tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/glass-ceiling-10889/articlesGlass ceiling – The Conversation2024-02-08T00:55:49Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223872024-02-08T00:55:49Z2024-02-08T00:55:49ZEven with a 30% quota in place, Indonesian women face an uphill battle running for office<p>In the 2019 general election, Indonesians voted more women into the national parliament than ever before. </p>
<p>After the first election of the post-authoritarian period in 1999, women’s representation was a paltry 8.8%, so the rise to 20.9% in 2019 seemed worth celebrating. Indeed, women activists had worked long and hard to reach this point. </p>
<p>Disappointed with the results of the first two elections, they had successfully pushed for a candidate quota, requiring parties to nominate at least 30% women. </p>
<p>This will again be tested in next week’s election. But given the barriers women candidates in Indonesia face, is the quota enough to raise representation?</p>
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<h2>Representation better, but not enough</h2>
<p>Under Indonesia’s open list proportional representation system, parties decide on candidate placement on the list, but voters can choose any candidate. In the past three elections, the quota has meant that in every electoral district at all three levels of parliament, women had to make up at least 30% of candidates. Additionally, <a href="https://www.insideindonesia.org/editions/edition-135-elections-2019/electoral-in-equity?highlight=WyJwcmloYXRpbmkiXQ==">one in every three</a> candidates on the party list had to be female.</p>
<p>With such a strong institutional framework, it is not surprising that enthusiasm after the 2019 election was <a href="https://www.newmandala.org/why-good-women-lose-elections/">muted</a>. Given the 2014 election had seen a slight fall in women’s representation, activists were relieved. But the result was still well below the aspirational 30% target, and below the <a href="https://data.ipu.org/women-averages">international average</a> at the time of 24.3%.</p>
<p>The results were also uneven, with more than 20% of electoral districts not electing any women to parliament. At the provincial and district level, the proportion of women elected to office was <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1868103421989720">even lower</a>, at only 18% and 15% respectively; 25 district parliaments had no women at all elected to office in 2019.</p>
<p>Why do women find it hard to be elected to office in Indonesia, and is this likely to change in 2024? </p>
<h2>Barriers of patriarchy, money and name recognition</h2>
<p>In many countries, it is said that when women run, they win. The main barrier to greater representation tends to be that women <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/25/upshot/the-problem-for-women-is-not-winning-its-deciding-to-run.html">don’t stand for office</a>. When they do, political parties don’t nominate them, or put them in unwinnable positions.</p>
<p>The quota in Indonesia gets around this problem. It encourages women to run and forces parties to nominate them. But <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-gender/article/voting-against-women-political-patriarchy-islam-and-representation-in-indonesia/97BA1999553E22A86FF497F25E49F40B">our research</a> has revealed that women candidates in Indonesia also face significant barriers from patriarchal attitudes held by many voters about whether women should take on political leadership roles. </p>
<p>Support for women’s political leadership has even dropped over the past decade. Meanwhile, Indonesia’s electoral system allows voters to discriminate against women without having to sacrifice party choice, as they would in a majoritarian voting system like that in Australia.</p>
<p>But the challenges don’t stop there. </p>
<p>Indonesia is a new democracy and political parties receive very little public financing. Candidates are expected to raise their own funds to run their campaigns. </p>
<p>The open-list system means candidates run not just against opponents from other parties, but also against their fellow party members, making politics <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Democracy_for_Sale/g-KEDwAAQBAJ?hl=en">highly personalised</a>. This has led to a dramatic rise in the cost of elections for individual candidates, with “money politics” coming to dominate election campaigns. </p>
<p>Given that women in Indonesia face high levels of <a href="https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2023/economy-profiles-5932ef6d39/">economic inequality</a>, the cost of campaigns makes competing <a href="https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/campaign-costs-impeding-womens-political-representation-in-indonesia/">difficult</a>.</p>
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<p>Clientelism also shapes the kind of women candidates that parties choose and where they place them on their lists. Elite women and celebrities are more likely to be nominated as they can finance themselves. They also have the networks and name recognition that can garner votes. In 2019, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1868103421991144">some 44%</a> of the women elected to the national parliament were members of political dynasties. </p>
<p>While some of these women are no doubt capable politicians, their dominance makes it harder for women candidates to come through grassroots organisations. Parties also spend less time developing women cadres to run as candidates, preferring to reach out to such “vote getters”.</p>
<h2>What about this time around?</h2>
<p>So what are the prospects for women’s representation in the upcoming elections? </p>
<p>The barriers to women’s election have not changed and are unlikely to change in the short term. As a result, incremental progress is the best that can be hoped for. </p>
<p>Several women politicians were instrumental in the passage of the <a href="https://www.kompas.id/baca/ilmu-pengetahuan-teknologi/2022/05/08/dari-senayan-mereka-perjuangkan-ruu-tpks">Anti-Sexual Violence bill</a> that passed last year. It’s possible that this increased visibility will give women a bump. </p>
<p>On the other hand, gender issues have not been central to the presidential or legislative campaigns so are <a href="https://asialink.unimelb.edu.au/insights/where-are-the-women-gender-perspectives-in-indonesias-2024-presidential-race">unlikely</a> to be uppermost in voters’ minds.</p>
<p>In fact, we may have reason to be more pessimistic. A seemingly minor change to the regulations on quota implementation means that for the first time in three elections, the requirement for a 30% candidate quota <a href="https://www.datatalk.asia/story/detail/68/women-face-tough-path-to-become-legislators.html">will not be applied</a> in every electoral district party list, but instead for the total number of women candidates of each party.</p>
<p>The changes date back to a <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/indonesia-s-push-for-more-women-candidates-in-general-elections-faces-setback">controversial regulation</a> issued by the Indonesian Electoral Commission (KPU) in April 2023. The regulation allowed rounding down when assessing the number of women a party has on a candidate list. For example, in electoral districts with eight seats, 30% is 2.4 candidates. Previously, a party would have had to field three women candidates. Now, fractions can be rounded down if under 0.5, so in our example, parties are only required to field two women candidates.</p>
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<p>A coalition of democracy and gender activists appealed against this regulation to the Supreme Court, and they won. But the electoral commission has indicated it will not enforce the court’s decision in this election. Democracy activists say that this means almost 18% of party lists <a href="https://www.kompas.id/baca/polhuk/2023/11/09/17-parpol-tak-penuhi-jumlah-minimal-30-persen-caleg-perempuan">do not meet</a> the requirement for 30% women candidates.</p>
<p>It could be that these changes will have little impact. After all, we know that most candidates are elected from the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app5.299">first position</a> on the list. </p>
<p>However, it sets a worrying precedent for women’s representation going forward. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-gender/article/voting-against-women-political-patriarchy-islam-and-representation-in-indonesia/97BA1999553E22A86FF497F25E49F40B">Our research</a> shows the 30% candidate quota for women is widely supported in Indonesia. Yet, it has effectively been watered down without public discussion and against the advice of the Supreme Court. </p>
<p>The actions of the electoral commission, apparently at the direction of a <a href="https://www.kompas.id/baca/polhuk/2023/05/17/komisi-ii-dpr-tolak-usulan-kpu-soal-penghitungan-keterwakilan-perempuan">male-dominated parliamentary commission</a>, underline again how the foundational institutions of Indonesian democracy are being eroded by the political elite.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222387/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally White receives funding from the Australian Research Council Discovery Project "Political Representation in Indonesia". </span></em></p>As the country prepares to go to the polls on February 14, will the low representation of women in parliament improve? Given the systemic barriers in place, probably not.Sally White, Research fellow, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2178452023-12-28T09:18:24Z2023-12-28T09:18:24ZBeing an ‘authentic’ CEO is a job in itself for women<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563363/original/file-20231204-21-zwli0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C839%2C5491%2C3400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/businesswoman-standing-on-top-mountain-using-577259494">Zenzen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Late last year I ended an almost six-year stint as a public- and policy-facing CEO in London to move to the countryside and work part-time. Prior to that, I’d spent three decades rising up the ranks in the media and university leadership. It has taken a clean break from the boardroom to clear the mental clutter. One bizarre realisation that has bubbled up is that I haven’t seen my natural hair colour in 40 years.</p>
<p>Like so many of my female contemporaries who began work in the 1970s and 80s, I found it necessary to conceal some personal characteristics and perform others to achieve seniority, then maintain it. This reminds me of a boss I once worked for and admired. On “dress down Fridays”, this powerful, experienced manager rocked up in an impeccable denim two-piece with shoulder pads and a silk business-dress shirt. In the same way, for decades I’ve masked parts of who I really am at work – how I look, sound and naturally act.</p>
<p>Listening to former deputy cabinet secretary <a href="https://covid19.public-inquiry.uk/documents/inq000273841-witness-statement-of-helen-macnamara-dated-09-10-2023/">Helen MacNamara’s testimony</a> to the Covid inquiry in November further underlined just how much women leaders self-filter to maintain professional acceptability. This rang particularly true when hearing one particularly <a href="https://covid19.public-inquiry.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/01172211/INQ000286059_0001-0002-.pdf">apologetic email</a> to senior Downing Street officials in April 2020:</p>
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<p>Just when you thought you were out of the woods on annoying emails from me…Has the PPE conversation picked up the fact that most PPE isn’t designed for female bodies…?</p>
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<p>For MacNamara to reach that level of civil service seniority only to have to self-deprecate (while being <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/covid-inquiry-dominic-cummings-helen-mcnamara-misogyny-stilettos/">referred to as a c***</a> by Dominic Cummings) is appalling. But it also exposes a huge gap in contemporary research.</p>
<h2>From the glass ceiling to the glass cliff</h2>
<p>There’s a plethora of cross-disciplinary literature on perceptions of women executives and their supposed gender-specific attributes. And of course, there have been advances in breaking the “glass ceiling” that stops women from rising to leadership positions. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.russellreynolds.com/en/insights/reports-surveys/global-ceo-turnover-index">research continues to show</a> how women that do reach senior positions are more likely to leave these roles much sooner than men. They fall off a “glass cliff” at the height of their careers. For example, when an organisation in crisis appoints a woman CEO and then dismisses her for failing to achieve a turnaround. As a result, women’s CEO tenures tend to be much shorter than men’s – lasting 5.2 years on average, compared to 8.1 years for men.</p>
<p>And, with a few <a href="https://www.lucyryan.co.uk/">notable exceptions</a>, there is virtually nothing out there charting the conscious or unconscious practices of women to acquire or maintain success. My current research draws on psychological theories of the self alongside cultural studies and class to critically analyse the reflections of women. I’m finding that, even when women leaders are celebrated for their “authenticity”, all-too-often the definition of authenticity in that professional context is a gender-specific, institutionally-driven social construct.</p>
<p>Authenticity here denotes behaviour that’s in line with core values, or a person’s inner “truth”, rather than decisions made purely to please others. But research suggests that for leaders to be seen as authentic, they must “perform authenticity” in line with gender norms. For example, in demonstrating that authenticity is something that leaders do, rather than have or are, one study shows that authenticity is not a trait, but <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gwao.12073">an embodied and embedded gender performance</a>. In other words, authenticity is not measured in the same way for male and female leaders. </p>
<h2>Working women’s ‘double bind’</h2>
<p>Certainly, in my long experience of being on both sides of recruitment panels, women often face <a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/orsc.2022.1599">the double bind</a> of needing to be seen as both competent and warm. Hair, clothing choice, tone of voice and non-verbal behaviour are all discussed as ways to achieve this in the accounts I have collected to date. Across industries from <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17569370.2021.1872891">fashion</a> to <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/S2044-994120220000016008/full/html">railways</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01492063231186342">women executives</a> feel <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijmeb/issue/76219/1192218">their appearance</a> is scrutinised as a measure of their competence in ways men’s clothing and demeanour isn’t.</p>
<p>Aside from hinting at the possible effort taken to craft and repeatedly edit emails before pressing “send”, MacNamara’s testimony also shows how women executives often strive to display expressions of “warmth” more than men do. A <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/10659129221141871">recent study of women MPs</a> made similar findings. Such research indicates women leaders feel the need to show maternal, caring qualities towards colleagues while at the same time being strong, firm and decisive – traits seen as “<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2022.926579/full">authentically male</a>”.</p>
<p>There are no fundamental biological differences that predispose men or women to be <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.676805/full?s=03">more effective leaders</a>, it’s the socialisation we all experience that can alter cognitive development and impact <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3cszv73">our approach to leadership</a>.</p>
<p>The world desperately needs authentic, ethical and compassionate leadership – by men and women – right now. Businesses and boards across all industries need to reflect very carefully on how to support female talent. Developing a deeper understanding of the sheer psychological effort many women devote to their roles would be a great place to start.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217845/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Niblock does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why many women leaders break the glass ceiling only to fall off a glass cliff.Sarah Niblock, Visiting Professor on the Doctoral Programme in Counselling Psychology, York St John UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2167962023-11-09T20:33:22Z2023-11-09T20:33:22ZSmashing the ‘concrete ceiling’: Black women are still missing from corporate leadership<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/smashing-the-concrete-ceiling-black-women-are-still-missing-from-corporate-leadership" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>While white women may speak of breaking through the “glass ceiling,” for many Black women, it’s more like a “<a href="https://ssir.org/articles/entry/the_concrete_ceiling">concrete ceiling</a>.” Black women experience unique and formidable barriers in the workforce that are not only difficult to break, but also obscure their view of career advancement opportunities.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ryerson.ca/diversity/news-events/2020/08/black-leaders-are-nearly-non-existent-on-canadian-boards-according-to-ryerson-s-diversity-institute-s-new-study-of-canadian-board-diversity/">A comprehensive study in 2020</a> exposed the harsh reality of Black representation on Canadian corporate boards: Out of 1,639 board positions across eight major Canadian cities, only 0.8 per cent were occupied by Black directors. </p>
<p>According to the report, in Toronto, where the Black community makes up <a href="https://www.statcan.gc.ca/o1/en/plus/441-more-half-canadas-black-population-calls-ontario-home">7.5 per cent of the population</a>, Black people hold a mere 0.3 per cent of corporate board seats. </p>
<p>These statistics become even more disheartening when compared to the representation of Black women on corporate boards. As of 2020, although <a href="https://www.osler.com/en/resources/governance/2020/report-2020-diversity-disclosure-practices-diversity-and-leadership-at-canadian-public-companies">women held about 21.5 per cent of directorship positions</a> in Toronto Stock Exchange companies, Black women held less than 0.8 per cent of these positions. </p>
<p>The numbers paint a clear picture: there need to be continued efforts to enhance diversity and inclusion within Canadian corporate boardrooms.</p>
<p>There are measures Canada can take to crack the concrete ceiling, including establishing racial diversity quotas specifically for Black women, <a href="https://theconversation.com/census-2021-canadians-are-talking-about-race-but-the-census-hasnt-caught-up-158343">collecting disaggregated racial diversity data</a>, providing mentorship opportunities and raising awareness of unconscious bias among recruiters. These are all critical steps toward achieving equitable and inclusive corporate governance in Canada.</p>
<h2>The problem with the term ‘visible minorities’</h2>
<p>The term “visible minorities” is quite a broad category that obscures the representation of Black women, making it difficult to ascertain how and to what extent they are actually represented. </p>
<p>In 2018, <a href="https://www.parl.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/bill/C-25/royal-assent">significant amendments</a> were made to the <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-44/">Canada Business Corporations Act</a>, which regulates Canadian business corporations at the federal level. </p>
<p>These changes came into effect in 2020 and require companies to report on the inclusion of four equity-seeking groups: women, visible minorities, Indigenous people and persons with disabilities. The goal of these amendments is to improve the diversity at board and senior management levels.</p>
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<img alt="A diverse group of people in business attire sit at a conference table behind a glass door" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558167/original/file-20231107-29-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Changes made to Canada’s business regulation act are designed to improve the diversity at board and senior management levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>In October 2023, <a href="https://www.osler.com/en/resources/governance/2023/report-2023-diversity-disclosure-practices-diversity-and-leadership-at-canadian-public-companies">reporting based on this requirement</a> revealed that 10.2 per cent of corporate board members were visible minorities, 0.7 per cent were persons with disabilities, 0.9 per cent were Indigenous people and 28.5 per cent were women.</p>
<p>While mandatory disclosure of representation across these equity-seeking groups — each grappling with their unique challenges — is a commendable step towards transparency, we also need to ask a critical question: “Who are the women being appointed to these boards?”</p>
<h2>Anti-Black racism is a distinct issue</h2>
<p>About seven years ago, <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2016/10/statement-media-united-nations-working-group-experts-people-african-descent">the United Nations Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent visited Canada</a> and emphasized the need to address the unique challenges faced by Black people due to a history of enslavement, racial segregation and marginalization. </p>
<p>It is important to recognize that <a href="https://sustain.ubc.ca/about/resources/towards-healthy-city-addressing-anti-black-racism-vancouver">anti-Black racism is a distinct issue</a> that demands dedicated attention, going beyond the scope of current social justice frameworks. What particularly sets Black women apart is <a href="https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship/3007/">how they face overlapping discrimination based on race and gender</a>.</p>
<p>Black women often grapple with the “angry Black woman syndrome” stereotype that characterizes them as <a href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/b2a44966bb20d1064b5967a910d4931a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750">“combative, easily angered, overly aggressive, and difficult to work with,”</a> despite their undeniable competence. </p>
<p>This stereotype does not bode well for a candidate’s perceived interpersonal skills and their ability to contribute effectively to boards, or to even secure mentors. Consequently, even when Black women are highly qualified, <a href="https://theconversation.com/sarah-jamas-censure-making-people-feel-uncomfortable-is-part-of-the-job-216704">they face systemic biases that hinder their progress</a>.</p>
<h2>Making corporate diversity real for Black women</h2>
<p>Canada’s approach to fostering diversity on corporate boards has largely taken the form of <a href="https://www.cba.org/Sections/Business-Law/Resources/Resources/2022/EssayWinner2022EngBusiness">“comply or explain” diversity rules and disclosures</a>, where companies either follow the rules or explain why they don’t.</p>
<p>However, these measures are clearly not working, as they have not effectively addressed the under-representation of Black women at the corporate level. What we need are <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/lizelting/2022/09/22/stop-saying-quotas-dont-work-because-they-demonstrably-do/?sh=3a39194c5b9c">specific quotas set by both corporations and governments</a> dedicated to the inclusion of Black women. We also need to collect detailed data on the racial distribution of corporate boards, rather than relying on broad categorizations of “visible minorities.”</p>
<figure class="align-For authentic inclusivity and equity to blossom, we must cultivate a corporate culture that supports and amplified Black women. ">
<img alt="A young Black women points to a whitebaord while giving a presentation to a table of people." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557557/original/file-20231103-25-epby01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Anti-Black racism is a distinct issue that demands dedicated attention, going beyond the scope of current social justice frameworks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Even still, quotas and racial diversity data are not enough; we must combat the <a href="https://hbr.org/2020/08/why-do-boards-have-so-few-black-directors">deeply ingrained racism entrenched in recruitment processes</a> to ensure that Black women are not mere tokens, but have meaningful roles and opportunities to influence decisions. </p>
