beings could at last take control of their lives and tame the uncontrolled forces of the social and natural worlds.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The sunlit uplands have turned into a fool’s paradise. We live in a state of constant anxiety about the dangers that lurk in an unattended suitcase, the rarity of snow – and now, even a cough or a sneeze. The emergence not of free, but of fearful, societies seems to be the crowning achievement of the 21st century so far.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.counterpunch.org/2020/03/23/the-political-uses-of-pandemic/">Ben Debney</a>, a specialist in moral panics, has recently explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Crisis has long had political uses for ruling groups … elites and their intellectual courtiers often manufacture crises themselves … Where not directly complicit themselves in the process of engineering crises for political purposes, elites and their ideological lickspittles reveal time and time again a tenacious capacity to exploit legitimate crises. Much about the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic reflects this historical truism.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Think, for example, of US president Donald Trump’s repeated attempts to label it “a foreign virus” or “the Chinese virus”. Naomi Klein has already identified the rapid emergence of a form of “<a href="https://theintercept.com/2020/03/16/coronavirus-capitalism/">coronavirus capitalism</a>”, whereby governments around the world are busily exploiting the crisis to push for no-strings-attached corporate bailouts and regulatory rollbacks. Winners will keep on winning and losers will just have to survive.</p>
<p>It’s also important to note that living in a perennial state of crisis or emergency cannot be seen as living in a free society. The Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben has made this point with more precision than I ever could in his analysis of “<a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/State-Exception-Giorgio-Agamben/dp/0226009254">the state of exception</a>”. He believed that the tendency for governments to use crisis conditions as a justification for claiming exceptional powers for themselves has become normalised.</p>
<p>The bigger background question that Coronavirus highlights – and one which needs to be grappled with as soon as possible – is how we move away from a dominant “culture of crisis” and begin to nurture a more balanced and sustainable way of living together.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134702/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Flinders does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After two decades of constant turmoil, is it anyone wonder people are struggling to manage their behaviour in the fight against coronavirus?Matthew Flinders, Founding Director of the Sir Bernard Crick Centre for the Public Understanding of Politics, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1337562020-03-23T18:18:27Z2020-03-23T18:18:27ZCoronavirus ‘cures’ for $170 and other hoaxes: Why some people believe them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322326/original/file-20200323-112688-xgy8cb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=160%2C123%2C3870%2C2745&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">FOX News host Sean Hannity (pictured here in 2018) gave credibility to a tweet he read out lout on his popular syndicated radio show, which called COVID-19 a fraud "to spread panic in the populace, manipulate the economy and suppress dissent." </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP/Julie Jacobson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the world continues to deal with the <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-canada-at-home-scenes-of-social-distancing-and-self-sacrifice-to-stay/">life-altering effects</a> of the novel coronavirus, a small but not-insignificant number of individuals have been expressing their fears about COVID-19 through the language of government conspiracies and wild alternative health cures. </p>
<p>Last week, one online conspiracy network suggested that COVID-19 is an act of biological terrorism to attack Chinese trade. Last month, a popular online site said the virus was a hoax manufactured to induce global fear and would therefore be a boon to Big Pharma. A website based in Toronto claims COVID-19 is the result of 5G cellular networks plus the common cold. </p>
<p>Press TV, part of the state sponsored media in Iran, <a href="https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Iran-News/Irans-regime-pushes-antisemitic-conspiracies-about-coronavirus-620212">suggested</a> “Zionists” were behind the spread. As recently as last week, some public officials in the United States government continued to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelsandler/2020/03/15/rep-devin-nunes-told-americans-to-go-to-your-local-pub-public-health-experts-say-the-opposite/#41d092936d96">underplay</a> the seriousness of the virus. </p>
<p>As reported by the <em>New York Times</em>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/11/us/politics/coronavirus-conservative-media.html">popular conservative talk-radio host Rush Limbaugh</a> called the virus a “plot by the Chinese,” and conservative commentator and FOX TV host Sean Hannity read and gave credibility to a tweet calling COVID-19 a fraud “to spread panic in the populace, manipulate the economy and suppress dissent.”</p>
<p>Why have conspiracy theories so readily circulated during the COVID-19 pandemic? What type of person believes medical conspiracy theories? </p>
