tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/environmental-regulation-8346/articlesEnvironmental regulation – The Conversation2023-11-23T19:04:01Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2182312023-11-23T19:04:01Z2023-11-23T19:04:01ZPollution from coal power plants contributes to far more deaths than scientists realized, study shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560874/original/file-20231121-4173-worc70.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C107%2C5083%2C3435&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kids jump on a trampoline as steam rises from a coal power plant in Adamsville, Ala., in 2021. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/kids-jump-on-a-trampoline-at-their-grandparents-home-as-news-photo/1232409457?adppopup=true"> Andrew Caballero-Reynolds/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Air pollution particles from coal-fired power plants are more harmful to human health than many experts realized, and it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adf4915">more than twice as likely to contribute to premature deaths</a> as air pollution particles from other sources, new research demonstrates.</p>
<p>In the study, published in the journal Science, colleagues and I mapped how U.S. coal power plant emissions traveled through the atmosphere, then linked each power plant’s emissions with death records of Americans over 65 years old on Medicare.</p>
<p>Our results suggest that air pollutants released from coal power plants were associated with nearly half a million premature deaths of elderly Americans from 1999 to 2020.</p>
<p>It’s a staggering number, but the study also has good news: Annual deaths associated with U.S. coal power plants have fallen sharply since the mid-2000s as <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-reasons-us-coal-power-is-disappearing-and-a-supreme-court-ruling-wont-save-it-187254">federal regulations compelled operators</a> to install emissions scrubbers and many utilities shut down coal plants entirely.</p>
<p>In 1999, 55,000 deaths were attributable to coal air pollution in the U.S., according to our findings. By 2020, that number had fallen to 1,600.</p>
<figure><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2941/lucas-maps-GIF5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=2"><figcaption> How PM2.5 levels from coal power plants in the U.S. have declined since 1999 as more plants installed pollution-control devices or shut down. Lucas Henneman.</figcaption></figure>
<p>In the U.S., coal is being displaced by natural gas and renewable energy for generating electricity. Globally, however, coal use is <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-2022">projected to increase</a> in coming years. That makes our results all the more urgent for global decision-makers to understand as they develop future policies.</p>
<h2>Coal air pollution: What makes it so bad?</h2>
<p>A landmark study in the 1990s, known as the <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199312093292401">Harvard Six Cities Study</a>, linked tiny airborne particles called PM2.5 to increased risk of early death. Other studies have since linked PM2.5 to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12152656">lung and heart disease, cancer</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.3300">dementia</a> and other diseases. </p>
<p>Following that research, the Environmental Protection Agency <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/timeline-particulate-matter-pm-national-ambient-air-quality-standards-naaqs">began regulating PM2.5 concentrations in 1997</a> and has lowered the acceptable limit over time.</p>
<p>PM2.5 – particles small enough to be inhaled deep into our lungs – comes from several different sources, including gasoline combustion in vehicles and smoke from wood fires and power plants. It is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#PM">made up of many</a> different chemicals.</p>
<p>Coal is also a mix of many chemicals – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.04.070">carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, even metals</a>. When coal is burned, <a href="https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/coal-and-the-environment.php">all of these chemicals</a> are emitted to the atmosphere either as gases or particles. Once there, they are transported by the wind and interact with other chemicals already in the atmosphere.</p>
<p>As a result, anyone downwind of a coal plant may be breathing a complex cocktail of chemicals, each with its own potential effects on human health.</p>
<figure><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2934/lucas-gif1.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=2"><figcaption> Two months of emissions from Plant Bowen, a coal-fired power station near Atlanta, show how wind influences the spread of air pollution. Lucas Henneman.</figcaption></figure>
<h2>Tracking coal PM2.5</h2>
<p>To understand the risks coal emissions pose to human health, we tracked how sulfur dioxide emissions from each of the 480 largest U.S. coal power plants operating at any point since 1999 traveled with the wind and turned into tiny particles – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adf4915">coal PM2.5</a>. We used sulfur dioxide because of its known health effects and drastic decreases in emissions over the study period.</p>
<p>We then used a statistical model to link coal PM2.5 exposure to Medicare records of nearly 70 million people from 1999 to 2020. This model allowed us to calculate the number of deaths associated with coal PM2.5.</p>
<p>In our statistical model, we controlled for other pollution sources and accounted for many other known risk factors, like smoking status, local meteorology and income level. We tested multiple statistical approaches that all yielded consistent results. We compared the results of our statistical model with <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aba5692">previous results</a> testing the health impacts of PM2.5 from other sources and found that PM2.5 from coal is twice as harmful as PM2.5 from all other sources.</p>
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<img alt="Two people stand outside an older brick home with power plant smokestacks in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561153/original/file-20231122-17-wwzsob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Residents living near the Cheswick coal-fired power plant in Springdale, Pa., publicly complained about the amount of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and coal particles from the plant for years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/marti-blake-speaks-to-the-postman-in-front-of-the-smoke-news-photo/874051624">Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The number of deaths associated with individual power plants depended on multiple factors – how much the plant emits, which way the wind blows and how many people breathe in the pollution. Unfortunately, U.S. utilities located many of their plants upwind of major population centers on the East Coast. This siting amplified these plants’ impacts.</p>
<p>In an <a href="https://cpieatgt.github.io/cpie/">interactive online tool</a>, users can look up our estimates of annual deaths associated with each U.S. power plant and also see how those numbers have fallen over time at most U.S. coal plants.</p>
<h2>A US success story and the global future of coal</h2>
<p>Engineers have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.670200410">designing effective scrubbers</a> and other pollution-control devices that can reduce pollution from coal-fired power plants for several years. And the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/Cross-State-Air-Pollution/overview-cross-state-air-pollution-rule-csapr">EPA has rules</a> specifically to encourage utilities that used coal to install them, and most facilities that did not install scrubbers have shut down.</p>
<p>The results have been dramatic: Sulfur dioxide emissions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.670200410">decreased about 90%</a> in facilities that reported installing scrubbers. Nationwide, sulfur dioxide emissions decreased 95% since 1999. According to our tally, deaths attributable to each facility that installed a scrubber or shut down decreased drastically.</p>
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<p>As advances in fracking techniques reduced the cost of natural gas, and regulations made running coal plants more expensive, <a href="https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S2010007819500088">utilities began replacing coal with natural gas</a> plants and renewable energy. The shift to natural gas – a cleaner-burning fossil fuel than coal but still a greenhouse gas <a href="https://theconversation.com/biden-announces-a-sweeping-methane-plan-heres-why-cutting-the-greenhouse-gas-is-crucial-for-protecting-climate-and-health-168220">contributing to climate change</a> – led to even further air pollution reductions.</p>
<p>Today, coal contributes about 27% of electricity in the U.S., <a href="https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/browser/index.php?tbl=T02.06#/?f=A">down from 56% in 1999</a>.</p>
<p>Globally, however, the outlook for coal is mixed. While the U.S. and other nations are headed toward a future with substantially less coal, the International Energy Agency <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-2022">expects global coal use to increase</a> through at least 2025.</p>
<p>Our study and others like it make clear that increases in coal use will harm human health and the climate. Making full use of emissions controls and a turn toward renewables are surefire ways to reduce coal’s negative impacts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218231/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucas Henneman receives funding from the Health Effects Institute, the National Institute of Health, and the Environmental Protection Agency.</span></em></p>The longest-running study of its kind reviewed death records in the path of pollution from coal-fired power plants. The numbers are staggering − but also falling fast as US coal plants close.Lucas Henneman, Assistant Professor of Engineering, George Mason UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2081112023-06-22T03:40:03Z2023-06-22T03:40:03ZHuge Cadia gold mine ordered to reduce polluting dust. Is it safe to live near a mine like this?<p>For the past 15 months, I have been helping residents living near the massive Cadia gold and copper mine in NSW to verify their concerns about pollution from the mine. The findings of alarming levels of heavy metals in their water tanks, as well as in blood and hair samples, prompted the NSW Environmental Protection Agency to investigate. Yesterday it <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2023/epamedia230621-epa-requires-immediate-action-by-newcrest-to-comply">ordered the mine</a> to stop releasing an “unacceptable level” of dust that carries these metals through the air.</p>
<p>The EPA is <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/working-together/community-engagement/updates-on-issues/cadia-gold-mine">advising</a> that the water from tanks in the area is safe to drink. This advice is based on the results of NSW Health tests of residents’ kitchen tap water in March 2023. The EPA is also helping to organise water testing for locals, many of whom rely on rainwater tanks for their drinking water. </p>
<p>I remain unconvinced the water is always safe to drink. Metals accumulate in the bottom layers of tanks, so when water levels fall, people could be drinking water with a higher metal content.</p>
<p>These developments also do little to reassure residents who have similar concerns about other recently approved metal mines in NSW.</p>
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<h2>What forced the EPA to act?</h2>
<p>I first heard of complaints of dust blowing from the mine, particularly from its tailings disposal area, in 2021. Locals <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-20/cadia-residents-exposed-to-tailings-dust/100078334">expressed concerns</a> about the impacts on their health of inhaling the dust. </p>
<p>Over the past year, many people in the area have sent me water samples from their home water tanks. These are fed by roof runoff, which they were concerned could carry metal-rich dust into the tanks. </p>
<p>I sent the water samples to a commercial testing laboratory. The results have been very confronting. Many samples failed to meet <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/australian-drinking-water-guidelines">Australian Drinking Water Guidelines</a>. </p>
<p>This prompted a community group to run their own citizen science survey of local drinking water quality. They systematically collected water samples from the bottom of household rainwater tanks on dozens of properties surrounding the mine. They sent the samples to a commercial testing laboratory. </p>
<p>I reviewed the results of their study, conducted in February and March this year. Coupled with a previous study, we had results for 47 water samples, and 32 (68%) exceeded the drinking water guidelines for lead (less than 10 micrograms per litre). Alarmingly, 13 samples (27.6%) recorded concentrations of more than ten times (100µg/L of lead) the recommended limit. </p>
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<img alt="Two rainwater tanks outside a house" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533342/original/file-20230622-27-yiknqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When rainwater tanks run low, residents are at higher risk of exposure to metals that build up at the bottom of their tanks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-all-of-us-have-access-to-safe-drinking-water-this-clever-rainwater-collector-can-change-that-188800">Not all of us have access to safe drinking water. This clever rainwater collector can change that</a>
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<p>Many community members also <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/jun/02/water-heavy-metal-contamination-near-cadia-hill-nsw-goldmine">reported</a> elevated levels of metals in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-22/epa-probe-cadia-gold-mine-heavy-metal-contamination-claims/102374344">blood and hair samples</a>.</p>
<p>Lead is a major health issue in <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/lead-water-americas-water-dangerous-drink/story?id=98438736">water supplies across the United States</a>. It’s a neurotoxin that builds up in the body and can cause <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/prevention/sources/water.htm#:%7E:text=The%20most%20common%20sources%20of,1986%20may%20also%20contain%20lead">lifelong brain impairment</a>.</p>
<p>Yet the community was struggling to be heard – by the EPA in particular. On May 12 this year, I was invited to meet with NSW EPA CEO Tony Chappel. I brought two members of the Cadia community. </p>
<p>They talked about their concerns about drinking water. They also broke the news about excessive metals in local residents’ blood results. That meeting changed everything. </p>
<p>In the following weeks the EPA has acted swiftly to stop this pollution and help the community. The agency is focusing on a major potential source of the contamination from the mine: dust. </p>
<p>The EPA has now <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/community/letter-to-cadia-holdings-pty-limited-21-6-23.pdf">ordered the mine</a> to take all necessary steps to immediately stop releasing excessive amounts of dust, which may include <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2023/epamedia230621-epa-requires-immediate-action-by-newcrest-to-comply">reducing production</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/children-continue-to-be-exposed-to-contaminated-air-in-port-pirie-113484">Children continue to be exposed to contaminated air in Port Pirie</a>
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<h2>Why is dust such a critical problem?</h2>
<p>The Cadia <a href="https://www.cadiavalley.com.au/newcrest/cvo/news">gold and copper mine</a> has been operating for more than 25 years. It includes an open-cut mine and more recently an underground mine, the <a href="https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/cadia/">largest in Australia</a>. It is the underground mining that now seems central to the contamination.</p>
<p>The EPA issued a “prevention notice” on May 29 this year. The agency <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/community/letter-to-cadia-holdings-pty-limited-21-6-23.pdf">pointed to</a> a ventilation vent (vent rise 8) that was releasing more than seven times the permitted dust content. Also known as the “crusher vent”, it has caused other serious air quality concerns, with <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-21/cadia-valley-operations-fails-air-quality-audit-expansion/101674962">emissions of cancer-causing crystalline silica</a> recorded at 18 times the legal limit. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-25/cadia-gold-mine-orange-fined-maximum-epa-penalty-dust-pollution/101370850">August 2022</a> and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-20/cadia-residents-exposed-to-tailings-dust/100078334">July 2020</a>, the EPA had fined the mine the maximum $15,000 for dust pollution and is clearly frustrated by its <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-21/cadia-valley-operations-fails-air-quality-audit-expansion/101674962">unacceptable impacts</a>. It has just issued the mine with revised environmental regulations. </p>
<p>The EPA <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2023/epamedia230621-epa-requires-immediate-action-by-newcrest-to-comply">press release</a> yesterday said: “Additional reports will also be required on lead dust fingerprinting research.” This “fingerprinting” <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20047782/">analysis</a> of lead helps trace its transport pathways and geological origins.</p>
<p>In a statement in response to the EPA’s latest action, the mine operator, Cadia Valley Operations, said: “We take our environmental obligations and the concerns raised by the EPA seriously and will take action to comply with the licence variation notice.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mount-isa-contamination-within-guidelines-but-residents-told-to-clean-their-homes-72862">Mount Isa contamination 'within guidelines' but residents told to clean their homes</a>
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<h2>What does this mean for residents near other mines?</h2>
<p>This case might not be isolated. Gold and silver mining in NSW is booming. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/news/2023/03/mcphillamys-gold-mine">Approved in March</a>, McPhillamys gold mine near the town of Blayney is about 20 kilometres from Cadia mine. And the Bowdens silver mine near Mudgee was <a href="https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/resources/pac/media/files/pac/projects/2022/12/bowdens-silver/determination/230403-bowdens-silver-project-ssd-5765-statement-of-reasons-for-decision.pdf">approved</a> the following month, despite many submissions expressing concern about the impacts of lead dust on human health.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gold-mining-is-one-of-the-worlds-most-destructive-and-unnecessary-industries-heres-how-to-end-it-197447">Gold mining is one of the world’s most destructive and unnecessary industries – here's how to end it</a>
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<p>Can people be safe and healthy living near a large metal mining operation? Based on Cadia, I’m not sure. </p>
<p>Mines and regulators might need to work more closely together with communities. The public needs to be able to make sure government agencies are doing their job and every mine operates in an environmentally clean and safe manner. The mining industry has to do better to earn the trust of the community and its “<a href="https://www.australianmining.com.au/miners-need-to-improve-social-license-to-operate-nsw-minerals-council/">social licence</a>” to operate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208111/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian A Wright has received funding from industry, as well as Commonwealth, NSW and local governments. He has assisted the Environmental Defenders Office in several matters involving pollution associated with mining activity. </span></em></p>The action by the Environment Protection Authority follows alarming results from testing of rainwater tanks and the blood and hair of residents living near to the mine.Ian A. Wright, Associate Professor in Environmental Science, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2059412023-05-19T15:31:08Z2023-05-19T15:31:08ZMethane must fall to slow global heating – but only 13% of emissions are actually regulated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527225/original/file-20230519-25-zvvx4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C1998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Methane leaks across oil and gas supply chains are speeding up climate change.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gas-flare-oil-refinery-kimanissabahmalaysia-35-652862944">Hkhtt HJ/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Methane – a potent greenhouse gas and the second biggest driver of global warming after carbon dioxide (CO₂) – had its moment in the spotlight in 2021. Over 100 countries signed on to <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-a-global-methane-pledge-is-great-but-only-if-it-doesnt-distract-us-from-co-cuts-171069">the Global Methane Pledge</a> to cut emissions by 30% compared to 2020 levels by 2030. </p>
<p>This is a useful goal, but our <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/sd/article/S2590332223001951">new research</a> shows that something is still missing: stringent policies to eliminate methane emissions.</p>
<p>Our study is the first global review of methane policies which have been adopted across the world since the 1970s. It reveals that only around 13% of man-made methane emissions from the biggest sources (agriculture, energy and waste) is regulated by policies capable of controlling and preventing them. </p>
<p>This falls to 10% if we take a conservative view of the total emissions and regions covered by specific policies and whether they have been fully or partially implemented. </p>
<p>These policies may mandate companies to find and fix methane leaks, install equipment which can capture emissions, charge them for every unit of methane released or reward them for making use of methane, like extracting biogas from rotting food and other organic waste. Our study showed that the majority (70%) of policies have been adopted in the US and Europe.</p>
<p>Methane is over 80 times more powerful in trapping heat in Earth’s atmosphere than CO₂ but lasts for a much shorter time. Since methane in the air breaks down within about a decade (compared to centuries for CO₂), phasing out emissions could rapidly reduce the rate at which the planet is heating. </p>
<p>For any hope of meeting global climate targets, deep methane reductions are needed immediately. Our research shows that countries which have committed to deep cuts must now expand and strengthen policies for eliminating their emissions. The remaining countries should step up their efforts on methane too. </p>
<h2>Regulation varies by sector</h2>
<p>We systematically examined policies which have been introduced in 79 countries to reduce methane emissions across farming, solid and liquid waste management and the energy sectors (including the extraction, transportation and consumption of fossil fuels – coal, oil and gas). </p>
<p>Motivations for regulating methane varied. Not only does the gas contribute to climate change, but it can also generate tropospheric ozone – a harmful air pollutant. Methane is also a safety hazard if its concentration in the air reaches an explosive range (5-15%). </p>
<p>But if it is captured, methane becomes a source of energy as the major component of natural gas. And so regulating methane, for example by incentivising the capture of methane from coalbeds, can be cheap and useful. </p>
<p>How effective such policies have been is far from clear though, as countries do not tend to quantify their emissions using direct measurements.</p>
<p>Regulations are more frequently used to address fossil (oil, gas and coal) rather than biogenic (livestock, solid and liquid waste) sources of methane. In fact, 41% of all policies targeted methane from coal mines and oil refineries, compared with 25% for farms and landfills. </p>
<p>Taxes and charges, on the quantities of waste for example, are more common for regulating biogenic sources whereas financial incentives, like feed-in tariffs for electricity generated from captured coal mine methane, are more frequently used in fossil methane policies.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a landfill with two rubbish trucks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527230/original/file-20230519-27-j85mbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rotting waste is a major source of methane.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/garbage-truck-unloads-rubbish-landfill-waste-2234855297">Maksim Safaniuk/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Policies targeting methane emissions from the oil and gas sector tend to be more stringent than those targeting coal mines. Similarly, policies targeting methane emissions from solid and liquid waste are more stringent than those addressing livestock emissions. </p>
<p>These divergent approaches to regulating different methane sources may be the result of opposition from the fossil fuel and agricultural industries. The relative importance of these industries to national and regional economies and energy and food supply may also explain why government regulation has so far proved inadequate.</p>
<h2>Where regulation must improve</h2>
<p>More stringent policies and a consistent approach for quantifying how much methane is being emitted from each source will be key to bringing regulation in line with global commitments. </p>
<p>Improving the monitoring of methane emissions is particularly important for enabling deeper cuts. Historically, methane emissions have been difficult and costly to measure, partly because it is an invisible gas and compared to CO₂, only minor emissions cause substantial warming. </p>
<p>However, methane reduction is still often perceived by policymakers as a choice rather than a necessary complement to ongoing decarbonisation efforts focused on CO₂.</p>
<p>Within almost every sector there are major methane sources that have been largely overlooked. These include the digestive gases of cows and other livestock, methane from the ventilation shafts of coal mines, high-emitting sources in the oil and gas sector (so called super-emitters), and from abandoned mines and oil and gas wells. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three cows staring into a camera." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527229/original/file-20230519-25-y3jm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">High-methane foods are enough on their own to drive warming past 1.5°C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/holstein-friesian-cows-staring-into-camera-1450278809">Helen Rickard/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the energy sector, emissions from non-operated joint ventures are particularly neglected by regulation. This is a type of business structure where a company owns an equity interest without assuming day-to-day operational control. </p>
<p>These are usually owned by major oil and gas companies, but operated by local partners – national oil and gas firms in developing countries are a prime example. Supply chains are another important source, particularly with internationally-traded commodities like liquefied natural gas (LNG) and coking coal used in steelmaking.</p>
<p>In the oil and gas sector, where methane may be more cost-effective to reduce because the captured gas could be monetised, global commitments like the Paris Agreement require the industry’s own emissions to fall alongside falling demand for fossil fuels across all economies. </p>
<p>As Dr Fatih Birol, executive director of the International Energy Agency, <a href="https://www.iea.org/commentaries/cop28-is-a-moment-of-truth-for-the-oil-and-gas-industry-s-efforts-on-climate">recently put it</a>, the next UN climate change conference (COP28) in the United Arab Emirates will be “a moment of truth” for both oil- and gas-rich countries and the industries exploiting these climate-damaging fuels.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 10,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205941/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maria Olczak consults for the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Balcombe has received funding from oil and gas companies, environmental NGOs and research councils.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andris Piebalgs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Major sources, like oil and gas ‘super-emitters’, are almost entirely neglected by regulations.Maria Olczak, PhD Candidate, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of LondonAndris Piebalgs, Part-time Professor, Florence School of Regulation, European University InstitutePaul Balcombe, Senior Lecturer in Chemical Engineering and Renewable Energy, Queen Mary University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978412023-01-18T17:02:06Z2023-01-18T17:02:06ZDesalination could give the Middle East water without damaging marine life – but it must be managed carefully<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504863/original/file-20230117-20-8ur47l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=48%2C0%2C5400%2C3581&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A saltier Red Sea could threaten its marine life. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-free-divers-swimming-over-vivid-222885136">Dudarev Mikhail/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than <a href="https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/app/uploads/2021/12/SDG-6-Summary-Progress-Update-2021_Version-July-2021a.pdf">2 billion people</a> live in <a href="https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/water-scarcity#:%7E:text=When%20a%20territory%20withdraws%2025%25%20or%20more%20of%20its%20renewable,UN%2DWater%202021">“water stressed”</a> countries. These are territories where more than 25% of the available freshwater resources are withdrawn for human use each year. </p>
<p>Desalination - the process of removing salt from seawater - is increasingly being used to tackle water scarcity worldwide. Roughly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969718349167">16,000 desalination plants</a> now produce 35 trillion litres of freshwater annually. And Jordan, a country located north of the Red Sea, is <a href="https://jordantimes.com/news/local/water-ministry-launches-first-phase-aqaba-amman-water-conveyance-national-project">planning</a> a major desalination plant on the Gulf of Aqaba that will increase its desalination capacity from 4 billion to 350 billion litres each year. </p>
<p>But desalination tends to be energy intensive and produces saline wastewater called brine. On its return to the sea, brine can damage marine ecosystems. <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/desalination-breakthrough-saving-the-sea-from-salt/">Research</a> suggests that desalination may be making some water bodies, including the Red Sea, the Arabian Gulf and the Mediterranean, saltier.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916421005932">We analysed</a> whether current and future desalination plans present a threat to salinity levels in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. For both water bodies, the increase in salinity will likely be undetectable and less than natural seasonal variations, in which case it would not harm marine life.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/desalination-may-be-key-to-averting-global-water-shortage-but-it-will-take-time-189169">Desalination may be key to averting global water shortage, but it will take time</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>An important marine habitat</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the region surrounding the Red Sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504665/original/file-20230116-26-tgjeta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Red Sea region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/red-sea-region-political-map-capitals-663310681">Peter Hermes Furian/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Red Sea is connected to the Indian Ocean at its southern end via a narrow and shallow strait. The Gulf of Aqaba branches off its northern end and is connected to the Indian Ocean only through the Red Sea. </p>
<p>Neither water body has a freshwater inflow, so salinity levels are determined by evaporation and the inward and outward flow of water from the Indian Ocean. Water entering the Red Sea flows north where it evaporates and cools, raising its salinity and density. At the head of the Red Sea, this more saline water sinks and flows southwards as a deeper water layer back to the Indian Ocean. </p>
<p>Between where water enters the Red Sea and where salinity peaks at the northern end of the Gulf of Aqaba, salinity <a href="https://www.io-warnemuende.de/tl_files/forschung/meereswissenschaftliche-berichte/mebe50_2002_manasreh.pdf">rises naturally by 10%</a> from roughly 36.8 to 40.6 practical salinity units (psu). One psu is equivalent to 1g of salt dissolved in 1000g of water. Marine life in the region has adapted to the natural salinity level of their location. </p>