<p>Achieving this requires heightened awareness of biases and continuous anti-racism training for recruiters and board members. It also requires establishing and supporting organizations dedicated to providing specialized training, mentorship and coaching sessions tailored to helping Black women succeed in these positions. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/black-lives-matter-movement-uses-creative-tactics-to-confront-systemic-racism-143273">Racial justice movements like Black Lives Matter</a> have shone a spotlight on systemic racism across various facets of society, including the issue of diversity on corporate boards. Current measures to enhance gender parity and racial representation often overlook the unique challenges faced by Black women, resulting in their continued under-representation, or even absence, from corporate boards. </p>
<p>For authentic inclusivity and equity to blossom, we must cultivate a corporate culture that robustly champions, supports and amplifies the voices and contributions of Black women.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216796/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oludolapo Makinde does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>October was Women’s History Month in Canada, but some challenges, such as the notable absence of Black women in the highest echelons of corporate leadership, are far from in the past.Oludolapo Makinde, Doctoral Candidate, Peter A. Allard School of Law, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2141362023-10-31T21:38:18Z2023-10-31T21:38:18ZStuck in the waiting room: Why women and minority groups are still underrepresented in top management<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549672/original/file-20230913-33750-imqte4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C4470%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The percentage of women at the helm of companies in North America still hovers around five per cent.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past few years, there has been a great deal of research looking at how well women are represented in top companies. The findings continue to be distressing. </p>
<p>Whether in Canada or the United States, the proportion of women in top management in large organizations still hovers around five per cent. </p>
<p>Can we expect this percentage to increase over the next few years? Will today’s pool of up-and-coming female talent ensure a substantial increase in the number of female CEOs, or will other strategies be required to change the game?</p>
<p>As dean of the John Molson School of Business and a decades-long expert on the place of women in the upper echelons of the business world, we are interested in explaining the current standstill.</p>
<h2>Diversity in the C-Suite</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Diversity-in-the-C-Suite%3A-The-Dismal-State-of-Among-Larcker-Tayan/192970d4859158281b752be4b76bdf7e8dc0a2c6">recent study</a> published by Stanford University professors David F. Larcker and Brian Tayan provides us with some interesting information on this subject. The aim of the study was to identify the potential for women and members of cultural communities to be appointed to CEO positions in the top 100 U.S. companies. The authors evaluated those who hold positions that report directly to a CEO. </p>
<p>The conclusions of this analysis are worrying:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>only 25 per cent of women hold such positions;</p></li>
<li><p>few women can be found in the functions that have the greatest potential for promotion, i.e. operations (15 per cent), financial services (14 per cent) and legal services (35 per cent);</p></li>
<li><p>the functions that offer fewer opportunities for promotion to CEO, according to the criteria used to select potential CEOs, are occupied to a greater extent by women (head of human resources, risk management, communications, etc.).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The greater presence of women in these support functions illustrates <a href="https://hbr.org/2007/09/women-and-the-labyrinth-of-leadership">the leadership labyrinth</a>, i.e. the complex, dead-end detours that women face in their careers due to stereotypes, biases and family responsibilities that they continue to shoulder alone, despite better sharing of these functions with their male partners.</p>
<p>Why, after so many decades of efforts to increase female representation in decision-making bodies, do so few women manage to hold these positions? We are proposing three sources of indirect discrimination as an explanation for this.</p>
<h2>Lack of experience, a discriminatory criterion</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.spencerstuart.com/research-and-insight/predicting-ceo-success-when-potential-outperforms-experience">In a recent article</a> published by consulting firm Spencer Stuart, it was noted that the demand for experienced CEOs had almost quadrupled since the turn of the century, rising from four per cent in 1997 to 16 per cent in 2019. According to executives consulted by the firm, those in charge of selection processes assume that prior CEO experience is a predictor of the impact a candidate will have on shareholder value.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.spencerstuart.com/-/media/2019/hbr-ceo-lifecycle/hbr_ceo_lifecycle_spencerstuart.pdf">The findings of another study</a> carried out by the same firm on the life cycle of CEOs and their performance cast doubt on the assumption that there is a link between prior experience and shareholder value. </p>
<p>After analyzing the performance of 855 S&P CEOs over a 20-year period, the firm found that first-time CEOs produced a higher rate of shareholder return (TSR) than did experienced CEOs. These non-experienced CEOs had also demonstrated the advantage of staying in the job longer and having a less volatile performance overall. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272806955_La_remuneration_des_dirigeants_mythes_et_recommandations">According to the results of another study</a> carried out a few years ago by Professors Michel Magnan of Concordia University and Sylvie St-Onge of HEC Montréal, less than 10 per cent of the differences in the stock market performance of the major Canadian banks can be explained by factors specific to each bank. These include the decisions and initiatives of the incumbent CEO, as well as the bank’s employees, customer base, business location and business mix.</p>
<p>The criterion of prior CEO experience, and the importance attached to it, is a factor of indirect discrimination that prevents women, members of cultural communities and young talent from having access to these positions. In addition to being discriminatory, this criterion perpetuates the status quo and limits access to such positions to a restricted group of individuals.</p>
<h2>Hiring people who look like us</h2>
<p>The concept of “cultural fit” aims to select talented individuals who are in line with the company’s culture, i.e. its values, vision, role, objectives and other elements that make up its character. </p>
<p>While using this criterion to recruit has the advantage of attracting talent who will integrate and perform quickly, it has the disadvantage of favouring the status quo and majority rule. It also means we surround ourselves with people who resemble us, whether in terms of gender, age, cultural origins or other differences <a href="https://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/cultural-fit-discrimination">that might be seen as disrupting the status quo</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.talentinnovation.org/_private/assets/IDMG-ExecSummFINAL-CTI.pdf">A study</a> from the Center for Talent Innovation clearly shows that innovation thrives in an environment where leaders accept difference, are open to change and disruption, and encourage free expression.</p>
<h2>The underestimated financial value of diversity</h2>
<p>A group of researchers from Bryant University and Concordia University <a href="https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/AMPROC.2023.134bp">carried out an empirical study of the financial performance</a> of CEOs at the head of publicly traded U.S. companies. More than 11,600 observations were made each year over a 15-year period (1998-2013). </p>
<p>They found that women of colour and white women outperformed men of colour, who outperformed white men. According to the authors, these results can be explained by the fact that from a very young age, people from minority backgrounds are told by those around them that they need to develop resilience, and that if they want to succeed, they need to be smarter and do better than anyone else. </p>
<h2>More human leadership</h2>
<p>In a world where volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity prevail, the leadership qualities that are appropriate to such a context should guide selection processes. These qualities — agility, adaptability, empathy, humility — can be found in both men and women. These are what we call “soft skills.” </p>
<p><a href="https://hbr.org/2022/07/the-c-suite-skills-that-matter-most">According to a study published in August 2022</a>, the quest for these qualities has become increasingly important in job descriptions for senior management positions over the past decade. Prioritizing the qualities that allow us to identify the best candidates is the only way we will ensure a level playing field for women and men alike. </p>
<p>Companies can benefit from recognizing the importance of diversity in talent and leadership styles. By promoting the best people to positions of power, companies will become more efficient and more humane.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214136/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>After decades of efforts to increase female representation in corporate decision-making bodies, few women are managing to take the reins of power.Louise Champoux-Paillé, Cadre en exercice, John Molson School of Business, Concordia UniversityAnne-Marie Croteau, Dean, John Molson School of Business, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105502023-08-20T20:04:26Z2023-08-20T20:04:26ZJust the beginning: 7 ways the Women’s World Cup can move the dial on women’s sport forever<p>So, that’s it then. The 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup, hosted on Australian and New Zealand soil for the first time, came to an end on Sunday night as Spain beat England 1-0 in the final, after the Matildas lost 2-0 to Sweden on Saturday to finish fourth, their best ever result.</p>
<p>On top of the historic result, the Matildas captured the hearts of a nation. They broke television streaming records, with the semi-final match against England becoming the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/aug/17/matildas-re-write-history-books-as-semi-final-smashes-tv-ratings-records">most-watched program</a> since the current rating method was established in 2001.</p>
<p>Jubilant scenes erupted at live sites, pubs and homes across the nation. One viral video even captured a flight full of international travelers <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/video/2023/aug/13/the-moment-a-plane-full-of-passengers-erupts-over-the-matildas-win-except-one-video">tuning in mid-air to watch the Matildas’ penalty shootout</a> against France.</p>
<p>The Women’s World Cup has also delivered an estimated <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/fifa-womens-world-cup-matildas-create-7-billion-boost/64a76441-124c-480e-8b65-bcb84119290c">A$7.6 billion boost</a> to the Australian economy.</p>
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<p>Through countless instances such as these, we’re experiencing not just a great sporting moment, but a great cultural one too.</p>
<p>But, as anyone in and around women’s football knows, the Women’s World Cup needs to be more than a four-week football festival.</p>
<p>It needs to move the dial on the treatment of, and investment in, women’s sport, including with the following big-ticket items.</p>
<h2>1. Celebrate and extend the cultural shift</h2>
<p>The “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235791144_France_Media_Coverage_of_the_Athens_Olympic_Games_by_the_French_Press_The_Olympic_Games_Effect_in_L'Equipe_and_Le_Monde">Olympic Games effect</a>” often sees coverage of women’s sports increase during the Olympics, where people are cheering on not their usual men’s or women’s teams, but their country.</p>
<p>But the Women’s World Cup has generated something incredible: women inspiring girls, women, boys, and men with feats that simultaneously position gender front and centre and inspire changing attitudes around the skills, capability, and value of girls and women.</p>
<p>Encouraging and continuing this cultural shift will be equally, if not more, game-changing.</p>
<p>For starters, it will ensure young girls have idols to look up to – which women’s football greats such as Brazil’s Marta <a href="https://keepup.com.au/news/womens-world-cup-news-scores-broadcast-details-brazil-france-panama-jamaica-italy-argentina-south-africa-sweden">missed out on</a>. </p>
<p>We must cement such a shift with good policy and investment to promote further inclusion. This should have implications beyond sport, including extending to improving women’s representation in boardrooms.</p>
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<h2>2. Acknowledge no single event can fix everything</h2>
<p>In speaking about AFLW, but in a sentiment equally applicable to football, sports journalist Neroli Meadows noted that <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/television-boom-for-womens-football-20160331-gnvewc.html">one day the concept of women not being able to play football</a>, or their playing being seen as a novelty, will be as foreign a concept as women not being allowed to vote.</p>
<p>The 2023 Women’s World Cup has gone at least partway to achieving that normalisation.</p>
<p>But it’s imperative not to overplay what the team and the tournament have brought. No single sport event can <a href="https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/business-and-human-rights/publications/fifa-2023-womens-world-cup-human-rights-risk">neatly address all gender equality issues</a> (we’ve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14443058.2019.1575262">heard such optimism and hype</a> around women’s sport and its gender-equality-advancing ability before).</p>
<p>So while it’s important to celebrate the wins, it’s equally important to recognise the tournament isn’t the endgame but an important next step.</p>
<h2>3. Use the data to align value with investment</h2>
<p>Until recently, the absence of investment in women’s football and the failure to broadcast matches meant the resulting data have only ever shown us what women’s football is not.</p>
<p>That lack of data is also <a href="https://www.codesports.com.au/football/world-cup/why-fifa-is-standing-its-ground-on-tv-rights-valuations-for-the-2023-womens-world-cup/news-story/f4b8b51eac305c20778cb816ed30717e">why broadcasters were able to lowball FIFA</a> when it was trying to sell the 2023 Women’s World Cup broadcast rights. It’s also why Channel 7 was able to secure the rights to screen 15 matches <a href="https://www.mediaweek.com.au/sevens-best-buy-womens-world-cup-rights-james-warburtons-bargain-matildas-score/#:%7E:text=Reports%20have%20speculated%20that%20Optus,rights%20to%20screen%2015%20matches">for just A$4–5 million</a> (since described as “the deal of the century”).</p>
<p>It’s likewise why women’s football hasn’t been considered important enough <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/reason-not-all-fifa-womens-world-cup-matches-are-on-free-to-air-tv/7f4svhq7z">to warrant inclusion under anti-siphoning laws</a>, which facilitate events of national significance being broadcast on free-to-air television to ensure maximum accessibility.</p>
<p>That cannot be allowed to happen again. The astonishing viewership data and record ticket sales must be leveraged into real commercial and gender-equality change possibilities.</p>
<h2>4. Invest in gender-specific research and gear</h2>
<p>A spate of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries extinguished the tournament dreams of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-05/acl-injuries-see-best-footballers-miss-2023-womens-world-cup/102318716">some of the world’s top women’s footballers</a>. </p>
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<p>Oft-cited research confirms women are <a href="https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/sports-injuries-gender">up to eight times more likely</a> to suffer ACL injuries than men. But there remains little women-specific research into ACL injury causes, much less prevention. Addressing this glaring absence is urgent.</p>
<p>This is symptomatic of wider issues around research overlooking women. For example, it was only last week that the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/aug/08/menstrual-discs-may-be-better-for-heavy-periods-than-pads-or-tampons-study">world’s first study into period product absorption that used actual blood</a>, not saline or water, was released. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-study-much-of-what-were-told-about-gym-exercises-and-resistance-training-is-from-studies-of-males-by-men-205753">New study: much of what we're told about gym exercises and resistance training is from studies of males, by men</a>
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<p>The need to address other barriers is similarly important. For example, poorly fitting kits contribute to a high attrition rate for girls and women from sport. A <a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/about-vu/news-events/news/vu-teams-up-with-puma-on-sport-uniform-recommendations">Victoria University study</a> confirmed what most girls and women already knew: done well, uniforms imbue comfort and confidence. But done poorly, they cause discomfort and self-consciousness and can put girls off wanting to continue sport.</p>
<p>Girls and women want flexibility and self-determination in uniform selection, and shorts and T-shirt options rather than skirts or dresses. Also, breathable dark material that masks sweat – so we should get rid of white shorts.</p>
<p>There’s also a glaring need to consider kits beyond outfield players: women referees remain overlooked. </p>
<p>Likewise, women’s goalkeeper kits have been <a href="https://keepup.com.au/news/matildas-goalkeeper-kit-mackenzie-arnold-mary-earps-england-nike/#:%7E:text=Kit%20manufacturer%20Nike%20opted%20against,their%20kits%20designed%20by%20Nike">unavailable for purchase</a> this Women’s World Cup, despite many ‘keepers nation-inspiring defensive efforts. If ever there were something that summed up how women’s football simultaneously excels while being thwarted, this is it.</p>
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<h2>5. Appoint women to senior positions, but avoid the 'glass cliff’</h2>
<p>England coach Sarina Weigman was the only woman coach in the final four, and women remain a long way from holding apex positions such as the president of FIFA.</p>
<p>This tournament needs to open the door for women to be making decisions for women’s sport.</p>
<p>At the same time, we need to be measured and sustainable in the approach we take. We need to steer clear of the “glass cliff” <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00433.x">phenomenon</a> – where women are awarded senior positions only during tumult and the men who usually hold those roles are abandoning ship. </p>
<p>Establishing solid, steady training and mentoring programs and networks is a must.</p>
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<h2>6. Pay them properly</h2>
<p>Providing <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/a-matildas-public-holiday-won-t-fix-football-s-funding-failures-20230813-p5dw6l.html">a public holiday</a> if the Matildas were to have won the final is all well and good. But there remains one key missing element for them, as it is for all women’s sports: pay and prize money commensurate with their contributions and talent.</p>
<p>Having achieved pay parity in 2019 and now earning base payments and bonuses for progressing to the knockout stages, the Matildas are in a slightly better position than their netball peers the Diamonds. The latter <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-just-won-the-netball-world-cup-why-isnt-there-room-for-multiple-womens-world-cups-in-our-sports-media-211413">won the netball World Cup</a> last week but received no pay and no bonuses for their efforts.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-just-won-the-netball-world-cup-why-isnt-there-room-for-multiple-womens-world-cups-in-our-sports-media-211413">Australia just won the netball world cup. Why isn’t there room for multiple women’s world cups in our sports media?</a>
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<p>However, FIFA Women’s World Cup prize money, still a fraction of the men’s prize money, remains the elephant in the room. Total prize money for this year’s women’s tournament was <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/how-much-will-the-winners-of-the-womens-world-cup-take-home/8atcu9phr">US$110 million</a> (A$165 million), while the total for the 2022 men’s edition was US$440 million (A$688 million). </p>
<p>FIFA has paid lip service to achieving prize money parity in coming years, but there’s little to stop it getting there now — especially off the back of record ticket sales.</p>
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<h2>7. ‘Correct the internet’</h2>
<p>Women’s contributions have traditionally been devalued or overlooked (a phenomenon known in science as the “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/285482">Matilda effect</a>”). This has happened across many domains, including women’s football.</p>
<p>For example, often the historical record has seen football records such as the world’s leading international goalscorer misattributed to men. This is actually Canadian forward Christine Sinclair, having scored 190 international goals, not Cristiano Ronaldo, who’s scored 123.</p>
<p>Former New Zealand international footballer Rebecca Sowden has launched a campaign to “<a href="https://www.teamheroine.com/correct-the-internet#:%7E:text=So%20Team%20Heroine%20created%20Correct,just%20a%20couple%20of%20clicks.">correct the internet</a>”, aided by a gender-bias-correcting approach <a href="https://blog.google/products/search/how-were-making-it-easier-to-find-results-on-womens-sports/?fbclid=IwAR0avwymBtqZBrxIHxisBxxvSWgSrt9tnv0y1JFt6ZuMT1GiC7hv4cuqNS0">Google announced</a> in July.</p>
<p>Efforts such as this aim to accurately place the women at the centre of this cultural and sporting revolution, appropriately affording them their place in history.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210550/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona Crawford has worked in and around football for more than a decade, including having previously worked for Football Federation Australia/Football Australia.</span></em></p>We’re experiencing a great sporting and cultural moment. But the Women’s World Cup needs to be more than a four-week football festival.Fiona Crawford, Adjunct Lecturer at the Centre for Justice, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2102472023-07-26T22:47:09Z2023-07-26T22:47:09ZThe progress of women in the workplace is at a standstill. How can we break through the glass ceiling?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539041/original/file-20230724-27-ph4kyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C1899%2C1200&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The progression of women in organizations is undermined by stereotypes and prejudices.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Women are promoted less than men because they are deemed to have less leadership potential than men. </p>
<p>These are the findings <a href="https://danielle-li.github.io/assets/docs/PotentialAndTheGenderPromotionGap.pdf">of a study published in 2022</a> by professors Alan Benson of the University of Minnesota, Danielle Li of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) and Kelly Shue of Yale University and the NBER. Their conclusion is based on the consultation of 30,000 performance evaluation forms of employees working in a large American retail chain.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/women-arent-promoted-because-managers-underestimate-their-potential">Prof. Shue</a>, performance assessment is generally very factual and based on very concrete evaluation criteria. Assessing leadership potential, on the other hand, is more subjective and can give free rein to the biases that shape the perception of leadership as conceived by those who carry out these assessments.</p>