<p>I research new religious movements. I decided to explore this question because of the ubiquity of conspiratorial thinking within some of these communities. What can belief in alternative theories tell us about ourselves? </p>
<p>What challenges might conspiratorial thinking, circulated online and in popular media, present to public health advocates in the coming year?</p>
<h2>Conspiracy in the age of coronavirus</h2>
<p>Conspiracy theories connecting the COVID-19 pandemic to the state of Israel are flourishing. One source, part of a large global conspiracy community, claims the novel coronavirus is an act of Israeli bioterrorism. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=838&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=838&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=838&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1054&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1054&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322328/original/file-20200323-112707-14mk3u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1054&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Six years after Ivanovsky did his the first ‘virus’ experiment, Dutch scientist Martinus Willem Beijerinck (pictured in his lab in 1921), working independently in his laboratory, used the term virus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martinus_Willem_Beijerinck_in_his_laboratory.jpg">Delft School of Microbiology Archives</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Anti-Defamation League in the United States, a leading anti-hate organization, has tracked a <a href="https://www.adl.org/blog/extremists-use-coronavirus-to-advance-racist-conspiratorial-agendas">growing number of anti-Semitic conspiracies</a>, which claim that Jews are either behind the COVID-19 pandemic, or stand to profit from it.</p>
<p>Jews have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtm005">historically been blamed for global viral events</a>, including the Black Death in the 1300s, which led to <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.3386/w17113">massive pogroms</a> against European Jewry. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/01/health/01plague.html">common narrative</a> goes that people in the Middle Ages needed a scapegoat because they did not know about the germ theory of disease. However, 130 years after <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC408320/">Russian microbiologist Dmitri Ivanovsky</a> and Dutch scientist Martinus Willem Beijerinck (working independently) discovered the existence of viruses, Jews continue to take the brunt of conspiratorial blame. </p>
<h2>Hoaxes in alternative medicine</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=635&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=635&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=635&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=798&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=798&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/322327/original/file-20200323-112720-132a347.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=798&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A photo of Jim Bakker delivering a sermon in 2005 in South Carolina. He’s being sued by the state of Missouri for selling a cure to COVID-19. No such cure exists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Charlotte Observer, Jeff Siner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People seek alternative medicine for many reasons, including distrust of authority, consumer-centered individuality and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-018-2179-8">the belief that the treatment will work</a>. While no vaccine for coronavirus currently exists, that hasn’t stopped televangelist <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/03/11/814550474/missouri-sues-televangelist-jim-bakker-for-selling-fake-coronavirus-cure">Jim Bakker from selling his colloidal silver tincture for US$125 a bottle. The state of Missouri has filed a law suit against Bakker</a> alleging fraudulent treatment claims.</p>
<p>Infowars’ Alex Jones claimed a product called DNA Force Plus could help fight off COVID-19: it is currently on sale for US$89.95 for one month supply. Another popular supplement advocate suggests a cocktail of over 11 different supplements to combat coronavirus, costing over US$170 a month. Other purported cures include vitamin C dosing, faith healing and <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/09/hindu-nationalists-magical-remedies-coronavirus-bjp-india/">homeopathic vaccines</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-its-time-to-debunk-claims-that-vitamin-c-could-cure-it-132803">There is no evidence that any of these work</a>.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/2007/camsurvey_fs1.htm#use">demand for alternative medicine grows</a>, Canadian researchers recently looking at internet health scams found, most of the alternative products marketed online “either severely misrepresented the efficacy for the given health concern and/or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12643">had no strong scientific evidence‐base to support their use as advertised</a>.” </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1240725959394779136"}"></div></p>
<p>Since being declared a global pandemic, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2020/03/09/world/asia/09reuters-health-coronavirus-usa-herbs.html">there is evidence that demand for alternative medicine</a> has increased. Some alternative medicine <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92775/">has been shown to be effective</a>, but many of the options being marketed today have not. As Timothy Caulfield professor of health law at the University of Alberta writes: <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-now-more-than-ever-we-must-fight-misinformation-trust-in-science-is/">trust in science is crucial right now</a>.</p>
