tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/fishery-management-70220/articlesFishery management – The Conversation2024-03-06T19:07:52Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246072024-03-06T19:07:52Z2024-03-06T19:07:52ZSharks, turtles and other sea creatures face greater risk from industrial fishing than previously thought − we estimated added pressure from ‘dark’ fishing vessels<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580177/original/file-20240306-22-3smwaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C2977%2C1998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Seabirds like this sooty shearwater can drown when they become tangled in drift nets and other fishing gear. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/dj3H6v"> Roy Lowe, USFWS/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>My colleagues and I mapped activity in the northeast Pacific of “dark” fishing vessels – boats that turn off their location devices or lose signal for technical reasons. In <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl5528">our new study</a>, we found that highly mobile marine predators, such as sea lions, sharks and leatherback sea turtles, are significantly <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/2019/03/13/tunas-sharks-ships-sea/">more threatened than previously thought</a> because of large numbers of dark fishing vessels operating where these species live. </p>
<p>While we couldn’t directly watch the activities of each of these dark vessels, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/02/at-least-6-percent-global-fishing-likely-as-ships-turn-off-tracking-devices-study">new technological advances</a>, including satellite data and machine learning, make it possible to estimate where they go when they are not broadcasting their locations. </p>
<p>Examining five years of data from fishing vessel location devices and the habitats of 14 large marine species, including seabirds, sharks, turtles, sea lions and tunas, we found that our estimates of risk to these animals increased by nearly 25% when we accounted for the presence of dark vessels. For some individual predators, such as albacore and bluefin tunas, this adjustment increased risk by over 36%. The main hot spots were in the Bering Sea and along the Pacific coast of North America. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bjFSgr_B38I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Bycatch, or accidental take, is the leading threat to some endangered marine species.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How we did our work</h2>
<p>Fishing boats use <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/faqs/what-is-ais/">Automatic Identification System</a>, or AIS, to avoid colliding with each other. Their AIS signals bounce off satellites to reach nearby ships. </p>
<p>This data is a valuable tool for <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/detroit/news/study-choosing-fish-may-be-killing-sharks/">mapping risk at sea</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43169824">understanding the footprints of fishing fleets</a>. AIS data captures an estimated <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aao564">50% to 80%</a> of fishing operations occurring more than 100 nautical miles from shore.</p>
<p>But in some areas, vessels’ AIS signals can’t reach the satellites, either because reception is poor or many boats are crowded together – much as cellphones can have difficulty sending text messages in remote wildness or in crowded stadiums. And just as location tracking can be disabled on phones, fishing vessels can intentionally <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-fishing-boats-go-dark-at-sea-theyre-often-committing-crimes-we-mapped-where-it-happens-196694">disable their AIS</a> if they want to hide their location. Boats that do this may be engaged in criminal activities, such as <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/538736/the-outlaw-ocean-by-ian-urbina/">illegal fishing or human trafficking</a>.</p>
<p>We calculated how much risk dark vessels pose to marine life by overlapping their activity with the modeled habitats of 14 highly mobile marine predators. Using the same method, we also calculated how much risk observable fishing vessels that broadcast their locations pose to marine life. These two calculations allowed us to understand the additional risk from dark fishing vessels.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A seal on a beach, with a rope wrapped around it and connected to a large orange float beside the animal." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579990/original/file-20240305-26-vf2vcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A Hawaiian monk seal entangled on a large fishing float.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photolib.noaa.gov/Collections/Fisheries/Other/emodule/1054/eitem/61324">Doug Helton, NOAA/NOS/ORR/ERD</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>We know that many sea creatures, including endangered species, are <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-us/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/overfishing">killed by overfishing</a>, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-welch-sea-turtles-swordfish-climate-change-20190610-story.html">accidental catch</a> and <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/marine-mammal-protection/west-coast-large-whale-entanglement-response-program">entanglement in fishing gear</a>. More overlap between wildlife and fishing boats means that those harmful impacts are more likely to happen. </p>
<p>Even considering only <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/map/index?start=2023-11-25T00%3A00%3A00.000Z&end=2024-02-25T00%3A00%3A00.000Z&latitude=19&longitude=26&zoom=1.5">observable fishing boats broadcasting their positions</a>, the presence of boats signals considerable risk for marine life. For example, <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/california-sea-lion">California sea lions</a> forage in Pacific coastal waters from the Canadian border to Baja California and are accidentally caught by boats fishing for hake and halibut. We found observable fishing activity in over 45% of the sea lions’ habitat. </p>
<p>In another example, migratory <a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=salmonshark.main">salmon sharks</a> feed on salmon near Alaska’s Aleutian Islands during the summer and breed in warmer waters off the coasts of Oregon and California during the winter. Along their journey, salmon sharks are accidentally caught in fishing nets and longlines. We detected observable vessel fishing activity in nearly one-third of salmon shark habitat. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C0%2C5169%2C3461&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dozens of fishing boats move out of an urban harbor" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C0%2C5169%2C3461&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579983/original/file-20240305-28-en5un3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fishing boats head out for the East China Sea in Zhoushan, Zhejiang Province, China.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fishing-boats-set-sail-in-the-morning-to-east-china-sea-for-news-photo/1340823231">Shen Lei/VCG via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Our findings indicate that such threats are higher when dark fishing boats are present. Estimates of risk to California sea lions and salmon sharks increased by 28% and 23%, respectively, when we accounted for dark vessels.</p>