<p>“What we commonly talk about in terms of management and potential are characteristics such as assertiveness, execution skills, charisma, leadership and ambition. These are, I believe, real traits. They are also very subjective and stereotypical, associated with male leaders. What we have seen in the data is a fairly strong bias against women in assessments of potential.”</p>
<p>According to these researchers, women’s evaluations of their promotion potential are getting progressively lower than men’s as they rise through the ranks of the organization, leading to an increasingly solid glass ceiling.</p>
<p>This is what we’ve seen when we’ve looked at the presence of women in senior management positions for decades, notably as I have, as dean and executive-in-residence at the John Molson School of Business, as well as co-director of the Barry F. Lorenzetti Centre for Women Entrepreneurship and Leadership. Things are not changing fast. <a href="https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2022">According to a recent World Economic Forum report on gender inequality in the world</a>, at this rate, it would take another 132 years (compared to 136 in 2021) to close the gender gap.</p>
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À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/avec-les-nouvelles-generations-il-faut-voir-autrement-les-cheminements-de-carriere-surtout-ceux-des-femmes-200201">Avec les nouvelles générations, il faut voir autrement les cheminements de carrière – surtout ceux des femmes</a>
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<h2>A better work-life balance</h2>
<p>As <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/ca/%7E/media/mckinsey/locations/north%20america/canada/gender%20diversity%20at%20work/gender_diversity_at_work_in_canada.pdf">the consulting firm McKinsey</a> illustrates, only 30 per cent of senior management positions and only five per cent of CEO positions in Canada are held by women, <a href="https://www.securities-administrators.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/2022oct27-58-314-avis-acvmWOB.pdf">according to a census by the Canadian Securities Administrators</a>.</p>
<p>In addition to perception issues, there are a number of other factors that explain the scarcity of female talent in senior management. These include the demands of balancing work and family, women’s choices for a better life balance, disillusionment about their chances of accessing these strategic positions, and so on.</p>
<p>However, we will be focusing on the following two questions, which were addressed <a href="https://women-initiative-foundation.com/en/the-foundation/">at our last master’s class for the Women Initiative Foundation</a>, which took place in May at the John Molson School of Business:</p>
<p>1) Is there a trend towards a new conception of leadership that is more multidimensional and parity-based and that fosters greater equity?</p>
<p>2) Can women be more proactive in their quest to make a greater impact at the highest levels of decision-making?</p>
<h2>For a new leadership type</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/pandemie-les-femmes-font-elles-de-meilleures-leaders-137048">In an article published on <em>La Conversation</em></a> in April 2020, which I co-authored with Anne-Marie Croteau, dean of the John Molson School of Business, we reflected on the challenges of the 21st century that will characterize the evolution of leadership. </p>
<p>More specifically, we referred to climate change, health, the environment and the depletion of the Earth’s resources, the aging population, the shortage of talent and the development of new technologies. All these major factors are reshaping the game and calling for a new type of leadership, different from the command-and-control approach which marked the last century.</p>
<p>This new type of leadership draws heavily on resilience, courage, flexibility, listening, empathy, collaboration, benevolence and recognition of the collective contribution. The involvement of everyone’s intelligence becomes the key to success. As parity in management functions is gradually taking place, these other leadership characteristics are emerging.</p>
<p>In order to overcome the obstacles of the 21st century and achieve success, organizations need to diversify their pool of talent as much as possible, particularly in terms of gender. It is now high time to review the definition of leadership to make it more multidimensional, referring to all the qualities it must include and promote.</p>
<h2>Career-boosting mandates</h2>
<p>Given this move towards a new approach to leadership among today’s managers, we can ask ourselves about the opportunities that women can seize to raise their profile within organizations and develop their expertise. </p>
<p>One of the strategies that deserves attention <a href="https://hbr.org/2014/06/21st-century-talent-spotting">is the acceptance of mandates that we will call career boosters</a>, and which can be defined as follows: a short-term role that enables the acquisition of new strategic knowledge while creating significant added value for the organization.</p>
<p><a href="https://hbr.org/2014/06/21st-century-talent-spotting">According to a study carried out among senior business executives</a>, 71 per cent of respondents identified these types of mandates as having been their career boosters. Another <a href="https://www.kornferry.com/insights/this-week-in-leadership/strategy-activation-planning-leadership-development-journey">study by the consultancy Korn Ferry</a> even described these types of roles as the most valuable career acceleration experience, ahead of mentoring, training and even networking with more experienced leaders.</p>
<h2>Raising awareness in organizations</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, this type of special assignment is offered more frequently to men than to women, with administrative assignments (note-taking, event organization, making coffee for meetings) being the most frequently offered to women <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/women-serve-coffee-at-work-how-to-say-no_l_5d35c9bfe4b004b6adb352a5">as well as those that do not lead to promotion</a>.</p>
<p>Organizations have a duty to be mindful of this discrepancy by documenting the assignment of such mandates by gender, highlighting the inequities that such an assignment process can engender, linking the granting of such mandates to individual performance and, above all, consciously offering more such mandates to women in order to correct these unconscious prejudices.</p>
<p>It’s possible to break through the glass ceiling, but succeeding in this major challenge requires a fresh look at leadership. Opportunities for career acceleration must be offered to people of all genders. Our organizations also need to become more aware of the hidden inequities embedded in promotion processes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210247/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>To counter stereotypes and prejudices of women at work, we need to take a fresh look at leadership and encourage career-boosting mandates.Louise Champoux-Paillé, Cadre en exercice, John Molson School of Business, Concordia UniversityAnne-Marie Croteau, Dean, John Molson School of Business, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2053532023-05-31T12:38:48Z2023-05-31T12:38:48ZMost super rich couples have breadwinning husbands and stay-at-home wives, contrasting sharply with everyone else<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528142/original/file-20230524-15-8jribu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=484%2C0%2C6776%2C4671&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Uber wealthy couples are rather traditional when it comes to who works and who doesn’t. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/business-pasion-royalty-free-image/186565267?adppopup=true">EXTREME-PHOTOGRAPHER/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Men are the sole breadwinners in over half of super rich heterosexual couples – defined as those in the top 1% of households – while the women are not employed, according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad061">our new peer-reviewed study</a>. That’s twice the rate of less affluent heterosexual couples.</p>
<p>Our finding is based on 30 years of data, from 1989 to 2019, from the Federal Reserve’s <a href="https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/scfindex.htm">Survey of Consumer Finances</a>. We examined how couples divide work, focusing on three different wealthy groups – the super rich, the just plain rich and the upper middle class, as defined by their wealth percentile, and compared them with those of less affluent couples. </p>
<p>To get a better sense of how much money we’re talking about and the extreme differences among these groups, super rich couples in the U.S. had a median net worth of US$17.6 million in 2019. That compares with $2.3 million for rich couples – those in the next 9% of the wealth distribution – and $796,000 for the upper middle class, who were in the 10% after that. Our fourth group comprised everyone below the 80% threshold, with median wealth of just $67,000. </p>
<p>We found that, in 2019, 53% of super rich heterosexual couples had arrangements in which the woman was not gainfully employed, compared with 27% of rich couples, 20% of upper-middle-class couples and 26% of less affluent couples. </p>
<p>On the flip side, just 28% of super rich couples had both the man and woman working full time. In rich, upper-middle-class, and less affluent households, that figure was 51%, 61% and 50%, respectively. </p>
<p>Looking at the data over time is revealing. Whereas the share of couples in which only the man worked has modestly declined over the last 30 years for the other groups, it remained high among the super rich. </p>
<p><iframe id="WMMD7" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/WMMD7/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The uniquely high prevalence of sole male-breadwinner arrangements among the super rich is a symptom of stark class and gender inequalities in the U.S. economy. </p>
<p>Rising class inequality between the super rich and all others <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418820702">has been driven</a> by a handful of men’s incomes and wealth rising exponentially compared with everyone else’s. </p>
<p>And even though <a href="https://doi.org/10.15195/v9.a6">women have made progress</a> in entering professional jobs that pay $100,000 or more, the glass ceiling – or perhaps more appropriately, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418820702">diamond ceiling</a> – is still firmly intact. </p>
<p>Accordingly, a woman’s objectively high income may seem less consequential to the overall household finances when her husband earns an exorbitantly high income of a million or more. Or, it may seem trivial when the couple has massive amounts of wealth exceeding $10 million.</p>
<p>The absence of women at the top of the economic ladder has many implications. </p>
<p>The super rich are inordinately powerful in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-020321-031544">workplace</a> and in <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691162423/affluence-and-influence">politics</a>. If the majority of the wealthiest married women are not in the workforce, it is unlikely they have the same degree of public influence as their husbands. So men continue to exercise the majority of societal power associated with the super rich. </p>
<p>We also know that family structure shapes people’s worldviews and behaviors. Previous research shows that men with stay-at-home wives <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839214528704">are less supportive of women</a> in their own workplaces, including being less likely to promote them. This suggests that the most powerful leaders in the workplace and in politics may not be as eager to support women’s career advancement or family-friendly workplace policies as some might hope.</p>
<h2>What we still don’t know</h2>
<p>We don’t know what exactly drives super rich couples’ work-family decisions. </p>
<p>We believe that at least some of the women in these couples exit the labor force after their partner achieves economic success – and their incomes are no longer needed to maintain their lifestyle.</p>
<p>It’s also possible that some super rich men’s wealth accumulation was made possible, in part, by their wives’ unpaid labor throughout their careers. </p>
<p>The most highly compensated jobs in the U.S. economy tend to require <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12596">long hours</a>, frequent travel and the ability to be on call 24/7 – all of which tend to be incompatible with raising children and managing a household.</p>
<p>Men may have been able to meet these intense job demands and become financially successful because they have wives who stepped back from their own careers, freeing them from the majority of household responsibilities – a dynamic that few women have access to.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205353/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While most heterosexual couples are dual-earners, super rich couples continue to have gender-traditional arrangements in which the man is the sole breadwinner.Jill Yavorsky, Assistant Professor of Sociology, University of North Carolina – CharlotteSarah Thebaud, Associate Professor, Sociology, University of California, Santa BarbaraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981972023-01-20T13:38:40Z2023-01-20T13:38:40ZJacinda Ardern’s resignation shows that women still face an uphill battle in politics – an expert on female leaders answers 5 key questions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505462/original/file-20230119-22-i0pfzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=273%2C26%2C2541%2C1967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jacinda Ardern and partner, Clarke Gayford, leave after she announced her resignation in New Zealand. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1457526356/photo/new-zealand-prime-minister-jacinda-ardern-resigns.jpg?s=1024x1024&w=gi&k=20&c=_NSemdi9WvrsoQ5HPyK7fJT_0FbznnVzlu96YJcPPmU=">Kerry Marshall/Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern <a href="https://apnews.com/article/politics-new-zealand-government-covid-jacinda-ardern-0e6d8eedd96f94aab07eeb0c37164591">announced on Jan. 19, 2023, that she will soon</a> resign from office. “I know what this job takes. And I know that I no longer have enough in the tank to do it justice,” Ardern said.</em></p>
<p><em>Ardern was 37 when she was elected prime minister in 2017, and is the youngest female head of government to have served in any country. During her tenure, Ardern oversaw the country’s strict COVID-19 response and also dealt with other crises like the <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/tag/new-zealand-attack/">Christchurch mosque shooting</a> in 2019.</em></p>
<p><em>The prime minister also received unwanted attention that many observers – and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywfaIaY9ogE">Ardern herself</a> – <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/19/jacinda-ardern-resign-sexism-battles/">dubbed sexist</a>. This included questions and comments about Ardern’s plans to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/02/unacceptable-new-zealands-labour-leader-asked-about-baby-plans-six-hours-into-job">have a child</a>, as well as about <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jan/19/jacinda-ardern-pregnant-new-zealand-prime-minister-mother-mum-nz-pm">her eventual pregnancy</a> in office. Ardern herself noted in her <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/world/jacinda-ardern-resignation-prime-minister-new-zealand-speech-b2265319.html">resignation speech</a> that she is looking forward to spending more time with family once she leaves office in February.</em></p>
<p><em>She also addressed her young daughter, saying, “And so to Neve, Mum is looking forward to being there when you start school this year.”</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation U.S. spoke with Virginia Tech <a href="https://liberalarts.vt.edu/departments-and-schools/department-of-political-science/faculty/farida-jalalzai.html">political science scholar</a> and women in politics expert <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=V1xQj_0AAAAJ&hl=en">Farida Jalalzai</a> to provide context about the unique challenges facing Ardern and other women in positions of power.</em></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two young white women wear formal clothing and appear at podiums." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505465/original/file-20230119-16-7uvceq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jacinda Ardern, right, fended off questions from a reporter in 2022 about whether she was meeting with Sanna Marin, prime minister of Finland, because they had so much in common.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1445549087/photo/finlands-pm-marin-meets-nzs-pm-ardern.jpg?s=1024x1024&w=gi&k=20&c=MdgqrVTJT-FMkOH9gSSiWRHAnqJn0eNXBddeynHiMA8=">Dave Rowland/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>1. What does Ardern’s resignation say about the experiences of women in top political jobs?</h2>
<p>Women in leadership positions will get asked certain questions that men do not. New Zealand is obviously a country that has had many women in political positions – Ardern was the <a href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/gender-inequalities/page-3">third female prime minister</a> there. Still, Ardern, for example, faced questions about her appearance and personal life, like <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/01/23/ardern-new-zealand-covid-wedding-00000554">her plans for</a> marrying her partner. </p>
<p>Men tend to receive less media coverage about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqz046">their personal lives</a>. People also tend to think of places like New Zealand as countries where women have shattered the glass ceiling, politically speaking. But if this kind of sexist questioning and speculation is what’s happening at the highest levels in the most egalitarian societies like New Zealand, then of course it must be happening in all of these other places where women are facing political violence, for example. </p>
<h2>2. How can having a woman as a political leader impact societies and the way they consider gender?</h2>
<p>When women hold really visible positions worldwide, that sends a signal to the public that politics is more open and that women bring competency to the position. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1441034">Some of my research</a> shows that having women in these political roles has encouraged other women to become more engaged in the political system and to believe that politics is more open to everyone. It has also led men to feel similarly.</p>
<p>There is also power that comes with seeing the first woman rise to a very visible leadership position. Whereas even though Hillary Clinton didn’t clinch the presidential victory in 2016, it certainly seemed to shape people’s views of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/13/sunday-review/hillary-clinton-feminist-movement.html">what was possible</a>. I don’t think that it’s a coincidence that in <a href="https://cawp.rutgers.edu/election-watch/women-percentage-2022-major-party-candidates-and-nominees">the following election</a>, so many more women – and women of diverse backgrounds – threw their hats in the ring, even at local and state levels.</p>
<h2>3. What are the risks, if any, facing women in these high-profile roles?</h2>
<p>I’ve written about, for example, the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/world/americas/brazil-dilma-rousseff-impeached-removed-president.html">2016 impeachment</a> of Brazil’s former president, Dilma Rousseff. She faced <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-36303001">overt sexist attacks</a> and was the victim of essentially a witch hunt, where she ultimately did nothing that would have normally led to the corruption <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-41170460">charges she faced</a>. What we found in <a href="https://tupress.temple.edu/books/women-s-empowerment-and-disempowerment-in-brazil">a 2021 book</a> I co-authored with Pedro dos Santos was that after Rousseff’s removal, people’s beliefs that women could be competent leaders declined over the short term, for about a year. </p>
<h2>4. What’s the precedent for having a female leader with young kids?</h2>
<p>It’s uncommon for women to give birth in executive office. The other head of state or government <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/01/19/asia/benazir-bhutto-jacinda-ardern-female-leader-pregnancy-trnd/index.html">who was pregnant</a> during her tenure was Pakistan Prime Minister <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/ardern-and-bhutto-two-different-pregnancies-in-power/M7KUU6G52PTAXAUDXFFFPKWFXQ/">Benazir Bhutto</a> in 1990. There was a deliberate attempt by Bhutto’s opposition to schedule elections for when she was having the baby. But she cleverly lied about the due date so that she could throw the opposition off, because she knew that they were going to try to make it impossible for her to campaign. </p>
<p>Ardern took <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/02/jacinda-ardern-return-work-new-zealand-pm-birth-baby">six weeks off</a> for maternity leave. But cases of women with very young children are still few and far between because women tend to wait until they’re older to become part of the political realm – and then it takes awhile to make it to the top. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman with brown skin wears a headscarf and flowing clothing and holds up a small white piece of paper." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505467/original/file-20230119-13-ag3f3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former Pakistan Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto was the first female head of state to give birth in office, in 1990.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/561491641/photo/benazir-bhutto.jpg?s=1024x1024&w=gi&k=20&c=8G-eMPcgLL29VGG0FY69T9Yd9Q7Q94kcE4PgT47bGaU=">Derek Hudson/Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>5. Has there been a shift over the last few years in how women in politics address their personal lives?</h2>
<p>It’s becoming more common to not hide that personal side of yourself. In a way, female leaders in politics can control the narrative if they don’t hide the facts, or they could even make that a positive aspect of their tenure. </p>
<p>Michelle Bachelet, who was the president of Chile from 2006 to 2010 and then again from 2014 to 2018, was a <a href="https://www.salon.com/2005/12/10/president_4/">single mom</a>. When she ran for office, she gained a lot of support from single mothers and working mothers, who understood what it’s <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Women-Presidents-of-Latin-America-Beyond-Family-Ties/Jalalzai/p/book/9781138782716">like to be in the same position</a>. </p>
<p>But generally, women in positions of power have to achieve balance in such a way that you don’t want to come across as too hard and too aggressive, because they will get hit for that. If they are conceived of as overly soft and an emotional person, then they are going to get criticized for that, as well. There isn’t an easy way around it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198197/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Farida Jalalzai does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Female leaders tend to open people’s perceptions of what is possible for other women in politics – but the job is also still fraught with double standards and unique risks.Farida Jalalzai, Professor of Political Science; Associate Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences, Virginia TechLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1936072022-12-05T19:03:58Z2022-12-05T19:03:58ZSupporting feminine leadership can help create a just and kinder future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496832/original/file-20221122-22-e46hd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C91%2C5045%2C3292&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For women to reach leadership positions, they need to be valued and recognized for their contributions, which may look different than those of their male colleagues.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/supporting-feminine-leadership-can-help-create-a-just-and-kinder-future" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Women are still struggling to reach leadership positions. Though there are <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2021011/article/00004-eng.htm">more women earning college degrees</a> and a <a href="https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-the-workforce-canada/">comparable number entering the workplace</a>, women are still <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-28-0001/2022001/article/00002-eng.htm">not reaching mid-level and top-level leadership positions at the same rate as men</a>. </p>