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<h2>Who believes in conspiracy theories?</h2>
<p>Conspiratorial thinking can be <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/doj-suspend-constitutional-rights-coronavirus-970935/">founded on legitimate concerns</a> and transcends socio-economic, racial, educational and gender boundaries. This complicates our tendency to view conspiracies as perpetuated by tinfoil-hat wearing people. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/09/180925075108.htm">number of theories</a> have been proposed to account for conspiratorial thinking.</p>
<p>University of Chicago political scientists Eric Oliver and Thomas Wood explored medical conspiracy theories. They found approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.190">50 per cent of Americans believe in at least one general conspiracy theory</a>, and more than 18 per cent believe in three or more medical conspiracies. </p>
<p>Writing in the <em>Journal of the American Medical Association Internal Medicine</em>, Oliver and Wood wrote: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Although it is common to disparage adherents of conspiracy theories as a delusional fringe of paranoid cranks, our data suggest that medical conspiracy theories are widely known, broadly endorsed and highly predictive of many common health behaviours.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Perhaps the explanation for the broad appeal of such theories points to something more fundamental to the experience of being human? When people talk about quarantines, hoarding and conspiracies, they can ignore the elephant in the room: death. </p>
<p>Research suggests that we use different <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60328-7">management techniques to deal with the terror of death</a>. Where sickness can act as a reminder of our finitude, simple health-management solutions can offer a <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1001/jama.279.19.1548">sense of autonomy over our bodies.</a> </p>
<p>This may explain why some conspiracy websites are downplaying the danger of COVID-19 to adults by focusing on the older age of the victims. In other words, pandemics are scary, and they remind us that we are mortal.</p>
<p>Even if medical conspiracies are mostly confined to the fringe, the effects of conspiratorial beliefs on public health <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-touts-unproven-coronavirus-treatment-hours-after-it-killed-man-2020-3">may end up exacerbating the spread of the virus</a>. People may continue to ignore quarantine orders. A future vaccine for COVID-19 may come up against a <a href="https://www.infectioncontroltoday.com/vaccines-vaccination/45-percent-surveyed-american-adults-doubt-vaccine-safety">growing anti-vaccine movement</a>. Will people continue to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-counties-where-the-anti-vaccine-movement-thrives-in-the-us-106036">receptive</a> to anti-vaccine conspiracy rhetoric in the age of COVID-19?</p>
<p>Conspiracy theorists, like all of us, are trying to make sense of a complicated world. Having a sense of control against an ineffable source of power — which describes the novel coronavirus in many ways — may speak to some of our collective fears and motivations in the face of mortality. After all, nothing offers direct evidence of human finitude and frailty like a viral pandemic.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133756/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Cohen receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).</span></em></p>Why have conspiracy theories so easily circulated during the COVID-19 pandemic? What do these theories tell us about societies and what challenges do they present?Jeremy Cohen, Doctoral Candidate, Religious Studies, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1343942020-03-23T06:01:58Z2020-03-23T06:01:58ZCoronavirus distancing measures are confusing. Here are 3 things to ask yourself before you see someone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322218/original/file-20200323-22606-uhbbdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5472%2C3620&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: This article is based on the coronavirus and COVID-19 situation as of March 23. It’s important to remember that the situation is rapidly developing and official advice may change.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>If the flurry of new orders released in the last 24 hours has you feeling confused about what’s OK and what’s not when it comes to social contact, you’re not alone. </p>
<p>It’s so difficult to adopt a set of hard and fast rules with the advice changing so quickly. Government departments have put out detailed guidance but that won’t cover all situations. Experts in the public sphere will give different advice. </p>
<p>The fact is, if there’s an activity you want or need to do and you’re not sure if it’s advisable, often you’ll have to make a call. After ensuring that it doesn’t breach public orders, your decision will need to be based on your assessment of the risks and benefits.</p>
<p>Whatever activity you’re considering, it can help to first clearly list your options. For example, if I’m talking to a friend with kids, we could organise to meet at the park, in a house, online or not at all. Or if I want to catch up with my sister, I could do it in person or on the phone.</p>
<p>Then ask yourself some important questions as you consider your options. </p>