<p>This information could affect fishery regulation. For example, regulators <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/fish-stock-assessment-101-part-2-closer-look-stock-assessment-models">use risk information</a> to set catch limits for species such as tuna; higher risk could mean that catch limits need to be lower. </p>
<p>For species such as sea lions and salmon sharks that are accidentally caught by fishermen, higher risk levels could indicate that fishing boats should use more selective gear. California is currently acting on this issue by helping fishermen phase out use of <a href="https://opc.ca.gov/2022/11/phase-out-drift-gillnets/">large-mesh drift gill nets</a> in state waters. These nets, which hang like curtains in the water, catch <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/T0502E/T0502E01.htm">many other fishes along with the target species</a>. </p>
<p>Accounting for dark vessels is particularly important in international waters where boats from multiple countries operate, because AIS data is one of the most complete sources of fishing activity across nations. Tracking dark vessels can help make this information as comprehensive as possible and provide insights into the multinational impacts of fishing. </p>
<p>Our study does not account for vessels that do not use any vessel tracking system, or that use systems other than AIS. Therefore, our risk calculations likely still underestimate the true impact of fisheries on marine predators. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>The world’s oceans are rich in life but poor in data, although this is changing. High-resolution <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/satellite-maps-reveal-rampant-fishing-untracked-dark-vessels-oceans-180983539/">satellite imagery</a> may soon offer even more information on risk from dark vessels. </p>
<p>President Joe Biden and other global leaders have pledged to protect <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/03/21/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-takes-new-action-to-conserve-and-restore-americas-lands-and-waters/">30% of the ocean by 2030</a>. Better data on human-wildlife interactions at sea can help ensure that new protected areas are in the right places to make a difference.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Welch receives funding from NOAA's Office of Law Enforcement. </span></em></p>The toll on wildlife from illegal fishing, bycatch and entanglement in fishing gear is likely underestimated, because it doesn’t account for ‘dark’ fishing vessels, a new study finds.Heather Welch, Researcher in Ecosystem Dynamics, University of California, Santa CruzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225112024-02-02T11:04:44Z2024-02-02T11:04:44ZGovernments spend US$22 billion a year helping the fishing industry empty our oceans. This injustice must end<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572830/original/file-20240201-27-sdoziy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C0%2C1370%2C770&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/drone-view-of-fishing-trawler-on-sea-5829126/">Pok Rie/Pexel</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Overfishing has dire consequences for ocean health and for the millions of people who depend on fish for food and wellbeing. Globally, catch has been steadily <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms10244">declining</a> since the 1990s. It’s a trend that’s likely to continue if we fail to act now.</p>
<p>Nearly all governments, including Australia’s, subsidise their fishing industries. Financial support comes in many forms, from taxpayer-funded fuel to reduced boat-building costs. These subsidies are harmful because they encourage overfishing. Some of the most environmentally damaging and least efficient fishing activities, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X09001663">bottom trawling</a> and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.aat2504">distant water fishing</a>, would become unprofitable and cease without government <a href="https://archives.nereusprogram.org/ask-an-expert-why-is-the-global-fishing-industry-given-35-billion-in-subsidies-each-year/">subsidies</a>. </p>
<p>Scientists worldwide are rallying for stringent regulations to eliminate harmful fisheries subsidies, which totalled a whopping <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X19303677">US$22 billion</a> in 2018. Safeguarding the ocean will strengthen food security and allow more equitable distribution of marine resources.</p>
<p>Trade ministers from around the world are set to convene later this month in Abu Dhabi at a key meeting of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44183-024-00042-0">open letter</a> published today, we are among 36 marine experts calling on the WTO to adopt ambitious regulations promoting fisheries sustainability and equity, and to eliminate harmful fisheries subsidies.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/putting-an-end-to-billions-in-fishing-subsidies-could-improve-fish-stocks-and-ocean-health-163470">Putting an end to billions in fishing subsidies could improve fish stocks and ocean health</a>
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<h2>A long-awaited agreement</h2>
<p>International pressure from scientists helped to broker an earlier agreement on fishing subsidies, which is yet to be ratified. </p>
<p>In October 2021, 300 experts published an <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm1680">article in Nature</a> calling for an end to harmful subsidies in the fishing sector. </p>
<p>After decades of fruitless negotiations, the WTO finally reached an <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_factsheet_e.pdf">agreement on fisheries subsidies</a> in June 2022. </p>
<p>Once ratified by two-thirds of WTO members, this agreement will partially address the United Nations <a href="https://indicators.report/targets/14-6/">Sustainable Development Goal Target 14.6</a> to eliminate harmful subsidies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a suit brings down the gavel after agreement was reached on fisheries subsidies at the WTO meeting in 2022." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572831/original/file-20240201-17-tiyvdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The gavel goes down after members reached an agreement on fisheries subsidies, Geneva, 17 June 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/mc12_e/photos_e.htm">WTO/Jay Louvion</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Unfortunately, while this agreement is historic, it is narrow. It only prohibits member governments from financing illegal fishing activities and the exploitation of already overfished stocks. But it’s obvious illegal fishing should be banned and the focus on overfished stocks is too little, too late. </p>
<p>Experts argue the agreement fails to specifically address harmful subsidies across global fisheries and as such only affects a <a href="https://oceana.org/blog/the-wto-agreement-saves-face-but-does-it-save-fish/">trivial component</a> of subsidy-driven exploitation. The subsidies that reduce operating costs and increase fishing capacity, allowing vessels to travel further and remain at sea longer, remain in place. </p>