<p>In Canada, <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220518/dq220518c-eng.htm">women hold only 19 per cent of corporate board positions</a>. Less than one per cent of senior leadership and pipeline positions <a href="https://canadianwomen.org/the-facts/women-and-leadership-in-canada/">are held by Black and Indigenous women, women with disabilities and LGBTQ2S+ women.</a> </p>
<p>A model of leadership that encompasses the feminine traits within each of us can help move us towards a more just and sustaining world.</p>
<p>As a social innovation designer, I study complex challenges with the aim of finding common approaches needed to solve them. My goal is to frame the principles that can help us <a href="https://www.trickleupdesign.com/podcast">design a more humane future</a> — where all voices are heard and valued. To understand how to get there, <a href="https://www.trickleupdesign.com/podcast/episode6-we-need-feminine-leadership">I listened to stakeholders and emerging leaders engaged in the work of championing more inclusive and equitable leadership.</a></p>
<h2>The enduring glass ceiling</h2>
<p>Terms like <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/women-in-the-workplace">“broken rung”</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-02-2015-0007">“sticky floor”</a> describe the difficulty women encounter moving up from entry-level roles. Metaphors like the <a href="https://journalistsresource.org/economics/workplace-discrimination-glass-ceiling-glass-escalator/">“glass ceiling”, “glass escalator”</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01751">“glass cliff”</a> illustrate the struggles women face in attaining managerial and executive roles. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-02-2015-0007">Scholars argue that the metaphor of a labyrinth</a> better describes the complex maze of barriers that make it difficult for women to rise to the top.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in an office working on a laptop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496836/original/file-20221122-26-fmumv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Critics of ‘leaning in’ say that it puts the onus on women to change their behaviours and ignores the systemic barriers at play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During the pandemic, women have carried the brunt of the caretaking responsibilities <a href="https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/caregiving-in-crisis-gender-inequality-in-paid-and-unpaid-work-during-covid-19-3555d164/">at home and at work</a>. They are doing <a href="https://hbr.org/2021/10/research-women-took-on-even-more-invisible-work-during-the-pandemic">more to support their teams’ well-being and engage in diversity and inclusion initiatives</a>. </p>
<p>Yet, these efforts are <a href="https://leanin.org/women-in-the-workplace/2022/the-importance-of-managers">rarely captured in performance evaluations that determine raises and promotions</a>. By narrowly defining leadership, using <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01400">metrics that skew towards a masculine style of management</a>, barriers remain for women and gender-diverse people to break through the glass ceiling. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0969-6">Deep-seeded bias</a> and ideas around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-03-2015-0012">“respectable femininity”</a> still impact how women are perceived and evaluated.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12266">Analysis shows</a> that though the gender leadership gap is slowly narrowing, traits like being competitive and aggressive associated with men are still highly valued. While traits like being kind and understanding connected with women are still seen as detrimental in leadership roles. </p>
<h2>The problem with leaning in</h2>
<p>For women to reach better leadership positions, they need to be valued and recognized for their contributions, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/GM-09-2013-0114">which may look different than those of their male colleagues</a>. </p>
<p>Instead of being told to <a href="https://www.vox.com/first-person/2018/12/6/18128838/michelle-obama-lean-in-sheryl-sandberg">“lean in”</a>, <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/women-in-the-workplace">research</a> and <a href="https://www.trickleupdesign.com/podcast">women’s experiences</a> underscore the need for their contributions to be recognized and for workplaces, and society, to <a href="https://www.uhn.ca/Research/Research_Institutes/The_Institute_for_Education_Research/Events/Documents/Care-Manifesto-Readings.pdf">value collective care</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-end-of-lean-in-how-sheryl-sandbergs-message-of-empowerment-fully-unraveled/2018/12/19/9561eb06-fe2e-11e8-862a-b6a6f3ce8199_story.html">Critics of ‘leaning in’</a> state that it puts the onus on women to change their behaviours and ignores the systemic barriers at play. </p>
<p>Research on women who reach senior positions in male-dominated organizations and exhibit more masculine management styles has often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417258">focused on personality traits</a>. Yet studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1348/014466610x525280">show how women are shaped by sexist workplaces</a>, causing them to disengage from their gender identity, and from other women, to prevent experiencing discrimination.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/09/sexism-corporate-culture/407260/">Workplaces are shaped by the broader culture</a>. A society where women are devalued not only produces <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/19/business/sexism-women-birthplace-workplace.html">men who devalue women but also permeates how women value women</a>. </p>
<h2>Feminine leadership is not just for women</h2>
<p>Research on effective leadership underscores the need for approaches that align with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.21274">feminine characteristics of empathy, support and community-building</a>. These traits do not belong solely to women; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-04-2017-0131">they are inherent in all of us</a>. </p>
<p>Employees feel seen and heard <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.21274">where they can learn and make mistakes</a> without fear of blame. Other values include the prioritization of care, respect and co-operation above competition and an emphasis on honesty and accountability. </p>
<p>Feminine leadership encompasses the aspects of ourselves that have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2003.09.004">pushed aside and devalued within conventionally male-dominant spaces</a>. Recentring them can define a model of leadership embraced and practiced by all genders.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman wearing glasses and a white shirt speaking to other people around a table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498053/original/file-20221129-9456-pbsdrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mentorship and networking opportunities are vital to getting more women into leadership positions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Leaders of the future</h2>
<p>So how do we get there? </p>
<p>Helping <a href="https://www.innovatingcanada.ca/diversity/working-together-to-help-canadian-women-find-their-voices/">girls find their own unique voices and ways of leading</a>, without conforming to narrowly defined leadership traits often modelled by men, <a href="https://medium.com/communityworksjournal/voice-and-vision-how-girls-learn-to-lead-and-resist-leading-907f24a7fe86">can shape the next generation of leaders</a>. Organizations like <a href="https://girlsincyork.org/">Girls Inc. of York Region</a> and <a href="https://plancanada.ca/get-involved/youth-opportunities">Plan International Canada</a> are providing girls and young women with opportunities to explore what being a leader means for them.</p>
<p>It is also critical for boys to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/12/learning/lesson-plans/boys-to-men-teaching-and-learning-about-masculinity-in-an-age-of-change.html">appreciate their own inherent feminine qualities of empathy and care, helping them grow into men who value feminine qualities</a> and who embrace following women and gender diverse leaders. </p>
<p>For organizations, it is not just about recruiting more women and gender diverse employees. It also means creating a workplace culture that truly embraces diversity and provides opportunities for growth.</p>
<p>Women are at a huge disadvantage when it comes to <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/07/gender-pay-gap-women-networks-work/">accessing networking</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-08-2015-0074">mentorship opportunities</a>. Being an ally means going beyond speaking up if you see something unfair. It is advocating for more advancement opportunities and getting directly involved in mentorship for women, especially for women of colour, women with disabilities and LGBTQ2S+ women. </p>
<p>Organizations must recognize the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.849566">emotional work and leadership already being modelled by women</a>. Evaluations and performance reviews should capture the full spectrum of what employees, especially women, bring to work and <a href="https://leanin.org/women-in-the-workplace/2021">be tied to increased pay and leadership opportunities</a>. </p>
<p>Without a shift to fully valuing the contributions of women, workplaces will continue to be labyrinths full of barriers, and the leadership gap will never close. Without understanding and embracing the importance of feminine qualities of care, empathy and collaboration in how we live, work and lead, the status quo will continue. </p>
<p>The current paradigm — a patriarchal leadership model that continues to value self-interest and competition over collective benefit and co-operation — <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jun/12/capitalism-isnt-broken-its-working-all-too-well-and-were-the-worse-for-it">just isn’t working for most people</a>. </p>
<p>As we face the challenges of political division, social injustice, economic uncertainty and climate change, now is the time to recentre the feminine within and champion a different, kinder way to lead.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Tranum does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Feminine leadership encompasses aspects of ourselves that have been pushed aside within conventionally male-dominant spaces. Recentring them can foster leadership that is more inclusive.Sarah Tranum, Associate Professor, Social Innovation Design, Faculty of Design, OCAD UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1627082021-07-05T18:29:04Z2021-07-05T18:29:04ZWill pay transparency close the gender pay gap? The EU thinks so<p>After seven years of promoting a voluntary approach to pay transparency, the EU has <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52021PC0093">proposed new binding measures</a> for member states. The president of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, put closing the gender pay gap on the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/political-guidelines-next-commission_en_0.pdf">agenda for her tenure</a>, and the new measures were a campaign promise.</p>
<p>The pay gap has remained stubbornly high in Europe for decades, and is currently at 14.1%. Will these new transparency measures help close it?</p>
<p>To answer this question, it helps to know where pay inequality comes from. The gender pay gap results from a number of interlocking factors. These operate at the household, organisational and labour market levels.</p>
<p>At the household level, an uneven division of care work and unpaid tasks constrains women’s labour force participation and career advancement. At the organisational level, managerial practices and diverging pay levels are rarely challenged, yet are often a source of discrimination. And at the labour market level, women and men are segregated into differently valued jobs, organisations and sectors – child care workers, overwhelmingly female, receive very low pay, while the male-dominated engineering profession, for example, attracts high salaries.</p>
<p>Of these three categories, pay transparency measures are expected to have the greatest impact at the organisational level.</p>
<h2>How pay transparency helps</h2>
<p>There are a number of reasons why salary transparency may help to unblock the current slow progress in closing the gender pay gap.</p>
<p>Greater openness on how much individuals are paid will help individuals secure equal pay where they suspect they are unjustifiably paid less than their colleagues. Meanwhile, organisations, keen to protect their reputations, will be encouraged to audit and clean up their own pay inequalities. Transparency could also help reduce the inequalities that emerge from unequal starting salaries, secrecy agreements and other unchecked managerial decisions.</p>
<p>The European Commission first began promoting pay transparency in a <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_14_160">2014 recommendation</a>, which encouraged EU member states to give employees the right to request information on pay levels, to ensure companies regularly report on pay and conduct audits, and to include equal pay in collective bargaining.</p>
<p>Although some member states responded positively to the recommendation – including Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France and Germany – many did not. Faced with limited progress, the European Commission has reasserted its commitment to pay transparency this year, proposing a legal approach that draws upon its earlier recommendation and new research.</p>
<iframe title="The gender pay gap in Europe" aria-label="Column Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-DRjDi" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/DRjDi/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="600"></iframe>
<p>This time, the commission is proposing a number of new measures.</p>
<p>Employers will need to provide greater transparency to job seekers about the criteria by which they set pay and will not be able to ask about a candidate’s previous salaries during job interviews. Employees, meanwhile, will have the right to request information about pay averages in their firm for workers doing the same work or work of equal value. Larger employers will have to publish information on internal pay gaps and, where pay gaps exceed 5%, employer and employee representatives will have to assess the reasons behind them.</p>
<h2>Arguments against transparency</h2>
<p>The right to equal pay between women and men is one of the oldest EU principles. However, it remains difficult to implement as, in essence, it’s an individual right, which makes it costly to enforce. It is also controversial because it is perceived as an interference with the autonomy and freedom of business, despite the fact that businesses must respect a range of regulations from health and safety to fiscal measures.</p>
<p>Some claim that pay transparency breaches privacy law. But in reality, such measures rarely include the right to access personal information and so should not be incompatible with EU privacy law. This aim may also be resisted, as the ability of managers to set pay is seen by some as a key part of the managerial prerogative. Indeed, some managers regard the current opacity around pay decisions as an important element of workplace control.</p>
<p>Cost has frequently been raised as a concern and in response, the European Commission has provided exceptions for smaller firms with fewer than 250 employees. All the same, the commission estimates that the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_881">total annual costs</a> for employers affected will be rather low, from 379 to 890 euros.</p>
<p>It is important to recognise that such legislation will only apply to pay differentials within firms, so the segregation of women and men between low and high-paying firms and sectors is unlikely to be affected. For some, these checks and balances on managerial decisions may promote a sense of justice at the organisational level with positive consequences.</p>
<h2>A step toward equality</h2>
<p>The proposed EU measures represent a step forward in the fight against the gender pay gap, as they enhance workers’ chances to gather data to demonstrate pay discrimination.</p>
<p>Early <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-can-see-clearly-now-pay-secrecy-fades-as-more-transparency-becomes-the-norm-95962">signs show</a> that even non-legally binding pay transparency policies have an impact. Thus, a legally binding application of these principles could be a source of hope in the long process of reducing the gender pay gap. Other groups, who may also be suffering pay discrimination, could also benefit as the proposed directive recognises disadvantage that arises from the intersections of sources of discrimination, such as race, religion and age.</p>
<p>Still, the informal arrangements that maintain inequalities inside organisations are a formidable barrier to overcome. These barriers are now combined with new Covid-related challenges – including women dropping out of the workforce due to the pandemic – that have led in some cases to the <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/24d5caad-9c67-4f78-9d85-7ef6dc71a93d">suspension of existing transparency measures</a> and other <a href="https://eige.europa.eu/news/covid-19-derails-gender-equality-gains">gender equality setbacks</a>.</p>
<p>Rather than a magic solution, pay transparency should perhaps be seen as a part of a range of measures to promote pay equality among women and men. Everyone should be responsible and active in maintaining their vigilance about pay inequalities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162708/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>In 2020, Mark Smith received funding from the Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini to work as an expert on a report on pay transparency. The report was commissioned by the European Commission with the aim of preparing the proposal for the 2021 Directive on Pay Transparency.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>In 2020, Annick Masselot received funding from the Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini to work as an expert on a report on pay transparency. The report was commissioned by the European Commission with the aim of preparing the proposal for the 2021 Directive on Pay Transparency. In 2021, Annick has received funding from the International Labour Organisation to prepare a report on pay transparency in a global context. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>In 2020, Jill Rubery received funding from the Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini to work as an expert on a report on pay transparency. The report was commissioned by the European Commission in order to prepare the proposal for a directive on pay transparency.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>In 2020, Petra Foubert received funding from the Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini to work as an expert on a report on pay transparency. The report was commissioned by the European Commission with the aim of preparing the proposal for a directive on pay transparency. Since 2010, she has worked on several reports for the European Commission Legal Experts Network on Equality between Women and Men. </span></em></p>The EU is cracking down on pay secrecy, as the pandemic exacerbates gender inequalities.Mark Smith, Professor, Director & former Dean, Grenoble École de Management (GEM)Annick Masselot, Professor of Law, University of CanterburyJill Rubery, Professor of Comparative Employment Systems, University of ManchesterPetra Foubert, Professor of law, Hasselt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1505992020-12-01T16:12:44Z2020-12-01T16:12:44ZThe world needs more women leaders — during COVID-19 and beyond<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372096/original/file-20201130-23-ct3x5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C309%2C5588%2C3321&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">United States Vice-President-elect Kamala Harris speaks on Nov. 24, 2020, in Wilmington, Del.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Carolyn Kaster)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic top of mind for most of our leaders, economic recovery plans are being studied and analyzed by researchers.</p>
<p>As with any plan, success hinges on certain conditions being put in place. The one we consider most important is the gender balance in positions of power and influence within our societies. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.inc.com/shama-hyder/the-hidden-advantage-of-women-in-leadership.html">Gender parity leads to collaboration</a> and a blending of visions, and paves the way for the adoption of more comprehensive and inclusive solutions than if they’re conceived from only one perspective. </p>
<p>A recent study that looked at the performance of 194 countries in their fight against COVID-19 found that women-led countries were <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3617953">generally more successful in fighting the pandemic than those led by men</a>. However, it’s worth noting that there was already a balanced representation of both sexes in the countries’ key roles of power and influence, suggesting that leadership environments with gender parity lead to healthier, stronger and more consensual decisions. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-women-leaders-are-excelling-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-138098">Why women leaders are excelling during the coronavirus pandemic</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Male characteristics</h2>
<p>Leadership has historically been defined in terms of the stereotypes that characterize men in power: rationality, pragmatism, hierarchy and a focus on short-term outcomes. This helps explain why the legitimacy of power is more associated with men, as revealed by the <a href="https://reykjavikforum.global/community/reykjavik-index-for-leadership/">Reykjavik Leadership Index</a>. </p>
<p>The index, launched in 2018, helps measure perceptions of women in power in 11 different countries, including all G7 countries. It assesses the perceived legitimacy of male and female leadership in different positions of power, and it shows there are still unfortunately large disparities. </p>
<p>Now to ask the tough question: Is leadership gendered? In other words, do gender prejudices about leadership lead to harsh judgments from society?</p>
<p>To quote a 2019 research article one of us co-authored entitled “<a href="http://www.iamb.org/ijmb/journals/vol_10/IJMB_Vol_10_1%20Applebaum.pdf">Women as Leaders: The More Things Change, the More It’s the Same Thing</a>”: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Women and men remain categorized according to their sexual roles; women have community behaviours and men have so-called self-determination or individualistic behaviours. The … leadership style attributed to men is considered normal and acceptable, but when women seek to make it theirs by displaying characteristics such as assertiveness, tenacity and competitiveness, they no longer fit the stereotypical definition that has been devolved to them.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We believe it’s time to revise the definition of leadership <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/01437739310047010">to make it more multi-dimensional</a> by expanding the list of qualities it should include while understanding that leadership is expressed differently depending on the challenges and needs of different organizations. </p>
<h2>More compassionate leadership</h2>