<p>Here are three considerations that should help you make an informed decision on behalf of your family and the wider community.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-how-long-does-it-take-to-get-sick-how-infectious-is-it-will-you-always-have-a-fever-covid-19-basics-explained-132963">Coronavirus: how long does it take to get sick? How infectious is it? Will you always have a fever? COVID-19 basics explained</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320030/original/file-20200312-116261-a6ugi0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" alt="Sign up to The Conversation" width="100%"></a></p>
<h2>1. What’s the latest advice of my state or territory health department?</h2>
<p>The first is to look to the latest advice for your state and territory health department, and be aware that they may change from day to day or even within a day. So keep checking. </p>
<p>Some departments are now developing quite detailed lists of dos and don'ts that are being updated as quick as is humanly possible.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-ways-to-talk-with-vaccine-skeptics-125142">4 ways to talk with vaccine skeptics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Do I know the latest on how the virus moves between people?</h2>
<p>Understanding as much as you can about the way that the virus moves between people can help you make an informed decision about whether an activity you’re considering doing poses a higher risk of passing coronavirus on or picking it up.</p>
<p>The coronavirus causing COVID-19 is currently thought to be passed on through contact and droplet transmission. It comes from the mucous membranes (meaning the wet parts of your face - mouth, nose and eyes). A person with the infection might cough or sneeze or touch their mouth or nose and then touch another surface where it can remain infectious for a time. </p>
<p>The virus is able to move to another person through direct contact with droplets from the cough or sneeze or if they touch that surface with their hands then touch their mouth, nose or eyes. The more symptomatic somebody is, the more easy it is to get the infection but people with very mild symptoms can still pass it on. More is being learnt about the virus and this knowledge may change.</p>
<p>That is why handwashing and cough or sneeze etiquette is so important. </p>
<p>COVID-19 is currently thought to be mostly spread by people who have symptoms and have been in close contact with others. Those more at risk of it are those who have had contact with someone who has been diagnosed with it or have recently returned from overseas. </p>
<p>However, that is changing as it moves more in the general community in Australia. </p>
<p>That basic understanding of how it moves can help people make decisions of who to see, how to see them, how to behave in public places and at home. </p>
<h2>3. How do the risks of a certain activity weigh up against the benefits?</h2>
<p>Whenever you are considering doing some activity with somebody, you need to weigh up the risks of harm with the potential benefits. </p>
<p>First, make sure you are abiding by the public health orders. Also remember that this is not just a decision about your personal risk. We are all reducing the chain of transmission by reducing our contact with others as much as we can.</p>
<p>Sometimes, we will still want or need contact with others. </p>
<p>First of all, we need to accept that we take a risk whenever we have contact with another person and we need to weigh that risk against the potential benefits.</p>
<p>There might be really important social benefits, for example, for seeing a person for whom contact with others is extremely important. </p>
<p>There might be benefits in helping someone who has less access to resources than we do – for example, helping a neighbour in need.</p>
<p>In these instances, if you decide to take the risk, it is important to follow guidance on doing everything you possibly can do to minimise the spread of COVID-19 within that encounter.</p>
<p>That means proper hand hygeine; washing hands when arriving and leaving. Try to stay 1.5 metres or more apart. Never go out and meet with others if you have respiratory symptoms such as a cough, or a fever. And it means trying to avoid contact with people at greater risk of severe disease, such as those with existing chronic disease, an older person, or person who is Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. </p>
<p>If the COVID-19 risk is really high to that person, then maybe the benefits don’t outweigh the potential harm. You may be forced to make a really hard decision.</p>
<h2>Hard decisions ahead</h2>
<p>There’s no magic cut off where you stop all risk. We have got to accept it is about degrees of risk and what we collectively do to minimise it.</p>
<p>If we choose to have contact with another person, while staying within the boundaries of what is permissible based on the government requirements, then it’s important you have a set of evidence-based principles that helps guide your decision-making.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/parents-decisions-about-vaccination-and-the-art-of-gentle-persuasion-9969">Parents' decisions about vaccination and the art of gentle persuasion</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Leask has received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, the World Health Organization, NSW Health, and the National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance.</span></em></p>It’s hard to adopt a set of hard and fast rules with the advice changing so quickly. So it’s important you have a set of evidence-based principles to guide your decision-making about social contact.Julie Leask, Professor, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.