<p>Several <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/262">Unesco Natural Heritage Sites</a> are located in the northern Red Sea, including Sanganeb and Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island Marine National Parks. The national parks are home to coral reefs, seagrass beds, mudflats, mangroves and beaches. These habitats hold significant scientific and conservation value as they support a diverse range of marine species, including the endangered <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/dugong">dugong</a>. </p>
<p>Most marine species can tolerate minor variations in salinity, but they cannot withstand significant and sustained change. <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v181/p309-314/">Research</a> reveals that rates of photosynthesis and respiration in <em>Stylophora pistillata</em>, a species of Red Sea coral, falls by as much as 50% when salinity levels are raised from 38 psu to 40 psu. Most colonies of this coral will die if salinity is kept at this level for a sustained period. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A male dugong swimming along the sea floor alongside small yellow fish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504865/original/file-20230117-20-5a68sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sanganeb Marine National Park is home to the endangered dugong.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rare-big-dugong-male-sea-cow-2195272247">Ivanenko Vladimir/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making the sea even saltier</h2>
<p>Our research used scenario analysis. This is where a number of plausible future scenarios are modelled and their consequences explored. </p>
<p>The most extreme scenario we developed involved high population growth, rapid economic development and falling desalination costs in the Middle East. Nearly 10 trillion litres of water could be desalinated on the Red Sea coast by 2050 and over 2.5 trillion litres along the Gulf of Aqaba in this case. </p>
<p>A less extreme scenario assumed limited population growth and restrained household water consumption. Nearly 2 trillion litres of water could be desalinated by the Red Sea and over 560 billion litres by the Gulf of Aqaba by 2050. </p>
<p>For both scenarios, salinity in the Red Sea increased by less than 0.1%. This increase would be less than the natural seasonal variation in salinity levels and would likely be undetectable. </p>
<p>The Gulf of Aqaba, however, is smaller and more isolated from the Indian Ocean. Salinity in the north of the Gulf therefore <a href="https://www.io-warnemuende.de/tl_files/forschung/meereswissenschaftliche-berichte/mebe50_2002_manasreh.pdf">varies naturally</a> between 40.2 psu and 40.75 psu. We found that the high growth scenario could increase salinity at the head of the Gulf by 0.5%, from approximately 40.6 psu to 40.8 psu. But even this increase is close to the maximum increase in salinity caused by natural variability. </p>
<p>The medium growth scenario would instead produce a change less than natural seasonal variation and would again be undetectable.</p>
<h2>Tackling water scarcity in the Middle East</h2>
<p>Our research suggests that, if carefully managed, rising rates of desalination may not harm the region’s marine ecosystems. This is particularly important as a considerable growth in desalination is likely to occur in the Middle East</p>
<p>Saudi Arabia plan to construct an entire new city in the country’s north west, called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neom">Neom</a>, to accommodate <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-crown-prince-says-zero-carbon-city-neom-will-likely-be-listed-2024-2022-07-25/">9 million people</a> and water intensive sectors like agriculture by 2045. The city will depend on water desalinated from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0kz5vEqdaSc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Neom will accomodate 9 million people by 2045.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Beyond the vicinity of each desalination plant, increased rates of desalination are unlikely to affect broader salinity levels in the region. But <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916417307750">good plant design</a> and strict environmental regulations will remain critical to avoid environmental harm. </p>
<p>Plant outfalls, through which brine is channelled towards the sea, must ensure rapid dilution by dispersing brine into the Red Sea’s deeper water layer. Ocean currents can then carry the brine out to the Indian Ocean, where it will be further diluted. </p>
<p>Desalination will continue to grow worldwide. If carefully implemented it can be a crucial tool to tackle water scarcity without damaging fragile marine ecosystems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197841/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Jordan is planning a major desalination plant on the Gulf of Aqaba – but will it damage nearby marine ecosystems?Jonathan Chenoweth, Senior Lecturer of Environment and Sustainability, University of SurreyRaya A. Al-Masri, Researcher in Resources Governance and Sustainability, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1899072022-09-05T16:37:59Z2022-09-05T16:37:59ZEthereum: second biggest cryptocurrency to cut energy use by over 99%, but the industry still has a long way to go<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482739/original/file-20220905-14-6z4map.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Proof of work mining requires specialist hardware, and as a result is energy intensive.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/miner-bitcoin-cryptocurrency-763347796">Mark Agnor/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cryptocurrencies use an eye-watering amount of energy. Ethereum, the world’s second-largest cryptocurrency, uses an estimated <a href="https://digiconomist.net/ethereum-energy-consumption">78 terawatt hours</a> of electricity each year, comparable to the power consumption of Chile. </p>
<p>Ethereum has announced plans to rid itself of the energy-intensive code that has long muddied crypto’s environmental image, and cut <a href="https://cointelegraph.com/news/99-98-less-power-lighthouse-s-first-ethereum-and-eth2-merge-transaction">99% of its energy use</a> in the process.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/crypto-ethereum-dev-merge-one-most-historic-events-blockchain-upgrade-2022-8?r=US&IR=T">cryptocurrency commentators</a> suggest that the “merge”, as the makeover has been coined, represents one of the most important events in the history of crypto. Even those uninterested in pixelated cat pics and metaverse meetups, most of which depend on Ethereum, will find comfort knowing the carbon equivalent of <a href="https://digiconomist.net/ethereum-energy-consumption">Hong Kong’s annual emissions</a> will be erased overnight.</p>
<p>The merge will result in Ethereum shifting its security mechanism away from what’s known as a proof-of-work method towards so-called proof of stake.</p>
<h2>Proof of work v proof of stake</h2>
<p>Cryptocurrencies are not governed by banks. For networks using the proof-of-work method, the job of validating transactions is performed by a global network of specialist machines, known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/bitcoin-chinas-crackdown-isnt-enough-only-a-global-effort-can-stop-cryptos-monstrous-energy-demand-161776">miners</a>. These machines repeatedly guess a random code with the winner receiving transaction fees as well as some newly minted cryptocurrency.</p>
<p>Crypto mining works like an ever-expanding game of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xJlKLC-nMJ0">hungry hippos</a>. The more players that join the mining competition, the harder it becomes for any single player to win anything. These machines consume vast amounts of energy. A single Ethereum transaction is responsible for the same amount of energy used by the average <a href="https://digiconomist.net/ethereum-energy-consumption">US household in a week</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A coal-fired power station with fumes pouring into a blue sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482740/original/file-20220905-2243-h4rmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A single Ethereum transaction is responsible for the same amount of energy used the average US household in a week.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/view-smoking-coal-power-plant-129709763">Kodda/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The proof-of-stake process reduces the need for energy-intensive processing equipment to validate transactions. Cryptocurrency owners instead offer their own coins as a security deposit for the chance to become validators. Ethereum requires users to stake a minimum of <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/proof-stake-pos.asp#toc-understanding-proof-of-stake-pos">32 Ether tokens</a>.</p>
<p>Rather than competing, validators are selected to mine. Do the job well, and the validator is rewarded with even more crypto. But if they validate fraudulent transactions or otherwise defy network rules, they lose their stake. This disincentive is called <a href="https://cryptorobin.com/what-is-slashing/">“slashing”</a>. </p>
<p>Proof-of-stake networks are typically assembled around 20 machines, using a comparatively small amount of energy. While being more efficient, proof of stake also reduces network congestion while being cheaper for users.</p>
<p>Advocates for proof of work argue that proof of stake is an unproven alternative. <a href="https://decrypt.co/108791/ethereum-merge-almost-here-what-could-go-wrong">Many fear</a> that the merge might consolidate control of the network in the hands of wealthy investors while weakening its security. </p>
<p>However, several networks, including Cardano and TRON, already use a proof-of-stake method. To uphold security, crypto owners in these networks vote for the most qualified validators. </p>
<p>As it is written into the project’s “<a href="https://medium.com/@VitalikButerin/a-proof-of-stake-design-philosophy-506585978d51">development roadmap</a>”, Ethereum’s journey to proof of stake has always been likely. Ethereum’s developers have consistently repeated claims of an <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/ethereum/comments/o3swez/years_of_history_claiming_ethereum_will_go_to_pos/">imminent shift</a>. But progress has been slow, leading many to believe the merge might never happen.</p>
<h2>Resisting the change</h2>
<p>Proof-of-work mining has up to now proved very profitable. However, the global energy crisis and crumbling crypto markets have made it far less lucrative than previously. </p>
<p>The energy crisis is also prompting regulators to act on energy-intensive industries. This is particularly true in Europe where the transition away from Russian energy dependence is biting hardest. While a <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-14/eu-crypto-proposal-seen-as-de-facto-bitcoin-ban-fails-in-vote">proposal</a> to ban proof-of-work mining failed to win EU approval earlier this year, an imminent crackdown looks <a href="https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/financial-stability/macroprudential-bulletin/html/ecb.mpbu202207_3%7Ed9614ea8e6.en.html">inevitable</a>. </p>
<p>Yet, despite the regulatory risk, the movement to keep Ethereum’s proof-of-work mechanism alive is gathering momentum. Several prominent crypto traders have repeated their <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/business/2022/08/15/miner-chandler-guo-repeats-support-for-ethereum-fork-post-merge/">support</a> for proof-of-work mechanisms. </p>
<p>Alternative versions, called “forks”, that ignore the software update are therefore highly likely. These forks will replicate the existing network, allowing subsets of the community to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800921000781">continue mining</a>. </p>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/business/2022/08/26/coinbase-pledges-to-evaluate-forked-ethereum-tokens-in-update-to-merge-policy/">exchanges</a> broadly support Ethereum’s proof-of-stake chain. Opensea, the largest marketplace for collectable crypto assets, says it <a href="https://cointelegraph.com/news/opensea-says-marketplace-won-t-support-forked-nfts-post-merge">will not</a> list any other kind of Ethereum digital artwork. </p>
<p>However, the market is far from conclusive in its support. Large exchanges, such as FTX and Coinbase, <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/tech/2022/08/24/ethereum-proof-of-work-forks-gift-or-grift/">have confirmed</a> that they will allow users to trade forked Ethereum tokens.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1563601624756498432"}"></div></p>
<p>While soaring energy bills could discourage the mining of an unpopular Ethereum fork, miners, in this case, may migrate towards <a href="https://fortune.com/2022/07/29/eth-price-ethereum-original-coin-soar-miners-migrate-ahead-of-merge/">more established</a> proof-of-work networks. This would reduce Ethereum’s carbon footprint, but redistribute crypto’s carbon headache around the network.</p>
<h2>What does this mean for Bitcoin?</h2>
<p>Responsible for an estimated <a href="https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption">70 million tonnes of CO₂ a year</a>, Bitcoin remains the dirty elephant in the room. </p>
<p>Mining the number one cryptocurrency has become so competitive that the cost of entry can be up to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214629621004813?via%3Dihub">US$1.8 (£1.55) million</a>. Bitcoin mining is done by commercial mining companies that have to invest heavily in specialist hardware. Bitcoin miners, therefore, tend to be protective of their investments and <a href="https://theconversation.com/bitcoin-greenpeace-says-a-code-change-could-slash-cryptocurrency-energy-use-heres-why-its-not-so-simple-180264">resist</a> changes to the status quo.</p>
<p>For cryptocurrency networks that cannot clean up their act, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629621004813">global regulatory crackdown</a> on proof-of-work mining is required. Miners are otherwise free to migrate to other chains, or operate from <a href="https://theconversation.com/bitcoin-chinas-crackdown-isnt-enough-only-a-global-effort-can-stop-cryptos-monstrous-energy-demand-161776">countries</a> with weak environmental regulations, rather than adopt more sustainable practices.</p>
<p>During an energy crisis and climate emergency, Ethereum’s switch to a more efficient technology is good news. If it proves successful, regulators will probably see no reason why Bitcoin and other wasteful cryptocurrencies should not follow suit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189907/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Howson has received funding from The British Academy. He does not own any cryptocurrencies, NFTs, or any other digital assets.</span></em></p>Cryptocurrency has a substantial carbon footprint. Ethereum have taken steps to address this, but will others follow suit?Peter Howson, Assistant Professor in International Development, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807482022-05-05T15:19:21Z2022-05-05T15:19:21ZFracking review suggests UK has softened precautionary principle since leaving EU – here’s why it matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461596/original/file-20220505-1456-bvw8pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6154%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fracking-well-head-connected-pumps-1138852370">LHBLLC/Shutterstock </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK government recently <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">conceded</a> that the reasons for its <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-governments-fracking-ban-has-a-convenient-loophole-126475">2019 ban</a> on hydraulic fracturing “have not gone away,” and there is “no compelling evidence” to support rethinking it. Better known as fracking, this industrial process injects millions of gallons of water underground at high pressure to release fossil gas from rocky pores.</p>
<p>The moratorium was prompted by a series of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-49471321">tremors</a> at the UK’s lone fracking rig in Lancashire. Cuadrilla, the operator, was scheduled to seal off its wells in March 2022.</p>
<p>Yet, a month later, the government <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">permitted</a> a scientific review of the safety of fracking in the UK. Cuadrilla obtained a <a href="https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/news-publications/news/2022/nsta-withdraws-requirement-to-decommission-three-cuadrilla-wells/">one-year extension</a> to prove that its operations are safe for the environment and public health. The company hopes to eventually resume its operations pending a positive outcome from the review.</p>
<p>The government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/urgent-question-response-on-fracking">defends</a> its decision by <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">saying</a> that it wants to keep “all possible energy generation and production methods on the table” since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has caused a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-60642786">rise</a> in global oil and gas prices. It <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">admits</a>, however, that fracking would not provide a “solution to near-term (gas) pricing difficulties”. Fracking is <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-fracking-is-not-the-answer-to-soaring-uk-gas-prices-177957">unlikely</a> to ever produce enough gas in the UK to ease soaring energy bills.</p>
<p>The decision to reopen the possibility of fracking in the UK marks a departure from European Union regulations now that it is no longer a member of the bloc. The UK appears poised to emulate environmental regulation in the US, where fracking has <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167629622000157">caused significant harm</a>.</p>
<h2>Brexit and the precautionary principle</h2>
<p>The precautionary principle is a legal approach that allows regulators to restrict or prohibit the use of a technology even if the environment and health risks related to the technology are uncertain.</p>
<p>After leaving the EU, the UK adopted its own <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/contents/enacted">environmental legislation in 2021</a>. It later released a <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/environmental-principles/draft-policy-statement/supporting_documents/draftenvironmentalprinciplespolicystatement.pdf">draft environmental principles policy statement</a> proposing that, while applying the precautionary principle, UK regulators “should only prevent or defer an innovative development where that risk outweighs the benefits”. </p>
<p>This proposed interpretation of the precautionary principle echoes the <a href="https://ashford.mit.edu/sites/default/files/documents/C28.%20LegacyOfPrecaution_19.pdf">American understanding</a>, that takes into account the financial impact of restricting or banning a technology before regulating it.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-could-kill-the-precautionary-principle-heres-why-it-matters-so-much-for-our-environment-86577">Before Brexit</a>, the UK implemented the precautionary principle through EU law. <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:precautionary_principle#:%7E:text=The%20precautionary%20principle%20is%20an,should%20not%20be%20carried%20out.">The EU version</a> regulates an environmental risk even if the likelihood of it happening is slim. Or, it puts the burden on the operator to show that the activity is safe.</p>
<p>Critics <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160791X2030751X">argue</a> that this approach stifles innovation, as operators will baulk at the cost of scientifically demonstrating the safety of their technology. On the other hand, the American approach may allow lucrative technologies to permanently damage the environment and public health before the inherent risks <a href="http://law.syr.edu/uploads/docs/deans-faculty/cost-benefit-analysis-and-precautionary-principle.pdf">are clear</a>. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629622000157">Despite mounting evidence</a> of <a href="https://www.unco.edu/nhs/biology/about-us/franklin-scott/lab/images/Meng2017.pdf">environmental harm</a>, including drinking water contamination and greenhouse gas emissions, fracking is still exempt from <a href="https://www.psr.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/compendium-8.pdf">several precautionary regulations</a> in the US. For instance, fracking waste is still not regulated as hazardous waste and corporations are <a href="https://www.watershedcouncil.org/hydraulic-fracturing---regulations-and-exemptions.html">not required to apply</a> for permits disclosing waste disposals under US federal law.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A metal column in a green field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5287%2C3324&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A shale gas well in the US, where fracking has proceeded at breakneck speed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fracking-american-shale-well-1449364412">FreezeFrames/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The UK’s proposed version of the precautionary principle drifts from the European “better safe than sorry” approach and towards the cost-centric American one. <a href="https://www.theoep.org.uk/what-we-do">The Office for Environmental Protection</a>, a UK public body established under the 2021 environment legislation, <a href="https://www.theoep.org.uk/node/112">criticised</a> the government’s draft version of the precautionary principle for its “unusual emphasis on innovation, which may detract from the principle’s core aim of managing risk in the face of scientific uncertainty”. </p>
<p>On April 20 2022 Jacob Rees-Mogg, minister for Brexit opportunities and government efficiency, <a href="https://www.endsreport.com/article/1753852/rees-mogg-mocks-precautionary-principle">scoffed</a> at the stricter application of the precautionary principle, <a href="https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/10126/html/">saying</a> that “if we followed the precautionary principle to its logical extent, we would never go into either our kitchens or our bathrooms”.</p>
<h2>Mounting evidence of risks</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02646811.2019.1693114">Fracking</a> continues to pose risks. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00167487.2016.12093986">Particularly so in the UK</a>, where dense rocks make tremors likely during water injection. Up to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/uog/process-unconventional-natural-gas-production">3.5 million gallons</a> can be injected at each well, generating huge amounts of <a href="https://anguil.com/case-studies/frac-water-reuse-technologies-2/">wastewater</a>, which typically contains a highly combustible greenhouse gas called methane and radioactive material. The UK simply <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2018/ew/c7ew00474e">does not have the capacity</a> to handle the radioactive waste if several fracking wells are operating at once. </p>
<p>Since late 2019, when the UK last conducted its scientific review of fracking, several studies have found an increase in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18226-w">airborne radioactivity</a> within a 20-kilometre radius of fracking sites, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629622000157">direct</a> effect of fracking on infant health, pregnant people and children, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-021-18022-z">pulverising</a> of the Earth’s bedrock which releases uranium. The UK government, while permitting the recent scientific review of fracking, did not mention these developments.</p>
<p>The UK has yet to finalise its post-Brexit interpretation of the precautionary principle, but its decision to soften the fracking moratorium aligns with its draft version of the cost-centric definition. This could pave the way for regulatory decisions which prioritise potential financial benefits over the risks to the environment and public health.</p>
<p>The UK’s shifting stance on fracking is not just a reaction to the energy crisis, but rather, a strong indication of its post-Brexit march towards a riskier society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shashi Kant Yadav receives funding from the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at University of Surrey</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosalind Malcolm does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite banning fracking in 2019, the UK government recently decided to review its safety.Shashi Kant Yadav, Doctoral Researcher in Environmental Regulations, University of SurreyRosalind Malcolm, Professor of Law, Director of Environmental Regulatory Research Group (ERRG), University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1784442022-03-21T13:58:52Z2022-03-21T13:58:52ZFour reasons to be hopeful about the planned global plastics treaty<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453316/original/file-20220321-15-6xanf5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7951%2C5304&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/volunteer-man-collecting-trash-on-beach-1521472085">Inside Creative House/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/38522/k2200647_-_unep-ea-5-l-23-rev-1_-_advance.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">A landmark resolution</a> endorsed by 175 states has kickstarted negotiations of a world-first treaty for ending plastic pollution, due to be finalised before the end of 2024.</p>
<p>The basis for such an agreement was made possible by <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/en/attitudes-towards-single-use-plastics">growing public support</a> for action, as well as shrinking opposition from the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/environment-and-conservation/2021/06/global-treaty-to-regulate-plastic-pollution-gains-momentum">chemical and other industries</a>. On top of this, there is mounting scientific evidence of plastic pollution accumulating <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b04140">in soils</a>, in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/26/16/4801">food</a> and <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111913">in the ocean</a>.</p>
<p>What then will the treaty do? Many experts have, <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop24-how-a-plastics-treaty-could-clean-up-our-oceans-107743">like myself</a>, favoured a plastics treaty which follows a similar process to the <a href="https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol">1987 Montreal protocol</a> that phased out ozone-eating chemicals. In this case, a treaty would ban certain types of plastic, such as those which are single-use, or different uses of plastic such as disposable packaging, and countries would meet regularly to update this list and agree a date by which each ban would come into effect.</p>
<p>That is not what the resolution proposes, however. Instead, it envisages a treaty akin to the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">2015 Paris agreement</a> on climate change, which addresses greenhouse gas emissions. It sets out basic objectives and allows states to set their own plans for preventing, reducing and eliminating plastic pollution.</p>
<p>Lobbying by the petrochemical industry and others could <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/01/global-plastics-treaty-regulation-nairobi-unea/">water down</a> these national action plans. Whereas, if the plastics treaty followed the model provided by the Montreal protocol, states would need to demonstrate they had stopped producing or using certain plastics.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A factory conveyor belt filled with empty plastic bottles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453319/original/file-20220321-12763-1kc0p66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic manufacturers are likely to resist legislation to phase out single-use products.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/production-plastic-bottles-on-conveyor-belt-511527445">Alba_alioth/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That said, if negotiating states follow the guidance of the resolution then the eventual treaty is still likely to be more precise in the obligations it sets for states to reduce plastic pollution than the vaguely worded Paris agreement does for greenhouse gas emissions. Here are four reasons why this offers cause for optimism.</p>
<h2>1. Clear objectives and standards</h2>
<p>The resolution sets a clear objective for the treaty: to prevent, reduce and eliminate plastic pollution. This is much harder to obfuscate than the Paris agreement’s aim of ensuring that the global average temperature does not rise 2°C above pre-industrial levels. </p>
<p>The resolution also directs states to adopt sound waste management practices. This is an issue that has proved difficult for all countries. The UK <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-51176312">exports waste</a> to be dumped in landfill sites overseas that should be recycled. </p>
<p>Naming the processes that states must address is helpful, as monitoring their progress is easier when all are asked to do the same thing. It’s harder under the Paris agreement to compare, for example, cuts to emissions from changes in public transport systems in one country with those from changes in the energy efficiency of appliances in another.</p>
<h2>2. Plastic product life cycles</h2>
<p>The resolution obliges states to regulate plastic at each stage in a product’s life cycle. This is much more advanced than the approach taken in the Paris agreement, which makes no mention of products or processes that create greenhouse gas emissions (such as fossil fuels) and leaves states free to determine how they reduce their emissions. </p>
<p>Under the plastics resolution, states will adopt regulations which require manufacturers to design plastic products that can be reused, remade or recycled. States will also be expected to plan for what happens to products once consumers no longer want or need to use them. Products manufactured in future, such as mobile phones and laptops, would need to be designed so that they can be repaired more easily.</p>
<p>The emphasis on designing plastic products to be reused or recycled means that the future agreement will probably also include a commitment to phasing out single-use items made from plastics wherever possible. There is no equivalent provision in the Paris agreement.</p>
<h2>3. Existing plastic pollution</h2>
<p>No existing treaties are designed to clean up pollution. Instead, they tend to focus on controlling future emissions. Yet this resolution suggests states should cooperate to remove plastic from the ocean. They may do so through taking action within their territorial seas or choose to create an international body which can oversee the removal of plastics.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A yellow seahorse surrounded by plastic bags and tubes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453317/original/file-20220321-15-1p65ea6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ocean is flooded with more plastic each day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-pollution-ocean-seahorse-fish-garbage-1078902029">Rich Carey/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Knowledge</h2>
<p>Given the ubiquity of plastic products and pollution, no one sector can solve the problem. The resolution asks a range of people and organisations to contribute knowledge about how to prevent plastic accumulating in the environment, including the scientific community, traditional and indigenous knowledge holders and industry experts. </p>
<p>The Paris agreement includes a similar request with regards to adapting to climate change. But the resolution for a plastics treaty takes this further by asking people to contribute to mitigating the problem with suggestions for policy relevant to each stage of a plastic product’s life cycle.</p>
<p>Scientists and indigenous scholars may, for example, inform treaty negotiators of the full extent of plastic pollution in ecosystems and help identify design principles for products. Industries may report on the challenges of producing new plastics and of ensuring they can be reused, while local government officials might suggest how the challenges preventing people from recycling it can be overcome.</p>
<h2>Will the treaty be a success?</h2>
<p>It’s difficult to say whether the treaty will lead to a substantial reduction in plastic pollution. But the resolution’s deference to national leadership need not undermine the treaty’s success. Unlike the Paris agreement, the resolution contains more proposals that are likely to support the implementation of a global agreement. </p>
<p>The speed at which the international community has recognised this issue is encouraging. There is much to do, but the resolution is a step in the right direction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178444/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Kirk does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Over 170 countries have endorsed a resolution to negotiate a plastics treaty that’s much more precise than the Paris climate change agreement.Elizabeth Kirk, Professor of International Environmental Law, University of LincolnLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1525862021-02-03T13:24:43Z2021-02-03T13:24:43ZLiving with natural gas pipelines: Appalachian landowners describe fear, anxiety and loss<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380512/original/file-20210125-19-mykhz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C4595%2C2900&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pipeline construction cuts through forests and farms in Appalachia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Provided by Erin Brock Carlson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/state-gas-pipelines.aspx">2 million miles of natural gas pipelines</a> run throughout the United States. In Appalachia, they spread like spaghetti across the region.</p>