<h2>Fisheries subsidies affect more than just fish</h2>
<p>Scientists have been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00451-1">sounding the alarm</a> for decades. Many published studies document the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0020239">destabilising effects</a> of fisheries subsidies on ecosystems. In addition to impacting biodiversity and ecosystems, subsidies also increase the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800921001154">CO₂ emissions</a> that contribute to climate change.</p>
<p>More recently, studies have also applied a social perspective to this issue. Seafood lifts millions of people out of hunger, malnutrition and poverty. Yet more people will lose a secure <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/534317a">source of food and nutrients</a> if fish stocks continue to decline due to industrial overfishing. </p>
<p>Research shedding light on the concept of “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X20302529">equity</a>” shows subsidies don’t just harm the ocean, they also affect human <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/5-ways-harmful-fisheries-subsidies-impact-coastal-communities">communities</a>. These communities are largely in developing countries which are rarely the source of harmful fisheries subsidies. Rather, their waters are exploited by <a href="https://oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/OceanaDWF_FinalReport.pdf">foreign vessels</a> supported by wealthy governments’ fisheries subsidies.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person wearing gloves, bending down to handle drying squid on a fish net" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572832/original/file-20240201-25-bknp4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fisheries contribute to livelihoods and food security of millions of people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-drying-squid-on-fishnet-13243896/">Jimmy Liao/Pexel</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>Fisheries subsidies foster unfair competition not only among countries but also between industrial and community led fishing fleets. In the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44183-023-00031-9">Indian Ocean</a>, the level of subsidies provided to industrial fisheries corresponds to the amount of seafood exported to international markets, largely supplying rich and food-secure countries. This shows governments are deliberately empowering their industrial fleets to fish for seafood largely exported and consumed elsewhere, instead of sustaining fisheries providing food for locals. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fisheries-subsidies-fuel-ocean-depletion-and-hurt-coastal-communities-142260">Fisheries subsidies fuel ocean depletion and hurt coastal communities</a>
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<h2>The good, the bad and the ugly</h2>
<p>While most nations contribute to harmful subsidies, <a href="https://oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/994812/Oceana_Summary6-22.pdf">ten nations</a> are responsible for 70% of this unsustainable financing. Chief among them are China, Japan and the European Union, reflecting the significant size of their distant water fishing fleets that typically access the resources of less-developed nations.</p>
<p>In contrast, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X19303677?via%3Dihub">Australia</a> contributes only 0.1% of global harmful subsidies. Only 6% of Australia’s annual US$400 million in fisheries subsidies is considered harmful. While Australia should give attention to its ongoing annual taxpayer contribution of US$25 million to the fishing sector, it is well placed to demonstrate global leadership on how fishing can deliver sustainable and equitable outcomes without harmful subsidies.</p>
<h2>An essential opportunity</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/mc13_e/mc13_e.htm">second wave</a> of negotiations on fisheries subsidies is expected during the WTO Ministerial Conference this February in Abu Dhabi. This conference represents an invaluable opportunity to better protect the ocean. </p>
<p>In anticipation of this meeting, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44183-024-00042-0">we are urging nations</a> to adopt more ambitious regulations that eliminate harmful subsidies, prioritising fisheries sustainability and ocean equity. </p>
<p>Harmful fisheries subsidies are not only unsustainable but profoundly unfair. Based on the extensive body of evidence, the WTO should agree to eliminate harmful subsidies once and for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222511/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vania Andreoli received funding for her PhD research from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship and The Jock Clough Marine Foundation through the Oceans Institute Robson and Robertson Award. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dirk Zeller supervises Vania Andreoli’s PhD, so his lab has indirectly received funding for this doctoral research from the Australian Government and the Jock Clough Marine Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Meeuwig supervises Vania Andreoli's PhD so her lab has indirectly received funding for this doctoral research from the Australian Government and the Jock Clough Marine Foundation. </span></em></p>Governments all over the world are propping up overfishing. Now scientists have penned an open letter calling on trade ministers to implement stricter regulations against harmful fisheries subsidies.Vania Andreoli, PhD Candidate, The University of Western AustraliaDirk Zeller, Professor & Director, Sea Around Us - Indian Ocean, The University of Western AustraliaJessica Meeuwig, Wen Family Chair in Conservation, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1531922021-02-04T19:07:22Z2021-02-04T19:07:22ZUnder the moonlight: a little light and shade helps larval fish to grow at night<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381879/original/file-20210202-13-bt8w1j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C572%2C2061%2C1040&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeffrey Shima</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>At night on any one of hundreds of coral reefs across the tropical Pacific, larval fish just below the sea surface are gambling on their chances of survival.</p>
<p>Our latest <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2020.2609" title="Lunar rhythms in growth of larval fish">research</a> shows the brightness of the Moon could play a major role in that struggle for survival by affecting the availability of prey and keeping predators away.</p>
<p>Understanding how that works could help in fisheries management, specifically the prediction of changes to harvested fish stocks that allow us to anticipate how many adult fish can be taken without destabilising the fishery.</p>
<p>Many fish populations experience boom-and-bust cycles largely because parents routinely produce millions of offspring that have very low, but fluctuating, survival rates.</p>