<p>We advocate for a leadership style that is more consensus-building, caring, more open and inclusive and more likely to encourage participation by others. When women join leadership teams, <a href="https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2018/09/20/2-views-on-leadership-traits-and-competencies-and-how-they-intersect-with-gender/">there is an increase in leadership qualities like empathy</a>, compassion, communication and collaboration that become part of the DNA of those organizations. </p>
<p>Recent research has concluded that even alpha male subordinates prefer and prosper under a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-07-2020-0222">leadership style with more feminine characteristics</a>.</p>
<p>There are advantages to a multi-dimensional leadership style, in particular during difficult times like the ones we’re experiencing now. Employees are looking at their leaders for inspiration and reassurance. They need to be listened to and they expect the leadership team <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/overcoming-pandemic-fatigue-how-to-reenergize-organizations-for-the-long-run?cid=other-eml-alt-mip-mck&hdpid=13718c68-cd8b-4904-9a72-fa1587b976e6&hctky=10281925&hlkid=6ce5b99c9ae84f03a853611ca47a0343">to pay attention to signs of exhaustion and provide support to those who need it</a>. </p>
<p>Time will tell if a gender-neutral leadership style exists and is successful since there’s not an equal number of women and men in leadership roles.</p>
<p>A quick look at the Canadian business community shows the various difficulties faced by women that create barriers for them to access these leadership roles: biases, stereotypes, work-life balance, absences due to motherhood and corporate policies ill-suited to <a href="https://wiw-report.s3.amazonaws.com/Women_in_the_Workplace_2020.pdf">the realities of women’s lives</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Justin Trudeau sits on a panel with women." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372098/original/file-20201130-19-14oe4zx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prime Minister Justin Trudeau takes part in a Women One roundtable discussion at the Case Foundation in Washington, D.C. in October 2017 delving into the barriers women face in reaching leadership positions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All of this means that very few women reach the highest levels of our organizations. Only four per cent of president and CEO positions are held by women and <a href="https://fcnb.ca/sites/default/files/inline-files/58-311-CSAN-2019-10-02-F.pdf">none of them hold this position among the TSX60 companies</a>. The situation is even more dismal for <a href="https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/black-leaders-are-nearly-non-existent-on-canadian-boards-according-to-ryerson-s-diversity-institute-s-new-study-of-canadian-board-diversity-865341357.html">racialized people</a>.</p>
<h2>Achieving full potential</h2>
<p>We strongly believe that everyone, men and women, should be able to achieve their greatest potential. Women need to know early on in their lives that they can be leaders and should not limit themselves. Kamala Harris, the newly elected vice-president of the United States, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kimelsesser/2020/11/09/the-harris-effect-research-suggests-five-ways-that-the-vp-could-shape-future-generations">said on election night</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Every little girl watching tonight sees that this is a country of possibilities.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>We have yet to see what the “Harris effect” will be, but previous research has suggested having positive role models leads to some powerful outcomes, particularly for women and women of colour.</p>
<p>The challenges of the 21st century — climate change, health, the environment, depletion of global resources, an aging population, talent development, social inequities, telecommuting, new technologies and so on — require a new multi-dimensional style of leadership, because the challenges ahead of us require the contributions of everyone. </p>
<p>We advocate for a leadership model that incorporates the skills, intelligence and talents of all in order to tackle these challenges.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150599/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Gender parity leads to collaboration and a blending of visions, and paves the way for the adoption of more comprehensive and inclusive solutions than if they’re conceived from only one perspective.Louise Champoux-Paillé, Cadre en exercice John Molson School of Business Concordia, Concordia UniversityAnne-Marie Croteau, Dean, John Molson School of Business, Concordia UniversitySteven H. Appelbaum, Professor of Management, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1439862020-08-26T16:25:39Z2020-08-26T16:25:39ZHow women are changing the face of Canada’s union leadership<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354427/original/file-20200824-24-1queuc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">About 150 nursing union members show support for long-term care workers at the Orchard Villa Long-Term Care in Pickering, Ont., in June 2020. The facility was hit hard by COVID-19 infections.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As Labour Day approaches, close your eyes and picture the typical union member in Canada. If you conjured an image of a man wearing a hard hat or working in a factory, you missed the mark. </p>
<p>The typical union member in Canada is actually a woman who works in the public sector. She may be a teacher, a nurse, an office clerk at city hall or a mail carrier. All of these jobs are more likely to be unionized than those in the majority-male manufacturing, warehousing or construction sectors. In fact, Statistics Canada’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.25318/1410007001-eng">Labour Force Survey data</a> reveals that, as of 2019, women made up 53.1 per cent of union members. That’s up from 45.8 per cent in 1998 and <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-006-x/2013001/article/11878-eng.htm">29 per cent in 1978.</a> </p>
<p>There’s no question that <a href="https://www.unifor.org/sites/default/files/documents/document/workingwomenworkingpoor_letter_web.pdf">women benefit from unionization</a>. Being unionized boosts women’s wages more than it does men’s, when both are compared to their non-union counterparts. </p>
<p>Unionized women also experience a much smaller gender pay gap when compared to unionized men. In other words, unions help women overcome the effects of gender discrimination in the workplace. This “union advantage” is even greater for women who are affected by other forms of systemic discrimination.</p>
<p>Despite becoming numerically dominant within unions, women are still under-represented in positions of union leadership. The number of women leading national unions in Canada today can be counted on one hand. And women currently lead only three of the country’s provincial and territorial federations of labour. </p>
<h2>Glass ceiling persists</h2>
<p>The under-representation of women in positions of leadership is not unique to the labour movement. We see similar imbalances in corporate and political spheres. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Chrystia Freeland speaks at a news conference with Justin Trudeau behind her, wearing a mask." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354438/original/file-20200824-18-1mn8z4q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chrystia Freeland recently broke the glass ceiling by becoming the first woman to hold the position of finance minister in Canadian history.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Adrian Wyld</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although unions are doing better than Canada’s <a href="https://www.thestar.com/business/2019/11/19/only-62-comfortable-with-female-ceos.html">corporate sector</a>, organized labour still has a long way to go when it comes to fully shattering the glass ceiling for women.</p>
<p>The glass ceiling is an often-used metaphor that refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women and other equity-seeking groups, regardless of their skills or qualifications, from advancing into leadership positions within organizations. While in theory, nothing prevents a woman from being elected to a top leadership position, the glass ceiling represents the subtle ways that organizations devalue and doubt women’s leadership skills based on gender stereotypes.</p>
<p>Despite these barriers, women have periodically risen to top leadership positions within individual public sector unions or labour federations over the years. But securing positions of leadership within unions has been a long, hard-fought struggle for women workers. </p>
<p>And even while being severely under-represented in positions of leadership, union women have undeniably had an impact. Their activism paved the way for the labour movement to <a href="http://www.yorku.ca/lbriskin/pdf/bargainingpaperFINAL3secure.pdf">campaign for and secure</a> pay equity, employer-paid daycare, paid maternity leave and rules banning gender-based discrimination in the workplace. </p>
<p>Unions could do much more to fight gender discrimination by having more women in senior leadership positions.</p>
<h2>Public sector unions are trail-blazers</h2>
<p>Not surprisingly, public sector unions, where women have always been most concentrated, were the first to see women elected to significant leadership roles. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman wearing glasses speaks into a microphone in a black-and-white photo." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=667&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=667&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354429/original/file-20200824-14-1xw6dva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=667&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grace Hartman, right, then the president of the Canadian Union of Public Employees, speaks at a news conference in July 1983.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CP PHOTO/Chuck Stoody</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Canadian Union of Public Employees (CUPE) elected <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/grace-hartman">Grace Hartman</a> as its national president in 1975. She was the first woman to lead a national union in North America. In 1986, CUPE’s <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/shirley-carr">Shirley Carr</a> was the first woman elected to the presidency of the Canadian Labour Congress, Canada’s largest labour umbrella organization.</p>
<p>Public sector unions continue to be trail-blazers. In November 2014, <a href="https://bcfed.ca/governance/officers/irene-lanzinger">Irene Lazinger</a> of the B.C. Teachers’ Federation was the first woman elected to the presidency of the B.C. Federation of Labour. </p>
<p>In May 2019, <a href="https://www.cupw.ca/en/historic-election-cupw-postal-workers-elect-first-female-black-president">Jan Simpson</a> became the first Black woman to lead a national union in Canada when she was elected president of the Canadian Union of Postal Workers. And in November 2019, <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2019/11/26/1952887/0/en/Patty-Coates-first-woman-to-be-elected-President-of-the-Ontario-Federation-of-Labour.html">Patty Coates</a> of the Ontario Secondary School Teachers Federation became the first woman to lead the Ontario Federation of Labour. </p>
<h2>Private sector unions lag</h2>
<p>In contrast, a woman has yet to be elected to the presidency of any major private sector union in Canada. However, there are signs that a long overdue breakthrough may be in the works.</p>
<p>Some private sector unions have redesigned their leadership structures to help women break the glass ceiling within their own ranks. In 2013, Unifor, Canada’s largest private sector union, adopted an <a href="https://www.unifor.org/sites/default/files/documents/document/unifor_constitution_eng_2017_ltr_size.pdf">executive structure</a> that guarantees the number of women on the union’s executive board be at least equal the proportion of women in the union overall. </p>
<p>In 2017, the Canadian section of the United Food and Commercial Workers Union achieved equal representation of women and men on its national executive board for the first time after delegates to the union’s convention adopted <a href="http://www.ufcw.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46:women&catid=8:women&Itemid=142&lang=en">a resolution</a> mandating the expansion of women’s representation. </p>
<h2>Two women vying for top union job</h2>
<p>Later this year, two women — <a href="http://www.ufcw.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=32543:ufcw-832-activist-bea-bruske-announces-candidacy-for-clc-president&catid=10134&Itemid=6&lang=en">Bea Bruske</a> of the United Food and Commercial Workers Union and <a href="https://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/alberta-diary/2020/01/linda-silas-announces-bid-lead-canadian-labour-congress">Linda Silas</a> of the Canadian Federation of Nurses Unions — are expected to compete for the presidency of the Canadian Labour Congress. It will be the first election in the history of the congress where both major contenders are women.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman with dark shoulder-length hair speaks into a microphone behind a podium that reads Premiers Ministres." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354430/original/file-20200824-22-40bj0t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Linda Silas, president of the Canadian Federation of Nurses Unions, talks with reporters in St. Andrews, N.B., in July 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Andrew Vaughan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Why does gender representation matter now, more than ever? </p>
<p>So many of the issues we now face because of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting disruptions in work, home and school are <a href="https://www.gendereconomy.org/primer-on-the-gendered-impacts-of-covid-19/">borne by women</a>. Racialized and poor women are even more at risk of COVID-19 exposure because of the service and care work they do and the lack of choices they have to engage in social distancing. </p>
<p>More than ever, we need a gendered and equity lens in leadership to understand how the pandemic is being experienced differently, and how union responses can protect those who are most vulnerable. </p>
<p>Unions must continue to enhance efforts to recruit and sustain a critical mass of women, particularly visible minority and LBGTQ women, into leadership roles in the years to come. These efforts cannot be mere tokenism. Rather, they must reflect a commitment to ensuring that the changing face of Canada’s unionized workers is reflected in the leadership of the union movement.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143986/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Unions must continue to try to recruit and sustain a critical mass of women, particularly visible minority and LBGTQ women, into leadership roles in the years to come.Stephanie Ross, Associate Professor and Director, School of Labour Studies, McMaster UniversityLarry Savage, Professor, Labour Studies, Brock UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1297652020-02-27T14:11:15Z2020-02-27T14:11:15ZIn gender discrimination, social class matters a great deal<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317201/original/file-20200225-24664-llaj6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3690%2C2695&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Women with less income and education may be hurt more by gender discrimination. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/waitress?license=rf&agreements=pa:77130&family=creative&phrase=waitress&sort=best#license">Getty Images / Sean Murphy</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Harvey Weinstein guilty verdict in 2020 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/24/nyregion/weinstein-verdict-reaction.html">was a victory</a> for the #MeToo movement. “Today is a powerful day & a huge step forward in our collective healing,” wrote the actress Rose McGowan <a href="https://twitter.com/rosemcgowan/status/1232021353328529409">on Twitter</a>.</p>
<p>Still, sexism is pervasive in American culture. About 40% of U.S. women say they’ve experienced <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/12/14/gender-discrimination-comes-in-many-forms-for-todays-working-women/">gender discrimination at work</a>. Women’s work is often <a href="https://nyu-staging.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/sociological-approaches-to-sex-discrimination-in-employment">undervalued and underpaid</a>. And female job candidates are frequently subjected to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122416668154">extra scrutiny</a> during the hiring process, and have lower chances of landing the work they deserve.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=y4F1_zQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">We are scholars</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PEwucWsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">who study</a> how conditions in the workplace can contribute to health inequities and gender discrimination. </p>
<p>Research shows that sexism takes a large <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022146518767407">toll on women’s health</a>, but women work at a variety of jobs where hours, expectations and cultures vary widely. While the Weinstein verdict may acknowledge the injustice of criminal sexual acts – and by extension, acknowledge the entire #MeToo movement – holding him to account took the efforts of more than 80 women, multiple investigative journalists and significant resources to pay attorney’s fees. For women without such resources, successfully challenging sexism can be much more difficult. </p>
<h2>Level of education makes a difference</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112780">2019 study</a> used 12 years of data from the <a href="https://gss.norc.org/">General Social Survey</a>, or GSS, to look into workplace discrimination in the U.S. – and just as critically, how that discrimination affects women’s health and well-being. </p>
<p>Specifically, we wanted to know if women’s levels of education influence whether they experienced gender discrimination at work. In the 1980s, the number of women earning college degrees surpassed men. Since then, women have <a href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/DiPrete%20&%20Buchmann,%202013%20Briefing%20The-rise-of-women.pdf">obtained advanced degrees</a> at record rates. We wondered if women’s educational achievements altered their chances of encountering sexism at work. And because higher education generally opens the door to more financial and social resources, we wanted to know whether increased education helps women deal with the negative consequences of discrimination.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316940/original/file-20200224-24659-1nd00ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women with more education report more discrimination.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/concentrated-african-american-woman-brainstorming-royalty-free-image/956379138?adppopup=true">Getty Images / skynesher</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The findings</h2>
<p>In the GSS, about 10% of women reported gender discrimination in their current job. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/12/14/gender-discrimination-comes-in-many-forms-for-todays-working-women/">Consistent with other research</a>, women with higher levels of education reported higher rates of discrimination. Among those with master’s or doctoral degrees, it’s nearly 13%; for women with less than a high school education it’s 7%. </p>
<p>Why the difference? The most powerful explanation: highly educated women working in high-paying, professional jobs are more likely to work alongside more men. And women in those contexts are more likely to be targets of gender-based <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/89.4.1165">discrimination</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0730888408322008">harassment</a>. </p>
<p>Another reason: Women with less education typically hold less prestigious jobs, which offer fewer opportunities for raises or promotions. Trapped on the “<a href="http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1123&context=key_workplace">sticky floor</a>” of low-wage service or retail work, these women may not even have opportunities to collide with the glass ceiling. And they might recognize sexism less often simply because traditionally feminine traits – caring or deferring to others, for instance – are sometimes required of the job, expected or even taken for granted.</p>
<p>Just as critical: The GSS data shows gender discrimination is a source of stress and illness. We found that women who perceive discrimination experience lower self-reported levels of happiness, job satisfaction, sleep, mental health and overall health. </p>
<p>Lower-educated women may report less discrimination, but that does not mean all is well with them. Quite the opposite – we found that women in less-valued jobs actually show some of the largest health harms from discrimination.</p>
<p>On some level, that makes sense. Those with more education typically have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2378023118773158">greater resources</a> for coping with stress. Those resources include higher earnings, greater social support and better health insurance coverage. Also, the data does not distinguish between degrees of discrimination. Women with less education might experience more severe or hostile forms of sexism, while women in better-paying jobs may face more inequality due to missed promotions or raises, for example. </p>
<p>Gender discrimination is unfair, illegal, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12303">bad for the economy</a> and a public health issue. It hurts everyone, but it is much more harmful for poor and working class women. These findings should concern anyone interested in advancing health, well-being and social justice. And really, shouldn’t that be all of us?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129765/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Women with less income and less education may be hurt most by gender discrimination.Catherine Harnois, Professor of Sociology, Wake Forest UniversityMatthew Andersson, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Baylor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1184592019-06-25T20:24:05Z2019-06-25T20:24:05ZHow English-speaking countries upended the trade-off between babies and jobs, without even trying<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281315/original/file-20190626-76726-1im2p5r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=680%2C196%2C1431%2C636&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">OECD data now shows a positive correlation between higher female labour participation and higher fertility rates</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The traditional understanding of women’s economic empowerment is that, as participation in paid employment increases, fertility decreases. </p>
<p>This was certainly true in industrialised nations up to the early 1980s. </p>
<p>But then <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s001480100078">things began to change</a>. OECD data now shows a positive correlation between higher female labour participation and higher fertility rates.</p>
<p>This fact may not be widely known, but it has been well-documented. Why it has occurred, though, is more of a mystery – and the focus of our research.</p>
<p>Scandinavian nations have been at the forefront of the reversal – but that’s not surprising. Countries like Sweden and Denmark have strong state support for working mothers and high cultural acceptance of gender equality. It’s easy to see how they have made it easier for women to reconcile family and career. </p>
<p>The puzzle is that English-speaking nations aren’t too far behind the Scandinavian countries, despite high childcare costs and relatively little policy to support working mothers.</p>
<p>Our research points to a set of factors in Anglophone economies not typically identified as tools for women’s empowerment: in particular, flexible labour markets. </p>