<p>Many of these lines were built in just the past five years to carry natural gas from the Marcellus Shale region of Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, where hydraulic fracturing has boomed. West Virginia alone has seen a <a href="https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/hist/na1160_swv_2a.htm">fourfold increase</a> in natural gas production in the past decade.</p>
<p>Such fast growth has also brought hundreds of <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-pipelines-etp-violations-insight/two-u-s-pipelines-rack-up-violations-threaten-industry-growth-idUSKCN1NX1E3">safety</a> and <a href="https://roanoke.com/business/environmental-regulators-seek-more-fines-against-mountain-valley-pipeline/article_31c30aa8-37d8-559a-8009-274ea19e00ae.html">environmental</a> violations, particularly under the Trump administration’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/climate-environment/trump-climate-environment-protections/">reduced oversight</a> and streamlined approvals for pipeline projects. While energy companies promise <a href="https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1322&context=bureau_be">economic benefits</a> for depressed regions, pipeline projects are upending the lives of people in their paths. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://english.wvu.edu/faculty-and-staff/faculty-directory/erin-brock-carlson">technical and professional communication scholar</a> focused on how rural communities deal with complex problems and a <a href="https://portal.research.lu.se/portal/en/persons/martina-angela-caretta(5bef3fe2-55eb-4cc8-9326-977f0fabb526).html">geography scholar</a> specializing in human-environment interactions, we teamed up to study the effects of pipeline development in rural Appalachia. In 2020, we surveyed and talked with dozens of people living close to pipelines in West Virginia, Ohio and Pennsylvania.</p>
<p>What we found illuminates the stress and uncertainty that communities experience when natural gas pipelines change their landscape. Residents live with the fear of disasters, the noise of construction and the anxiety of having no control over their own land.</p>
<h2>‘None of this is fair’</h2>
<p>Appalachians are no strangers to environmental risk. The region has a long and complicated history with extractive industries, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2015.04.005">coal</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010147">hydraulic fracturing</a>. However, it’s rare to hear firsthand accounts of the long-term effects of industrial infrastructure development in rural communities, especially when it comes to pipelines, since they are the result of more recent energy-sector growth. </p>
<p>For all of the people we talked to, the process of pipeline development was drawn out and often confusing. </p>
<p>Some reported never hearing about a planned pipeline until a “land man” – a gas company representative – knocked on their door offering to buy a slice of their property; others said that they found out through newspaper articles or posts on social media. Every person we spoke with agreed that the burden ultimately fell on them to find out what was happening in their communities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380541/original/file-20210125-21-42d9sr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A map shows U.S. pipelines carrying natural gas and hazardous liquids in 2018. More construction has been underway since then.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-19-48">GAO and U.S. Department of Transportation</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One woman in West Virginia said that after finding out about plans for a pipeline feeding a petrochemical complex several miles from her home, she started doing her own research. “I thought to myself, how did this happen? We didn’t know anything about it,” she said. “It’s not fair. None of this is fair. … We are stuck with a polluting company.”</p>
<h2>‘Lawyers ate us up’</h2>
<p>If residents do not want pipelines on their land, they can pursue legal action against the energy company rather than taking a settlement. However, this can result in the use of eminent domain.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/eminent_domain">Eminent domain</a> is a right given by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to companies to access privately held property if the project is considered important for public need. <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/amendment-5/just-compensation">Compensation</a> is decided by the courts, based on assessed land value, not taking into consideration the intangibles tied to the loss of the land surrounding one’s home, such as loss of future income.</p>
<p>Through this process, residents can be forced to accept a sum that doesn’t take into consideration all effects of pipeline construction on their land, such as the damage heavy equipment will do to surrounding land and access roads.</p>
<p>One man we spoke with has lived on his family’s land for decades. In 2018, a company representative approached him for permission to install a new pipeline parallel to one that had been in place since 1962, far away from his house. However, crews ran into problems with the steep terrain and wanted to install it much closer to his home. Unhappy with the new placement, and seeing erosion from pipeline construction on the ridge behind his house causing washouts, he hired a lawyer. After several months of back and forth with the company, he said, “They gave me a choice: Either sign the contract or do the eminent domain. And my lawyer advised me that I didn’t want to do eminent domain.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pipeline construction on a farm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380536/original/file-20210125-15-13nu0ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pipeline construction cuts through a farmer’s field.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Provided by Erin Brock Carlson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There was a unanimous sense among the 31 people we interviewed that companies have seemingly endless financial and legal resources, making court battles virtually unwinnable. Nondisclosure agreements <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010147">can effectively silence</a> landowners. Furthermore, lawyers licensed to work in West Virginia who aren’t already working for gas companies can be difficult to find, and legal fees can become too much for residents to pay.</p>
<p>One woman, the primary caretaker of land her family has farmed for 80 years, found herself facing significant legal fees after a dispute with a gas company. “We were the first and last ones to fight them, and then people saw what was going to happen to them, and they just didn’t have – it cost us money to get lawyers. Lawyers ate us up,” she said. </p>
<p>The pipeline now runs through what were once hayfields. “We haven’t had any income off that hay since they took it out in 2016,” she said. “It’s nothing but a weed patch.”</p>
<h2>‘I mean, who do you call?’</h2>
<p>Twenty-six of the 45 survey respondents reported that they felt that their property value had decreased as a result of pipeline construction, citing the risks of water contamination, explosion and unusable land.</p>
<p>Many of the 31 people we interviewed were worried about the same sort of long-term concerns, as well as gas leaks and air pollution. Hydraulic fracturing and other natural gas processes can <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990">affect drinking water resources</a>, especially if there are spills or improper storage procedures. Additionally, methane, a potent greenhouse gas, and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/controlling-air-pollution-oil-and-natural-gas-industry/basic-information-about-oil-and-natural-gas">volatile organic compounds</a>, which can pose health risks, are byproducts of the <a href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42986.pdf">natural gas supply chain</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman walks through an oil spill near tanks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381237/original/file-20210128-17-1vjmmwt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oil spills are a major concern among land owners.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Provided by Erin Brock Carlson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“Forty years removed from this, are they going to be able to keep track and keep up with infrastructure? I mean, I can smell gas as I sit here now,” one man told us. His family had watched the natural gas industry move into their part of West Virginia in the mid-2010s. In addition to a 36-inch pipe on his property, there are several smaller wells and lines. “This year the company servicing the smaller lines has had nine leaks … that’s what really concerns me,” he said.</p>
<p>The top concern mentioned by survey respondents was <a href="https://pstrust.org/about-pipelines/state-by-state-incident-maps/">explosions</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fractracker.org/2018/12/pipeline-incidents-impact-residents/">According to data from 2010 to 2018</a>, a pipeline explosion occurred, on average, every 11 days in the U.S. While major pipeline explosions are relatively rare, when they do occur, they can be devastating. In 2012, a 20-inch transmission line exploded in Sissonville, West Virginia, damaging five homes and leaving four lanes of Interstate 77 looking “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2012/12/11/west-virginia-gas-explosion/1761757/">like a tar pit.”</a></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Flames on the interstate highway." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381397/original/file-20210129-19-vva6cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A gas line explosion near Sissonville, West Virginia, sent flames across Interstate 77.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/GasLineExplosion/b1a50e758f164daeb5c40364aeb93037/photo">AP Photo/Joe Long</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Amplifying these fears is the lack of consistent communication from corporations to residents living along pipelines. Approximately half the people we interviewed reported that they did not have a company contact to call directly in case of a pipeline emergency, such as a spill, leak or explosion. “I mean, who do you call?” one woman asked.</p>
<h2>‘We just keep doing the same thing’</h2>
<p>Several people interviewed described a fatalistic attitude toward energy development in their communities.</p>
<p>Energy analysts <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-oil-natural-gas-outlook/u-s-shale-firms-amp-up-natural-gas-output-as-futures-signal-more-gains-idUSKBN28A0GN">expect gas production to increase</a> this year after a slowdown in 2020. Pipeline companies <a href="https://www.hartenergy.com/news/proposed-rules-cloud-startup-mountain-valley-natural-gas-pipeline-191676">expect to keep building</a>. And while the Biden administration is <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/20/executive-order-protecting-public-health-and-environment-and-restoring-science-to-tackle-climate-crisis/">likely to restore some regulations</a>, the president has said he <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WT6zHIXUsPs">would not</a> <a href="https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/whats-next-fracking-under-biden">ban fracking</a>. </p>
<p>“It’s just kind of sad because they think, once again, this will be West Virginia’s salvation,” one landowner said. “Harvesting the timber was, then digging the coal was our salvation. … And then here’s the third one. We just keep doing the same thing.”</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152586/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Carlson has received funding this project from the West Virginia University Humanities Center. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Caretta has received funding for this project from the Heinz Foundation and the West Virginia University Humanities Center. </span></em></p>Pipeline companies have run roughshod over several regions where they’re building, racking up safety and environmental violations. Many residents feel trapped, with no control over their property.Erin Brock Carlson, Assistant Professor of Professional Writing and Editing, West Virginia UniversityMartina Angela Caretta, Senior Lecturer in Human Geography, Lund UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1396362020-06-14T12:27:51Z2020-06-14T12:27:51ZRolling back Canadian environmental regulations during coronavirus is short-sighted<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341343/original/file-20200611-80762-12s01sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C45%2C2950%2C1868&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A coal mine in the mountains in Alberta.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many governments have used the distraction of the coronavirus pandemic to roll back environmental regulations. Governments have cited both public health rules and the economic challenges that companies are facing to defend their rollbacks.</p>
<p>Both the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/10/trump-environmental-blitzkrieg-coronavirus">United States</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-politics-environment/brazil-minister-calls-for-environmental-deregulation-while-public-distracted-by-covid-idUSKBN22Y30Y">Brazil</a> have lifted limits on pollution, carbon emissions and forestry, and made it easier to approve pipelines. Governments in <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2020/06/03/news/heres-every-environmental-protection-canada-has-been-suspended-delayed-and-cancelled">Canada have also used the COVID-19 crisis to curb environmental protections</a> for communities and ecosystems. </p>
<p>But these changes can come with large risks. Although they may only last a few months, the environmental impact may be much longer. Short-term environmental damage can have long-term effects.</p>
<h2>Alberta suspends monitoring requirements</h2>
<p>There are situations, of course, where the rules need to change to decrease the spread of the coronavirus, such as when work requires travel to remote and vulnerable communities. But many of the changes made to environmental regulations have removed the requirements for environmental monitoring altogether or reduced or eliminated environmental observers, which means no data will be collected.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/0cc78dea-655e-4a28-8128-5f0310399b74/resource/d26172b7-7109-418c-bfbe-e9b049076581/download/aep-ministerial-order-17-2020.pdf">Alberta suspended reporting requirements under several environmental acts, except for drinking water facilities</a>. Later <a href="https://thenarwhal.ca/alberta-suspends-19-oilsands-environmental-monitoring-requirements-coronavirus-concerns/">changes by the Alberta Energy Regulator removed many monitoring requirements for oil companies</a>, including monitoring surface water, ground water and wildlife in tailings ponds. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/disaster-capitalism-coronavirus-crisis-brings-bailouts-tax-breaks-and-lax-environmental-rules-to-oilsands-135996">Disaster capitalism: Coronavirus crisis brings bailouts, tax breaks and lax environmental rules to oilsands</a>
</strong>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>The changes were requested by the oil industry so that companies could follow public health orders, but were passed without public consultation or reasons why the changes were needed for public health reasons. <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/mount-polley-mine-disaster-5-years-later-emotions-accountability-unresolved-1.5236160">Given that spills can happen quickly</a>, even small gaps in the data during a public health crisis may affect future decisions such as changing pollution limits or approving new projects.</p>
<p>Continuing activities such as mining or oil extraction without environmental monitoring is risky, both for the environment and for businesses. For example, <a href="https://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/parl_cesd_201904_02_e_43308.html">Canada added stricter regulations for some mining waste products</a> in 2018 after monitoring showed amounts previously allowed were harmful to local fish and habitats. Monitoring helped inform new rules to prevent more damage to the environment.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341284/original/file-20200611-80762-ik9zl1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A large plume of smoke rises from fires on BP’s Deepwater Horizon offshore oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Gerald Herbert, File)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even for businesses, environmental regulations are important. Environmental disasters pose a serious risk to a company’s reputation that can deeply impact sales and profits, as seen in <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/3e09d84a-489f-11e8-8ee8-cae73aab7ccb">BP’s fallout from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill</a>. Regulations also ensure that businesses have a level playing field by spreading out the costs of environmental protection more fairly, so surely not all businesses support these recent changes.</p>
<h2>At-sea observers disembark</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.nfl.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/NL/CP/Orders/2020/nf20056FishMgmtOrderAtSeaObservers">Monitoring was also temporarily put on hold in fisheries</a>. The at-sea observers who monitor what is being caught and discarded were suspended in Canada for 45 days. Without observers, it is much harder to know how sustainable a fishery is, and a monitoring gap could put endangered species at greater risk. In this case, the changes came without full input from industry, which relies on observers to ensure that all boats abide by the same rules and to increase public trust in resource management.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=103%2C151%2C5117%2C3039&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341287/original/file-20200611-80766-5ua5hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An aquaculture salmon farm in New Brunswick.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty)</span></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.aquaculture.ca/news-releases/2020/4/9/statement">The aquaculture industry has also asked for flexibility in monitoring requirements, such as stopping counts of sea lice on salmon</a>. It is not clear how monitoring in aquaculture will be disrupted, but demands such as this highlight attempts by some industries to capitalize on disaster, even if there is weak public health justification for lifting monitoring requirements.</p>
<p>Incomplete monitoring can also put human health at risk, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/highlights-of-the-walkerton-inquiry-report-1.867604">such as when improper water monitoring in Walkerton, Ont., led to seven deaths and more than 2,300 people falling ill in 2000</a>. </p>
<h2>Ontario ends public consultation</h2>
<p>Public participation is a key part of environmental protection, playing an important role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2016.03.009">environmental assessments</a> and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24113390">protecting endangered species</a>.</p>
<p>Some of the changes that have occurred in Canada since the start of the coronavirus pandemic have removed public participation in decision-making processes. For example, <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/r20115">Ontario removed the requirements for consultation on environmental issues during the current state of emergency</a>. Normally, projects that affect the environment have a 30-day consultation period.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339677/original/file-20200604-130923-mhbw5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Timeline of events and cumulative confirmed cases of COVID-19 in Canadian provinces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Authors)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The consultation period allows the public, including First Nations and scientists, to comment on proposed projects or policies, such as permits that could affect endangered species or the approval of mining projects. Public participation in regulatory discussions, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3152/147154602781766636">like environmental assessments</a>, is important to Canadians and part of fair and ethical environmental legislation. The changes in Ontario that limit public participation also lower transparency.</p>
<p>Recently, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-coal-policy-rescinded-mine-development-environmental-concern-1.5578902">Alberta also opened much of the eastern Rocky Mountains and foothills to open-pit coal mining without public consultation</a>. This change will limit public access to land to enjoy hiking, camping and fishing.</p>
<h2>Technology can help</h2>
<p>Making greater use of technology can allow monitoring even during crises. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12425">the use of sensors and cameras on fishing vessels to monitor fishing activity and catches is increasing worldwide</a>. In Canada, electronic monitoring is being used in at least three fisheries in British Columbia. Introducing this technology to other fisheries could prevent monitoring disruptions in the future.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-makes-fishing-more-sustainable-by-tracking-illegal-activity-115883">Artificial intelligence makes fishing more sustainable by tracking illegal activity</a>
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<p>Creating or expanding online platforms for public consultation and using remote-sensing instruments for monitoring pollution and wildlife can help lower human risk while maintaining environmental standards.</p>
<p>During the pandemic, environmental regulations have changed rapidly, and Canada has not been immune to pressures to <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2020/06/03/news/heres-every-environmental-protection-canada-has-been-suspended-delayed-and-cancelled">lower environmental standards</a>. But relaxing these standards places Canada’s communities and biological diversity at greater risk and so should only be done when the immediate public health risk is real. Where this cannot be demonstrated, the rollbacks should be reversed. </p>
<p>In cases where there is a public health concern, there also needs to be clear timelines so we do not add to the COVID-19 burden by putting the environment at risk. Moving forward, new technology can help shrink gaps in monitoring and maintain public participation in environmental decisions during crises.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James E Paterson receives funding from the Liber Ero Fellowship program </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brynn Devine receives funding from the Liber Ero Fellowship program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gideon Mordecai receives funding from the Liber Ero Fellowship program</span></em></p>Environmental monitoring and public participation are necessary to maintain transparency and protect ecosystems and communities.James E Paterson, Liber Ero Fellow, Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent UniversityBrynn Devine, Postdoctoral research fellow, Department of integrative biology, University of WindsorGideon Mordecai, Liber Ero Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Medicine, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1379412020-05-14T15:53:22Z2020-05-14T15:53:22ZEnvironmental regulations likely to be first casualties in post-pandemic recovery<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335025/original/file-20200514-77235-11cnurp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4997%2C3126&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coal-mining-open-pit-miner-looking-535876870">Jaromir Chalabala/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-52313972">With cleaner air</a>, <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/nature-takes-back-worlds-city-streets-emptied-by-coronavirus-outbreak">nature returning to urban areas</a> and <a href="https://lowvelder.co.za/620885/sharp-drop-in-rhino-poaching-amid-lockdown/#.XqqSAYJt8Pc.facebook">less poaching</a>, it seems that, at least for the time being, the pandemic has eased the human footprint on nature.</p>
<p>But what happens to the natural world when lockdowns lift and the pandemic peters out? The <a href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R46270.pdf">global economy is in trouble</a>, facing potentially its <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/imf-economy-coronavirus-covid-19-recession/">worst ever recession</a>. Governments are expected to prioritise a rapid return to growth, and one of the first casualties of this panic is likely to be environmental regulation, or “green tape” as it’s often called. </p>
<p>Where environmental regulations are seen to threaten or delay short term economic growth, <a href="https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworkspost2013/7391/">they are often weakened</a>. As governments seek to reduce budget deficits and unemployment, the pressure to dilute environmental protection, by exempting recovery efforts from proper assessment, will be severe.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/disaster-capitalism-coronavirus-crisis-brings-bailouts-tax-breaks-and-lax-environmental-rules-to-oilsands-135996">Disaster capitalism: Coronavirus crisis brings bailouts, tax breaks and lax environmental rules to oilsands</a>
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<h2>Cutting green tape</h2>
<p>In previous economic downturns, governments have strived to <a href="https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/document/9960">weaken environmental legislation</a> by shrinking the role of public participation and reducing the time allowed for environmental assessments of new developments. Given how steep the economic downturn is likely to be post-pandemic, the scale and speed at which so-called “green tape” will be cut to try and revive growth is likely to be greater than anything previously experienced. In fact, it’s already started.</p>
<p>In India, environmentalists argue that the government is weakening the law on <a href="https://india.mongabay.com/2020/03/indias-proposed-overhaul-of-environment-clearance-rules-could-dilute-existing-regulations/">environmental impact assessments</a> to allow projects to go ahead without proper clearance or public consultation. Without properly assessing how hundreds of projects might affect the environment or consulting local people, the government is more likely to approve developments that are bad for nature and communities.</p>
<p>In Canada, the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers sent a 13 page letter to the federal government <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/6830754/capp-justin-trudeau-laws-coronavirus/">asking for the suspension of dozens of environmental regulations</a> because of the pandemic. There have been similar requests to relax bird habitat monitoring <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/manitoba-hydro-environmental-licensing-pandemic-1.5544740">because of COVID-19</a> in Manitoba. In Ontario, the government cited COVID-19 when it removed the need for public consultation <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-temporarily-suspends-environmental-oversight-law-citing-covid-19-1.5541875">before approval of some projects</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335027/original/file-20200514-77230-2pkkdb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The chestnut-collared longspur is classified as threatened in Manitoba, where its habitat overlaps with the energy industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/chestnutcollared-longspurs-calcarius-ornatus-on-national-439184041">RachelKolokoffHopper/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Australian commonwealth government meanwhile is looking to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/apr/23/coalition-is-aiming-to-change-australias-environment-laws-before-review-is-finished">amend national environment laws</a> to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/29/review-of-federal-environment-laws-will-cut-green-tape-and-speed-up-approvals">save AUS$300 million per year</a>. It has also stopped assessing the threats posed by potential developments to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/08/australian-government-stops-listing-major-threats-to-species-under-environment-laws">native wildlife</a>.</p>
<p>In South Africa, mining resumed in the third week of April 2020, while the rest of the country remained in lockdown. New regulations were adopted on <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202004/43227reg11087gon462.pdf">April 11</a> that suspended the usual environmental regulatory processes for the duration of the lockdown period.</p>
<h2>The future of environmental protection</h2>
<p>The environmental benefits that many people have noticed since the lockdown began may not just disappear post-pandemic. A bonfire of green tape could mean the situation for the natural world is considerably worse than before COVID-19. </p>
<p>Environmental protection measures were hard won over decades by campaigners and lawmakers. Weakening these controls could accelerate the degradation of ecosystems already wracked by climate change and other threats. Any changes in environmental legislation will, even if introduced as a temporary measure, undermine carefully negotiated gains and be difficult to reverse. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cutting-green-tape-may-be-good-politicking-but-its-bad-policy-here-are-5-examples-of-regulation-failure-137164">Cutting ‘green tape’ may be good politicking, but it’s bad policy. Here are 5 examples of regulation failure</a>
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<p>Take the reaction of the Canadian government to the global financial crisis in 2008. Its first step was to exempt projects designed to stimulate the flagging economy from environmental impact assessments. Permanent changes to the federal assessment process followed, and the number of mandated environmental assessments fell from hundreds in 2007 to <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2104336">a dozen each year from 2012</a>.</p>
<p>Not only does slashing environmental regulation invite lasting harm to nature, it also makes little economic sense. Far from strangling economic growth, legislation that safeguards the environment is actually <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/05/green-stimulus-can-repair-global-economy-and-climate-study-says">good for business</a>. A study from <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2020-05-05-building-back-better-green-covid-19-recovery-packages-will-boost-economic-growth-and">Oxford University</a> found that projects which cut carbon emissions create more jobs and deliver higher returns than traditional stimulus packages in the short and longer term. But hasty decisions to “cut green tape” now will have permanent consequences for the environment.</p>
<p>Environmental laws aren’t luxuries, they’re essential to human survival and a viable future. The pandemic is an opportunity to invest in accelerating the shift towards sustainability, not to abandon it in the name of short-term economic recovery at any cost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137941/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meinhard Doelle receives funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alan James Bond, Angus Morrison-Saunders, and Francois Pieter Retief do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As governments race to revive economic growth, expect a bonfire of green tape.Alan James Bond, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Management, University of East AngliaAngus Morrison-Saunders, Professor of Environmental Management, Edith Cowan UniversityFrancois Pieter Retief, Professor of Environmental Management, North-West UniversityMeinhard Doelle, Professor of Law, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1235652019-09-24T11:27:13Z2019-09-24T11:27:13ZRepealing the Clean Water Rule will swamp the Trump administration in wetland litigation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293427/original/file-20190920-135074-1rjkn7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many migratory birds, like these sandhill cranes, rely on wetlands for feeding, resting and shelter.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/bvbZ7c">Wyman Meinzer/USFWS</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The question of which streams, lakes, wetlands and other water bodies across the U.S. should receive federal protection under the Clean Water Act has been a major controversy in environmental law over the past 20 years. The latest twist came on Jan. 23, 2020, when the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of the Army finalized the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/nwpr">Navigable Waters Protection Rule</a>,
the Trump administration’s replacement for the Obama administration’s “<a href="https://theconversation.com/epas-clean-water-rule-whats-at-stake-and-what-comes-next-42466">Clean Water Rule</a>.” </p>