<p>The large number of larval fish that are produced means any environmental conditions — for example, increased nutrients — that improve survival odds even only marginally can lead to a big influx in the number of surviving offspring.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Several sixbar wrasse swim above a reef." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381889/original/file-20210202-19-1bi8kal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult sixbar wrasse in courtship.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author?</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When the Sun goes down</h2>
<p>In the past we failed to take into account the influences the night may have on fish development.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2020.2609" title="Lunar rhythms in growth of larval fish">research</a> we found the daily growth rates of the larvae of sixbar wrasse (<a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/5643"><em>Thalassoma hardwicke</em></a>) around the island of Mo’orea, in French Polynesia, are strongly linked to phases of the Moon.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-viral-wellerman-sea-shanty-is-also-a-window-into-the-remarkable-cross-cultural-whaling-history-of-aotearoa-new-zealand-153634">The viral ‘Wellerman’ sea shanty is also a window into the remarkable cross-cultural whaling history of Aotearoa New Zealand</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>Their growth appears to be maximised when the first half of the night is dark and the second half of the night is bright.</p>
<p>Cloudy nights obscure the Moon, and thus allowed us to check our models by contrasting growth on cloudy versus clear nights, which confirmed the effect of moonlight on growth of these fish.</p>
<h2>Phases of the Moon</h2>
<p>We found that on the best nights of the lunar month for sixbars, around the last Quarter Moon when the Moon rises around midnight, larval fish grew about 0.012mm a day more than average.</p>
<p>But on the worst nights, around the first Quarter Moon when the Moon is overhead at sunset and sets around midnight, they grew about 0.014mm a day less than average. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="From First Quarter to Full Moon then Last Quarter." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=142&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=142&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=142&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=178&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=178&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382161/original/file-20210203-23-2v1p74.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=178&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Phases of the Moon from the Southern Hemisphere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moon_phases_en.jpg">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For a typical larval sixbar of 37.5 days old, that means its growth is 24% more on the best night than on the worst one. This is important, as growth is inextricably linked to survival and ultimately fisheries productivity.</p>
<p>We think the Moon affects larval growth in this way because of how it changes the movements of deeper-dwelling animals, those that migrate into shallow water each night to hunt for food under the cover of darkness.</p>
<p>Zooplankton — potential prey for larval sixbars — respond quickly to the arrival of darkness, and move into the surface water to supplement the diets of sixbars.</p>
<p>Micronekton, such as lanternfishes, which hunt larval fishes, may take much longer to reach surface waters and seek out their prey, due to their migration from much deeper depths.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four graphs showing different phases of the Moon and the amount of predator/prey during each phase." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381884/original/file-20210202-17-e186t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Four graphs showing the larval fish (in yellow) and the amount of predator (red shading area) and prey (brown shading area) rising to the surface during each phase of he Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2020.2609">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a consequence, prey availability for sixbars in surface waters may be hindered by early nocturnal brightness while the arrival of predators may be impeded by late nocturnal brightness.</p>
<p>Thus, larval fish grow best when their predators are absent but their prey are abundant — around the last Quarter Moon.</p>
<p>In contrast, around the first Quarter Moon, prey are suppressed but predators are not, leading to the slowest growth. </p>
<p>During the New Moon, when the surface waters remain dark throughout the night, influxes of both prey and predators may be high, with the latter preventing the larval fish from enjoying the increased numbers of prey. </p>
<p>On the other hand, during the Full Moon, when surface waters are well-lit, the movement of prey and predators may be suppressed, reducing the risk to the fish but also eliminating their food.</p>
<h2>Impact on fishing</h2>
<p>More research is needed to quantify these lunar effects on other marine populations. But our findings to date are good news for those working to strengthen fisheries management, given that phases of the Moon are predictable and cloud cover that can modify moonlight is being measured by satellites.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diver underwater keeping watch on one of the sixbar wrasse fish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381886/original/file-20210202-17-152141l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Observing the sixbar wrasse spawning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author?</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This makes the incorporation of moonlight into existing fisheries management models relatively simple.</p>
<p>We think this will have implications around the world, not just in the tropics. This is because the nightly upward movements of deep-water animals is ubiquitous — it is the largest mass migration of biomass on the planet, and it happens everywhere.</p>
<p>The suppressive effect of moonlight on this movement of potential predators and prey is also a global phenomenon.</p>
<p>We evaluated effects of the Moon on growth of larval temperate fish in an earlier <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecy.2563" title="Moonlight enhances growth in larval fish">study</a> and found a similar effect (moonlight enhanced growth).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coral-reefs-climate-change-and-pesticides-could-conspire-to-crash-fish-populations-142689">Coral reefs: climate change and pesticides could conspire to crash fish populations</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The effect is stronger and more nuanced in our latest study, most likely because the waters in the tropics are comparatively clear.</p>
<p>Our findings also hint that other factors which affect night-time illumination of the sea may disrupt marine ecosystems. This includes the reflection of artificial lights from coastal cities, suspended sediments in the water column, and changes in cloud cover due to climate change.</p>
<p>In the future, we may be able to harness this extra information to help forecast fish population change to better guide the management and conservation of fisheries around the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153192/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Shima receives funding from Royal Society of New Zealand Marsden Fund.