<p>Understanding all the factors that contribute to a positive relationship between paid employment and fertility is profoundly important for policy makers the world over. It may help countries such as Japan, which is grappling with the consequences of birth rates falling below population replacement level. It can also help countries such as India, where female economic participation rates <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.ACTI.ZS?locations=IN">remain stubbornly low</a>.</p>
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<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-conspicuous-absence-of-women-in-indias-labour-force-109744">The conspicuous absence of women in India’s labour force</a>
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<h2>Reversing the trend</h2>
<p>The following graph shows the situation in nine industrialised nations, exemplifying different varieties of capitalism, government policy and cultural clusters, in 1970: the trend line indicates higher female labour force participation is associated with a lower fertility rate.</p>
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<p>This relationship began to change in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s001480100078">the mid-1980s</a>. Now, across the developed world, greater female participation in paid work is associated with a higher national fertility rate. </p>
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<p>This shows having babies and having careers need not be mutually exclusive – that it is possible, in economic terms, for a nation to produce and reproduce. </p>
<p>Leading the way have been Sweden and Denmark. Their welfare systems provide generous conditions such as parental leave and subsidies for childcare. Sweden’s public expenditure on childcare is <a href="http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_early_education.pdf">1.1% of total national income</a> – the highest in the world. </p>
<p>These nations are also characterised by a relatively high degree of <a href="https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/last-mile-longest-gender-nordic-countries-brief.pdf">gender equality within households</a>. Men are more likely to share the responsibilities of looking after children, for example, making it easier for their partners to pursue careers.</p>
<h2>Flexibility is a key</h2>
<p>So what about developed English-speaking economies? These nations have relatively <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40060158?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">limited support for working parents</a>, especially when compared with social democratic nations like Denmark or Sweden. </p>
<p>Australia, Britain, New Zealand and the United States are among the most expensive in the world for childcare, according to <a href="https://data.oecd.org/benwage/net-childcare-costs.htm">2018 data from the OECD</a>. On average, in these countries couples spend about third of their combined income on childcare costs. This compares to the OECD average of 13%, and 4% in Sweden. </p>
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<p>So why do these countries trail the Scandinavian countries only slightly, combining relatively high female employment rates with relatively high fertility?</p>
<p>We suggest the answer may lie in the structure of their economies. </p>
<p>Their manufacturing sectors – traditional bastions of male employment – have declined. But their services sectors have expanded relatively more. In the United States, for example, 80% of all employment is in the services sector, compared with <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.SRV.EMPL.ZS?locations=US-DK-DE-IT-ES-AU-JP">70% in Germany and 68% in Italy</a>. </p>
<p>One advantage of the services sector is that, on average, it is more tolerant of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sp/article-abstract/12/2/180/1685509">employment interruption</a>. This makes it friendlier to the need of mothers. In the US, the sector employs <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.SRV.EMPL.FE.ZS?locations=US">91% of women</a>, compared with <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.SRV.EMPL.MA.ZS?locations=US">68.5% of men</a>. </p>
<p>The sector also provides more opportunities for workers with “general skills”. Teachers, for example, have skills that can be transferred across schools, and are likely to remain valuable despite interruptions from the labour market. </p>
<h2>Traditional jobs, traditional attitudes</h2>
<p>The economies of Germany and Japan have maintained their manufacturing bases – but perhaps at the cost of lower fertility. Manufacturing jobs tend to favour continuous and uninterrupted <a href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Eiversen/PDFfiles/IversenRosenbluthMs2008.pdf">employment</a>, and therefore better suit men, not women trying to juggle paid work and family. </p>
<p>Countries like Spain and Italy, meanwhile, have low childcare costs but also tend to retain more traditional attitudes towards gender roles. Less support from men in the home to sharing responsibilities traditionally done by mothers seems, counter-intuitively, to suppress both female labour force participation and the birth rate. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-humans-tomorrow-the-united-nations-revises-its-projections-118938">How many humans tomorrow? The United Nations revises its projections</a>
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<p>The lesson from Scandinavian nations is that generous childcare and other parental benefits can help boost female employment and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0958928711412221">women’s ability to have children</a>. </p>
<p>The lesson from English-speaking nations is not everything is down to government. The structure of the labour market is also crucial for women to balance employment and family commitments, and to be free to choose what suits them best.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Dinale receives funding from the ARC Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research (CEPAR). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian Baird receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Scandinavian welfare states have made it easier for women to reconcile family and career. What’s odd is that Anglophone nations aren’t far behind.Daniel Dinale, PhD Candidate, University of SydneyMarian Baird, Professor of Employment Relations, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1176882019-05-24T12:48:11Z2019-05-24T12:48:11ZWe need lots more male nurses, but progress can come with bumps along the way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276109/original/file-20190523-187153-ac8ogk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">So much for gender balance. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/doctor-hand-holding-stethoscope-listening-heartbeat-291069275?src=i9auisVHRi4M9qrhGbyHDw-1-73">Micholas</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s an uncharacteristically sunny Saturday at Stark’s Park football ground in Kirkcaldy, Fife in the east of Scotland. This is the home of Raith Rovers, a big fish of the lower Scottish leagues, who are in the hunt for a place in the play-offs and a chance to clamber back into the second tier of league football. </p>
<p>Unlike most people coming through the gates for today’s clash with struggling Brechin City, my colleagues and I are not so much here for the football. We’re running a stand to press the case for more men in nursing, a profession where women outnumber men by a staggering nine to one – both <a href="https://www.nes.scot.nhs.uk/media/4154551/2018_-_june_men_in_nursing_final_report_final.pdf">in Scotland</a> and around <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jan.12905">the world</a>. </p>
<p>This is Scotland’s former industrial heartland, part of the constituency previously held by former UK prime minister, Gordon Brown – himself a Raith fan. Kirkcaldy was once the world’s largest linoleum manufacturing centre. We’re also a stone’s throw from one of the country’s largest coal-mining areas. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276324/original/file-20190524-187169-73qni4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Raith faithful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/35900183@N07/3519407432/in/photolist-6mZTdu-7VLHM5-7VHsCg-7VLGCL-7VHtTi-7VHt2g-7VHspV-7VHsKr-7SHU5G-pVwqpK-opdRp2-pVEodS-pDapbn-pTqHmW-pD9tks-pVmCWV-Y5HgjJ-ec7TiY-7VHsh6-ec2cST-6mVtgF-ec2cWP-ec2d2F-ZotNbh-VWFtMG-RdFn4M-ec2cPD-ec2cU8-fD4Eni-7WNBMD-RadYAS-PWi5MW-7WNBUx-PWi29J-ec7TaL-ec2cQ8-ec7T7S-7SHNAu-6mVPBF-ec2ddt-dsofBB-7WRQyy-7WRQTE-7WRRfd-ec7T7s-ec7TfJ-ec7SNW-ec7TfW-ec2det-Xdo1SR">McRob</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Such male-dominated occupations have long since faded into the past, and unemployment levels here are <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/regional-employment-patterns-scotland-statistics-annual-population-survey-2017/pages/7/">well above</a> the national average. The University of Dundee has a campus in Kirkcaldy where nurses study – and this ought to be a good place to persuade men that nursing could be the career pathway them. They’re certainly highly sought after as the UK <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/nhs-hospital-wards-nurse-shortage-staff-healthcare-a8871546.html">faces</a> serious nursing shortages. </p>
<p>While the game is underway, we move our trestle table to a more central location. We weren’t getting much traction in our previous spot, which made us think that a previously unidentified mediating factor in men’s under-representation in the nursing profession may be their unwillingness to discuss career prospects en route to the toilet or the food concession. </p>
<p>The youngest fans are happy to take some of our university-branded Post-Its and pens – but most people are fairly non-committal on the prospect of male nursing. Views range from: “It’s a great job, just not for me”, and: “I had a male nurse look after my ma and he was brilliant”, through: “No-one told us about it at school”, to: “I know it’s not right – and it’s definitely not my opinion – but a lot of people think male nurses must be gay”. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276111/original/file-20190523-187185-vg5ogr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Raith Rovers’ other stand – for recruiting male nurses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Richard Craven</span></span>
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<p>Many men are perhaps used to expressing their emotions on afternoons like these, while still seeing it as weak or “unmasculine” to do so in other areas of their lives – including in professions traditionally associated with care and empathy. One nursing student colleague who is helping on the stand, braving the chill of the concourse in his tunic uniform, tells me that though he comes from Kirkcaldy, people he knows at the match simply don’t recognise him in these clothes. It adds to my sense that as nurses, men are invisible. </p>
<h2>Pros and cons to change</h2>
<p>In recent years, there have been growing efforts to address the problem of men being underrepresented in nursing – a recruitment drive in England <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/feb/24/nhs-breakthrough-more-men-study-nursing">has prompted</a> a substantial increase in male student nurses, for instance. Men who do choose to become nurses generally <a href="https://www.nes.scot.nhs.uk/media/4154551/2018_-_june_men_in_nursing_final_report_final.pdf">see it</a> as a stable and rewarding career option. Yet there’s a very long way to go – and we know from recent research that nursing is <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-is-a-serious-staff-crisis-in-nursing-and-men-are-the-solution-84472">still perceived</a> as an essentially female job, something that is compounded by the lack of men in the profession. </p>
<p>The research still points to a need to change nursing recruitment to make it more gender neutral – for example, bunching together male interviewees for nursing jobs rather than common situations where one man is waiting to be interviewed along with five women. We need to see changes well beyond recruitment, however – when children are taught about health and care in primary schools and even nurseries, nursing has to be presented as more of a gender-neutral occupation. </p>
<p>Before we go full steam ahead, however, there are a couple of reasons for caution. According to the Nursing and Midwifery Council, men in 2017-18 made up just over 10% of the UK’s 690,000 nurses, but were the subject of nearly 5,000 cases on fitness to practice – 23% of the total. As they progressed through the hearing stages, these men were also more likely than female counterparts to be found to have a case to answer, more likely to face temporary suspension and more likely to be removed from the profession. And judging by the figures for the first part of this year, this trend is continuing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276326/original/file-20190524-187147-1d0kbrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Long push for equality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-nurse-pushing-stretcher-gurney-bed-156022646?src=4PlztzLJwxSmNo5ESARtoQ-2-51">Spotmatik Ltd</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=%22Int+J+Nurs+Stud%22%5Bjour%5D+gender+pay+punshon">Recent research</a> from London also reports a disproportionate number of men at higher levels of the profession. The researchers suggest that where women have spent many years banging their heads against glass ceilings, in some gendered professions such as nursing, men are possibly riding a “glass escalator” to the top. </p>
<p>So it could be that by recruiting lots more male nurses, you end up with more disciplinary problems and fewer high-ranking female nurses. This is the time to examine these issues more closely – we need more research into why men end up in more disciplinary hearings, for example. And we need to look at whether and why there may be a glass escalator in the profession and what can be done about it. </p>
<p>Progress can come with bumps along the way. It’s a little like the fortunes of Raith, who ended up making this season’s play offs only to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/48236288">miss out</a> on promotion in the final.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117688/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Craven does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>I went to talk to men at football matches about why they don’t want to become nurses – here’s what I found out.Richard Craven, Lecturer in Nursing, University of DundeeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/959622018-05-27T19:51:07Z2018-05-27T19:51:07ZI can see clearly now: ‘pay secrecy’ fades as more transparency becomes the norm<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220095/original/file-20180523-51130-13ko0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C24%2C1495%2C970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Would you share your pay information?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pay transparency is becoming a more visible management topic as a number of pressures force companies to consider how open to be about their pay structures, pay levels and pay gaps. As well as legal pressures, the sharing of information via social media and expectations of new generations are also encouraging change.</p>
<p>Some companies are leading the way. They are publishing their remuneration levels, policies and practices while others are more resistant. As well as potential risks, are there perhaps benefits of being more transparent?</p>
<h2>A transparency momentum</h2>
<p>Pressures on companies for greater <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317300356">pay transparency</a> come from both a regulatory push in the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2017/EN/COM-2017-671-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF">EU</a> and <a href="https://www.corporateboard.com/ArtArchive.aspx">US</a> and a broader debate in society about unfairness of pay secrecy. Taboos around sharing pay information are being eroded, particularly among <a href="https://scholarship.law.uci.edu/ucilr/vol4/iss2/11/">Millennials</a>. Individuals can access pay information on various websites such as <a href="http://www.glassdoor.com/">Glassdoor</a> and share on <a href="https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/pages/0914-salary-transparency.aspx">social media</a>. In fact almost two-thirds of Europeans would <a href="https://data.europa.eu/euodp/data/dataset/S2154_87_4_465_ENG/resource/85037076-fb51-46d3-9115-115463336f57">support more transparency</a> of remuneration.</p>
<p>Perhaps unexpectedly companies are also leading the change. Surveys confirm growing openness of employers towards pay transparency – both <a href="https://www.cipd.co.uk/Images/reward-management_2017-focus-on-pay_tcm18-34496.pdf">big and small</a>. Meanwhile Human Resource professionals, required to consider ethical issues related to fair treatment of employees, are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317300356">interested</a>. A number of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2018/jan/30/bbc-pay-review-claims-no-evidence-of-gender-bias">high-profile cases</a> also demonstrate the costs of unexpected disclosure of pay disparities.</p>
<h2>Some hidden benefits of being transparent</h2>
<p>Recent studies show that a range of companies across countries increasingly support pay transparency measures for a variety of <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-pay-gap-transparency-push-20170901-story.html">reasons</a>. They hope for potential economic, ethical and reputational <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/why-companies-have-open-salaries-and-pay-transparency-2017-4">benefits</a>. Such measures may allow employers to differentiate themselves from competitors and to strengthen their “<a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-pay-gap-transparency-push-20170901-story.html">employer brand</a>” – resulting in increased <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/40416506/is-pay-transparency-right-for-your-company-we-asked-a-few-that-tried-it">job applications</a> from candidates who value fairness and transparency.</p>
<p>They vary in size and activities but examples exist across the world, including – Buffer, SumAll and Whole Foods (USA); SAP, Thermador and Lucca (France); Rocketwerkz (New Zealand); and CareerFoundry (Germany).</p>
<p>Some potential <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053482215000388">benefits</a> can be linked to perceptions of fairness and organizational justice which improve the employee-employer relationships and influence employee engagement. Studies show that pay transparency can boost employee job satisfaction, motivation, performance, productivity, decision-making, morale, and overall atmosphere, whilst and turnover intentions decrease.</p>
<p>There is also the possibility of reducing <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/why-companies-have-open-salaries-and-pay-transparency-2017-4">gender pay gaps</a>. Pay transparency addresses the ‘<a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w18511">negotiation gap</a>’ between men and women which disappears when pay information is available, and explicitly stated as negotiable. It could also allow for more accurate comparisons taking into account specific criteria in compensation decisions.</p>
<p>Unwarranted gender pay gaps not only pose reputational threats but also legal ones. Action to address pay gaps via pay transparency measures can help prevent <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-law-and-society-la-revue-canadienne-droit-et-societe/article/div-classtitlestrategic-litigation-for-gender-equality-in-the-workplace-and-legal-opportunity-structures-in-four-european-countriesa-hreffn78-ref-typefnadiv/98623DE47504A05D64528DB28E4510FF">litigation and reputational damage</a>. In knowing that salary decisions will be visible, managers and employers have incentives to engage in preventive action to correct flaws in pay structures.</p>
<p>Managers may also implement clearer policies and make better decisions. Improved decision making can avoid costly and burdensome <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/smart-regulation/impact/ia_carried_out/docs/ia_2014/swd_2014_0059_en.pdf">court proceedings</a>. Also, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053482215000388">clarity</a> of pay determination criteria and outcomes, and the management’s readiness to provide <a href="https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/02683940810894765">explanations</a> and procedures enhance perceptions of fairness among employees.</p>
<p>A number of high-profile cases illustrate the legal and reputational risks of unjustifiable pay gaps. These include BBC in the UK is now facing around 300 <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2018/jan/31/bbc-in-real-trouble-over-equal-pay-carrie-gracie-tells-mps">equal pay claims</a>. Other companies facing lawsuits for gender pay disparities include <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/feb/07/tesco-equal-pay-claim-could-cost-supermarket-up-to-4bn">supermarket chains</a> while in the public sector a UK <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/feb/07/tesco-equal-pay-claim-could-cost-supermarket-up-to-4bn">City Council</a> faces legal action.</p>
<h2>Also some risks in transparency…</h2>
<p>There are of course some risks related to pay transparency. Although some research suggests that when people knew why they earn what they earn they were less likely to quit there is mixed evidence on turnover. Pay transparency may lead to pay inflation and ‘<a href="http://www.theweek.co.uk/86939/bbc-pay-list-should-all-salaries-be-made-public">poaching</a>’ of talented employees by competitors who might not be so transparent. Also some employees who still believe they are underpaid may be more <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/40416506/is-pay-transparency-right-for-your-company-we-asked-a-few-that-tried-it">likely to leave</a> following pay disclosure.</p>
<p>Other concerns related to pay transparency include <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/32e1132c-918c-11e7-a9e6-11d2f0ebb7f0">upward pressure</a> on wages, potential <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317300356">tensions and conflicts</a>, and breach of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053482215000388">employees’ privacy</a>. Furthermore, while transparency may be a way to promote gender equality, it may highlight the rewards to men’s more continuous and linear career paths and underline disadvantage women’s access to <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3058447/why-salary-transparency-didnt-eliminate-the-gender-wage-gap-at-this-start">higher pay and hierarchical levels</a>.</p>
<h2>Not a miracle but a step in the right direction</h2>
<p>What is clear is that transparency needs to be supported by a certain level of equity in the existing pay structure to avoid the negative consequences of perceptions of injustice. Overall pay transparency may have benefits for both individuals and employers and despite the risks the benefits for organisations seem to outweigh the potential downsides.</p>
<p>There are also potential societal benefits in addressing the gender pay gap, albeit within rather than between firms. Since women are often <a href="https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/un-geneva/25625/2017-report-equality-between-women-and-men-eu_en">concentrated in sectors</a> with low pay, low status, and poor career prospects such measures can help. Yet informal working arrangements and limited scope for collective bargaining still hamper the potential to leverage the information resulting from greater pay transparency.</p>
<p>Given the growing momentum it seems that turning back the clock is not possible. This is supported by regulations and greater public acceptance of the principles of pay transparency. Reputational concerns and pressure from various stakeholders – via social media – are likely to contribute to further adoption of pay transparency measures. Thus maintaining pay confidentiality may prove costly for organisations in terms of reputation, exposure to litigation, and employee performance. The future seems a little clearer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95962/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>A range of pressures are forcing companies to consider being more open about pay structures, levels and gaps. What are the risks and potential benefits of being more transparent?Mark Smith, Dean of Faculty & Professor of Human Resource Management, Grenoble École de Management (GEM)Maria Gribling, Research associate, Grenoble École de Management (GEM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/940712018-04-12T12:47:38Z2018-04-12T12:47:38ZWomen are shattering the glass ceiling only to fall off the glass cliff<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214142/original/file-20180410-560-1n37czg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Taking the fall.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/this-bilingual-somali-newspaper-is-beating-the-media-at-its-own-game-94447">shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The glass ceiling is an idea familiar to many. It refers to the invisible barrier that seems to exist in many fields and which prevents women from achieving senior positions. </p>