<p>The Clean Water Rule was intended to resolve uncertainty created by a fractured 2006 Supreme Court decision, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/04-1034.ZS.html">Rapanos v. United States</a>. The Rapanos ruling caused widespread confusion about which waters were covered, creating uncertainty for <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-farmers-and-ranchers-think-the-epa-clean-water-rule-goes-too-far-72787">farmers, developers and conservation groups</a>. </p>
<p>Efforts to clarify it through informal guidance or congressional action had failed, so the Obama administration proposed a new rule. It acted under mounting pressure from various quarters, including some members of the Supreme Court. </p>
<p>Announcing plans to repeal the rule, EPA officials asserted that they were “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-us-army-repeal-2015-rule-defining-waters-united-states-ending-regulatory-patchwork">providing greater regulatory certainty</a>” and ending a federal power grab. But they face a stiff challenge from the rule’s supporters, including <a href="https://www.law.nyu.edu/centers/state-impact/ag-actions/by-state/california">more than a dozen state attorneys general</a>, and courts may not buy their arguments.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293492/original/file-20190922-135084-wfhqgb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wetlands are most common in the eastern and midwestern U.S., but also play important ecological roles in the West, even if they are only wet for part of the year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fws.gov/wetlands/Downloads/Gallery/Wetland-Density-of-the-Conterminous-United-States.pdf">USFWS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rule changes require evidence</h2>
<p>Under the <a href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/laws/administrative-procedure">Administrative Procedure Act</a>, federal agencies must follow specific steps when they seek to establish or repeal a regulation. These procedures are meant to establish efficiency, consistency and accountability. To promote fairness and transparency, the law requires that the public must have meaningful opportunity to comment on proposed rules before they take effect.</p>
<p>The Clean Water Rule emerged from an extensive rule-making process that featured a 120-day public comment period and over 400 meetings with state, tribal and local officials and numerous stakeholders representing business, agriculture, environmental and public health organizations. It generated over one million comments, the bulk of which <a href="https://www.nwf.org/%7E/media/PDFs/Education-Advocacy/Clean-Water-Rule_Factsheet_17-02_FINAL.ashx">supported the rule</a>. </p>
<p>This process followed a <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=296414">comprehensive peer-reviewed scientific assessment</a> that synthesized over 1,000 studies documenting the importance of <a href="https://theconversation.com/small-streams-and-wetlands-are-key-parts-of-river-networks-heres-why-they-need-protection-110342">small streams and wetlands</a> to the health of large rivers, lakes and estuaries. According to a <a href="https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/cleanwaterrule/clean-water-rule-streams-and-wetlands-matter_.html">2015 fact sheet</a>, which has been scrubbed from EPA’s website, the rule protected streams that roughly one in three Americans depend upon for their drinking water.</p>
<p>Importantly, EPA does not dispute any findings of the peer-reviewed scientific studies that the Obama administration cited to support its approach. Nor does the agency contend that any relevant facts or circumstances have changed since 2015. Its economic analysis has been <a href="https://environment.yale.edu/news/article/Yale-economist-trump-water-rule-ignores-millions-of-dollars-of-benefits/">heavily criticized by economists</a> for opting not to assign economic benefits to wetland protection.</p>
<p>Instead, the Trump administration <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-12/documents/factsheet_-_key_changes_12.10.18.pdf">relies on a legal argument</a> that the 2015 rule exceeds EPA’s authority, misreads applicable Supreme Court decisions and fails to show proper respect to states’ rights to use their land and water resources as they see fit.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293493/original/file-20190922-135128-10mgl1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EPA Administrator Andrew Wheeler and other Trump administration officials argue that farmers will benefit from repealing the Clean Water Rule. Opponents say the rule had little actual impact on farmers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Trump-Farmers-and-Wetlands/3c580ab3e8eb43b7bfcaff9476959b70/19/0">AP Photo/Mark Humphrey</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Justify your action</h2>
<p>Parties are now lining up to sue EPA, and thanks to a <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/16-299">2017 Supreme Court decision</a>, those lawsuits can be filed in federal district courts anywhere in the U.S. In weighing challenges, the key question courts must address is whether EPA’s action is “arbitrary and capricious,” meaning that the agency has failed to consider important aspects of the problem or explain its reasoning. </p>
<p>In a <a href="http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/463/29.html">seminal 1983 decision</a>, the Supreme Court ruled that an agency must supply a “reasoned analysis” when it rescinds a rule adopted by a previous administration. The court acknowledged that agencies have some discretion to change direction in response to changing circumstances. However, it noted that “the forces of change do not always or necessarily point in the direction of deregulation.” </p>
<p>Further, the court said that a decision to rescind a rule would be arbitrary and capricious if it offers an explanation “that runs counter to the evidence before the agency.”</p>
<p>EPA asserts that the repeal “need not be based upon a change of facts or circumstances,” citing a <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/07-582.ZS.html">2009 opinion by Justice Antonin Scalia</a>. But in my view as a legal scholar, EPA reads too much into that decision, which simply held that an agency did not face “heightened scrutiny” – that is, an extra-high bar – when changing policy, but must still “show that there are good reasons for the new policy.” </p>
<p>As Justice Stephen Breyer observed, dissenting in the same case:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Where does, and why would, the Administrative Procedure Act grant agencies the freedom to change major policies on the basis of nothing more than political considerations or even personal whim?”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Does Wheeler have good reasons? Let’s consider them.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bFGMoFIjKRM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ducks Unlimited, a conservation group founded by hunters, advocates for wetland protection.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Will states fill the gap?</h2>
<p>Wheeler argues for repealing the Clean Water Rule because it fails to give enough weight to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/09/12/760203456/epa-makes-rollback-of-clean-water-rules-official-repealing-2015-protections">federalism principles</a> embodied in section 101(b) of the Clean Water Act. That provision expresses a policy to preserve the responsibilities and rights of states to eliminate pollution and plan for the development of land and water. </p>
<p>But nothing in the Clean Water Rule impedes states’ ability to do this. States are free to impose more stringent limitations than the federal government on activities that impair water quality. They just can’t allow more lenient standards that end up not only polluting their own waters but their downstream neighbors as well. </p>
<p>EPA admits that repealing the 2015 rule will mean <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060109323">less protection for streams and wetlands</a>, but argues that states will fill the gap. But according to a <a href="https://www.eli.org/sites/default/files/eli-pubs/d23-04.pdf">50-state survey</a> by the Environmental Law Institute, 36 states “have laws that could restrict the authority of state agencies or localities to regulate waters left unprotected by the federal Clean Water Act.” Only 23 states have laws <a href="https://www.eli.org/sites/default/files/eli-pubs/d18__06.pdf">regulating wetland alteration</a>. Inconsistent state regulation of water polluters led to enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act in the first place.</p>
<h2>A river of lawsuits</h2>
<p>The Trump adminstration’s relentless assault on environmental regulations has not fared well in court. According to statistics compiled by New York University Law School, the administration has <a href="https://policyintegrity.org/deregulation-roundup">lost over 90% of lawsuits</a> challenging its deregulatory policy – often for <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/22/upshot/for-trump-administration-it-has-been-hard-to-follow-the-rules-on-rules.html">failing to comply with the Administrative Procedure Act</a>.</p>
<p>Repealing the Clean Water Rule ensures only that uncertainty about which waters are federally protected will persist for years, as multiple courts wrestle with the issues and come up with different results. This has already occurred with <a href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/environment_energy_resources/resources/wotus/">challenges to the Obama rule</a>. </p>
<p>It will be years before this litigation winds upward through the courts, and eventually perhaps to the Supreme Court. The best prospect for a lasting resolution would be for Congress to take responsibility for clarifying and modernizing the nation’s premier water-quality law. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-scott-pruitt-have-a-solid-case-for-repealing-the-clean-water-rule-80240">article</a> originally published on July 5, 2017.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123565/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Parenteau does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A 2006 Supreme Court ruling created widespread confusion about which wetlands and other waters are federally protected. The Trump administration’s latest action isn’t likely to clear things up.Patrick Parenteau, Professor of Law, Vermont Law & Graduate SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1235492019-09-18T23:01:47Z2019-09-18T23:01:47ZClimate explained: Why are climate change skeptics often right-wing conservatives?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292888/original/file-20190917-19083-3sy98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=131%2C46%2C5044%2C3399&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Polls show the gap between conservatives and liberals is widening on the issue of climate change.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/nz/topics/climate-explained-74664">Climate Explained</a></strong> is a collaboration between The Conversation, Stuff and the New Zealand Science Media Centre to answer your questions about climate change.</em> </p>
<p><em>If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, please send it to <a href="mailto:climate.change@stuff.co.nz">climate.change@stuff.co.nz</a></em></p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why are climate change skeptics often right-wing conservatives?</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The scientific evidence for climate change is unequivocal: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024">97 per cent</a> of actively publishing climate scientists agree that human activities are causing global warming. Given the same evidence, why do some people become concerned about human-caused climate change while others deny it? In particular, why are people who remain skeptical about climate change often identified as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2943">right-wing conservatives</a>?</p>
<p>According to a recent poll conducted in Canada, <a href="http://angusreid.org/climate-change-beliefs/">81 per cent of Liberal and 85 per cent of New Democrat voters believe that climate change is a fact</a> and is mostly caused by emissions from vehicles and industrial facilities. Only 35 per cent of Conservative voters believe the same thing.</p>
<p>Within the United States, a poll in 2006 showed that <a href="https://www.people-press.org/2017/10/05/7-global-warming-and-environmental-regulation-personal-environmentalism/7_02/">79 per cent of Democrats versus 59 per cent of Republicans</a> said there was solid evidence that the average temperature on Earth has been getting warmer. This divide has not only endured, but widened over time to <a href="https://www.people-press.org/2017/10/05/7-global-warming-and-environmental-regulation-personal-environmentalism/7_02/">92 per cent of Democrats and 52 per cent of Republicans by 2017</a>.</p>
<p>Such a growing divide has significant implications for setting policy agendas that aim to fight climate change. For example, <a href="https://www.people-press.org/2017/10/05/7-global-warming-and-environmental-regulation-personal-environmentalism/7_05/">77 per cent of Democrats versus 36 per cent of Republicans</a> in 2017 say stricter environmental laws and regulations are worth the cost.</p>
<h2>What is driving the partisan divide?</h2>
<p>Past studies provided several accounts to explain public skepticism on climate change, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2997">a lack of knowledge or understanding</a> of the causes of climate change, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-006-9059-9">a lack of sense of urgency</a> or <a href="http://climateprediction.net/wp-content/schools/mori_poll.pdf">insufficient awareness about the issue</a>. However, these accounts do not completely explain the partisan polarization over the years when an increasing volume of information and evidence on climate change has been presented to the public. </p>
<p>Recent efforts to explain partisan polarization suggest that people seek and interpret information that is consistent with their political ideology and party identification, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1940161211425410">selectively expose themselves to news media</a> that is consistent with their existing motivations and beliefs. </p>
<p>Conservatives may seek evidence that challenges the scientific knowledge regarding climate change, which aligns with their existing knowledge acquired from political leaders whom they trust. Extending beyond these studies, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01541">we suggested a new explanation</a> of how motivations and ideologies lead to this polarized view on climate change.</p>
<h2>Explaining the divide</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2147-9">previous work</a> demonstrates that liberals who are concerned about climate change pay more attention to climate-related words, such as carbon, over neutral words, such as coffee. Conservatives who are not concerned about climate change do not show a difference in the amount of attention they pay to climate-related words and neutral words, suggesting that political orientations are associated with the amount of attention paid to climate-related information. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-some-conservatives-are-blind-to-climate-change-91549">Why some conservatives are blind to climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Based on these findings, we recently proposed that people’s political motivations shape their visual attention to climate change evidence, which influences their perception of the evidence and subsequent actions to mitigate climate change. These altered perceptions and actions can reinforce their initial motivations, further entrenching the divide. To put simply, what you believe influences what you see, and guides your future actions.</p>
<p>In our study, we presented a graph showing the global temperature change from 1880 to 2013 to participants. We found that the more liberal people were, the more attention they paid to the rising phase of the temperature curve (1990 to 2013) relative to the flat phase of the curve (1940 to 1980). This shows that liberals and conservatives naturally pay more attention to the part of the graph that is consistent with their beliefs.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=254&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=254&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=254&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292757/original/file-20190917-19049-1d34gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global annual mean surface air temperature change in Celsius from 1880 to 2013.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In another experiment, we manipulated attention by colouring different parts of the temperature curve to deliberately bias attention to stronger change (the rising phase) or smaller change (the flat phase) in temperature. After viewing the graph, we tested whether biasing people’s attention to different climate evidence influenced their actions to mitigate climate change. Would they, for example, sign a climate change petition or donate to an environmental organization?</p>
<p>We found that liberals were more likely to sign the petition or donate when the rising phase was highlighted than when the flat phase was highlighted. In other words, when attention was drawn to climate evidence that aligns with their prior beliefs, people were more likely to act.</p>
<p>In contrast, conservatives were less likely to sign the petition or donate when the rising phase was highlighted than when the flat phase was highlighted. This shows that when attention was drawn to motivational evidence that was inconsistent with their beliefs, people were less likely to act. </p>
<p>It may seem paradoxical, but our research shows that an action can be encouraged by drawing people’s attention to the evidence that matches their prior motivations.</p>
<p>Overall, our framework suggested that people’s motivations prevent them from attending to and perceiving climate change evidence accurately, which influences their subsequent actions. Specifically, conservatives may focus selectively on climate data that confirm their beliefs, leading to inaction on mitigating climate change. </p>
<p>Our findings, along with traditional accounts, offer a few ideas to aid our understanding on why conservatives are more skeptical about climate change. To encourage accurate interpretation of climate data and actions among conservatives, we can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1532">frame climate change consistently with their values</a>, such as framing mitigation efforts as promoting economic or technological development. Or, we can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691617748966">provide information on peer group norms</a> to shift attention, since people may have incorrect beliefs of how their peers view a controversial issue. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<p><strong><em>This article is part of <a href="https://www.cjr.org/covering_climate_now/covering-climate-partnerships.php/">The Covering Climate Now</a> series</em></strong>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Vehicle emissions and industrial facilities are contributing to climate change, but many conservatives don’t believe it.Yu Luo, PhD student, Psychology, University of British ColumbiaJiaying Zhao, Assistant Professor, Psychology, University of British ColumbiaRebecca M. Todd, Associate Professor, Psychology, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1060302018-11-15T11:44:35Z2018-11-15T11:44:35ZFine particle air pollution is a public health emergency hiding in plain sight<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245596/original/file-20181114-194509-11yc04d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Kosovo policeman directs cars in Pristina after the government banned traffic in response to extremely high fine particle pollution levels, Jan. 31, 2018.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Kosovo-Pollution/befa0ac567ad4872ba4ccd45d1efc5fa/10/0">AP Photo/Visar Kryeziu</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ambient air pollution is the largest environmental health problem in the United States and in <a href="http://www.healthdata.org/gbd/publications">the world more generally</a>. Fine particulate matter smaller than 2.5 millionths of a meter, known as PM2.5, was the fifth-leading cause of death in the world in 2015, factoring in approximately <a href="http://www.healthdata.org/research-article/global-regional-and-national-comparative-risk-assessment-84-behavioral">4.1 million global deaths annually</a>. In the United States, PM2.5 contributed to about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6">88,000 deaths in 2015</a> – <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr66/nvsr66_06.pdf">more than diabetes, influenza, kidney disease or suicide</a>. </p>
<p>Current evidence suggests that PM2.5 alone causes more deaths and illnesses than <a href="http://www.healthdata.org/gbd/publications">all other environmental exposures combined</a>. For that reason, one of us (Douglas Brugge) recently <a href="https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319895864">wrote a book</a> to try to spread the word to the broader public.</p>
<p>Developed countries have made progress in reducing particulate air pollution in recent decades, but much remains to be done to further reduce this hazard. And the situation has gotten dramatically worse in many developing countries – most notably, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030438">China</a> and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2018/11/08/air-pollution-skyrockets-hazardous-levels-india/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.0b794d2ae70b">India</a>, which have industrialized faster and on vaster scales than ever seen before. According to the World Health Organization, <a href="http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/air-pollution-child-health/en/">more than 90 percent of the world’s children</a> breathe air so polluted it threatens their health and development.</p>
<p>As environmental health specialists, we believe the problem of fine particulate air pollution deserves much more attention, including in the United States. New research is connecting PM2.5 exposure to an alarming array of health effects. At the same time, the Trump administration’s efforts to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-other-reason-to-shift-away-from-coal-air-pollution-that-kills-thousands-every-year-78874">support the fossil fuel industry</a> could increase these emissions when the goal should be further reducing them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245587/original/file-20181114-194516-15zl8pz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter – 30 times larger than the largest fine particle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#PM">EPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where there’s smoke …</h2>
<p>Particulate matter is produced mainly by burning things. In the United States, the majority of PM2.5 emissions come from <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei">industrial activities, motor vehicles, cooking and fuel combustion, often including wood</a>. There is a similar suite of sources in developing countries, but often with more industrial production and more burning of solid fuels in homes. </p>
<p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000556">Wildfires</a> are also an important and growing source, and winds can transport wildfire emissions hundreds of miles from fire regions. In August 2018, environmental regulators in Michigan reported that fine particles from wildfires burning in California were <a href="http://www.michiganradio.org/post/air-pollutants-california-wildfires-reach-michigan">impacting their state’s air quality</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1062494409428627456"}"></div></p>
<p>Most deaths and many illnesses caused by particulate air pollution are cardiovascular – mainly <a href="http://www.healthdata.org/gbd/publications">heart attacks and strokes</a>. Obviously, air pollution affects the lungs because it enters them as we breathe. But once PM enters the lungs, it causes an inflammatory response that sends signals throughout the body, much as a bacterial infection would. Additionally, the smallest particles and fragments of larger particles can leave the lungs and travel through the blood.</p>
<p>Emerging research continues to expand the boundaries of health impacts from PM2.5 exposure. To us, the most notable new concern is that it appears to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0209-9">affect brain development</a> and has <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29298278?report=abstract">adverse cognitive impacts</a>. The smallest particles can even travel directly from the nose into the brain via the olfactory nerve. </p>
<p>There is growing evidence that PM2.5, as well as even smaller particles called ultrafine particles, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29298278">affect children’s central nervous systems</a>. They also can <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.008348">accelerate the pace of cognitive decline in adults</a> and increase the risk in susceptible adults of <a href="https://theconversation.com/air-pollution-exposure-may-increase-risk-of-dementia-72623">developing Alzheimer’s disease</a>.</p>
<p>PM2.5 has received much of the research and policy attention in recent years, but other types of particles also raise concerns. Ultrafines are less studied than PM2.5 and are not yet considered in risk estimates or air pollution regulations. Coarse PM, which is larger and typically comes from physical processes like tire and brake wear, may also pose health risks.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tHiaaHoVeg0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Coverage of an air quality alert in Delhi and neighboring cities, Nov. 5, 2018.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Regulatory push and pull</h2>
<p>The progress that developed countries have made in addressing air pollution, especially PM, demonstrates that regulation works. Before the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was established in 1970, air quality in Los Angeles, New York and other major U.S. cities bore a striking resemblance to Beijing and Delhi today. Increasingly stringent air pollution regulations enacted since then have protected public health and undoubtedly saved millions of lives.</p>
<p>But it wasn’t easy. The first regulatory limits on PM2.5 were proposed in the 1990s, after <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm/151.3_Pt_1.669">two important studies</a> showed that it had <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199312093292401">major health impacts</a>. But <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/magazine/f12-six-cities-environmental-health-air-pollution/">industry pushback was fierce</a>, and included accusations that the science behind the studies was flawed or even fraudulent. Ultimately federal regulations were enacted, and follow-up studies and reanalysis <a href="https://www.healtheffects.org/system/files/Reanalysis-ExecSumm.pdf">confirmed the original findings</a>. </p>
<p>Now the Trump administration is working to <a href="https://theconversation.com/scott-pruitts-approach-to-pollution-control-will-make-the-air-dirtier-and-americans-less-healthy-96501">reduce the role of science in shaping air pollution policy</a> and reverse regulatory decisions by the Obama administration. One new appointee to the <a href="https://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabpeople.nsf/WebExternalCommitteeRosters?OpenView&committee=BOARD&secondname=Science%20Advisory%20Board">EPA’s Science Advisory Board</a>, <a href="https://www.faculty.uci.edu/profile.cfm?faculty_id=2255">Robert Phalen</a>, a professor of medicine at the University of California, Irvine, is known for asserting that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/16/modern-air-is-too-clean-the-rise-of-air-pollution-denial">modern air is actually too clean for optimal health</a>, even though the empirical evidence does not support this argument.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245591/original/file-20181114-194491-1diglmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">U.S. counties failing to meet national standards for at least one of six major air pollutants regulated under the Clean Air Act: PM2.5, PM10, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and eight-hour ozone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www3.epa.gov/airquality/greenbook/mapnpoll.html">EPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On Oct. 11, 2018, EPA Administrator Andrew Wheeler <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aav7157">disbanded a critical air pollution science advisory group</a> that dealt specifically with PM regulation. Critics called this an effort to limit the role that current scientific evidence plays in establishing national air quality standards that will protect public health with an adequate margin of safety, as required under the Clean Air Act. </p>
<p>Opponents of regulating PM2.5 in the 1990s at least acknowledged that science had a role to play, although they tried to discredit studies that supported the case for regulation. The new approach seems to be to try to cut scientific evidence out of the process entirely.</p>
<h2>No time for complacency</h2>
<p>In late October 2018, the World Health Organization convened a special conference on <a href="http://www.who.int/airpollution/events/conference/en/">global air pollution and health</a>. The agency’s heightened interest appears to be motivated by risk estimates that show air pollution to be a concern of similar magnitude to more traditional public health targets, such as diet and physical activity. </p>
<p>Conferees endorsed a goal of <a href="http://www.who.int/phe/news/clean-air-for-health/en/">reducing global deaths from air pollution by two-thirds by 2030</a>. This is a highly aspirational target, but it may focus renewed attention on strategies such as reducing economic barriers that make it hard to deploy pollution control technologies in developing countries. </p>
<p>In any case, past and current research clearly show that now is not the time to move away from regulating air pollution that arises largely from burning fossil fuels, in the United States or abroad.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106030/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douglas Brugge receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Kresge Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin James Lane receives funding from the National Institutes of Health and the Federal Aviation Administration.</span></em></p>The head of the World Health Organization calls air pollution ‘the new tobacco’ because it causes millions of preventable deaths yearly. Fine particle pollution is especially deadly.Doug Brugge, Professor of Public Health and Community Medicine, Tufts UniversityKevin James Lane, Assistant Professor of Environmental Health, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1034112018-09-20T10:36:31Z2018-09-20T10:36:31ZCoal ash spill highlights key role of environmental regulations in disasters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237243/original/file-20180920-10511-nllgfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Environmental regulations generally improve communities' preparedness and resilience during disasters.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Heavy rains following Hurricane Florence has led to the <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060098177">release of toxic materials</a> in North Carolina. A breached dam caused the shutdown of a power plant and the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/energy-environment/2018/09/21/dam-breach-reported-former-nc-coal-plant-raising-fears-that-toxic-coal-ash-may-pollute-cape-fear-river/?utm_term=.ee7af518918f">release of coal ash</a> – the byproduct of burning coal – stored at the <a href="https://news.duke-energy.com/releases/cape-fear-river-flooding-damages-sutton-lake-causes-safe-shutdown-of-natural-gas-plant">plant into the Cape Fear River</a>. The state of North Carolina has also said dozens of sites have <a href="https://deq.nc.gov/news/deq-dashboard">released hog waste or are at risk of doing so</a>.</p>
<p>These types of events not only highlight the potential of harm to humans and the environment due to this type of uncontrolled pollution, but also the linkage between environmental regulations and the risks communities face when natural disasters occur. </p>
<p>The decisions communities make when managing a range of hazards, including industrial waste siting, are a key factor in a community’s vulnerability during a disaster – a dynamic we’ve seen play out in many ways in our work in disaster policy and management. Such choices also help explain why disaster damage is so costly and disaster recovery so complex.</p>
<h2>Pollution and disaster flooding</h2>
<p>Heavy rainfall from Hurricane Florence caused the Neuse River to flood and <a href="https://www.apnews.com/28d9884e801248a39ff8669cd720ab78">erode three soil-capped coal ash landfills</a> near Goldsboro, North Carolina. At another coal ash landfill near Wilmington, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/florence-washes-away-portion-of-coal-ash-landfill-in-north-carolina-1537137771">heavy rains exposed its toxic contents</a>, which include lead, arsenic and mercury, washing them into a nearby lake that drains into the Cape Fear River. Duke Energy, operator of the landfill and nearby power plant, estimates about <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-09-16/duke-downplays-threat-from-coal-ash-spill-in-carolina-storm">2,000 cubic yards escaped into the lake</a> but claims contaminated storm waters did not make it into the river. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237619/original/file-20180923-129862-pgjymq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flooding caused the shutdown of the Sutton power plant and a breach of dam and the release of coal ash stored at the plant, according to reports.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://news.duke-energy.com/releases/cape-fear-river-flooding-damages-sutton-lake-causes-safe-shutdown-of-natural-gas-plant">Duke Energy</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The problem of managing coal ash storage is a useful illustration of how environmental protection choices, good or bad, affect the degree of community vulnerability during a disaster.</p>