Erik Noonburg, a retired Associate Professor of Biological Sciences at Florida Atlantic University,
contributed to this article</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig W. Osenberg receives funding from the US National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Swearer receives funding from Royal Society of New Zealand Marsden Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne Alonzo receives funding from the Marsden Foundation and the US National Science Foundation</span></em></p>Young fish need to find food to grow, but avoid being eaten themselves. That dance for survival is linked to moonlight, which has implications for fisheries management everywhere.Jeffrey Shima, Professor of Ecology, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonCraig W. Osenberg, Professor of Ecology, University of GeorgiaStephen Swearer, Professor of Marine biology, The University of MelbourneSuzanne Alonzo, Professor of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa CruzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1340672020-03-18T18:05:42Z2020-03-18T18:05:42ZWe’ve just discovered two new shark species – but they may already be threatened by fishing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321329/original/file-20200318-1942-12qjqmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C29%2C4955%2C1684&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the newly discovered sixgilled sawshark species (_Pliotrema kajae_).</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Simon Weigmann</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Finding a species that’s entirely new to science is always exciting, and so we were delighted to be a part of <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0228791">the discovery of two new sixgill sawsharks</a> (called <em>Pliotrema kajae</em> and <em>Pliotrema annae</em>) off the coast of East Africa.</p>
<p>We know very little about sawsharks. Until now, only one sixgill species (<em>Pliotrema warreni</em>) was recognised. But we know sawsharks are carnivores, living on a diet of fish, crustaceans and squid. They use their serrated snouts to kill their prey and, with quick side-to-side slashes, break them up into bite-sized chunks. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321317/original/file-20200318-37382-1kvg3zk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The serrated snout of a sixgill sawshark (<em>Pliotrema annae</em>).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ellen Barrowclift-Mahon/Marine MEGAfauna Lab/Newcastle University.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sawsharks look similar to sawfish (which are actually rays), but they are much smaller. Sawsharks grow to around 1.5 metres in length, compared to 7 metres for a sawfish and they also have barbels (fish “whiskers”), which sawfish lack. Sawsharks have gills on the side of their heads, whereas sawfish have them on the underside of their bodies. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321354/original/file-20200318-1953-1i2ndk3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sixgill sawshark (<em>Pliotrema annae</em>) turned on its side, showing gills and barbels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ellen Barrowclift-Mahon</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Together with our colleagues, we discovered these two new sawsharks while researching small-scale fisheries that were operating off the coasts of Madagascar and Zanzibar. While the discovery of these extraordinary and interesting sharks is a wonder in itself, it also highlights how much is still unknown about biodiversity in coastal waters around the world, and how vulnerable it may be to poorly monitored and managed fisheries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=690&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=690&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321322/original/file-20200318-37441-1xec9fr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=690&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The three known species of sixgill sawshark. The two new species flank the original known species. From left to right: <em>Pliotrema kajae</em>, <em>Pliotrema warreni</em> (juvenile female) and <em>Pliotrema annae</em> (presumed adult female).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Simon Weigmann</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fishing in the dark</h2>
<p>Despite what their name might suggest, small-scale fisheries employ around 95% of the world’s fishers and are an <a href="https://theconversation.com/local-communities-play-outsized-but-overlooked-role-in-global-fisheries-123143">incredibly important source of food and money</a>, particularly in tropical developing countries. These fisheries usually operate close to the coast in some of the world’s most important biodiversity hotspots, such as coral reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass beds. </p>
<p>For most small-scale fisheries, there is very little information available about their fishing effort – that is, how many fishers there are, and where, when and how they fish, as well as exactly what they catch. Without this, it’s very difficult for governments to develop management programmes that can ensure sustainable fishing and protect the ecosystems and livelihoods of the fishers and the communities that depend on them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321316/original/file-20200318-37397-yjxu6s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small-scale fishers of Zanzibar attending their driftnets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Per Berggren/Marine MEGAfauna Lab/Newcastle University</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the small-scale fisheries of East Africa and the nearby islands are not well documented, we do know that there are at least <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-017-9494-x">half a million small-scale fishers using upwards of 150,000 boats</a>. That’s a lot of fishing. While each fisher and boat may not catch that many fish each day, with so many operating, it really starts to add up. Many use nets – either driftnets floating at the surface or gillnets, which are anchored close to the sea floor. Both are cheap but not very selective with what they catch. Some use longlines, which are effective at catching big fish, including sharks and rays.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sharks-one-in-four-habitats-in-remote-open-ocean-threatened-by-longline-fishing-120849">Sharks: one in four habitats in remote open ocean threatened by longline fishing</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In 2019, our team reported that catch records <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.12.024">were massively underreporting the number of sharks and rays caught</a> in East Africa and the nearby islands. With the discovery of two new species here – a global hotspot for shark and ray biodiversity – the need to properly assess the impact of small-scale fisheries on marine life is even more urgent.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=260&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=260&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321319/original/file-20200318-37401-19jg3xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=260&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Pliotrema kajae</em>, as it might look swimming in the subtropical waters of the western Indian Ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Simon Weigmann</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How many other unidentified sharks and other species are commonly caught in these fisheries? There is a real risk of species going extinct before they’re even discovered. </p>