<p>Less well-known, but arguably a more pernicious problem, is the “glass cliff”. Originally recognised by academics Michelle Ryan and Alex Haslam <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00433.x">back in 2005</a>, this is the phenomenon of women making it to the boardroom but finding themselves disproportionately represented in untenable leadership positions.</p>
<p>Ryan and Haslam presented evidence that women were indeed starting to secure seats at boardroom tables. But the problem was that their positions were inherently unstable. These women would then find themselves in an unsustainable leadership position from which they would be ousted with evidence of apparent failure. The title of their paper sums it up: women are over‐represented in precarious leadership positions.</p>
<p>Subsequent research in an <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01541.x">array</a> of <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-26139-001">environments</a> has demonstrated that this is not an isolated issue, nor is it unique to certain industries or geographical locations. It reveals that women in top leadership positions seem to be routinely handed inherently unsolvable problems. </p>
<p>These are problems that they strive very hard to address – but no matter the effort, these problems cannot be solved. The women in charge are then still held personally accountable for failure, ultimately leading to their resignation or dismissal. This creates a damaging, self-fulfilling prophecy that women are unsuitable for leadership positions. Not only does it knock the confidence of the woman in question, it also makes organisations wary of recruiting women to these positions.</p>
<h2>A chequered picture</h2>
<p>The glass cliff theory and its supporting evidence appears, at face value, to be at odds with evidence from other sources which confirms that more women than ever before <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dl4Ssk3-EX0">are making it to the boardroom</a>. </p>
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<p>But the detail of gender representation in large organisations presents a more chequered picture. Plus, the snapshots and headlines of more women in the boardroom tend to lack the granular analysis of boardroom turnover – that women are more likely to be over‐represented on boards of companies <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1467-8551.12046">that are more precarious</a>.</p>
<p>There is also the more challenging question of why any organisation would actively set out to sabotage someone’s career, which is what the glass cliff situation appears to do. This is where the data gets really interesting.</p>
<p>A wider look at glass cliff scenarios <a href="https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/09534810710724748">reveals</a> that in most situations the women in question have experience of the organisation when they are recruited into the top position. They are not external hires, they are internal. This means that, in practice, these women are far more likely to have a fundamental understanding of the politics of the organisation, its culture and power brokers.</p>
<p>The evidence seems to suggest that these women find themselves with the choice of accepting a glass cliff position or resigning altogether. Having worked for many years to secure a leadership or executive role, it is perhaps less surprising to understand why these women feel a sense of obligation to take on what appears to be an impossible challenge.</p>
<h2>Support structures</h2>
<p>The size of the step up to a senior executive role should not be understated. Support, in the form of coaching and mentoring for senior executives, is repeatedly shown to be vital if they are to become successful and <a href="https://sajhrm.co.za/index.php/sajhrm/article/view/842">begin to make a real impact</a>. What appears to be a common characteristic across glass cliff situations is that the women in these roles lack this ongoing support.</p>
<p>What remains unclear is whether this is because the organisation is unwilling to provide it. Or, worse, is blithely unaware that for a woman stepping up to an executive position with no clear role model or social support network, then she is likely to need even more help and likely of a different nature to her male colleagues.</p>
<p>The benign neglect shown by organisations towards female senior executives represents a worrying trend. It is all very well promoting women into the boardroom, but failing to support them when they are there is equally damaging. Arguably it undoes all of the good work, resources and effort to transition women into the boardroom in the first place.</p>
<p>Empirical evidence also demonstrates that women in particular suffer from <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jennagoudreau/2011/10/19/women-feel-like-frauds-failures-tina-fey-sheryl-sandberg/#986ef030fb75">impostor syndrome</a>. This is the idea that successful people feel that they have become successful through luck, not their own hard work or ability and will be “found out” and fired or demoted.</p>
<p>It is understandable that this is likely to be particularly acute when a woman is the only female around the boardroom table. Impostor syndrome isn’t confined to women, but it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/someone-will-find-me-out-impostor-phenomenon-and-the-toll-it-takes-on-working-women-84729">markedly more present</a>, and it would seem that one of the possible explanations for a glass cliff scenario presenting itself is that organisations simply fail to consider that women in this position are likely to need a different kind of support in their new role.</p>
<p>Helping to create gender parity in boardrooms is widely shown to be beneficial on <a href="http://www.aaajournals.org/doi/abs/10.2308/acch-50486">multiple</a> <a href="https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/14720700610655141">metrics</a>. But if organisations aren’t keeping good people in the boardroom because of a failure to appreciate individual differences, then this last hurdle arguably undoes all of the good work that quotas, all-female shortlists, and gender pay gap reporting strives to achieve.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94071/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susanna Whawell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More women are making it to the boardroom but are often promoted to an untenable and precarious leadership position.Susanna Whawell, PhD Researcher, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/854692017-10-10T15:43:29Z2017-10-10T15:43:29ZMen get most of the research funding – it’s a serious problem for women and science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189569/original/file-20171010-17697-rprsk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/one-female-chinese-laboratory-scientist-working-583554946">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In UK universities there are <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/one-in-three-uk-universities-going-backwards-on-female-professorships" title=""">far fewer women</a> in senior posts than men – particularly at professor level. Putting aside teaching, to reach this status, an academic typically needs to have completed a considerable amount of research. Research takes time, and if people want to succeed in academia, they have to apply for funding. This is where one key difference lies.</p>
<p>Women receive less funding than men, and they also apply for smaller grants than their male counterparts. Our <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/3/12/e003362.full">study</a> investigated the amount of research funding awarded to male and female study leads across over 6,000 studies related to infectious disease research in UK institutions. Around 75-80% of the funding was awarded to male principal investigators – a huge difference. In addition to the differences in total sums of money, there are also clear differences in the size of the grants secured.</p>
<h2>It’s a Catch-22</h2>
<p>So what’s the barrier to women getting funding? It’s unlikely to be widespread gender bias from the funders themselves. One of the most famous papers that did highlight clear biases in this area was a 1997 <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v387/n6631/pdf/387341a0.pdf">article</a> published in <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/about/index.html?foxtrotcallback=true">Nature</a> which pulled no punches in highlighting the problem in the peer review process of the <a href="https://www.vr.se/inenglish/aboutus.4.69f66a93108e85f68d48000123.html">Swedish Medical Research Council</a>.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189572/original/file-20171010-19989-9zhdfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Girls should feel that science class is a natural environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paimages.co.uk/image-details/2.22213087">PA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>But this analysis is now 20 years old and does seem to be an outlier in an increasing pool of evidence. Most other analyses suggest there is no observable gender bias on the part of the research funders. For example, <a href="http://www.foundation.org.uk/Journal/pdf/fst_21_09.pdf#page=24">evidence</a> reported by the <a href="http://www.foundation.org.uk/About/Default.aspx">Foundation for Science and Technology</a> suggested there is no significant difference in the proportions of successful grant applications led by male and female researchers from the major UK funders, such as the <a href="https://wellcome.ac.uk/about-us">Wellcome Trust</a> and the <a href="https://www.mrc.ac.uk/about/">Medical Research Council</a>.</p>
<p>So why are women getting less by way of grant amounts? With seniority comes big bucks. The more senior the person applying, the bigger the grant they are likely to be requesting. But with fewer senior women out there to apply for something big, it’s a <a href="https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/catch-22.html">Catch-22</a>.</p>
<p>There are initiatives within, and involving, universities that may help. The <a href="http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charters/athena-swan/">Athena Swan programme</a> encourages institutions to consider inequalities and disadvantaged groups, and often focuses on the issues surrounding women in science. There is some <a href="https://health-policy-systems.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12961-017-0177-9">evidence</a> to suggest it is having a positive effect. The <a href="https://www.nihr.ac.uk/about-us/">National Institute for Health Research</a> (NIHR), one of the major UK funders, now insists that university departments and faculties must have at least a silver award from Athena Swan to be eligible to apply for their funding streams. Recipients of an Athena award have demonstrated through work practices and workplace philosophy their <a href="http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charters/athena-swan/about-athena-swan/">commitment</a> to gender equality and supporting women in STEM careers.</p>
<p>There is also an interesting clause in the guidance of the NIHR autumn 2017 <a href="https://www.nihr.ac.uk/funding-and-support/funding-for-training-and-career-development/training-programmes/nihr-research-professorships/nihr-research-professorships-round-8.htm">call</a> for research professorships (a prestigious and significant award in the career of any aspiring health researcher). Institutions can put forward a maximum of two candidates, and at least one of the two candidates must be female.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189574/original/file-20171010-17697-14hzjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Science needs to be promoted equally to girls and boys so that women are well represented in academia and business later in life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paimages.co.uk/image-details/2.10124950">PA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>I am not aware of other major research funders yet taking a similar approach (though they may do). It would be interesting to hear their views. As universities are increasingly strapped for cash, research income is important, so no doubt many faculties would be happy to jump through hoops to be eligible for all funding streams from the big players.</p>
<h2>Still a man’s world?</h2>
<p>Funding applications aside, there are good reasons for female academics to be disheartened about their chances of competing on a level playing field. A 2012 US-based <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/41/16474.abstract">study</a> revealed how identical CVs with a male name at the top were favoured over those with a female name. Then there is <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2016/01/11/new-analysis-offers-more-evidence-against-student-evaluations-teaching">the evidence</a> that female lecturers are rated lower than their male counterparts by students, without there being any obvious difference in the standard of their teaching. It takes an extra level of tenacity and determination for a woman to make it to the top in a world that is naturally skewed towards men.</p>
<p>There are many additional factors that come into play as to why there are clear differences between the careers of men and women in an academic environment. <a href="https://www.digital-science.com/about-us/">Digital Science’s</a> new <a href="https://figshare.com/articles/_/5463502">report</a>, Championing The Success of Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, Maths, and Medicine (STEM), explores many of these issues from a range of perspectives, as well as considering other areas where inequality is a problem. It also examines potential ways forward, including the use of mentors, feedback from the academic community and cultural changes that ensure there are more women into senior roles. </p>
<p>But what is very evident is that higher education institutions can prioritise the promotion of equality and still be successful in keeping their heads above water during the ongoing storm of funding cuts, Brexit and general political disdain towards experts. </p>
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<p>This laughable 2012 video by the European Commission to encourage teenage girls to take an interest in science underscores the kind of problems that exist in the way women are perceived in terms of science. There was some furious <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/10/science-its-a-girl-thing-parody-video-neuroscientists-respond_n_2271569.html">backpedalling</a> by its creators soon after its release, but it is shocking to think it got approved in the first place. But at least its desperately hackneyed approach lays bare some of the sexist, outdated and demeaning attitudes that women have to endure in male-dominated environments.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Head receives funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation</span></em></p>Women in science receive less funding than men and apply for smaller grants. This inequality needs to be addressed now.Michael Head, Senior Research Fellow, University of SouthamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/838922017-09-13T17:00:32Z2017-09-13T17:00:32ZWhy Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is no feminist icon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185638/original/file-20170912-19504-o2j90o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ellen Johnson Sirleaf's record on women's rights has been mixed.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">REUTERS/Tiksa Negeri</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Liberians go to <a href="http://www.necliberia.org/">the polls</a> in October 2017, there will be a disproportionate number of men on the ballot papers. Only 163 of 1026 approved candidates – just 16% – in these presidential and legislative elections <a href="http://necliberia.org/pg_img/Final%20Candidates%20listing.pdf">are women</a>. This represents only a marginal increase since 2005 and 2011, when women accounted for 14% and 11% of candidates, respectively. </p>
<p>Ellen Johnson Sirleaf – who, 12 years ago, became the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/03/vote-for-woman-how-africa-got-its-first-female-president/518874/">first woman</a> to be elected head of state in any African country – has often <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/05/world/africa/liberia-president-ellen-johnson-sirleaf-women-voters.html?mcubz=0">been hailed</a> as a feminist icon. But the poor representation of women in elections is as much her fault as it is a reflection of Liberia’s acutely <a href="https://www.academia.edu/12656646/Patriarchy_Power_Distance_and_Female_Presidency_in_Liberia">patriarchal political system</a>.</p>
<p>Her presidency has actually served the interests of a small, elite group of women and men in politics. It has upheld the country’s long-standing patriarchal norms. She has publicly distanced herself from the very movement that first got her elected, decrying feminism as “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/jul/23/can-president-ellen-johnson-sirleaf-save-liberia">extremism</a>”.</p>
<p>Sirleaf’s brand of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43657968">femocracy</a> – a term coined by Nigerian feminist scholar Amina Mama – has severely stifled women’s political participation.</p>
<p>Mama, whose research focused on African first ladies as femocrats, makes an important distinction between feminism and femocracy. She argues that while feminism attempts to shatter the political glass ceiling, femocracy deliberately keeps it intact. This remains true even though, some decades on from her original writing, the continent can now boast of women presidents like Sirleaf and former Malawian head of state <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/201247163726657558.html">Joyce Banda</a>.</p>
<h2>Women in Liberian politics</h2>
<p>Sirleaf has been conspicuously silent about bolstering women’s roles in politics, apart from a recent public statement in which she <a href="http://www.emansion.gov.lr/2press.php?news_id=4128&related=7&pg=sp">vowed</a> to campaign actively for female candidates in these elections. </p>
<p>There have been some legislative efforts to involve more women in Liberia’s political leadership, with minimal to no input from Sirleaf. </p>
<p>A 2014 elections law <a href="http://necliberia.org/doc_download/New%20Elections%20law%20Amendments.pdf">amendment</a> encouraged political parties to increase their representation of women in leadership roles. Yet Sirleaf’s own Unity Party– with only 10 women out of 58 candidates on its roster – ranks below smaller, less prominent parties in fronting female candidates this year. The United People’s Party, <a href="http://necliberia.org/pg_img/Final%20Candidates%20listing.pdf">for instance</a>, has 17 women candidates out of a total 64.</p>
<p>Elsewhere on the continent Rwanda, Senegal and South Africa have implemented gender equity bills specifically to propel women to <a href="http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm">high public office</a>. In 2010 the Liberian women’s legislative caucus sponsored an <a href="http://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/liberia-proposal-to-increase-womens-participation-in-politics/">act</a> which mandated that women should occupy at least 30% of political party leadership. The act would also have set up a trust fund to finance women’s electoral campaigns.</p>
<p>Sirleaf did not actively support the proposed law and it was never ratified. </p>
<p>She has also failed women when it comes to her own high-level political appointments. Only four of her current 21 cabinet officials are women – and none of them occupy strategic ministries like defence, finance, education or public works.</p>
<p>Nepotism has been a problem on her watch, too: Sirleaf has appointed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/nov/01/liberia-johnson-sirleaf-nepotism-corruption">three of her sons</a> to top government positions. </p>
<h2>A few successes, but…</h2>
<p>This is not to say that Sirleaf’s two terms in office have left women completely high and dry. </p>
<p>Her administration has built or renovated hundreds of markets across the country for thousands of female informal traders called “<a href="http://womensenews.org/2009/03/presidents-fund-repays-liberias-market-women/">market women</a>”. </p>
<p>She has also instituted policies to protect women and girls from male aggression. Under her rule, Liberia has implemented the most comprehensive <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/topics/regions/africa.html">anti-rape law in Africa</a>. A fast-track special court has been established to deal specifically with gender based violence.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, a decade after it was opened, the court remains only in the capital city, Monrovia. This makes it inaccessible to most Liberian women.</p>
<p>And the person who heads the court, Serena Garlawolu, has gone on record endorsing <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2016/06/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-160601125718596.html">female genital mutilation</a>. Garlawolu says the practice “is not a violation of anyone’s rights culturally”. Liberian women’s rights activists <a href="http://frontpageafricaonline.com/index.php/news/3315-women-group-wants-female-genital-mutilation-act-put-into-law">petitioned</a> to criminalise the harmful procedure. But the proposed ban was omitted from a recently passed Domestic Violence Act.</p>
<h2>Gender equity</h2>
<p>Sirleaf’s record over the past 12 years demonstrates that gender equity is not magically achieved when a woman occupies a country’s highest political office. This is borne out by countless other examples, including Margaret Thatcher and Theresa May in England, Indira Gandhi in India, Dilma Rousseff in Brazil and Julia Gillard in Australia. </p>
<p>The international media and Sirleaf’s supporters continue to hoist her up as the matron of women’s rights in Africa. However, she does not deserve this title. The evidence of this will be glaringly obvious in the October election results. </p>
<p><em>This article was co-authored with Korto Reeves Williams, a Liberian feminist and a strategic civil society leader in Liberia and the sub-region. It is based on <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/08/liberia-sirleaf-standing-women-170827092802275.html">a piece</a> that was originally published by Al Jazeera English.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83892/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robtel Neajai Pailey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The international media and her supporters continue to hoist Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf up as the matron of African women’s rights. But she does not deserve this title.Robtel Neajai Pailey, Research associate, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/798142017-06-22T00:54:11Z2017-06-22T00:54:11ZDrew Faust and old, white men: The changing role of university presidents<p>If your perception of higher education is that it’s led by aging white males, you’re right. According to a <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/American-College-President-Study.aspx">report released this week</a> by the American Council on Education (ACE), the average college president in 2016 was a 62-year-old married white male with a doctorate.</p>
<p>One recent exception was Drew Faust, who was appointed Harvard University’s first-ever female president in 2007. The comings and goings of modern university presidents don’t typically warrant much public attention, but Faust’s retirement announcement last week was covered by The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/14/us/harvard-president-resign.html">New York Times</a>, the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2017/06/14/harvard-university-president-drew-gilpin-faust-to-step-down-in-2018">Washington Post</a> and many other leading media outlets.</p>