<p>The North Carolina legislature has a recent history of explicit denial of climate change. A bill <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-northcarolina/north-carolina-lawmakers-reject-sea-level-rise-predictions-idUSBRE86217I20120703">passed in 2012</a> banned the use of climate science regarding the effects of sea-level rise and other coastal management issues. This <a href="https://www.newsobserver.com/news/technology/article215476785.html">promotes less-than-sound coastal development</a> and increases vulnerability to coastal hazards. </p>
<p>Likewise, the state has a history of allowing coal ash storage in areas that put drinking water at risk for contamination. A plan to remove or clean up these sites has faced <a href="https://www.northcarolinahealthnews.org/2017/03/06/digging-coal-ash-closure-plans/">criticism from environmentalists that such efforts are inadequate to date.</a></p>
<h2>Easing coal ash disposal rules</h2>
<p>Coal ash is the toxic waste product of burning coal for energy production. There are more than <a href="https://earthjustice.org/features/what-you-should-know-hurricane-florence-and-hazardous-sites">100 coal ash waste sites in the Southeast</a>; 37 are <a href="http://www.southeastcoalash.org">located in North Carolina</a>. Coal ash waste contains a wide range of compounds, most concerning of which are heavy metals. If not contained and monitored, toxic coal ash poses a <a href="https://content.sierraclub.org/coal/sites/content.sierraclub.org.coal/files/elp/docs/us-general_epa-coal-ash-report_2007-8-6.pdf">significant health risk</a>, because it can contaminate drinking water, surface waters, accumulate in fish, and harm other living organisms. </p>
<p>In 2008 a <a href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40544.pdf">massive coal ash spill in Tennessee</a>, similar to the potential situation in North Carolina, cost more than US$1.2 billion to clean up. This prompted the Obama administration to write new national regulations on coal ash disposal, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/coalash/coal-ash-rule">adopting a final rule in 2015</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237163/original/file-20180919-158213-amsm7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photo by the Waterkeeper Alliance shows the effects of flooding at the former Weatherspoon coal-fired power plant which has been demolished.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/waterkeeperalliance/44750943221/in/album-72157698057980582/">Waterkeeper Alliance Inc.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Obama administration’s efforts on coal ash can be understood in the context of its Clean Power Plan, a broad effort at addressing climate change and industrial pollution. The Trump administration has <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/20/climate/epa-clean-power-rollback.html">sought to undo that regulatory approach</a>, including rolling back the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-s-epa-rolls-back-obama-era-coal-ash-regulations-n892586">stringency of coal ash disposal regulation</a>. </p>
<p>But easing regulations of energy production, consumption and waste undermines communities’ efforts to respond to disasters and the broader issue of climate change mitigation and <a href="https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/highlights/report-findings/responses">adaptation</a>. </p>
<p>For example, increasing the likelihood of water contamination through poor controls on coal ash disposal is an unnecessary public health risk that can slow response efforts and make recovery more costly and more difficult. In short, lax environmental regulation makes communities less resilient. </p>
<h2>Environmental regulation and disasters</h2>
<p>In general, systems of emergency management and emergency response are designed to be flexible enough to address any hazard precipitating a crisis, be it natural, such as hurricanes, technological, such as industrial accidents or acts of terrorism. After the Sept. 11, 2001 attacks, the U.S. embarked on a transformation of how emergencies and disasters are handled. </p>
<p>New national guidelines and standards for preparedness and incident management were adopted to ensure effectiveness across all phases of disaster management. But policy efforts that weaken environmental protections at national, state or local levels in turn make the operations of disaster management more difficult. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237240/original/file-20180920-10517-1iwgugq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Floodwaters surround homes and a power station in the aftermath of Hurricane Florence in Newport, N.C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Tropical-Weather/e8b3ebc8506c418cae266f0a3bd4b47a/1/0">AP Photo/Tom Copeland</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Consider hazard mitigation – the use of tools such as building codes or land use planning to reduce the amount of harm that might occur during a disaster – and how it is connected to other phases of disaster management. The strength of risk reduction steps, such as safer local land use practices, directly affects emergency response and long-term recovery phases. </p>
<p>For example, if a community prevents residential development in a floodplain, when flooding occurs, evacuation or rescue operations are not needed, the costs of recovery are reduced, and so on. At the same time, more stringent environmental regulations have the effect of reducing risk around the hazard itself and facilitating the possibility of more effective hazard mitigation.</p>
<h2>Increasing disaster risk</h2>
<p>Our central point is rather straightforward: Environmental protection actions in a jurisdiction have direct effects on disaster vulnerability. The particular case of North Carolina and the risk of large-scale contamination from coal ash pollution released by the Florence flooding disaster can be viewed in the light of broader trends in the United States and globally. </p>
<p>With sea level rise, coastal communities in the U.S. face <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/global-warming/global-warming-impacts/when-rising-seas-hit-home-chronic-inundation-from-sea-level-rise#.W6FCvM5KjX5">huge risks associated with dangerous and more routine flooding</a>. Evidence shows the financial costs of disasters <a href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/time-series">are escalating</a>. Outside the U.S. similar negative trends of increased risk and more <a href="https://media.ifrc.org/ifrc/publications/world-disasters-report-2016/">severe consequences from national disasters across the globe are well-established</a>.</p>
<p>The coal ash problem in North Carolina can also be seen through the lens of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/09/18/in-the-u-s-black-brown-and-poor-people-suffer-the-most-from-environmental-contamination/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.e4d2fbd5608e">inequitable exposure to environmental harms</a>. Siting of hazardous waste sites is not random – risk exposure tends to be higher for poorer or minority populations. This combined with higher rates of social vulnerability – the inability to prepare for, respond to or recover from a disaster – increases the risks for these residents to suffer long-term health and socioeconomic impacts. </p>
<p>All of these trends – increased vulnerability, inequitable exposure, greater cost of disasters – all underscore the need for viewing environmental regulation as a key component of disaster risk reduction.</p>
<p><em>This is an update with new details to an article originally published on September 20.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103411/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The damage to coal ash sites from Hurricane Florence demonstrates how a community’s vulnerability to natural disasters is closely linked to how stringent environmental regulations are.Brian J. Gerber, Associate Professor, College of Public Service and Community Solutions and Co-Director, Center for Emergency Management and Homeland Security, Arizona State UniversityMelanie Gall, College Professor and Co-Director, Center for Emergency Management and Homeland Security and College Professor, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/989182018-07-02T10:42:35Z2018-07-02T10:42:35ZThe US natural gas industry is leaking way more methane than previously thought. Here’s why that matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225549/original/file-20180629-117374-gyqk1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The authors conferring at a natural gas facility in Colorado.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.engr.colostate.edu/colorado-state-leads-in-methane-emissions-research/">Colorado State University</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Natural gas is <a href="http://www.iea.org/tcep/power/gas/">displacing coal</a>, which could help fight climate change because burning it produces fewer carbon emissions. But producing and transporting natural gas releases methane, a greenhouse gas that also contributes to climate change. <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/06/20/science.aar7204">How big is the methane problem</a>?</p>
<p>For the past five years, our <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0lwxwbwAAAAJ&hl=en">research teams</a> at <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=mJGre94AAAAJ">Colorado State University</a> have made <a href="https://www.engr.colostate.edu/colorado-state-leads-in-methane-emissions-research/">thousands of methane emissions measurements</a> at more than 700 separate facilities in the <a href="https://www.elementascience.org/articles/10.1525/elementa.266/">production</a>, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b02275">gathering</a>, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es5052809">processing</a>, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b01669">transmission and storage</a> segments of the natural gas supply chain.</p>
<p>This experience has given us a unique perspective regarding the major sources of methane emissions from natural gas and the challenges the industry faces in terms of detecting and reducing, if not eliminating, them. </p>
<p>Our work, along with numerous other research projects, was recently folded into a new study published in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/06/20/science.aar7204">Science</a>. This comprehensive snapshot suggests that methane emissions from oil and gas operations are much higher than current EPA estimates.</p>
<h2>What’s wrong with methane</h2>
<p>One way to quantify the magnitude of the methane leakage is to divide the amount of methane emitted each year by the total amount of methane pumped out of the ground each year from natural gas and oil wells. The <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks-1990-2016">EPA currently estimates this methane leak rate to be 1.4 percent</a>. That is, for every cubic foot of natural gas drawn from underground reservoirs, 1.4 percent of it is lost into the atmosphere.</p>
<p>This study synthesized the results from a five-year series of 16 studies coordinated by environmental advocacy group Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), which involved more than 140 researchers from over 40 institutions and 50 natural gas companies.</p>
<p>The effort brought together scholars based at universities, think tanks and the industry itself to make the most accurate estimate possible of the total amount of methane emitted from all U.S. oil and gas operations. It integrated data from a multitude of recent studies with measurements made on the ground and from the air. </p>
<p>All told, based on the results of the new study, the U.S. oil and gas industry is leaking 13 million metric tons of methane each year, which means the methane leak rate is 2.3 percent. This 60 percent difference between our new estimate and the EPA’s current one can have profound climate consequences.</p>
<p>Methane is a highly potent greenhouse gas, with more than 80 times the climate warming impact of carbon dioxide over the first 20 years after it is released.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/17/6435">An earlier EDF study</a> showed that a methane leak rate of greater than 3 percent would result in no immediate climate benefits from retiring coal-fired power plants in favor of natural gas power plants.</p>
<p>That means even with a 2.3 percent leakage rate, the growing share of U.S. electricity powered by natural gas is doing something to slow the pace of climate change. However, these climate benefits could be far greater.</p>
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<p>Also, at a methane leakage rate of 2.3 percent, many other uses of natural gas besides generating electricity are conclusively detrimental for the climate. For example, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/17/6435">EDF found that</a> replacing the diesel used in most trucks or the gasoline consumed by most cars with natural gas would require a leakage rate of less than 1.4 percent before there would be any immediate climate benefit. </p>
<p>What’s more, some scientists believe that the <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/06/natural-gas-could-warm-planet-much-coal-short-term">leakage rate could be even higher</a> than this new estimate. </p>
<h2>What causes these leaks</h2>
<p>Perhaps you’ve never contemplated the long journey that natural gas travels before you can ignite the burners on the gas stove in your kitchen.</p>
<p>But on top of the 500,000 natural gas wells operating in the U.S. today, there are 2 million miles of pipes and millions of valves, fittings, tanks, compressors and other components operating 24 hours per day, seven days a week to deliver natural gas to your home.</p>
<p>That natural gas that you burn when you whip up a batch of pancakes may have traveled 1,000 miles or more as it wended through this complicated network. Along the way, there were ample opportunities for some of it to leak out into the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Natural gas leaks can be accidental, caused by malfunctioning equipment, but a lot of natural gas is also released intentionally to perform process operations such as opening and closing valves. In addition, the tens of thousands of compressors that increase the pressure and pump the gas along through the network are powered by engines that burn natural gas and their exhaust contains some unburned natural gas.</p>
<p>Since the natural gas delivered to your home is 85 to 95 percent methane, natural gas leaks are predominantly methane. While methane poses the greatest threat to the climate because of its greenhouse gas potency, natural gas contains other hydrocarbons that can degrade regional air quality and are <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/coal-and-other-fossil-fuels/environmental-impacts-of-natural-gas#.WzemFKdKhPY">bad for human health</a>.</p>
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<h2>Inventory tallies vs. aircraft surveillance</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks-1990-2016">EPA Greenhouse Gas Inventory</a> is done in a way experts like us call a “bottom-up” approach. It entails tallying up all of the nation’s natural gas equipment – from household gas meters to wellpads – and estimating an annualized average emission rate for every category and adding it all up. </p>
<p>There are two challenges to this approach. First, there are no accurate equipment records for many of these categories. Second, when components operate improperly or fail, emissions balloon, making it hard to develop an accurate and meaningful annualized emission rate for each source.</p>
<p><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2013JD021272">“Top-down” approaches</a>, typically requiring aircraft, are the alternative. They measure methane concentrations upwind and downwind of large geographic areas. But this approach has its own shortcomings.</p>
<p>First, it captures all methane emissions, rather than just the emissions tied to natural gas operations – including the methane from landfills, cows and even the leaves rotting in your backyard. Second, these one-time snapshots may get distorted depending on what’s going on while planes fly around capturing methane data. </p>
<p>Historically, top-down approaches estimate emissions that are about <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6172/733">twice bottom-up estimates</a>. Some regional top-down methane leak rate estimates have been as high as 8 percent while some bottom-up estimates have been as low as 1 percent.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es506359c">More recent work</a>, including the <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/06/20/science.aar7204">Science study</a>, have performed coordinated campaigns in which the on-the-ground and aircraft measurements are made concurrently, while carefully modeling emission events. </p>
<h2>Helpful gadgets and sound policy</h2>
<p>On a sunny morning in October 2013, our research team pulled up to a natural gas gathering compressor station in Texas. Using an US$80,000 infrared camera, we immediately located an extraordinarily large leak of colorless, odorless methane that was invisible to the operator who quickly isolated and fixed the problem.</p>
<p>We then witnessed the methane emissions decline tenfold – the facility leak rate fell from 9.8 percent to 0.7 percent before our eyes.</p>
<p>It is not economically feasible, of course, to equip all natural gas workers with $80,000 cameras, or to hire the drivers required to monitor every wellpad on a daily basis when there are 40,000 oil and gas wells in Weld County, Colorado, alone.</p>
<p>But new technologies can make a difference. Our team at Colorado State University is working with the Department of Energy to <a href="https://energy.colostate.edu/metec/">evaluate gadgetry that will rapidly detect methane emissions</a>. <a href="https://www.edf.org/methane-detectors-challenge">Some of these devices can be deployed today</a>, including inexpensive sensors that can be monitored remotely. </p>
<p>Technology alone won’t solve the problem, however. We believe that slashing the nation’s methane leak rate will require a collaborative effort between industry and government. And based on our experience in Colorado, which has developed some of the nation’s strictest methane emissions regulations, we find that best practices become standard practices with strong regulations.</p>
<p>We believe that the Trump administration’s efforts to <a href="https://theconversation.com/scott-pruitts-approach-to-pollution-control-will-make-the-air-dirtier-and-americans-less-healthy-96501">roll back regulations</a>, without regard to whether they are working or not, will not only have profound climate impacts. They will also jeopardize the health and safety of all Americans while undercutting efforts by the natural gas industry to cut back on the pollution it produces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98918/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony J. Marchese has current research support from the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy. Over the past five years, he has worked on methane emissions studies that have been supported by Environmental Defense Fund and multiple natural gas companies. He currently serves as a consultant with Abt Associates on methane emissions projects with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dan Zimmerle receives funding from the US Department of Energy and National Science Foundation, and has previously worked on projects for the Environmental Defense Fund, state regulatory agencies and oil & gas industry associations. He is affiliated with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME), American Chemical Society (ACS) and American Geophysical Union (AGU).. </span></em></p>This new and more accurate estimate means that replacing coal with natural gas doesn’t do as much to reduce climate change as it should.Anthony J. Marchese, Associate Dean for Academic and Student Affairs, Walter Scott, Jr. College of Engineering; Director, Engines and Energy Conversion Laboratory; Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State UniversityDan Zimmerle, Senior Research Associate and Director of METEC, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/965012018-05-18T10:42:02Z2018-05-18T10:42:02ZScott Pruitt’s approach to pollution control will make the air dirtier and Americans less healthy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219253/original/file-20180516-155594-1jfv9hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Smog alert in Cleveland, Ohio, July 20, 1973.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CLEVELAND_SKYLINE_IN_THE_SMOG_OF_JULY_20,_1973,_DAY_OF_POLLUTION_ALERT_-_NARA_-_550190.jpg">USEPA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Scott Pruitt’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2018/05/16/at-senate-hearing-scott-pruitts-spending-and-ethics-once-again-take-center-stage/?utm_term=.3e297103298e">ethical lapses and extravagant spending habits</a> have distracted the public from what he is doing to roll back important environmental protections.</p>
<p>Pruitt helped persuade President Donald Trump to <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-trumps-decision-to-leave-paris-accord-hurts-the-us-and-the-world-78707">withdraw from the Paris climate accord</a>, making the United States the only country in the world to reject the pact. At Trump’s urging, Pruitt has moved to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pull-of-energy-markets-and-legal-challenges-will-blunt-plans-to-roll-back-epa-carbon-rules-85561">repeal the Obama administration’s Clean Power Plan</a> and EPA rules clarifying federal jurisdiction to <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-scott-pruitt-have-a-solid-case-for-repealing-the-clean-water-rule-80240">protect wetlands</a>. </p>
<p>He also plans to scrap national <a href="https://theconversation.com/government-fuel-economy-standards-for-cars-and-trucks-have-worked-94529">fuel economy standards</a> the auto industry once embraced. And he sought to suspend regulation of methane leaks from new oil and gas wells, but was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/03/climate/court-blocks-epa-effort-to-suspend-obama-era-methane-rule.html">overruled by a federal court</a>.</p>
<p>And Pruitt’s agenda extends far beyond simply rolling back Obama administration initiatives. In a <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-05/documents/image2018-05-09-173219.pdf">memo</a> to EPA staff on May 9, 2018, Pruitt ordered significant changes in the process for <a href="https://www.epa.gov/naaqs">setting air quality standards</a> under the Clean Air Act, in the name of “cooperative federalism and the rule of law.”</p>
<p>These standards are the heart of what has been the most successful environmental law in history. According to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/benefits-and-costs-clean-air-act-1990-2020-second-prospective-study">EPA’s own estimates</a>, the Clean Air Act saves thousands of lives every year and generates net benefits to society that are vastly larger than the costs of complying with it. </p>
<p>But the law is now under attack from the very agency charged with implementing it. Pruitt seeks to undermine the scientific basis for the EPA’s national air quality standards by changing who advises the EPA, restricting the data they can use, and requiring them to shift their focus away from protecting public health.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219254/original/file-20180516-155579-ha759c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EPA’s estimated benefits and costs of the Clean Air Act from 1990-2020. About 85 percent of benefits are attributable to avoided premature deaths associated with reductions in particle pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/benefits-and-costs-clean-air-act-1990-2020-second-prospective-study">USEPA</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Science-based regulation</h2>
<p>The Clean Air Act has reduced air pollution so effectively that even Pruitt <a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3404467-Pruitt-EPA-Confirmation-Hearing-Transcript.html">acknowledges its success</a>. U.S. air quality standards are the reason why our air is not like China’s, where air pollution kills an estimated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135749">1.6 million people each year</a>. </p>
<p>The Clean Air Act has succeeded because it requires air quality standards to be based solely on what science shows is necessary to protect public health. The law directs the EPA administrator to consult with “an independent scientific review committee” known as the <a href="https://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabpeople.nsf/WebCommittees/CASAC">Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee</a> (CASAC). This committee summarizes what science shows about the impact of various levels of air pollution on public health and welfare. </p>
<p>Based on this scientific information, the EPA is required to set national air quality standards for six key air pollutants that will protect public health with an “adequate margin of safety.” These standards are required to be updated every five years to reflect the latest scientific information. </p>
<p>The EPA is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/administrator-pruitt-signs-memo-reform-national-ambient-air-quality-standards-review">scheduled</a> to complete reviews of standards for ozone and particulate matter by the end of 2020. According to the American Lung Association, <a href="http://www.lung.org/about-us/media/press-releases/2018-state-of-the-air.html">more than 4 in 10 Americans</a> still live in areas with unhealthy levels of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution">ozone</a> or <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution">particle pollution</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219255/original/file-20180516-155573-1eifbxr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Since 1980, combined emissions of six common air pollutants have dropped by 67 percent. Meanwhile, the U.S. economy continued to grow, Americans drove more miles and population and energy use increased.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/air-quality-national-summary">USEPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Pruitt’s memo expands CASAC’s charge to include advice on any adverse “economic” or “energy effects” of emission control measures – even though the law does not allow such factors to be considered during the standard-setting process. In <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-1257.ZS.html">Whitman v. American Trucking Associations, Inc.</a> in 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared that the text of the Clean Air Act “unambiguously bars cost considerations from the [standard]-setting process.” </p>
<p>In that case, industry litigants sought to persuade the court that air quality standards should be based on cost-benefit analyses. But the court, in an opinion by the late Justice Antonin Scalia, unanimously rejected that argument, stating: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[C]ost of implementation … is both so indirectly related to public health and so full of potential for canceling the conclusions drawn from direct health effects that it would surely have been expressly mentioned in [the law] if Congress meant it to be considered.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The court declared that if it could be proved “that the EPA is secretly considering the costs of attainment without telling anyone,” this would be grounds for striking down the standards “because the Administrator had not followed the law.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219262/original/file-20180516-155616-1b5j1el.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Counties that currently fail to meet standards for at least one of six air major pollutants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/green-book/green-book-map-download">USEPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Weakening existing standards</h2>
<p>Pruitt’s memo pays lip service to the notion that compliance costs are not relevant to standard-setting, while requesting “robust feedback” on adverse effects of implementing air quality standards. He also wants CASAC to emphasize scientific uncertainty and research on naturally occurring air pollution, harkening back to President Reagan’s famous claim that “<a href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1980/10/10/Environmentalists-Ronald-Reagan-is-just-plain-wrong/9036339998400/">trees cause more pollution than automobiles</a>.” </p>
<p>Even if Pruitt follows the law, his memo’s emphasis on compliance costs, uncertainty and “background” levels of air pollution suggests that he is laying the groundwork for undermining existing air quality standards. </p>
<p>Toward this end, Pruitt wants to make significant changes to the EPA’s sources of scientific advice. His memo emphasizes that new members of CASAC review panels must be selected in accordance with his October 31, 2017 <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/10/trump-s-epa-has-blocked-agency-grantees-serving-science-advisory-panels-here-what-it">directive</a>, disqualifying experts who receive research funding from EPA – but not experts employed or funded by industry groups. </p>
<p>Pruitt’s action responds to an April 12, 2018 <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-memorandum-administrator-environmental-protection-agency/">memorandum</a> from President Trump directing EPA to speed up permitting of air pollution sources, and to grant states more flexibility in meeting air quality standards. But if the administration truly was serious about speeding up implementation of the act, it would not be <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-02/documents/fy-2019-epa-bib.pdf">proposing</a> to slash the EPA’s FY 2019 budget from $8 billion to $6.1 billion and shrink the agency’s work force from 15,400 to 12,250. </p>
<p>When Congress last amended the Clean Air Act in 1990, it did so by overwhelming bipartisan majorities of 89-11 in the Senate and a voice vote without objection in the House. These amendments strengthened air pollution control measures while creating an innovative <a href="https://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/acid-rain-program">market-based emissions trading program</a> that experts <a href="https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/so2-brief_digital4_final.pdf">widely view as a success</a>.</p>
<p>President Trump has abandoned his campaign promise to abolish the EPA, but his EPA administrator is on a slash and burn expedition to roll back crucial environmental protections. This effort reflects profound distrust of the science that underpins U.S. environmental policies and profound disregard for millions of Americans who still live in areas with unhealthy air.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96501/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Percival does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt wants to change the grounds for setting US air pollution targets. An environmental lawyer explains why Pruitt’s approach misreads the law and could roll back decades of gains.Robert Percival, Professor of Environmental Law, University of MarylandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/932582018-05-15T10:26:42Z2018-05-15T10:26:42ZTrump proposal to weaken project reviews threatens the ‘Magna Carta of environmental law’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218475/original/file-20180510-5968-4fugur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A streamlined NEPA review of replacing New York's Tappan Zee Bridge over the Hudson River, which would normally take 3-5 years, was completed in 1.5 years. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/New_Tappan_Zee_bridge_2016_Aug_a_jeh.jpg">Jim Henderson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Building the U.S. Interstate highway system in the 1950s and 60s is often cited as one of <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/governments-greatest-achievements-of-the-past-half-century/">government’s great achievements</a>. But it had harmful impacts too. Many city communities were bulldozed to make space for freeways. Across the nation, people vigorously objected to having no say in these decisions, leading to “<a href="https://environment.transportation.org/pdf/proj_delivery_stream/crs_report_envrev.pdf">freeway revolts</a>.”</p>
<p>This outcry, coupled with the growing environmental movement, gave rise to the idea – revolutionary at the time – that agencies should take a hard look at the environmental impacts of their actions, consider reasonable alternatives and allow community input. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), enacted in 1970, codified these principles and allowed citizens to sue if they believed government had not complied. Because it represents a turning point in thinking about environmental protection, NEPA has been called the “<a href="https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_journal_law_policy/vol32/iss1/9/">Magna Carta of environmental law</a>.”</p>