<p>Efforts to monitor and manage fisheries in this region, and globally, must be expanded to prevent biodiversity loss and to develop sustainable fisheries. There are simple methods available that can work on small boats where monitoring is currently absent, including using cameras to document what’s caught. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321356/original/file-20200318-1972-n0x8np.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A selection of landed fish – including sharks, tuna and swordfish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Per Berggren</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The discovery of two new sixgill sawsharks also demonstrates the value of scientists working with local communities. Without the participation of fishers we may never have found these animals. From simple assessments all the way through to developing methods to alter catches and manage fisheries, it’s our goal to make fisheries sustainable and preserve the long-term future of species like these sawsharks, the ecosystems they live in and the communities that rely on them for generations to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134067/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Per Berggren receives funding from the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (Grant Number MASMA/CP/2014/01).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Temple receives funding from the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (Grant Number MASMA/CP/2014/01).</span></em></p>Scientists thought there was only one sixgill sawshark species – until now.Per Berggren, Marine MEGAfauna Lab, Newcastle UniversityAndrew Temple, Postdoctoral Research Associate in Marine Biology, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1201492019-09-18T12:34:52Z2019-09-18T12:34:52ZFish larvae float across national borders, binding the world’s oceans in a single network<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292321/original/file-20190912-190031-45gxhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Larval black sea bass, an important commercial species along the US Atlantic coast.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/rcb/photogallery/fish/groundfish/photos/black-sea-bass-larva-2.jpg">NOAA Fisheries/Ehren Habeck</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/ocean-s-wildlife-populations-down-by-half-says-new-wwf-report">Fish populations are declining</a> around the world, and many countries are trying to conserve them by regulating their fishing industries. However, controlling fishing locally may not do enough to strengthen fish populations. Often one nation’s fish stocks depend on the spawning grounds of a neighboring country, where fish release eggs and sperm into the water and larvae hatch from fertilized eggs. </p>
<p>We do research on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=zJVePl8AAAAJ&hl=en">oceans</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=bvywaC0AAAAJ&hl=en">climate</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=A4GtzHsAAAAJ&hl=en">fisheries</a>. In a recent study, we showed that global fisheries are even <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aav3409">more tightly connected</a> than previously understood. The world’s coastal marine fisheries form a single network, thanks to the drift of larvae along ocean currents. </p>
<p>This suggests that country-by-country fishery management may be fundamentally insufficient. If a fish species that provides food to one country should decline, the amount of fish spawn, or eggs and larvae, riding the ocean currents from there to other countries would also decline dramatically, resulting in further loss of fish elsewhere. </p>
<p>Many countries live with this risk, although they may not realize it. To manage fisheries effectively, nations must understand where the fish in their territories originate. </p>
<figure>
<img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/726/max_month_spawning_speeds.gif?1568683355">
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ocean currents affect the speed at which fish eggs and larvae drift and vary through the year. This map shows surface current speeds for January: yellow = fastest, dark blue = slowest. Each country’s territory is highlighted with red dots during the month of maximum spawning activity in that country. In each territory, a different number of species spawn in each month of the year. The red dots appear in the month during which the largest number of species spawn in that territory.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Crossing national borders</h2>
<p>Fish don’t recognize political boundaries, and regularly travel internationally. Scientists have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03463">tracked adult fish movements</a> using electronic tags, and have shown that a few species <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/fish/great-pacific-migration-bluefin-tuna">migrate over long distances</a>. </p>
<p>Countries and territories have negotiated agreements to ensure sustainable sharing of migratory fish. One such agreement joins several nations in the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission to ensure that the territories fish cross <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/rfb/wcpfc/en">share them sustainably</a>. </p>
<p>But fish eggs and larvae are much harder to follow. Many species lay eggs in large numbers that float near the ocean surface. When they hatch, larvae measure a few millimeters long and continue to drift as plankton until they grow large enough to swim. During these stages of the life cycle, ocean currents sweep fish spawn across international boundaries.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7-tNQ0-Y5K0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Simulating the journeys of eggs and larvae</h2>
<p>Like weather on land, the pattern of ocean currents varies with the seasons and can be predicted. These currents are typically sluggish, traveling about an inch per second, or less than 0.1 miles per hour. </p>
<p>There are a few exceptions: Currents along the eastern coasts of continents, like the Gulf Stream in North America or the Kuroshio in Asia, and along the equator can be significantly faster, reaching speeds of 2 miles per hour. Even a gentle current of 0.1 miles per hour can carry spawn 40 miles over a month, and some species can float for several months.</p>