<p>Despite NEPA’s demonstrated successes, critics have attacked it for years, usually based on anecdotes claiming that lengthy environmental reviews caused project delays. President Donald Trump’s <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/INFRASTRUCTURE-211.pdf">infrastructure initiative</a> is the latest example. And on May 3, 2018, the Trump administration <a href="https://www.sej.org/headlines/regulations-white-house-plots-update-nepa-guidelines">announced</a> that it will soon propose changes to the rules that guide federal agencies carrying out NEPA reviews.</p>
<p>As attorneys who held senior positions at the Environmental Protection Agency during the Obama administration, including managing the agency’s NEPA office, we have extensive experience with NEPA reviews. Expert studies reveal a vast disconnect between the evidence, which shows that NEPA is not the cause of project delays, and the sweeping changes that NEPA critics are proposing. This disconnect reveals that current proposals aren’t really about speeding up projects, but are instead part of a broad deregulatory agenda that prioritizes business interests over public benefits from environmental protection.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218486/original/file-20180510-184630-1ijgu26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Poster opposing a planned freeway in Washington, D.C., that was ultimately canceled in 1977.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ggwash.org/view/354/preservation-versus-taxidermy-in-takoma-park">Greater Greater Washington</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>NEPA reviews aren’t the cause of project delays</h2>
<p>Over more than four decades, NEPA has helped government agencies make smarter choices about public infrastructure, reducing damage to both natural environments and communities and avoiding the costs of correcting ill-considered projects.</p>
<p>For example, in the 1990s Michigan’s state transportation agency wanted to build a <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/resources/never-eliminate-public-advice-nepa-success-stories">four-lane highway</a> across a huge swath of important wetlands. Using NEPA, citizens forced the state to consider alternatives. Ultimately the state decided to expand an existing highway instead, dramatically reducing environmental harm and saving US$1.5 billion. <a href="https://ceq.doe.gov/docs/get-involved/NEPA_Success_Stories.pdf">Similar stories</a> have occurred across the country.</p>
<p>Critics have long used “NEPA is slowing projects down!” as their rallying cry. Independent experts have looked at the evidence and reached a different conclusion.</p>
<p>The most authoritative independent studies were done by the Government Accounting Office in <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/670/662546.pdf">2014</a> and the Congressional Research Service in <a href="https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20110110_RL33152_69b27c980f2b1121fd078e3982ac47e9c48d7111.pdf">2011</a> and <a href="https://environment.transportation.org/pdf/proj_delivery_stream/crs_report_envrev.pdf">2012</a>. They found that the vast majority of projects have very streamlined reviews. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0DAWOui0UzU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How citizens can participate effectively in the NEPA process.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>About 95 percent of all projects subject to NEPA go through a very short process called a “categorical exclusion” that usually takes from a few days to a few months. Another 4 percent have a short and straightforward review, called an “environmental assessment,” that usually takes between four and 18 months. Less than 1 percent of projects are subject to a full review, which is called an “environmental impact statement.” </p>
<p>Typically, these are large-scale initiatives such as a new highway, a major dredging project or a multistate pipeline. You wouldn’t know it from rhetoric in Washington, but the sweeping changes being proposed to NEPA are focused on less than 1 percent of projects.</p>
<p>These independent investigations also found that NEPA reviews are not the reason that the biggest projects take time. State and local issues, such as funding shortfalls, changing priorities and local controversy, are the most significant influence on whether a project moves forward quickly or takes longer than anticipated. Of course, there are examples where environmental reviews took too long, but in many cases these reviews started and stopped for reasons unrelated to environmental issues.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218493/original/file-20180510-184630-1431nrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">President Richard Nixon signs the National Environmental Policy Act into law, January 1, 1970.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/bsoAbY">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In fact, by requiring agencies to consider alternatives to their envisioned projects, <a href="https://environment.transportation.org/pdf/proj_delivery_stream/crs_report_envrev.pdf">environmental reviews can speed things up</a> by identifying better options and solving problems that could be costly or cause delays in the long run – <a href="http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/docs/NCHRP20-24(12)_FR.pdf">a common issue in highway construction</a>, for example. As our shop teachers advised, “Measure twice, cut once.” This is one reason why federal agencies that use NEPA most, including the Department of Transportation, the U.S. Forest Service and the Department of Energy, <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/670/662546.pdf">have long voiced support for it</a>.</p>
<h2>Not about efficiency</h2>
<p>Enshrining unsupported policy in statutes passed by Congress makes those choices much harder to fix. Here’s what the president wants to do that would require changing the law:</p>
<p>– Take environmental agencies out of NEPA reviews. Congress recognized that some federal agencies are focused on building things, like highways or energy projects, and that protecting the environment is not their mission or area of expertise. That’s why it gave EPA a central role in NEPA studies by other agencies.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/20130822-13-p-0352.pdf">EPA involvement has helped reduce adverse environmental impacts</a> through early up front coordination, without adding time. <a href="https://cdxnodengn.epa.gov/cdx-enepa-II/public/action/eis/search;jsessionid=C31006013B5A24837B194DB96BA7E237?search=&__fsk=-1206194558#results">The agency routinely produces its comments within 30 days</a>. The Trump infrastructure plan proposes to eliminate EPA’s review role.</p>
<p>– Cut a huge hole in consideration of alternatives. The Trump proposal would insert waffle words, like provisions limiting alternatives to those that the applicant finds “economically feasible” or are within the applicant’s “capability,” into NEPA’s requirement for agencies to consider reasonable alternatives. This approach allows applicants to avoid considering options they don’t like. </p>
<p>Consideration of alternatives is the heart of NEPA. Thinking hard about how projects can be done with less environmental damage – for example, by reusing an already developed site instead of paving over open space – improves designs, saves money and builds public support.</p>
<p>– Set the stage for getting rid of NEPA completely. In case anyone misses the point, the Trump plan allows some projects to bypass all environmental reviews on a “pilot” basis. A recent report by the conservative Heritage Foundation follows the same playbook by calling for <a href="https://www.heritage.org/government-regulation/report/time-repeal-the-obsolete-national-environmental-policy-act-nepa">repeal of NEPA</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218491/original/file-20180510-34009-1omrlqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pete Brunner of Falmouth, Maine, casts for Atlantic salmon on the Penobscot River in 2006. A NEPA review led to denial in 1997 of a permit for a major hydropower plant on the Penobscot after the study showed that it would harm salmon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Saving-Salmon/2366915eeedb4ceab1682a5d1aaafff6/42/0">AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Change NEPA practice, not the law</h2>
<p>Over the last 45 years federal agencies have improved their processes for carrying out NEPA reviews, through steps such as providing more up front consultation. The Obama administration was continuing that effort with a number of <a href="https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2012/03/22/executive-order-improving-performance-federal-permitting-and-review-infr">consensus efficiency improvements</a> that <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2018/02/16/446914/president-trumps-infrastructure-proposal-recklessly-undermines-environmental-laws/">show promise</a> for speeding things up without undercutting NEPA’s important goals.</p>
<p>By requiring government agencies to think before they act, NEPA has avoided countless harmful and ill-considered ideas. As the secretary of energy <a href="https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/09/f2/NEPA_Success_Stories.pdf">said</a> in 1992, after halting a project that would have cost billions, “[T]hank God for NEPA because there were so many pressures to make a selection for a technology that might have been forced upon us and that would have been wrong for the country.”</p>
<p>Federal agencies should keep finding ways to implement NEPA more efficiently. What the federal government shouldn’t do is make enormous statutory changes based on incorrect claims about a fraction of 1 percent of projects – or disregard the lesson of the last 45 years that the most efficient choice is to build things right the first time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93258/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janet McCabe served as Deputy Assistant Administrator for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) from 2009 to 2013, and as Acting Assistant Administrator for OAR from 2013-2017. She is a senior law fellow at the Environmental Law and Policy Center and a member of Duke Energy's Indiana Citizens Advisory Board.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cynthia Giles served as Assistant Administrator for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance from 2009 to 2017. She is currently the Director of Strategic Initiatives and Executive Fellow at the Energy & Environment Lab at the University of Chicago.</span></em></p>Do environmental reviews delay large-scale projects? The Trump administration says yes, but studies show that these reviews lead to better results and can even save time and money.Janet McCabe, Professor of Practice of Law, Indiana UniversityCynthia Giles, Executive Fellow And Director Of Strategic Initiatives, Energy & Environment Lab, University of ChicagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/782452017-08-03T01:04:25Z2017-08-03T01:04:25ZWhy shifting regulatory power to the states won’t improve the environment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180425/original/file-20170731-22136-1pm2a7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">To comply with air pollution laws, midwest energy companies built tall smokestacks to displace pollutants. This one at Indiana's Rockport Generating Station is 1,038 feet high, just 25 feet shorter than the Eiffel Tower.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sniegowski/35480921010/in/photolist-W4jZFq">Don Sniegowski</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>President Trump and his appointees, particularly Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Scott Pruitt, have made federalism a theme of their efforts to scale back environmental regulation. They argue that the federal government has become too intrusive and that states should be returned to a position of “<a href="https://www.bna.com/scott-pruitt-tip-n73014449932/">regulatory primacy</a>” on environmental matters. </p>
<p>“We have to let the states compete to see who has the best solutions. They know the best how to spend their dollars and how to take care of the people within each state,” Trump said in a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/02/27/remarks-president-trump-meeting-national-governors-association">speech to the National Governors Association</a> last February.</p>
<p>Some liberal-leaning states have responded by <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/05/12/defying-trump-these-state-leaders-are-trying-to-impose-their-own-carbon-taxes/?utm_term=.28d99579f876">adopting more aggressive regulations</a>. California has positioned itself as a leader in the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/26/climate/california-climate-policy-cap-trade.html">fight to curb climate change</a>. New York is <a href="http://www3.dps.ny.gov/W/PSCWeb.nsf/96f0fec0b45a3c6485257688006a701a/26be8a93967e604785257cc40066b91a/$FILE/ATTK0J3L.pdf/Reforming%20The%20Energy%20Vision%20(REV)%20REPORT%204.25.%2014.pdf">restructuring its electricity market</a> to facilitate clean energy. And Virginia’s Democratic governor, Terry McAuliffe, has ordered state environmental regulators to design a rule to <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-virginia-climatechange-idUSKCN18C26J">cap carbon emissions</a> from power plants.</p>
<p>State experimentation may be the only way to break the gridlock on environmental issues that now overwhelms our national political institutions. However, without a broad mandate from the federal government to address urgent environmental problems, few red and purple states will follow California’s lead. In my view, giving too much power to the states will likely result in many states doing less, not more.</p>
<h2>What’s so great about the states?</h2>
<p>Politicians are happy to praise states’ rights, but they rarely say much about what federalism is supposed to accomplish. Granting more power to the states should not be an end unto itself. Rather, it’s a way to promote goals such as political responsiveness, experimentation and policy diversity. </p>
<p>Many U.S. environmental laws include roles for states and the federal government to work cooperatively to achieve shared objectives. Often, this involves the federal government setting strict goals, with states taking the lead on <a href="http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2960&context=mlr">implementation and enforcement</a>. This careful balance of federal and state power has been implemented by Republican and Democratic administrations alike.</p>
<p>In recent years, scholars have expanded on Justice Brandeis’ famous “<a href="http://conversableeconomist.blogspot.com/2015/08/states-as-laboratories-of-democracy.html">laboratories of democracy</a>” model of federalism with the notion of “<a href="http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/facpub/120/">democratic experimentation</a>.” Brandeis’ core insight, updated for contemporary society, is that decentralization lets state and local governments experiment with different policies to generate information about what works and what doesn’t. Other states and the national government can use those insights to generate better policy outcomes.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DZiOowSiiwc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">California Gov. Jerry Brown announces that his state will host an international climate change action summit in September 2018 – the first such meeting to be held in the United States.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But as I have shown in <a href="http://www.yalelawjournal.org/article/the-perils-of-experimentation">recent work</a>, there is no guarantee that state experimentation will produce neutral technical information. It also can generate political information that can be put to good or bad uses.</p>
<p>For example, state experimentation with pollution controls may allow regulators to identify cheap ways to reduce emissions. On the other hand, big polluters may use the opportunity to figure out clever ways to avoid their obligations. </p>
<p>This happened in the 1970s and ‘80’s after the Clean Air Act was enacted. State experimentation allowed polluters to learn that by building very tall smokestacks at electric power plants, they could <a href="http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1275&context=law_urbanlaw">send pollution downwind</a> while keeping local officials happy. Experimentation resulted in information on how to push pollution around instead of cleaning it up, and utilities in midwest states used this knowledge to <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2011/06/13/13greenwire-gao-faults-tall-smokestacks-at-coal-plants-55552.html">shift pollutants to states downwind</a> in the Northeast.</p>
<h2>An elusive balance</h2>
<p>It makes rhetorical sense for the Trump administration to wrap its environmental agenda in federalism. Air and water pollution are unpopular, and conservation groups have called out Trump’s policies and budget for <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/trump-watch/trump-touts-rolling-back-environmental-safeguards">undoing “environmental safeguards.”</a> </p>
<p>Reframing deregulation as federalism turns the issue into a debate about how to allocate power between the national government and the states. But striking the right balance between federal and state power requires careful attention to context and the costs and benefits of decentralization. </p>
<p>For example, Pruitt has formally proposed to <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-scott-pruitt-have-a-solid-case-for-repealing-the-clean-water-rule-80240">rescind the Clean Water Rule</a>, an Obama administration regulation that clarifies the jurisdiction of EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers to regulate smaller water bodies and wetlands under the Clean Water Act. One might think that without EPA on the beat, states will take a more central role in water pollution control. But in fact, many states have passed <a href="https://www.eli.org/sites/default/files/eli-pubs/d23-04.pdf">laws banning any clean water regulation</a> that is more stringent than federal standards. Shifting responsibility in this area back to states will create a policy vacuum instead of space for experimentation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180763/original/file-20170802-6912-161npab.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many farmers, ranchers and developers contend that the Clean Water Rule is overly burdensome and infringes on states’ rights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.rpc.senate.gov/policy-papers/executive-order-on-wotus-rule">Senate Republican Policy Committee</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Less creativity, not more</h2>
<p>There is even more need for a federal role in addressing problems that have global impacts, such as climate change. Once greenhouse gases are emitted, they do not just cause warming in the place where they were released. Instead, they mix in the atmosphere and contribute to climate change around the world. This means that no given jurisdiction pays the full cost of its emissions. Instead, in the language of economics, these impacts are <a href="http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/externality.asp">externalities</a> that are felt elsewhere. </p>
<p>This is why a global agreement is needed to effectively slow climate change. The United States has already withdrawn from the Paris climate accord. If we pull back on regulating greenhouse gases nationally as well, many states will have little incentive to take action.</p>
<p>Under the Obama administration’s <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2017/03/28/the-clean-power-plan-2014-2017/">Clean Power Plan</a>, which Pruitt is reviewing and <a href="http://publicpower.com/2017/epa-tells-states-need-take-no-action-clean-power-plan/">has told states to ignore</a>, every state was required to figure out how to meet a carbon reduction goal. However, it did not dictate how they should do it. </p>
<p>This approach would have produced valuable political information from red and purple states, which tend to rely more heavily than blue states on fossil fuels. By forcing Republican leaders to craft state climate policies and sell them to their constituents, the Clean Power Plan promoted what I consider truly useful experimentation that could have helped break the national gridlock on climate policy. </p>
<p>Now, without a prod from the federal government, those experiments are unlikely to occur. EPA’s retreat will mean that we have less, not more, insight into smart and politically viable ways of cutting carbon emissions. </p>
<p>Any regulation can be improved on, and the Trump administration could have risen to that challenge. Instead, the leadership at EPA is abdicating the agency’s traditional leadership role. In doing so, it is promoting stagnation and backsliding rather than innovation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78245/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael A. Livermore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trump administration officials argue that states can regulate more effectively than the federal government. But without leadership from the top, federalism may allow red states to avoid acting.Michael A. Livermore, Associate Professor of Law, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/775902017-05-30T04:43:50Z2017-05-30T04:43:50ZAround the world, environmental laws are under attack in all sorts of ways<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171298/original/file-20170529-25219-1yxaptf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In Montana and Idaho, endangered gray wolves are no longer safe outside national parks.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ronnie Howard/Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As President Donald Trump mulls over whether to pull out of the Paris climate agreement, it is hard to imagine that he’s listening to the experts. US climate researchers are being so stifled, ignored or blackballed that France has now <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/02/climate-scientists-wary-trump-please-come-france-says-presidental-hopeful">offered sanctuary</a> to these misunderstood souls.</p>
<p>One might prefer to think of Trump as an outlier in an otherwise environmentally sane world. But alarmingly, there’s just too much evidence to the contrary. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0086">recent analysis</a>, led by Guillaume Chapron of Sweden’s Agricultural University, reveals a rising tide of assaults on environmental safeguards worldwide. If nothing else, it illustrates the sheer range and creativity of tactics used by those who seek to profit at the expense of nature.</p>
<p>The assaults on environmental protections are so diverse that Chapron and his colleagues had to devise a new “taxonomy” to categorise them all. They have even set up a <a href="https://github.com/gchapron/LegalBoundaries">public database</a> to track these efforts, giving us a laundry list of environmental rollbacks from around the world.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169030/original/file-20170511-32593-888rhp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Kim / www.lab-initio.com</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>One might perhaps hope that species staring extinction in the face would be afforded special protection. Not in the western US states of Idaho and Montana, where endangered gray wolves have been <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/13/us/politics/13wolves.html">taken off the endangered species list</a>, meaning they can be shot if they stray outside designated wilderness or management areas.</p>
<p>In Western Australia, an endangered species can be legally <a href="https://www.slp.wa.gov.au/pco/prod/FileStore.nsf/Documents/MRDocument:29149P/$FILE/Biodiversity%20Conservation%20Act%202016%20-%20%5B00-a0-01%5D.pdf">driven to extinction</a> if the state’s environment minister orders it and parliament approves.</p>
<p>Think diverse ecosystems are important? In Canada, not so much. There, native fish species with no economic, recreational or indigenous value <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22722248">don’t get any legal protection</a> from harm.</p>
<p>And in France – a crucial flyway for Eurasian and African birds – killing migratory birds is technically illegal. But migrating birds could be shot out of the sky anyway because the environment minister ordered a <a href="https://www.actu-environnement.com/ae/news/oies-chasse-Segolene-Royal-loi-biodiversite-LPO-FNE-23779.php4">delay in the law’s enforcement</a>.</p>
<p>In South Africa, the environment minister formerly had authority to limit environmental damage and oversee ecological restoration at the nation’s many mining sites. But that power has now been handed over to the <a href="http://www.saflii.org/za/journals/PER/2010/40.html">mining minister</a>, raising fears of conflict between industry and environmental interests.</p>
<p>In Brazil, the famous Forest Code that has helped to reduce deforestation rates in the Amazon has been seriously <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/brazil-set-to-cut-forest-protection-1.10555">watered down</a>. Safeguards for forests along waterways and on hillsides have been weakened, and landowners who illegally fell forests no longer need to replant them.</p>
<p>In the Indian Ocean island nation of Mauritius, endangered species are protected by law, unless it is deemed to be in the “national interest” not to do so. Although an endangered species, the endemic Mauritius flying fox was <a href="http://www.batconafrica.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/IUCN-SSC-Position-Statement-Planned-Cull-Mauritius-Fruit-Bat1.pdf">annoying commercial fruit farmers</a>, so the government has allowed <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315716560_Can_we_protect_island_flying_foxes">more than 40,000 flying foxes to be culled</a>.</p>
<p>And in Indonesia, it’s illegal to carry out destructive open-pit mining in protected forest areas. But aggressive mining firms are forcing the government to let them break the law anyway, or else face <a href="http://go.nature.com/2jZiosD">spending public money on legal battles</a>. </p>
<h2>Shoot the messengers</h2>
<p>Campaigners should also beware. Under new legislation proposed in the UK, conservation groups that lose lawsuits will be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/nov/11/legal-battles-to-protect-the-environment-easier-to-fight-in-china-than-the-uk">hit with heavy financial penalties</a>.</p>
<p>In many parts of the world, those who criticise environmentally destructive corporations are getting hit with so-called “strategic lawsuits against public participation”, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_lawsuit_against_public_participation">SLAPP suits</a>.</p>
<p>In Peru, for instance, a corporation that was <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-peru-uk-landrights-idUSKCN0YO1WY">mowing down native rainforest</a> to grow “sustainable” cacao for chocolate routinely used lawsuits and legal threats to intimidate critics.</p>
<p>That’s before we’ve even discussed climate change, which you might not be allowed to do in the US anyway. <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/senate-bill/3071/text">Proposed legislation</a> would prohibit the government from considering climate change as a threat to any species. No wonder researchers want to move overseas.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169033/original/file-20170511-32588-173lmdb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Kim / www.lab-initio.com</span></span>
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<p>As the above examples show, essential environmental safeguards are being conveniently downsized, diminished, ignored or swept under the carpet all over the world.</p>
<p>Viewed in isolation, each of these actions might be rationalised or defended – a small compromise made in the name of progress, jobs or the economy. But in a natural world threatened with “death by a thousand cuts”, no single wound can be judged in isolation. </p>
<p>Without our hard-won environmental protections, we would all already be breathing polluted air, drinking befouled water, and living in a world with much less wildlife.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is an edited version of a blog post that originally appeared <a href="http://alert-conservation.org/issues-research-highlights/2017/5/4/the-assault-on-environmental-laws">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77590/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Laurance receives funding from several scientific and philanthropic organisations. He is director of the JCU Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science, and founder and director of ALERT--the Alliance of Leading Environmental Researchers & Thinkers. </span></em></p>Legislation designed to protect wildlife is being rolled back or ignored in all sorts of ways in all sorts of places, according to a new global database of attacks on green tape.Bill Laurance, Distinguished Research Professor and Australian Laureate, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/731132017-03-28T02:40:22Z2017-03-28T02:40:22ZClimate politics: Environmentalists need to think globally, but act locally<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162773/original/image-20170327-3308-12h771e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The outdoor retail industry is moving its lucrative trade show out of Utah after disputes with state officials over land conservation.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Outdoor-Retail-Show-Footwear/d8c8e8249beb46999eeeeb8a44d83b07/13/0">AP Photo/Rick Bowmer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As President Trump pivots from a failed attempt to overhaul health care to new orders rolling back controls on carbon pollution, environmentalists are preparing for an intense fight. We study environmental politics, and believe the health care debate holds an important lesson for green advocates: Policies that create concrete benefits for specific constituencies are <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/dismantling-welfare-state-reagan-thatcher-and-politics-retrenchment">hard to discontinue</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.aol.com/article/news/2017/03/22/poll-majority-prefer-obamacare-to-trumpcare/21904839/">Opinion polls</a> and hostile audiences at Republican legislators’ <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/02/republican-town-hall-protests-cotton-cassidy-grassley-trump/517608/">town hall meetings</a> show that the Affordable Care Act won public support by extending health insurance to the uninsured. And this constituency is not shy about defending its gains. </p>
<p>The same lesson can be applied to environmental issues. In our view, environmentalists need to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941929109380760">defend environmental regulations</a> by emphasizing their concrete benefits for well-defined constituencies, and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00139972">mobilize those groups</a> to protect their gains. </p>
<p>Environmentalists should continue making broad, long-term arguments about addressing climate change. After all, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402005">there is an important political constituency</a> that views climate change as the defining challenge for humanity and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11127-006-9018-z">favors active advocacy on climate issues</a>. At the same time, however, they need to find more ways to talk about local jobs and benefits from climate action so they can <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/260997">build constituencies that include both greens and workers</a>.</p>
<h2>Pork-barrel environmentalism?</h2>
<p>Americans have a love-hate relationship with <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2110914?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">pork-barrel politics</a>. Reformers <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=7058542&page=1">decry it</a>, but many legislators boast about the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=sl&lr=&id=bDKsAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Ferejohn,+J.+A.+(1974).+Pork+barrel+politics:+Rivers+and+harbors+legislation,+1947-1968.+Stanford+University+Press.&ots=4OV9kzBlln&sig=DSaupq2L5HsksAiMqIu4nxxOmnY#v=onepage&q&f=false">goodies they bring home</a>. As former Texas Senator <a href="http://www.azquotes.com/quote/967603">Phil Gramm</a> once famously crowed, “I’m carrying so much pork, I’m beginning to get trichinosis.” And pragmatists assert that in moderate quantities, <a href="http://themonkeycage.org/2013/01/bring-back-pork-barrel-spending/">pork helps deals get made</a>.</p>
<p>Classic studies of the politics of regulation by scholars such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245272148_American_Business_Public_Policy_Case-Studies_and_Political_Theory">Theodore Lowi</a> and <a href="http://contemporarythinkers.org/jq-wilson/book/the-politics-of-regulation-editor/">James Q. Wilson</a> show that when benefits from a regulation are diffused across many people or large areas and costs are concentrated on specific constituencies, we can expect political resistance to the regulation. Groups who stand to lose have strong incentives to oppose it, while those who benefit form a more amorphous constituency that is harder to mobilize.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162767/original/image-20170327-3276-r9fb8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On Feb. 16, 2017, after signing legislation to repeal a rule regulating disposition of coal mining waste, President Trump celebrates with coal miners and legislators from Ohio and West Virginia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/A-Month-of-Trump-By-The-Numbers/7c2685d3342e4f96bb014c30d1032866/1/0">AP Photo/Carolyn Kaster</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>We can see this dynamic in climate change debates. President Trump and EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt contend that undoing carbon pollution controls <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/03/26/politics/pruitt-trump-clean-power-order/">will promote job growth</a>. Cecil Roberts, president of the United Mine Workers of America, <a href="http://wvpublic.org/post/umwa-president-rallies-union-fight-save-coal-jobs#stream/0">argues</a> that the Obama administration’s Clean Power Plan will destroy coal jobs and communities, and that “green jobs” in clean energy industries are unlikely to be located in coal country. </p>
<p>Climate change can be <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/focus/ipcc-media/index.html">framed in many ways</a>, and there has been much discussion about which approaches <a href="http://www.environmentmagazine.org/Archives/Back%20Issues/March-April%202009/Nisbet-full.html">best engage the public</a>. Environmental advocates can do a better job of emphasizing how climate regulations produce local benefits along with global benefits. </p>
<p>One promising initiative, the <a href="https://www.bluegreenalliance.org/the-latest/research-shows-clean-vehicle-and-fuel-economy-standards-creating-and-sustaining-good-jobs-across-michigan-and-america-today/">BlueGreen Alliance</a>, is a coalition of major labor unions and environmental organizations. Before President Trump’s recent visit to Michigan, the alliance released <a href="https://www.bluegreenalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Preview-of-MI-Supplying-Ingenuity-II-vFINAL.pdf">data</a> showing that nearly 70,000 workers in well over 200 factories and engineering facilities in Michigan alone were producing technologies that helped vehicle manufacturers meet current fuel efficiency standards. Regulations can be job creators, but this truth needs to be told effectively.</p>
<h2>Pipelines: Local jobs or global environmental protection</h2>
<p>President Trump’s approval of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-keystone-xl-pipeline-debate-is-over-but-our-infrastructure-needs-are-not-50358">Keystone XL</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-will-native-tribes-fight-the-dakota-access-pipeline-in-court-72839">Dakota Access</a> pipelines demonstrates the difficulty of fighting locally beneficial programs with global arguments. </p>
<p>Environmentalists argue, correctly, that both pipelines are part of the infrastructure that supports the fossil fuel economy. For example, by <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2335">some estimates</a> the KXL pipeline could increase global carbon dioxide emissions by as much as 110 million tons annually by making possible increased oil production from Canadian tar sands. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162770/original/image-20170327-3301-xj45so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rally against the Keystone XL pipeline, Washington, D.C., Feb. 3, 2014.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nrdcpix/12297645886/in/dateposted/">Rocky Kistner, NRDC/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, both the <a href="http://www.aflcio.org/Press-Room/Press-Releases/Dakota-Access-Pipeline-Provides-High-Quality-Jobs">AFL-CIO</a> and the <a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/dakota-pipeline-protests/dakota-access-pipeline-unions-call-obama-stand-american-workers-n658971">Teamsters</a> support the projects. They believe pipelines create jobs, although there is <a href="http://www.politifact.com/punditfact/statements/2014/feb/10/van-jones/cnns-van-jones-says-keystone-pipeline-only-creates/">broad disagreement</a> over how many jobs they generate over what time period. </p>
<p>By endorsing both pipelines, Trump is probably seeking to consolidate his support among midwestern working-class voters who believe, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Riley_Dunlap/publication/226024551_Environmentalism_and_Elitism_A_Conceptual_and_Empirical_Analysis/links/0c9605311699d7174a000000/Environmentalism-and-Elitism-A-Conceptual-and-Empirical-Analysis.pdf">rightly or wrongly</a>, that urban <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11127-006-9018-z">environmental elites</a> are imposing job-killing regulations. But these pipelines also impose local costs, which have spurred <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-native-american-pipeline-resistance-in-north-dakota-is-about-climate-justice-64714">Native American</a> protests against DAPL and opposition to KXL from <a href="http://boldnebraska.org/">farmers, ranchers and citizens in Nebraska</a>. </p>
<p>Local protests have not changed the Trump administration’s political calculus on DAPL or KXL, which is why opponents in both cases are turning to the courts. But in other instances environmental groups have successfully mobilized communities by highlighting local issues.</p>
<h2>Conserving Utah’s public lands</h2>
<p>Federal control of public lands is a sore issue for Republicans, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-twisted-roots-of-u-s-land-policy-in-the-west-52740">particularly in western states</a>. Utah offers a fascinating example. State politicians want to <a href="http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2017/02/05/Governor-of-Utah-calls-on-Trump-to-revoke-Bears-Ears-National-Monument/4251486315351/">reverse President Obama’s designation</a> of the Bears Ears National Monument and reduce the amount of land included in the <a href="https://www.utah.gov/governor/news_media/article.html?article=20170217-3">Grand Staircase-Escalante Monument</a>. But conservationists successfully blocked recent efforts by <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-environment-sportsmen-insight-idUSKBN15W0EK">allying</a> with the outdoor recreation industry. </p>
<p>By <a href="http://www.hcn.org/issues/49.3/utahs-outdoor-rec-industry-defends-public-lands">some estimates</a> Utah’s outdoor recreation industry employs 122,000 people and brings US$12 billion into the state each year. Utah hosts the biannual <a href="http://www.outdoorretailer.com/">Outdoor Retailer trade show</a>, which brings about <a href="http://www.denverpost.com/2017/02/10/boycott-outdoor-retailer-utah/">$45 million</a> in annual direct spending. </p>
<p>In response to Utah officials’ efforts to roll back federal land protection, the outdoor retail industry has announced that it will move the prestigious trade show to another state after its contract with Salt Lake City expires in 2018. <a href="http://inhabitat.com/patagonia-launches-campaign-to-protect-utahs-bear-ears-national-monument/">Patagonia</a> is boycotting the 2017 summer show and asking supporters to contact Utah politicians and urge them to keep “<a href="http://p2a.co/VvxLM7c">public lands in public hands</a>.” The <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/news/bicycle-industry-reacting-to-utah-governors-push-to-strip-federal-protection-for-public-lands/">bicycle industry</a> is also planning to move its annual trade show to a location outside Utah.</p>
<p>Governor Gary Herbert has reacted by offering to <a href="http://fox13now.com/2017/02/13/utahs-governor-to-meet-with-outdoor-leaders-to-talk-bears-ears-outdoor-retailer-show/">negotiate</a> with the industry. U.S. Rep. Jason Chaffetz introduced a bill in January that called for selling off more than three million acres of federal land in Utah, but <a href="http://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2017/2/2/14479462/chaffetz-public-lands-backlash">withdrew</a> it after massive protests from hunters, anglers and outdoor enthusiasts. Hunters and gun owners are important constituents for Chaffetz and other conservative Republican politicians.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162772/original/image-20170327-3279-p9mtnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wetland restoration project sponsored by the hunting and conservation organization Ducks Unlimited, Barron County, Wisconsin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/widnr/6587898601/in/photolist-b39GJD-puA79K-8cgzAE-9xjx2A-oS5n97-8cdjxV-5YJ1y3-bC8UTo-9wkeBF-9wo96W-5YDKyF-8wKeBf-b8vpUn-4DFrBM-9RKiYF-aNzFXg-4mVuvF-9nmDmf-9NbuoU-9N8v5Z-9woamN-Jzxna-9xgwQF-bb41SR-9NbjHw-9NbnDy-b8vq98-9xjwHG-4kcHgJ-aNzDzR-9wo9T3-8cdpn2-8cgDwJ-ef6TdZ-efj3v7-8jYQt3-8t6TLP-8jYQuC-efdjon-biajNr-jrXqwB-o2oDkC-efditT-efdjS6-h95QRi-9wkbj8-9xgurk-9N8zaH-qmABHE-5YDNCt">Wisconsin DNR/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Renewable energy means high-tech jobs</h2>
<p>Environmentalists also successfully localized green regulations in Ohio, where Republican Governor John Kasich <a href="http://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2016/12/27/14094192/ohio-john-kasich-clean-energy-standards-veto">vetoed a bill</a> in December 2016 that would have made the state’s renewable electricity targets voluntary instead of mandatory for two years. </p>
<p>As a politician with presidential ambitions who claims credit for his state’s economic success, Kasich knows that several high-tech companies in Ohio have committed to switching to renewable energy. As one example, Amazon is <a href="http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/business/2016/11/01/amazon-to-build-second-wind-farm-in-ohio.html">investing in local wind farms</a> to power its <a href="http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/business/2016/10/18/amazon-data-centers-in-central-ohio-now-open.html">energy-intensive data servers</a>, in response to <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/04/greenpeace/">criticism from environmental groups</a>.</p>
<p>Ohio froze its renewable energy standards for two years in 2014 after utilities and some large power customers <a href="http://www.bizjournals.com/columbus/news/2016/11/16/ohios-renewable-energy-freeze-fight-reignites.html">argued</a> that they were becoming expensive to meet. But when the legislature passed a bill in 2016 that extended the freeze for two more years, a <a href="http://ohiocitizen.org/ohio-citizen-action-joins-tremendous-opposition-to-hb-114/">coalition of renewable energy companies and environmental groups </a> mobilized against it. In his veto message, Kasich noted that the measure might antagonize “<a href="http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/business/2016/12/27/kasich-energy-legislation.html">companies poised to create many jobs in Ohio in the coming years, such as high-technology firms</a>.” </p>
<p>In sum, environmental regulations have a better chance of surviving if there are mobilized constituencies willing to defend them. And in the longer term, a local and job-oriented focus could expand the blue-green alliance and move the working class closer to the environmental agenda.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>President Trump says environmental regulation kills jobs. To fight back, conservation advocates need to show that protecting the environment can produce jobs and local benefits.Nives Dolsak, Professor of Environmental Policy, University of WashingtonAseem Prakash, Walker Family Professor and Founding Director, Center for Environmental Politics, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/702472016-12-13T03:55:36Z2016-12-13T03:55:36ZThe US environmental movement needs a new message<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149729/original/image-20161212-26070-xxt28a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Union workers supporting coal energy (right) face off against environmentalists in Pittsburgh, 2013</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Environmental-March-Pittsburgh/373129696b7748f3aaea334cb53e6084/78/0">AP Photo/Keith Srakocic</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Environmental issues had a marginal impact in the watershed 2016 elections, and the Trump administration is already rolling back many key climate change and resource conservation policies. These hard truths are a wake-up call for the U.S. environmental movement. </p>
<p>President Trump’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/03/31/new-epa-documents-reveal-even-deeper-proposed-cuts-to-staff-and-programs/?utm_term=.7612139710c7">budget request</a> calls for laying off one-fourth of the Environmental Protection Agency’s work force and canceling dozens of programs. Trump has also proposed deep cuts at the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/interior-department-budget-could-be-slashed-by-12-percent/2017/03/15/f0d7b2f8-0999-11e7-b77c-0047d15a24e0_story.html?utm_term=.21803a13937d">Interior Department</a>, which manages public lands, and in programs to fight climate change and develop clean energy technologies at the <a href="http://fortune.com/2017/03/21/donald-trump-budget-cuts-energy/">Department of Energy</a>. Further, the EPA has denied a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2017/03/29/us/politics/ap-us-epa-pesticide-ban-denied-.html?_r=0">petition filed by environmental groups</a> asking for a ban on an insecticide used in agriculture, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/chlorpyrifos">Chlorpyrifos</a>, which inflicts very serious health damages on farming communities.</p>
<p>Arguably, the 2016 presidential election should have been a <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/r-on-the-ballot-two-clashing-visions-of-how-america-will-powers-its-cars-homes-2016-10">referendum on environmental issues</a>. After all, the scientific case for climate change is solid. The havoc caused by major weather events such as Hurricane Sandy, which scientists say will become more frequent as climate change progresses, is obvious. The Flint water crisis has revealed <a href="https://theconversation.com/flints-water-crisis-is-a-blatant-example-of-environmental-injustice-53553">horrible racial inequities</a> perpetrated by government agencies responsible for providing citizens with clean water.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149731/original/image-20161212-26080-tywghj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Remains of a home destroyed by wildfire near Lake Isabella, California smolder on June 24, 2016. Studies have attributed a surge in western wildfires since the mid-1980s to climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Western-Wildfires/0a23e45b3288477e834f5776e1eb7d21/56/0">AP Photo/Jae C. Hong</a></span>
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<p>Why did these issues have so little influence? Based on our research, we believe that U.S. environmentalists are failing to persuade average voters to pay serious attention to environmental issues. In our view, the movement needs a new agenda and communications strategy to reach beyond its roots and connect with working-class voters and immigrants. </p>
<h2>Broad support but little urgency</h2>
<p>Environmental issues were nearly ignored during the 2016 campaign. While <a href="https://thinkprogress.org/one-simple-chart-shows-how-the-democratic-candidates-climate-plans-have-drastically-changed-a8bf8a59b9e6#.uofh0htu3">Democrats</a> did talk about addressing climate change in their primaries, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2014/05/12/where-the-2016-gop-contenders-stand-on-climate-change/?utm_term=.dbde9aa83031">Republicans</a> had nothing but scorn for it. In the general election Clinton and Trump <a href="http://mediamatters.org/research/2016/03/23/primary-debate-scorecard-climate-change-through/209415">barely mentioned the issue</a>. </p>
<p>According to opinion polls, a majority of Americans were concerned about the environment and generally supported environmental protection.
But <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/2016-election/exit-polls/">November exit polls</a> showed that these views had little influence on Americans’ votes. Clinton voters ranked foreign policy as their top priority, followed by the economy, terrorism and immigration. For Trump voters, immigration, terrorism, the economy and foreign policy were critical factors.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149746/original/image-20161212-26070-1cr51t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Why was climate change not a top issue even for Clinton voters? One reason may be that opinion polls suffer from “<a href="http://dx.doi.org/%2010.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879">social desirability” bias</a>. While poll responses are supposed to be anonymous, respondents may still try to be politically correct by supporting environmental causes, although those responses do not reflect their true feelings or actual behavior.</p>
<p>Moreover, poll questions are not framed to highlight trade-offs voters might have to make to fund environmental protection. It is easy to support a “free” policy that protects the environment, but respondents temper their views when they are asked to consider costs. </p>
<p>For example, in a recent <a href="http://www.apnorc.org/PDFs/EnergyClimate/Energy%20CC%202016%20Election_Final%20Topline.pdf">study</a> funded by the University of Chicago’s Energy Policy Institute, 65 percent of respondents agreed that government should do something about climate change, but only 57 percent were willing to pay as little as US$1 per month more for low-carbon electricity. Instead, many people want to free-ride and let others pay for their environmental benefits. </p>
<p>Environmentalism is also a victim of its own success over the last 40 years. Thanks to numerous federal laws, most Americans are now <a href="http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx">fairly satisfied</a> with the quality of the natural environment and do not believe they need to fight for it. Only 16 percent see themselves as <a href="http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx">active participants</a> in the environmental movement. </p>
<h2>Regulations benefit all, penalize some</h2>
<p>Critics argue that environmental regulations hurt the economy. Economically depressed groups are prone to look for scapegoats, and environmental regulations are a convenient target. As an example, <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/10/coal-countrys-decline-has-a-long-history/453144/">mechanization and technical changes</a> are the main causes of falling employment in the coal industry, but impacted states and communities tend to <a href="http://www.wvgazettemail.com/news-business/20161016/while-politicians-focus-on-epa-experts-say-gas-to-blame-for-coal-decline">blame a visible target: regulations</a>. </p>
<p>Republican politicians argue vigorously <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-environmental-regulations-do-more-harm-or-good-presidential-candidates-disagree-55989">that regulations are “job killers</a>.” Blue-collar unions – pillars of the Democratic Party – also oppose environmental regulations when they believe jobs are at stake, as in the <a href="https://www.aflcio.org/Press-Room/Press-Releases/Dakota-Access-Pipeline-Provides-High-Quality-Jobs">Dakota Access Pipeline controversy</a>. The <a href="http://umwa.org/?q=news%2Fepa-existing-source-emissions-rule-puts-american-jobs-risk-does-nothing-address-climate-change">United Mine Workers</a> strongly oppose the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-record/climate">Clean Power Plan</a>, which President Trump has ordered EPA to rewrite or replace.</p>
<h2>Toward a new strategy</h2>
<p>When environmentalists call for new measures to protect resources, they should take greater account of who will bear the costs and demand that they be compensated. We call this approach <a href="https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/we-feel-your-pain-environmentalists-coal-miners-and-embedded-environmentalism/">embedded environmentalism</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149733/original/image-20161212-26056-b5vq0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A union member at a Pittsburgh rally before EPA public hearings in 2014 on new emission regulations for existing coal-fired power plants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Climate-Change-EPA-Rally/fa7d95588aee41288c46283e015c2964/62/0">AP Photo/Gene J. Puskar</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hillary Clinton’s <a href="https://www.hillaryclinton.com/briefing/factsheets/2015/11/12/clinton-plan-to-revitalize-coal-communities/">Appalachia plan</a> was an example. It offered $30 billion to aid <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-should-the-u-s-government-help-coal-communities-53475">coal-producing communities</a> that would be harmed by the Clean Power Plan. This approach can help foster a <a href="https://www.bluegreenalliance.org/about/members/">green-blue alliance</a> where workers and environmentalists join to protect the environment and safeguard the economic interests of impacted people. </p>
<p>Environmentalists also need to convince immigrants – who care most about jobs and economic security – to support environmental protection. But the environmental movement has struggled to <a href="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4750627">establish a rapport</a> with <a href="http://www.diversegreen.org/the-challenge/">nonwhite communities</a>. Major green groups <a href="https://psmag.com/the-modern-environmental-movement-s-big-failure-540b736e1bf#.1gt39r5fy">lack diversity</a>. People of color account for <a href="https://www.philanthropy.com/article/Minorities-Underrepresented-at/152805">only 15 percent</a> of the staff of large environmental organizations and do not hold top leadership positions in any of the largest groups. </p>
<p>Moreover, these organizations’ policies reflect the concerns of <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/139132/towards-working-class-environmentalism">middle- and upper-class white urban voters</a>. For example, protecting national parks and public lands is a signature issue for environmentalists, but data suggest that minorities spend <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Black-Faces-White-Spaces-Relationship/dp/1469614480/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1456508895&sr=8-1&keywords=carolyn+finney">less time in the outdoors</a> than white people do. </p>
<p>Contrary to popular perceptions, <a href="http://grist.org/climate-energy/think-people-of-color-dont-care-about-the-environment-think-again/">minorities do care about environmental issues</a>, including climate change. Environmental initiatives will sway their votes if they address local concerns – such as air and water pollution and clean drinking water – and workplace hazards, such as pesticide exposure for <a href="http://nfwm.org/education-center/farm-worker-issues/health-safety/">immigrant farm workers</a>. </p>
<p>To become an influential social movement once again, U.S. environmentalists need to “go local” and pay attention to <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-it-comes-to-the-environment-minority-communities-care-about-more-than-injustice-44067">minorities’ and workers’ perspectives</a>. Shedding urban elitism will require critical and painful self-reflection, more investment in <a href="https://www.bluegreenalliance.org/">blue-green alliances</a> and an honest attempt to diversify the environmental movement and its agenda. </p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This is an updated version of an article originally published on December 12, 2016.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70247/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Most Americans care about the environment, but they didn’t vote that way this year. Two political scientists urge the movement to build better connections with blue-collar workers and immigrants.Nives Dolsak, Professor of Environmental Policy, University of WashingtonAseem Prakash, Walker Family Professor and Founding Director, Center for Environmental Politics, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/607692016-06-17T02:22:32Z2016-06-17T02:22:32ZWill the new toxic chemical safety law protect us?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126835/original/image-20160616-19897-bpb2kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What's in that bottle? And is it safe?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-294267002.html">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a major overhaul of U.S. regulation of toxic chemicals, Congress recently passed the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2576/text">Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act</a>, the largest piece of environmental legislation passed in the United States since 1990. President Obama signed the bill into law on June 22.</p>
<p>The bill amends the 1976 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), which has been called the <a href="http://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1492&context=law-faculty-publicationshttp://example.com/">“lapdog”</a> of American environmental law because of its weak controls on hazardous chemicals. The new bill, named after the late New Jersey senator who championed the legislation, passed on a bipartisan basis with support from the <a href="https://www.americanchemistry.com/Media/PressReleasesTranscripts/ACC-news-releases/Congress-Passes-Historic-Legislation-to-Modernize-TSCA.html">chemical industry</a>. The bill divided the <a href="http://blogs.edf.org/health/2016/05/23/historic-deal-on-tsca-reform-reached-setting-stage-for-a-new-law-after-40-years-of-waiting/">environmental</a> and <a href="http://www.ewg.org/release/senate-sends-obama-toxic-chemicals-reform-bill-fails-protect-public-health">public health</a> communities.</p>
<p>While the new bill clearly gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) more authority to test and restrict hazardous chemicals, it may not actually protect the public more effectively than current law. Because the legislation contains no new appropriations for EPA, allows chemical testing to proceed very slowly, and in some cases preempts states from enacting their own chemical restrictions, it could perpetuate toxic risks rather than reducing them. </p>
<h2>The Outdated Toxic Substances Control Act</h2>
<p>TSCA, passed in the Ford administration, is widely seen as one of the weakest <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1183942">U.S. environmental laws</a>. TSCA gave EPA the power to order testing of chemicals, ban chemicals from the marketplace, restrict certain uses or require labeling. But the law created so many procedural hurdles for regulation that EPA was rarely able to exercise its authority. </p>
<p>More than 80,000 chemicals have been introduced into commerce in the United States, but EPA has issued testing orders for <a href="http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/653276.pdf">fewer than 300</a> in the past 40 years, and it has <a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-13-696T">enacted restrictions</a> on only six. When EPA has attempted to regulate chemicals under TSCA, manufacturers have frequently challenged the agency in court. </p>
<p>In 1991 a <a href="https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F2/947/947.F2d.1201.89-4596.html">federal appeals court </a>struck down EPA’s attempt to ban most uses of asbestos after the agency had spent years documenting the link between asbestos exposure and cancer and lung disease. Most experts believe that this court decision dealt a crippling blow to TSCA by making it nearly impossible to remove hazardous chemicals from the market. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/126838/original/image-20160616-19956-s4dl3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Asbestos fibers lodged in the lungs. Significant exposure to any type of asbestos increases risks of lung cancer and other lung diseases.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/asbestos/asbestos/health_effects/">U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because of TSCA’s weaknesses, Americans are widely exposed to chemicals in the workplace, in food, and in consumer products for which there is little or no toxicity information. Dozens of chemicals that are <a href="http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/othercarcinogens/generalinformationaboutcarcinogens/known-and-probable-human-carcinogens">known or probable carcinogens</a>, as determined by the <a href="http://www.iarc.fr/">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a>, continue to be sold in the United States. We don’t even know how many chemicals are currently in widespread use in the United States because TSCA does not require comprehensive reporting. </p>
<p>Because of inadequate resources at EPA and TSCA’s hurdles for obtaining toxicity data, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), the federal government’s in-house auditor, has included EPA’s chemicals programs on its list of <a href="http://www.gao.gov/highrisk/transforming_epa_and_toxic_chemicals/why_did_study#t=0">“high risk”</a> government programs since 2009. GAO lists programs as high risk when it considers them to be vulnerable to failure or ineffectiveness.</p>
<p>Despite TSCA’s well-known problems, Congress did not make serious efforts to reform the law until the Obama administration. By 2009, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/">public health surveys</a> had documented that numerous industrial chemicals were found in the blood and urine of Americans, and in 2010, the President’s Cancer Panel <a href="http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/presidents-cancer-panel">concluded</a> that the “the true burden of environmentally induced cancers has been grossly underestimated.”</p>
<p>In response to rising public concern, states began enacting their own chemical regulations. As Senator Lautenberg and other legislators began to consider new federal legislation, the chemical industry quickly got behind the idea of TSCA reform because manufacturers feared having to comply with a patchwork of state chemical laws. </p>
<h2>Key features of the Lautenberg Act</h2>
<p>The new legislation makes several improvements to TSCA and gives the EPA
much-needed new authority. For example, the law:</p>
<ul>
<li>requires EPA to make a safety determination for every new chemical before it hits the market</li>
<li>establishes a system for prioritizing chemicals for safety reviews </li>
<li>enhances EPA’s authority to require testing of both new chemicals and those already on the market </li>
<li>clarifies that EPA should evaluate a chemical based on its risks to public health, without regard to the costs of regulation</li>
<li>makes more data about chemicals available by limiting companies’ ability to claim trade secret protections. </li>
</ul>
<p>But the real test of the bill is not whether it makes incremental improvements to TSCA; it is whether the bill actually protects Americans from chemical risks. Measured by that standard, the new bill does not go far enough and is likely to get bogged down in court just like the existing law.</p>
<p>For example, when EPA conducts safety reviews of chemicals, the bill requires the agency to determine whether a chemical poses an “unreasonable risk” to public health or the environment before it enacts any restrictions. But the legislation does not define this key term, and it is likely to take years of litigation to sort out what risks are “reasonable” and what risks are “unreasonable.” </p>
<p>Moreover, while the bill makes clear that EPA should not consider costs to industry in evaluating the risks of chemicals, it does force EPA to conduct a <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rena-steinzor/crossing-the-rubicon-on-t_b_10110578.html">complicated cost-benefit analysis</a> if it chooses to restrict a chemical. Manufacturers will inevitably challenge each step of this process in court.</p>
<p>Another major source of contention is whether this new federal law will supersede state laws. The chemical industry strongly supported federalizing chemical regulation to achieve uniformity. But <a href="https://www.publicintegrity.org/2014/04/02/14505/states-target-toxic-chemicals-washington-fails-act">many states have spent a decade or more developing their own chemical regulatory systems</a>. California, Washington, Maine, Maryland and Minnesota have been leaders in this field, and their Congressional delegations opposed broad preemption of state law.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127007/original/image-20160616-15113-1atdy0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Under Proposition 65, passed in California in 1986, businesses are required to warn consumers about significant exposure to chemicals that cause cancer, birth defects or other reproductive harm (click to zoom).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/robertcz/14881951381/in/photolist-sn9Um2-9xZjq2-ep9TXe-9GLDGJ-ooRsSt-oF4TED-gTx9GY-9NA8FD-5BqwdM-9NyoX4-5hwSj-34z2Y7-4ERoGq-dtQbQC-8rRqrG-Azu1b8-mUDquD-gTzLT8-gTwV4L">Druh Scoff/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The resulting compromise undercuts states’ ability to regulate chemicals on their own initiative. Under the bill, if EPA decides that a chemical meets a safety standard of no “unreasonable risk,” states are largely prevented from regulating that chemical. In addition, the new bill forecloses states from regulating a chemical as soon as EPA begins its safety review, even though safety reviews typically take several years.</p>
<p>The slow pace of chemical reviews is the bill’s greatest weakness. We lack safety data for tens of thousands of chemicals that are currently on the market, but the bill requires EPA to review only 20 chemicals in the first five years after it becomes law. At that pace, it will take the rest of this century to assess risks from the most commonly used chemicals in the United States. And the bill provides no new appropriations to speed up the pace of safety reviews.</p>