<p>Government and academic scientists use a vast network of <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/jason-3/">satellites</a>, <a href="https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/climate-data/tropical-moored-buoy-system-tao-triton-pirata-rama-toga">moored instruments</a> and <a href="http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/About_Argo.html">floating buoys</a> to monitor these surface flows. Using this information, we performed a computer simulation of where drifting particles would be carried over time. Scientists have used this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.12.006">type of simulation</a> to study the spread of <a href="http://plasticadrift.org/">marine plastic pollution</a> and predict where <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/03/17/world/asia/search-for-flight-370.html">debris from plane crashes at sea</a> could have washed ashore. </p>
<p>Different fish species spawn in different seasons, and a single species may spawn in several months at different locations. We matched the seasons and locations of spawning for <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/search.php">over 700 species</a> with <a href="https://www.atmos.umd.edu/%7Eocean/">ocean current data</a>, and simulated where their spawn would drift. Then, using <a href="http://www.seaaroundus.org/">records</a> of where those species have been fished, and information about <a href="https://www.aquamaps.org/">how suitable conditions are for each species</a> in different regions, we deduced what fraction of the fish caught in each country arrived from other countries because of ocean currents.</p>
<h2>A small-world network</h2>
<p>Scientists and policymakers can learn a lot by studying these international connections. Each species that floats across international boundaries during its plankton stage represents a linkage between countries. These linkages span the world in a dense, interconnected network.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290374/original/file-20190830-165985-73be8k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Each color represents a region in the network of fish larvae connections. This map shows the strongest 467 connections among a total of 2,059 that the authors modeled.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nandini Ramesh, James Rising and Kimberly Oremus</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At a global level, this network of connections has an important property: It is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/30918">small-world network</a>. Small-world networks connect regions that are far apart to each other by just a few steps along the network. The concept is rooted in social scientist Stanley Milgram’s <a href="https://www.thecut.com/2018/03/the-history-of-the-six-degrees-of-separation-study.html">1960s experiments with social networks</a>, which found that it was possible for a letter to reach almost any total stranger by passing through six or fewer hands. Milgram’s work was popularized in the 1990 play “<a href="https://www.dramatists.com/cgi-bin/db/single.asp?key=959">Six Degrees of Separation</a>.”</p>
<p>Among fisheries, the world seems even smaller: We found that the average number of degrees of separation among fisheries is five. This means that local problems can become global risks. </p>
<p>For example, imagine that a fishery collapses in the middle of the Mediterranean. If the population in one spawning region collapses, it could quickly put pressure on neighboring fisheries dependent upon it. If fishers in those neighboring countries overfish the remaining population or shift to other species, the disturbance can grow. Within just a few years, a fisheries disturbance could travel around the world.</p>
<p>We assessed how countries would be affected in terms of food security, employment and gross domestic product if they were to lose access to fish spawn from other territories. The most affected countries cluster in the Caribbean, the western Pacific, Northern Europe and West Africa. These hotspots correspond to the network’s most clustered areas, because the effects of these flows of fish spawn are most pronounced where many coastal countries lie in close proximity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=239&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=239&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=239&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290372/original/file-20190830-165985-13dyair.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">International flows of fish eggs and larvae affect countries’ total catch, food security, jobs and economies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nandini Ramesh, James Rising and Kimberly Oremus</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Thinking globally about fisheries</h2>
<p>Because the world’s fisheries are so interconnected, only international cooperation that takes flows of fish spawn into account can effectively manage them. Aside from egg and larvae connections, fisheries are linked by movements of adult fish and through agreements among countries allowing them to fish in each other’s waters. </p>
<p>All of this suggests that fishery management is best conducted at a large, international scale. Proposals for doing this include defining <a href="http://www.lmehub.net/">Large Marine Ecosystems</a> to be jointly managed and creating <a href="https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/mpanetworksmakingithappen_en.pdf">networks of Marine Protected Areas</a> that safeguard a variety of critical habitats. Ideas like these, and careful study of interdependence between national fisheries, are crucial to sustainable use of the oceans’ living resources.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nandini Ramesh receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy. and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Rising and Kimberly Oremus do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fish can’t read maps, and their eggs and larvae drift across national boundaries. Recent research shows that local problems in one fishery can affect others across wide areas.Nandini Ramesh, Postdoctoral Researcher in Earth and Planetary Science, University of California, BerkeleyJames Rising, Assistant Professorial Research Fellow, London School of Economics and Political ScienceKimberly Oremus, Assistant Professor of Marine Policy, University of DelawareLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1096712019-05-13T01:42:02Z2019-05-13T01:42:02ZPoor fishery management costs Indonesia $7 billion per year. Here’s how to stop it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272143/original/file-20190502-117594-mrbf0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C1000%2C660&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Under the rain and burning sun, highly perishable fish need to be transported long distances to reach markets in Indonesia.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Indonesia’s efforts to protect its fisheries, an important food source for the world’s fourth most populous country, by seizing and blowing up foreign poaching vessels has become well known globally and <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2018/04/indonesias-crackdown-on-illegal-fishing-is-paying-off-study-finds/">is paying off</a>. </p>