<h2>No quick improvements</h2>
<p>What will happen once the bill becomes law? Over the next year or so, EPA will begin ordering tests of a series of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/tsca-work-plan-chemicals">“Work Plan” </a>chemicals that it has already flagged for attention. Work Plan chemicals that might be subject to testing include benzene, carbon tetrachloride, creosote, ethylene dibromide and nickel compounds. Manufacturers will perform the actual safety tests, and EPA is unlikely to propose restricting any chemicals under the new legislation for several years.</p>
<p>In the long run, the new law could identify severe public health risks from chemicals that are commonly used today. It could lead to changes in the composition of products ranging from cleaning supplies and plastics to furniture and medical devices. It also will require manufacturers to understand toxicity risks better before they bring new chemicals to market and introduce them into products.</p>
<p>But most of the so-called “existing” chemicals that have been in use for decades will be tested at a glacial pace. In a worst-case scenario, chemical manufacturers could hold up sensible protective regulations with years of litigation. </p>
<p>In sum, while the Lautenberg Act has some promising provisions, it simply does not go far enough to overcome the problems that have obstructed toxic chemical regulation in the United States for 40 years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60769/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Noah M. Sachs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Congress has passed a long-overdue update of a key law regulating hazardous chemicals. But a legal scholar says the new law does not go far enough to reduce chemical exposure risks.Noah M. Sachs, Professor of Law and Director, Robert M. Merhige Jr. Center for Environmental Studies, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/564152016-05-10T01:35:09Z2016-05-10T01:35:09ZWill taxpayers foot the cleanup bill for bankrupt coal companies?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121054/original/image-20160503-19847-cfo6lx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Acid drainage from surface coal mining site, North Lima, Ohio</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jwpearce/13670964043/in/photolist-mQ4gjB-fUjpxH-nsZFVF-BtcWbK-byzHnT-p8SH2z-mCtyCP-cVUPLs-duwn5N-5pMLQx-ePwBNo-dpwnVr-2pXV2e-gzitqq-mQ5wiy-cL862N-mQ3DGe-nHrjus-bvdjA3-nsZmCn-nKikxQ-ni5hxG-bW8ooM-gicmk8-nBkMk6-nKixEq-m2t5Ft-nKrGas-nsYPmg-69rcLU-4QXNHY-8BtYPz-f9b9Mq-8n4CMK-a7yN6n-by6bNV-nHrAB7-56J896-m2sGJT-nMfmgP-8n7Liu-mQ5muL-5HonNg-mQ5u2j-mQ3Zrp-mQ4dEZ-69t4iX-mQ4d74-bprejL-mQ3C7F">Jack Pearce/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coal’s share of the U.S. energy market is rapidly plunging. Low-cost fracking-generated natural gas has <a href="http://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/browser/#/topic/0?agg=2,0,1&fuel=vtvv&geo=g&sec=g&linechart=ELEC.GEN.ALL-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.COW-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.NG-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.NUC-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.HYC-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.WND-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.TSN-US-99.M&columnchart=ELEC.GEN.ALL-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.COW-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.NG-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.NUC-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.HYC-US-99.M%7EELEC.GEN.WND-US-99.M&map=ELEC.GEN.ALL-US-99.M&freq=M&start=200101&end=201602&chartindexed=0&ctype=columnchart&ltype=pin&rtype=s&pin=&rse=0&maptype=0">overtaken the use of coal</a> at America’s power plants. Impending implementation of the Obama administration’s proposed <a href="https://www.epa.gov/cleanpowerplan/clean-power-plan-existing-power-plants">Clean Power Plan</a>, which would place stringent regulations on coal-fired power plant emissions, has also helped to drive coal production to its lowest level in decades. Government sources <a href="http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/report/coal.cfm">predict further decline</a>. </p>
<p>Fifty U.S. coal companies have <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/mikescott/2016/04/14/peabody-bankruptcy-offers-stark-warning-to-oil-and-gas-groups-of-risks-of-ignoring-climate-change/#20f3314c6d50">filed for bankruptcy</a> since 2012. Competition and more stringent environmental regulations played a role in this decline. But, just before coal prices collapsed, speculating top producers borrowed billions to finance unwise acquisitions. Now, unable to pay loan interest and principal, they have sought bankruptcy protection to restructure <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/peabody-energy-files-for-chapter-11-protection-from-creditors-1460533760">US$30 billion in debt</a>. The bankrupt companies include Arch Coal, Alpha Natural Resources, Patriot Coal and Jim Walter Resources. </p>
<p>Last month <a href="http://www.kccllc.net/peabody">Peabody Energy Corp.</a>, the world’s biggest private-sector coal producer, followed suit. Peabody seeks to <a href="http://blogs.barrons.com/incomeinvesting/2016/04/14/default-pace-spikes-with-peabody-and-energy-xxi-bankruptcies/?mod=BOL_hp_blog_ii">restructure $8.4 billion in debt</a>. Its capitalization has <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/peabody-energy-files-for-chapter-11-protection-from-creditors-1460533760">fallen from $20 billion in 2011 to $38 million</a> at the time of bankruptcy. </p>
<p>Amid this turmoil, many observers fear that bankrupt coal companies will be able to shift their huge liabilities for reclamation, or restoring land that has been mined, to taxpayers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=163&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=163&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=163&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121069/original/image-20160503-9426-ob39vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Panoramic image of mountaintop removal mining, West Virginia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ddimick/2960945511/in/photolist-5vDBWF-8D6boF-5vSRct-8z66tn-nL2n-8Uwf7N-7ZqeFW-5zEGU2-6JzMRP-8D8Erw-6HoiWU-5LPs8r-dpyU7-5BLYTB-duMivo-6JAyNa-a4Z2WX-5BRgPE-8D5xTi-5vJ57Y-6imfj2-p9cfGs-7cd23i-88Rs2R-aC2VG5-pGw5Zm-62MnWi-aFuhBZ-aCDKz2-521iyP-cijUH3-8njnvn-8D8Esd-nNEGsx-nNEvT7-nJvgNZ-nqerw3-pX3Hd-nNEJeP-a5X8Ft-5vXacw-8LH5YT-51re8n-4dMvwN-5vXanC-6NGENN-aEg4K6-6vxTL4-6vBYwj-6JAz8n">Dennis Dimick/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Congress passed the Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act, or <a href="http://www.osmre.gov/lrg/docs/SMCRA.pdf">SMCRA</a>, in 1977 to prevent such a scenario. But, in my view, state and federal coal regulators have failed to ensure that coal companies have enforceable financial guarantees in place, as the law requires. </p>
<p>I have interacted with the coal industry for 40 years, first as a government enforcement lawyer and then litigating issues relating to coal mine reclamation cases on behalf of conservation organizations and coalfield communities. I believe that if the unfunded liabilities of bankrupt coal companies are not covered by new guarantees and additional companies seek bankruptcy protection, there is a real chance that taxpayer-funded billion-dollar bailouts will be necessary to cover their cleanup costs. </p>
<h2>Planning for reclamation</h2>
<p>SMCRA was designed to prevent bankrupt coal companies from foisting onto taxpayers the costs of restoring thousands of acres of mined land and treating millions of gallons of polluted mine water. </p>
<p>When Congress enacted the law, it identified many of the adverse impacts when mined land was not reclaimed: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>…mined lands burden and adversely affect commerce and the public welfare by destroying or diminishing the utility of land for commercial, industrial, residential, recreational, agricultural, and forestry purposes, by causing erosion and landslides, contributing to floods, polluting the water, destroying fish and wildlife habitats, impairing natural beauty, damaging the property of citizens, creating hazards dangerous to life and property, degrading the quality of life in local communities, and by counteracting governmental programs and efforts to conserve soil, water, and other natural resources.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the decades preceding SMCRA’s enactment, thousands of bankrupt companies abandoned mines without reclaiming them. Many of these sites remain untreated today. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, restoring streams and watersheds across Pennsylvania that were damaged by <a href="https://www.epa.gov/polluted-runoff-nonpoint-source-pollution/abandoned-mine-drainage">acidic drainage</a> from mines abandoned before 1977 would cost <a href="http://pa.water.usgs.gov/projects/energy/amd/">$5 billion to $15 billion</a>. Similarly, reclaiming mining lands abandoned in West Virginia before SMCRA will cost an <a href="http://www.statejournal.com/story/29617664/abandoned-mine-reclamation-could-renew-wv-coalfields">estimated $1.3 billion</a> or more.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121064/original/image-20160503-3663-1jmhfwd.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Impacts of acid mine drainage in Pennsylvania.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://pa.water.usgs.gov/projects/energy/amd/images/amdmap.gif">U.S. Geological Survey</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>SMCRA is designed to force a coal company to address and incorporate the cost of reclamation in its business planning. The law mandates that when state or federal regulators issue mining permits, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/30/1259">coal companies must provide bonds or other financial guarantees</a> to ensure that if they fail to fully reclaim mines, the state will have money available to do the job. </p>
<p>Most coalfield states administer the federal law through state-law-based regulatory programs overseen by the Department of the Interior. SMCRA offers states several options. They include requiring companies to provide financial guarantees in the form of corporate <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/30/800.20">surety bonds</a>, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/30/800.21">collateral bonds</a> or <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/30/800.23">self-bonds</a>. </p>
<p>When companies use site-specific surety or collateral bonds, SMCRA requires states to calculate the cost of reclamation before any mining can begin. These studies must consider each mine site’s topography, geology, water resources and revegetation potential. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121407/original/image-20160505-19868-1grulyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Strip mining, Powder River Basin, Wyoming.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wildearth_guardians/7487177554/in/album-72157630387577902/">WildEarth Guardians/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>States may also set up an <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/30/800.23">“alternate” to a bonding system</a> that achieves the objectives and purposes of a bonding program. This option has been <a href="http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-3rd-circuit/1202514.html">described by a court</a> as a “collective risk-spreading system that … allows a State to discount the amount of the required site-specific bond to … less than the full cost needed to complete reclamation of the site in the event of forfeiture.” </p>
<p>Surety bonds and collateral bonds are backed by cash, real property assets and financial guarantees from banks and surety companies. If a coal company goes bankrupt, regulators can collect on these bonds and use the money to fully reclaim abandoned mined land. However, state-approved “alternative” reclamation funding systems and self-bonding by coal companies do not provide the same certainty.</p>
<p>For example, both Pennsylvania and West Virginia approved systems in which coal operators paid nonrefundable fees into state funds that would be used to reclaim any bankrupt coal company sites. But neither required site-specific calculations of what reclamation would actually cost. Pennsylvania imposed a per-acre permit fee, and West Virginia required a few cents per-mined-ton reclamation fee. </p>
<p>Regulators in these states – enabled by lax federal oversight – failed to ensure that companies set aside enough funds. As a result, these agencies have exposed taxpayers to potentially enormous reclamation liability.</p>
<h2>Reclamation IOUs</h2>
<p>In 2001 a federal district court found that West Virginia’s federally approved state “alternate” bonding fund was <a href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2388814/west-virginia-highlands-conservancy-v-norton/">hugely underfunded</a> and could not guarantee reclamation of mines abandoned by bankrupt coal companies as required by SMCRA. The court held that state and federal regulators’ decade-long failure to institute a fully funded bonding system had created </p>
<blockquote>
<p>[A] climate of lawlessness, which creates a pervasive impression that continued disregard for federal law and statutory requirements goes unpunished, or possibly unnoticed. Agency warnings have no more effect than a wink and a nod … Financial benefits accrue to the owners and operators who were not required to incur the statutory burden and costs attendant to surface mining … </p>
</blockquote>
<p>SMCRA also allows companies to self-bond, if they meet <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/30/800.23">rigorous asset requirements</a>. But a self-bonding corporation’s promise to reclaim is little more than an IOU backed by company assets. </p>
<p>In 2014 federal regulators began, in the Interior Department’s words, “<a href="http://eelegal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/OSMRE-Self-Bond-Fact-Sheet-2-9-15-2.pdf">exploring concerns related to the efficacy of self-bonding practices and procedure</a>” used by states. Instead of taking action, they opted to study the issue despite <a href="http://www.mining.com/web/weak-2014-numbers-worsen-an-already-bad-outlook-for-coal-companies/">strong indications of financial collapse</a> on the horizon. Now enormous western surface mines and mountaintop removal strip mines in central Appalachia are covered by <a href="http://knowledgecenter.csg.org/kc/content/coal-bankruptcies-raise-questions-over-self-bonding-states">$3.6 billion in self-bonding obligations</a>, of which $2.4 billion is held by bankrupt Peabody, Arch and Alpha. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121072/original/image-20160503-25000-53f1r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Home below a strip mine, Campbell County, Tennessee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/appvoices/7000037829/in/album-72157629262715216/">Appalachian Voices/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Companies reorganizing under federal bankruptcy laws will continue to mine and market coal, hoping to shed mountains of debt and eventually emerge from bankruptcy. It remains to be seen whether they will be able to obtain conventional surety bonds after they reorganize, or whether bankruptcy courts will direct the companies to use their remaining assets to partially fulfill their self-bonding obligations. </p>
<p>One thing is clear, however. Against the backdrop of a century of coal company bankruptcies and attendant environmental damage, <a href="http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/downsizing-the-us-coal-industry">regulators ignored a looming coal market collapse</a> with a wink and a nod. Properly administered, SMCRA’s reclamation bonding requirements should have required secure financial guarantees collectible upon bankruptcy. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, coal regulators viewed America’s leading coal companies like Wall Street’s mismanaged banks – too big to fail. As a result, American taxpayers may have to pick up an enormous reclamation tab for coal producers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56415/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick McGinley served as counsel or co-counsel in cases challenging the alternative bonding systems in Pennsylvania (1981) and West Virginia (2003).
</span></em></p>As coal energy loses market share, major U.S. coal companies are filing for bankruptcy. One multi-billion-dollar question: will taxpayers be forced to pay for cleaning up abandoned mines?Patrick McGinley, Professor of Law , West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/572762016-04-06T07:41:15Z2016-04-06T07:41:15ZThe Carmichael mine lease shows that decisions on coal need a much wider perspective<p>Queensland mining minister Anthony Lynham has <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-03/mning-leases-approved-carmichael-mine-qld-galilee-basin-adani/7295188">granted three mining leases</a> for the Carmichael coal mine in central Queensland. The A$21.7 billion plan features six open-cut mines and up to five underground mines – with the coal destined for Indian power plants that could emit as much as 4.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide in the process. </p>
<p>The plan <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-02/adanis-carmichael-mine-gains-final-state-environmental-approval/7134638">already has environmental approval</a>, which was issued by the Queensland government subject to 140 conditions that included protection for the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-15/adani-court-rejects-bid-to-stop-adani-coal-mine/7030048">endangered black-throated finch</a>, among other considerations.</p>
<p>The Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection concluded that these conditions were enough to protect not only the black-throated finch but also the entire Great Barrier Reef against any potentially catastrophic environmental impacts. This is particularly disturbing given the fact that the Great Barrier Reef is currently undergoing its <a href="https://theconversation.com/great-barrier-reef-bleaching-event-what-happens-next-56664">worst documented bleaching outbreak</a>. </p>
<p>This approach to environmental assessment may work when monitoring the mine’s impact on its immediate vicinity, but it is patently ineffective when dealing with the environmental damage from burning huge amounts of coal. The fundamental problem with the existing environmental approval processes, at both the Commonwealth and state levels, lies in their failure to address properly the impacts of fossil fuel emissions that contribute directly to global warming. </p>
<h2>Ministerial discretion</h2>
<p>Both the environmental approval and the final leasing of the Carmichael proposal are governed by several pieces legislation: the Queensland <a href="https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/M/MineralReA89.pdf">Mineral Resources Act 1989</a>, the Queensland <a href="https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/legisltn/current/e/envprota94.pdf">Environmental Protection Act 1994</a>, and the federal <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc">Environmental Protection Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</a>. </p>
<p>Together, these laws make a clear distinction between the initial process of seeking environmental approval and the subsequent process of applying for a mining lease. The common factor, however, for both processes is that once a series of pre-requisites have been satisfied, approval is largely down to the minister’s discretion.</p>
<p>In Queensland, environmental approval for coal mining requires an evaluation of the likely impact on the environment. For site-specific environmental approval applications, this should include details of any likely emissions or releases, as well as a description of the risk and likely magnitude of these impacts upon “environmental values”, defined within the Environmental Protection Act as: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>…a quality or physical characteristic of the environment that is conducive to ecological health or public amenity or safety; or a quality of the environment identified and declared to be an environmental value under a specific environmental protection policy or regulation. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>So broadly speaking, Queensland law does actually require the minister to consider the possible impact of carbon emissions on environmental health and public safety. However, it does not compel the minister to reach any particular outcome based on the assessment. </p>
<p>For the granting of the lease, once the preconditions are met (such as already having environmental approval), the minister merely has to be satisfied that the infrastructure, human, technical and financial resources for the authorised activities can all be successfully delivered.</p>
<h2>Can ministers turn projects down?</h2>
<p>As explained above, ministers certainly have the power to refuse environmental approval and mining leases – the real question is how and when they might decide to knock a proposal back. </p>
<p>Typically, the minister and their department will weigh up the economic costs and benefits associated with the project, and then make a decision based on this cost-benefit analysis. </p>
<p>This is what happened in Carmichael’s case, as <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-03/mning-leases-approved-carmichael-mine-qld-galilee-basin-adani/7295188">Queensland Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk explained</a> that the decision to approve and lease the mine was based on the fact that the “economic benefits” in terms of employment were deemed to outweigh the environmental concerns, given the extensive environmental conditions that had been imposed.</p>
<p>The cost-benefit approach stands in stark contrast to the precautionary principle, which favours strong risk assessment and a careful evaluation of the early warnings of serious hazards. The United Nations’ Rio Declaration on Environment and Development <a href="http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/precaution-7.html">calls on states</a> to use the precautionary principle wherever possible, and not to use a lack of scientific knowledge as an excuse not to prevent environmental degradation.</p>
<p>The precautionary approach would clearly preclude the Carmichael mine from being approved, even with tough environmental conditions, because of the serious environmental harm that will be caused by such extensive carbon dioxide emissions.</p>
<h2>The problem with cost-benefit analysis</h2>
<p>Cost-benefit analysis of environmental risk is problematic. It tends to promote what can often be a deregulatory agenda under the guise of scientific objectivity. It is also difficult because it essentially involves comparing the values of costs and benefits, but environmental costs are not always accurately determined. </p>
<p>In Carmichael’s case, there are several questionable assumptions. There is the idea that environmental costs, including those of the emissions, are too indeterminate to be factored into a cost-benefit assessment. And then there is the assumption that placing conditions on the mine’s operations will be an effective way to manage environmental costs.</p>
<p>The truth is that cost-benefit analysis and externally imposed operating conditions will not effectively address the longer-term damage associated with large coal mines.</p>
<p>The current decision-making model allows politicians to avoid rigorous consideration of the potentially catastrophic impacts of global warming. In the <a href="http://www.askmikeabout.com/australia/decision-on-coal-mine-defies-reason/">words of Charlie Vernon</a>, former chief scientist at the Australian Institute of Marine Science, the Great Barrier Reef is in dire straits because there has been an enduring and extraordinary “disconnect” between science, politics and economics. </p>
<p>There is a strong need for regulatory reform of the environmental approval process in Australia. Existing state and federal decisions are failing to take global climate imperatives into account. The decision to approve the Carmichael mine and the ensuing release of 4.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide into the world’s atmosphere is a crucial environmental decision and should therefore attract focused, higher-level environmental approval processes. </p>
<p>The ultimate tragedy of this regulatory failure is that it is likely to result in the destruction of one of the worlds biggest and most beautiful ecosystems, the Great Barrier Reef, right on the project’s doorstep.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57276/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samantha Hepburn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The granting of a mining lease to the Carmichael coal project, despite the huge potential greenhouse emissions, shows that ministers need to consider the wider consequences of their approvals.Samantha Hepburn, Director of the Centre for Energy and Natural Resources Law, Deakin Law School, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/555772016-03-16T03:55:55Z2016-03-16T03:55:55ZThe two-year wait for Hazelwood mine fire charges shows the system needs to change<p>Victoria’s Environmental Protection Authority has <a href="http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/news-centre/news-and-updates/news/2016/march/15/charges-laid-following-epa-investigation-into-hazelwood-mine-fire">brought charges against four companies</a> over the <a href="https://theconversation.com/victorias-coal-fire-poses-a-rare-challenge-for-firefighting-23698">Hazelwood coal mine fire</a>, which burned for 45 days in February and March 2014, blanketing the nearby town of Morwell in smoke.</p>
<p>The charges allege that the pollution from the fire broke environmental laws by making the air:</p>
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>noxious or poisonous or offensive to the senses of human beings;</li>
<li>harmful or potentially harmful to the health, welfare, safety or property of human beings;</li>
<li>detrimental to any beneficial use made of the atmosphere.</li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<p>The charges follow a two-year investigation featuring <a href="http://hazelwoodinquiry.vic.gov.au/">several inquiries</a> into the fire, including a <a href="http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/file_uploads/10826_HAZ_Hazelwood_Mine_Fire_Inquiry_Report_2015_16_Volume_II_____Term_of_Reference_6_LoRes_58CA_4NfZvjW2.pdf">report</a> which concluded that the blaze probably contributed to deaths in the community. </p>
<p>The mine’s owner is already facing <a href="http://www.worksafenews.com.au/component/k2/item/473-hazelwood-power-corporation-charged.html">charges from Worksafe Victoria</a>, which it says it <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-04/hazelwood-mine-operator-charged-over-devastating-2014-blaze/7138378">will defend</a>. It is majority-owned by the power multinational GDF Suez (known internationally as <a href="http://www.engie.com/en/journalists/press-releases/gdf-suez-becomes-engie/">Engie</a>). </p>
<p>Some, including Victoria’s environment minister Lisa Neville, have <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/environment/victorian-environment-minister-lisa-neville-hits-out-at-epa-over-hazelwood-charges-delay-20160204-gmli2v.html">raised questions</a> over why it has taken so long for the EPA to lay its own charges. This chimes with our ongoing research, which indicates that Australian citizens and campaign groups have less power to bring environmental prosecutions than in other comparable countries.</p>
<h2>Compare and contrast</h2>
<p>We compared the situation in Australia with an Italian case involving another Engie subsidiary, Tirreno Power. In 2014, while Hazelwood was burning, Tirreno’s coal-fired power plant in Vado Ligure, Italy, was <a href="http://reneweconomy.com.au/2014/hazelwood-owner-told-to-shut-italian-coal-plant-blamed-for-deaths-18375">seized and shut down</a> in response to <a href="http://www.penalecontemporaneo.it/upload/1399222800Trib.%20Savona%20-%20decreto%20sequestro%20Tirreno%20Power.pdf">judicial findings</a> that the company had violated its environmental conditions, causing hundreds of deaths and thousands of illnesses as a result of the facility’s emissions.</p>
<p>Unlike at Hazelwood, there was no single disaster such as a fire, but rather a realisation of the damage being done by chronic pollution.</p>
<p>In Italy, not only is environmental protection improving under the guidance of the European Union, but citizens also have their own systems to report potential violations, balancing to some degree the rights of corporations against those of other parties. In the Tirreno case, the campaign group <a href="http://www.internazionale.it/reportage/2015/11/07/vado-ligure-carbone-inquinamento">Rete Savonese Fermiamo il Carbone</a> (Savonese Stop the Coal Network) was instrumental in raising the issue and ultimately securing a victory for local citizens.</p>
<p>Victorian state laws have some similar provisions, particularly under the <a href="http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/domino/web_notes/ldms/pubstatbook.nsf/f932b66241ecf1b7ca256e92000e23be/750e0d9e0b2b387fca256f71001fa7be/$file/04-107a.pdf">Occupational Health and Safety Act</a>. If a citizen feels that an incident has breached health and safety laws and authorities do not prosecute within six months, they can make a written request to <a href="http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/">Worksafe Victoria</a> to prosecute. </p>
<p>This is probably how Worksafe’s recent action against GDF Suez came about about. Acting on behalf of campaign group <a href="http://www.votv.org.au/">Voices of the Valley</a>, Environmental Justice Australia <a href="https://envirojustice.org.au/blog/worksafe-to-prosecute-hazelwood-power-corp-over-mine-fire">asked Worksafe to pursue legal action</a>.</p>
<p>But similar provisions do not exist under Victoria’s <a href="http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/legislation/acts-administered-by-epa">environmental laws</a>, which date back to 1970. Only the EPA can bring charges, but if it chooses not to, there is no way for citizens to ask the authority to reconsider.</p>
<h2>Citizens’ rights</h2>
<p>In some ways this is rather startling. It begs the question of who will uphold environmental standards if the regulator chooses to look the other way. It is little wonder that citizens are resorting to <a href="https://newmatilda.com/2016/02/09/climate-angels-santos-csg/">protest</a> and <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/comment/coal-marketing-should-come-with-a-health-warning-20160309-gnegkv.html">media pressure</a> to be heard.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, there are worrying signs that corporations are being given special privilege on account of their role as drivers of economic development. This includes mining companies who, for example, have until recently been relatively free simply to <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-09-19/taxpayers-may-foot-bill-for-mine-rehabilitation/6787954">abandon mines</a> once extraction has finished. Even now they only have to pay nominal rehabilitation bonds, with the result that Hazelwood is one of roughly <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-should-we-do-with-australias-50-000-abandoned-mines-18197">50,000 abandoned mine sites</a> across the country, many of which pose serious risks. The current Hazelwood Mine Fire Inquiry report on mine rehabilitation at the site was due March 15, but <a href="http://hazelwoodinquiry.vic.gov.au/">this has been delayed for an unspecified period or reason</a>.</p>
<p>Society’s capacity to call on governments to prosecute is clearly mediated by how the law defines <a href="http://phg.sagepub.com/content/39/1/96.short">who can take legal action</a>. The federal government’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/brandis-changes-to-environmental-laws-will-defang-the-watchdogs-46267">ongoing bid to strip green groups of the right to challenge environmental approvals</a> is case in point.</p>
<p>The Hazelwood fire has exposed many environmental issues. But the slow pace of the investigation also highlights a real weakness in our legal system. Making this system more just and democratic is vital – not just to increase our capacity to respond to catastrophic events like the Hazelwood fire, but also to begin tipping the balance of power back towards society and away from corporations who must always be fully accountable.</p>
<p><em>This article was co-authored with Melanie Birkbeck, who has researched these issues as an intern at the <a href="http://sustainable.unimelb.edu.au/">Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute</a> and as a postgraduate student at the University of Melbourne’s <a href="http://environment.unimelb.edu.au/">Office for Environmental Programs</a>. It is based on research supported by the Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute and RMIT Centre for Urban Research.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55577/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Rickards does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two years after Morwell was blanketed in smoke from the Hazelwood fire, environmental charges have been laid against the mine’s operators. But the process should be more open and democratic - and quicker.Lauren Rickards, Senior Lecturer, Sustainability and Urban Planning, School of Global Urban and Social Studies; Co-leader, Climate Change and Resilience research program, Centre for Urban Studies, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.