<p>But, poaching is not the only problem the country’s intensively fished seas face. From the moment seafood are caught by local Indonesian fishers to being served on our plates, almost <a href="http://www.seafdec.org/fisheries-country-profile-indonesia/">40%</a> of them are lost and wasted due to poor fishery management. That’s worth around <a href="http://www.seafdec.org/fisheries-country-profile-indonesia/">US$7.28 billion</a> worth of fish products annually. </p>
<p>Indonesia wastes around <a href="http://foodsustainability.eiu.com/food-loss-and-waste/">300 kilograms of food</a> per person per year: seafood being among those deliberately thrown out. At the same time, <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SN.ITK.DEFC.ZS?locations=ID">19 million people</a> – or around 8% of the total population – are still undernourished.</p>
<p>Food loss and waste is part of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number 12, which is responsible production and consumption. Unfortunately, the targets under this SDG mention no sectors. At the same time, most fishery-related SDGs are listed under SDG 14 on conservation and sustainable use of marine resources. However, this SDG target does not mention fish loss and waste issues. </p>
<p>As such, reducing fish loss and waste is not completely owned by the fishery sector as part of their SDG achievement, nor is it by other groups. This should change. </p>
<h2>Why are we losing and wasting so much fish?</h2>
<p>Under the rain and burning sun, highly perishable fish need to be transported long distances to reach markets in Indonesia. It could take months for fish to travel from the sea to local markets or foreign retailers. </p>
<p>The quality of these fish can deteriorate very quickly without proper management to transport and store them, resulting in unintentional losses. </p>
<p>On fishing boats, fishers often deliberately discard some of the fish they’ve caught. They waste these fish to keep space in their refrigerators and ice boxes for more valuable fish. </p>
<p>On land, fish can quickly rot if they are unloaded on jetties with no roofs and soaked in water for too long. Fish sellers have to throw these away due to their poor quality. </p>
<p>The recent <a href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf">data</a> show bad fishing practices, such as throwing away unwanted catch at sea, potentially contribute to 8.2% of Indonesia’s seafood waste and loss. Another 6% of losses are due to poor transportation and poor storage systems, 9% due to poor processing and packaging processes, and 15% due to bad distribution networks. </p>
<h2>Better monitoring by governments and NGOs</h2>
<p>Government officers have provided information to fishers about how important it is to preserve the quality of fish. The government has also built dedicated storage facilities and fish landing sites, where fishers can unload their catch and prevent them from quickly perishing. </p>
<p>To monitor what fish species are being caught, the government record captured fish species and their weight. But, neither governments or NGOs have yet regularly collected data on fish loss and waste. </p>
<p>While it is difficult to monitor fishing practices at sea – it’s hard to tell if fishers keep all their catch or throw away some that they do not want - it is possible to monitor fish loss and waste on land. </p>
<p>Governments, such as Indonesia’s Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries and European Union as fish importers, and NGOs such as Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), an independent organisation that sets standards for sustainable fishing practices, should play a more active role in controlling fish loss by modifying their monitoring process and certification. </p>
<p>To issue catch certifications – currently intended to help Indonesia combat illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing practices – Indonesia’s Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries use the data on captured fish species and its weight after landing. </p>
<p>The ministry can improve on this <a href="http://pipp.djpt.kkp.go.id/detail_berita/8261">certification </a> process to encourage fishers to reduce fish loss and waste. </p>
<p>Those working in the fishery sectors from fishers, traders, to fish processors who can prevent the most fish loss may receive incentives, increasing their motivation to preserve the quality of fish in their handling of them. </p>
<p>The ministry is also piloting an integrated system, <a href="https://www.seafdec-oceanspartnership.org/news/indonesia-continues-progress-in-pursuit-of-end-to-end-seafood-traceability/">called STELINA</a>, to help fisheries business actors to meet policies and export regulation of destination countries. STELINA connects all supply chain information system as electronic tracking records.</p>
<p>The government should include in the system a certification that assesses fish loss and waste too. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) could modify its monitoring process before issuing its two eco-labelling certifications. MSC requires exporters and their suppliers to prove that their fish came from areas with healthy fish stocks and that fishing operations have minimal environmental impact. It also requires all fish coming from certified sustainable fisheries are identifiable, traceable and separated from other non-certified fisheries along the value chain. </p>
<p>MSC’s <a href="https://improvements.msc.org/database/fishery-traceability">traceability</a> system can be further developed to also assess fish loss and waste. But, they have not yet used it for that purpose. </p>
<p>MSC stated that their vision is to safeguard seafood supplies for future generation. So, minimising seafood waste and loss aligns with their vision, and we argue, should be part of their activities. </p>
<h2>Calculating benefits</h2>
<p>No one doubts the benefits of reducing seafood waste to local fishers, consumers, the nation and the environment. </p>
<p>For fishers, it will help them reduce financial loss. </p>
<p>Consumers can save their money to get better fish products. </p>
<p>The whole fishery value chain will be more efficient and, eventually, it will benefit the nation’s economy. </p>
<p>It will also be good for the environment as the system will require fewer resources and emit less greenhouse gas. </p>
<p>Every gram of 9 million metric tonnes of seafood that’s wasted and lost is nutrients taken away from malnourished children in Indonesia. Compensating for the lost and wasted fish by fishing more resources will deplete our ocean. Regulating fish loss and waste is not easy, but it is worth the effort to save $7 billion every year for the benefit of the Indonesian people.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Mulia Nurhasan co-wrote this article with Ray Chandra Purnama (National Program Officer UNIDO SMART-FISH Indonesia program).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109671/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mulia Nurhasan tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Regulating fish loss and waste is not easy, but it is worth the effort to save $7 billion every year for the benefit of the Indonesian people.Mulia Nurhasan, Researcher, CGIAR System OrganizationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.