<p>Why the attention? While it’s true that Faust made important contributions to the university (shepherding Harvard through the financial crisis of 2008 and grappling with the college’s historically exclusive culture), her efforts were not, in my view, groundbreaking. However, as the first woman to lead arguably the most well-known university in the world, Faust broke through one of the highest glass ceilings in academia.</p>
<p>As a scholar of higher education leadership, I’ve seen how Faust’s tenure at Harvard represents an important, albeit slow, change in the diversity of college presidents – a change that still fails to reflect the demographics of the population of students. Her retirement is also at the leading edge of an impending tidal wave of retirements that presents a possibility to reshape the leadership of our colleges and universities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175060/original/file-20170621-30161-vzzavd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former Baylor University President Kenneth Starr, left, was followed by the university’s first female president, Linda A. Livingstone, in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Tony Gutierrez</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why should we care who leads our colleges?</h2>
<p>The average citizen would likely have a hard time naming five out of the more than <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/trendgenerator/tganswer.aspx?sid=1&qid=1">5,000 sitting college presidents</a> in the United States. Exceptions might come when <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/22/education/indiana-governor-will-lead-purdue.html">well-known politicians step into the role</a> or when a <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/06/baylor-university-coach-briles-ken-starr/484544/">scandal forces someone to step down</a>.</p>
<p>And yet, colleges and universities are among the nation’s most important social institutions. They educate more than <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=372">20 million students</a> every year. They provide critical opportunities for <a href="https://cew.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/Parchment-Credentials-Competencies-Issue-Brief.pdf">first-generation and underrepresented</a> individuals. They’re also among the nation’s steadiest and most important <a href="http://www.sunypress.edu/p-5608-universities-and-colleges-as-ec.aspx">economic drivers</a>.</p>
<p>In short, universities have become some of the most important <a href="http://community-wealth.org/strategies/panel/anchors/index.html">anchor institutions</a> in our communities. Who leads them and how they are led can have a lasting impact not just on the institutions themselves, but on the surrounding communities and our entire nation.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174816/original/file-20170620-32348-g57ju5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The University of Pennsylvania boosts the West Philadelphia economy by millions of dollars each year by purchasing locally.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/philadelphia-oct-20-university-pennsylvania-on-342913109?src=Ci1xuY1e3qc2l6lvXIU0ZA-1-65">f11photo/shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The slowly diversifying presidency</h2>
<p>In many ways, Drew Faust represents most characteristics of the average college president: She is white, married and over 65 years old. Indeed, according to <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/American-College-President-Study.aspx">the ACE report</a>, the college presidency is older and whiter than it was five years ago.</p>
<p>And despite numerous changes since the 1980s (technology alone has seen the advent of smartphones, social media and the internet), the profile of the college president has remained remarkably the same.</p>
<p>Importantly, this profile largely does not reflect the students that universities serve. In 2015, <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_csb.asp">40 percent of students</a> in public four-year institutions were from nonwhite backgrounds. And, more than half of the presidents surveyed by ACE indicated that <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/Comprehensive-Demographic-Profile-of-American-College-Presidents-Shows-Slow-Progress-in-Diversifying-Leadership-Ranks.aspx">racial issues on campus were more of a priority</a> than they were three years ago.</p>
<p>The good news is that minority presidencies are up since 2006 – increasing <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/American-College-President-Study.aspx">from 13 to 17 percent</a>. Unfortunately, that modest increase is still not nearly reflective of the changing student demographics and masks a significant drop in Hispanic female presidents.</p>
<p>As for female presidents, Drew Faust’s appointment was not just important for Harvard; it was also representative of a broader trend of bringing more women into these roles. As of 2016, <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/American-College-President-Study.aspx">30 percent of college presidents were women</a> – three times the number in 1986 when the survey was first conducted. Yet, this is still far behind the 57 percent of college students <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=372">that are women</a>.</p>
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<h2>Changing pathways to the presidency</h2>
<p>Eleven percent of presidents are <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/American-College-President-Study.aspx">over the age of 71</a> – more than double the number just five years ago. And about one in four reported that their previous role had been as a president or CEO. In other words, universities seem to be appointing experienced candidates.</p>
<p>However, at some point, those at the end of the presidential pipeline will eventually exit it. More than half of the presidents surveyed by ACE indicated they intended to leave their current presidency within five years.</p>
<p>That will give universities the opportunity to bring new talent and experiences into these leadership roles. But where will they come from?</p>
<p>The traditional path to the presidency has long been this: professor to tenured professor to dean to a chief academic officer (commonly called the provost or vice president for academic affairs). Indeed, this still <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/Comprehensive-Demographic-Profile-of-American-College-Presidents-Shows-Slow-Progress-in-Diversifying-Leadership-Ranks.aspx">remains the dominant path</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, more and more presidents are skipping the vice presidency on their path to leadership. Drew Faust was appointed as Harvard’s president after serving for six years as the dean of Harvard’s Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. According to the <a href="https://dupress.deloitte.com/dup-us-en/industry/public-sector/college-presidency-higher-education-leadership.html">Pathways to the Presidency</a> report, this is a very recent trend – one that likely indicates that the next generation of academic leaders believe the traditional pathway is too long.</p>
<p>The impending retirement wave, coupled with pulling more presidents from earlier stages, will likely drop the average age of the presidency. But these traditional pipelines to leadership remain the province of white men. As long as that remains the case, diversity among university presidents will likely remain low. For example, the State University of New York (SUNY) system, where I am a professor, has implemented programs purposefully created to <a href="https://www.suny.edu/suny-news/press-releases/03-2017/3-25-17/governor-cuomo-announces-launch-of-suny-hispanic-leadership-institute.html">recruit and prepare a more diverse set</a> of deans, provosts and presidents. Other <a href="http://thenationalforum.org/new-leadership-academy/">universities</a> and <a href="http://www.aascu.org/MLI/">organizations</a> across the country are implementing similar programs. </p>
<h2>A changing of the guard</h2>
<p>Today’s college president is expected to be a mayor, city manager, CEO, academic and fundraiser. In some cases, they oversee physical plants that include housing, hospitals, airports and even nuclear reactors. Their operating budgets are in the hundreds of millions of dollars and they oversee thousands of staff and students. No doubt, it’s a complicated position. </p>
<p>But, these individuals also live within a rapidly changing social fabric and lead institutions that have long served as social anchors. As a group, our nation’s college presidents have an ability to help us collectively navigate these changing times. </p>
<p>As a nation, I believe we need colleges and universities that are forward-looking, responsive to the changing environment and willing to engage in meaningful change. This means that we need a diverse, thoughtful group of university leaders who both appreciate and can advance these agendas. Will we see the profile of the college president change? And, if the profile changes, will we see our colleges change along with it?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79814/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Lane works for the State University of New York, which has 64 college campuses and is regularly searching for new presidents. </span></em></p>Most university presidents in the US are still white, male and over the age of 60. But as they retire, is there an opportunity to reshape college leadership and, with it, higher education itself?Jason E. Lane, Chair and Professor of Educational Policy and Leadership, Executive Director of SUNY's Strategic, Academic, and Innovative Leadership (SAIL) Institute, and Co-Director of the Cross-Border Education Research Team, University at Albany, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/680242016-11-17T14:27:23Z2016-11-17T14:27:23ZMedieval women can teach us how to smash gender rules and the glass ceiling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146414/original/image-20161117-18145-17mh8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joan of Arc. BlackMac/Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the night of the US election, Manhattan’s magisterial, glass-encased Javits Centre stood with its ceiling intact and its guest-of-honour in defeated absence. Hillary Clinton – who has frequently spoken of “the highest, hardest glass ceiling” she was attempting to shatter – wanted to bring in a new era with symbolic aplomb. As supporters despaired in that same glass palace, it was clear that the symbolism of her defeat was no less forceful.</p>
<p>People wept, hopes were dashed, and more questions were raised about just what it will take for the most powerful leader on the planet to one day be a woman. Hillary Clinton’s staggering experience and achievements as a civil rights lawyer, first lady, senator and secretary of state were not enough.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146388/original/image-20161117-18113-16gfll4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Javitts Centre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BravoKiloVideo/Shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The double-standards of gender “rules” in society have been disconcertingly evident of late. The Clinton campaign said FBI director James Comey’s handling of the investigation into Clinton’s private server revealed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/oct/31/james-comey-fbi-clinton-trump-email-investigation-russia-hack">“jaw-dropping” double standards</a>. Trump, however, lauded him as having “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/oct/31/james-comey-fbi-clinton-trump-email-investigation-russia-hack">guts</a>”. When no recriminating email evidence was found, Trump ran roughshod over the judicial process, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/nov/06/fbi-director-hillary-clinton-email-investigation-criminal-james-comey">claiming</a>: “Hillary Clinton is guilty. She knows it. The FBI knows it, the people know it.” Chants of “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/oct/31/james-comey-fbi-clinton-trump-email-investigation-russia-hack">lock her up</a>” resonated through the crowd at a rally.</p>
<p>Mob-like cries for a woman to be incarcerated without evidence or trial? That’s medieval.</p>
<h2>The heart of a king</h2>
<p>Since time immemorial, women have manipulated gender constructs in order to gain agency and a voice in the political milieu. During her speech to the troops at Tilbury, anticipating the invasion of the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth I famously claimed:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146376/original/image-20161117-18101-skl0oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elizabeth I, The Ditchley Portrait, c. 1592, National Portrait Gallery. Elizabeth stands upon England, and the top of the world itself. Her power and domination are symbolised by the celestial sphere hanging from her left ear. The copious pearls represent her virginity and thus maleness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Four hundred years later, Margaret Thatcher seemed obliged to follow the same approach, <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/11251919/From-shrill-housewife-to-Downing-Street-the-changing-voice-of-Margaret-Thatcher.html">employing a voice coach</a> from the National Theatre to help her to lower her voice. And <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/oct/31/james-comey-fbi-clinton-trump-email-investigation-russia-hack">Clinton told a rally in Ohio</a>: “Now what people are focused upon is choosing the next president and commander-in-chief.” Not a million miles away from the kingly-identifications of Elizabeth, the pseudo-male “Virgin Queen”.</p>
<p>This gender-play has ancient origins. In the late fourth century AD, <a href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.v.LXXI.html">St Jerome argued that chaste women become male</a>. Likewise, the early Christian non-canonical <a href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/thomas-anon.html">Gospel of Thomas</a> claimed that Jesus would make Mary “male, in order that she also may become a living spirit like you males”. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146378/original/image-20161117-18123-ui8xj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">15th century ‘Disease Woman’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wellcome Collection, MS Wellcome Apocalypse 49, f.38r.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By the Middle Ages, this idea of female bodily inferiority became material as well as spiritual as medical texts on the topic proliferated. Women’s bodies were considered inferior and more prone to disease. Because of the interiority of female anatomy, male physicians had to rely on diagrams and texts to interpret them, often with a singular focus on the reproductive system. Since men mostly wrote the books, the lexical and pictorial construction of the female body has therefore been historically, and literally, “written” by male authors.</p>
<p>So women, who were socially constrained by their female bodies and living in a man’s world, had to enact radical ways to modify their gender and even their very physiology. To gain authority, women had to be chaste, and to behave like men by adopting “masculine” characteristics. Such modifications might appear to compromise feminist, or proto-feminist, ambitions, but they were in fact sophisticated strategies to undermine or subvert the status quo.</p>
<h2>Gender-play</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=877&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=877&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=877&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1103&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1103&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146381/original/image-20161117-18131-lsbewx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1103&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Illuminated image from Hildegard of Bingen’s (1098-1179) Scivias, depicting her enclosed in a nun’s cell, writing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Medieval women who desired a voice in religious circles (the Church was, of course, the unelected power of the day) shed their femininity by adapting their bodies, the way that they used them, and therefore the way in which they were “read” by others. Through protecting their virginity, fasting, mortifying their flesh, perhaps reading, writing, or becoming physically enclosed in a monastery or anchorhold, they reoriented the way in which they were identified.</p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_zdEBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=joan+of+arc+helen+castor&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAleCKp_HPAhUDIMAKHc9wD1EQ6AEIJTAA#v=onepage&q=joan%2520of%2520arc%2520helen%2520castor&f=false">Joan of Arc</a> (1412-1431) famously led an army to victory in the Hundred Years War dressed as a soldier, in a time when women were not supposed to fight. </p>
<p>Catherine of Siena (1347-1380), defying social codes of female beauty, shaved her hair in defiance of her parents’ wish to have her married. She later had a powerful mystical experience whereby she received the heart of Christ in place of her own; a visceral transformation which radically altered her body and identity. </p>
<p>And St Agatha (231-251), whose story was widely circulated in the Middle Ages, refused to give in to sexual pressure and was tortured, finally suffering the severing of her breasts. She has since been depicted as offering her breasts on a plate to Christ and the world. Agatha subverted her torturers’ aim, exploited her “de-feminised” self and instead offered her breasts as symbols of power and triumph.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146384/original/image-20161117-18134-16f5q08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Saint Agatha bearing her severed breasts on a platter, Piero della Francesca (c. 1460–70).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yENzezyyPPMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=christianity+in+medieval+europe+contents+page&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUoe-Qo_HPAhUhCMAKHeYBCfsQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q&f=false">Some scholars</a> have even argued that monks and nuns were a considered a “third gender” in the Middle Ages: neither fully masculine nor feminine. </p>
<p>These flexible gender systems show how medieval people were perhaps more sophisticated in their conceptualisation of identity that we are today, when challenges to <a href="http://fty.sagepub.com/content/1/3/347.short">binary notions of gender</a> are only now becoming widely discussed. Medieval codes of chastity might not be to most 21st-century tastes, but these powerful women-in-history took control of their own identification: found loopholes in the rules, found authority in their own self-fashioning.</p>
<p>The US presidential campaign has without doubt reinvigorated the politics of gender. Hillary Clinton <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/11539780/How-to-get-a-story-off-the-front-page-politicians-transformed.html">has said</a>: “If I want to knock a story off the front page, I just change my hairstyle”. It is easy to leap at such a comment, seeing Clinton as a media-sycophant, playing to the expectation that women are defined by their appearance. But in fact, like myriad women before her, Clinton was manipulating and exploiting the very rules that seek to define her.</p>
<p>Complete liberation this is not. Only when the long history of gender rules is challenged will powerful women no longer be compared to men. Like the response of Joan of Arc and her troops, it is surely now time for another call to arms: for the freedoms of tolerance, inclusion, equality and compassion. We must turn grief into optimism and words into action. To shatter not the dreams of girls around the world, but the glass ceilings that restrain them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68024/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Kalas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Women have always had to fight gender rules in order to gain power.Laura Kalas, Postdoctoral Researcher in Medieval Literature and Medicine, Associate Tutor, University of ExeterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/641002016-10-05T10:02:04Z2016-10-05T10:02:04ZIn parts of the world, bride price encourages parents to educate daughters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140136/original/image-20161003-30459-xt0es3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cultural norms play an important role in determining whether girls will be send to schools.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gpforeducation/16269000296/in/photolist-qMCSZ7-hHceBu-hyzfeF-dYf4Xn-88N6Bf-pmjdMD-dYzh66-94cN1F-p4P4b2-nubvJM-94fTKA-94fTRC-qxxtjM-ns8pse-i2kAZA-eaSYhN-qxxtWD-8xGceg-hGQ7od-8v7LvR-i2kHus-sE7w44-i2kS5d-hQipig-hLcQA7-nAhiGa-hLcv3w-hLcQLY-i2kBkq-hGQ7dd-6SYWDG-o9GsFa-i2mozk-i2kH7U-9qUBFR-hLcxSQ-hHcKqW-94fTpS-94cN7M-hHbNjK-eaMeCk-dYL2gK-3A8K99-94fSwu-hHd76x-pSY1Nm-94fT9h-dM8V2A-94cNfF-hHd774">Global Partnership for Education - GPE </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Education is one of the engines of economic growth and development. More education leads to higher incomes. For individuals living in low-income countries, an additional year of education increases wages by <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.91.4.795">7-11 percent</a>. </p>
<p>And the benefits to education are not restricted to wages: better educated women are more likely to have <a href="http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=gcc_economic_returns">healthier</a>, <a href="https://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/WhatDidYouDoAllDay.pdf">better-educated</a> children. They are also <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002259/225945e.pdf">less likely to die in child birth</a>.</p>
<p>As Hillary Clinton <a href="https://www.clintonfoundation.org/press-releases/no-ceilings-announces-charge-collaborative-harnessing-ambition-and-resources-girls">has said</a>, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“When girls have access to quality education in both primary and secondary schools, cycles of poverty are broken, economies grow, glass ceilings crack and potential is unleashed.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet, primary and secondary school completion are far from universal in low income countries. This is especially true for women whose rates of primary school completion are as low as <a href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.CMPT.FE.ZS?year_high_desc=false">30 percent in some sub-Saharan African countries</a>.</p>
<p>If education has such high returns, why isn’t educational attainment higher? </p>
<p>One possible answer is that parents often do not directly benefit from these returns. When making spending decisions, parents must think of their own old-age security as well. Parents may even worry that education will make children more likely to migrate, <a href="http://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/192649.pdf">decreasing</a> the likelihood that their children care for them in their old age.</p>
<p>Cultural norms often play an important role in determining whether children are educated. Often such norms can make parents choose to educate boys over girls. However, my research suggests, culture can also play an important role in incentivizing parents to educate their girls.</p>
<h2>Here’s how:</h2>
<p>In my <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w22417?sy=417">paper</a> with researchers <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/economics/people/facultyPages/NavaAshraf.aspx">Nava Ashraf</a>,<a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/nunn/home"> Nathan Nunn</a>, and <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/alevoena/">Alessandra Voena</a> –– a part of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) working paper series –– I studied one such cultural norm: the effect of bride price in Zambia and Indonesia on girls’ education. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140138/original/image-20161003-20230-tu2k24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bride price can help girls in some ways. A girl from Zambia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dfid/14704200941/in/photolist-opmSDT-o8aB5k-onBibs-opqS3C-pACEb4-o89tKz-o8aBqv-pyA8ss-d6dT8w-opmSr8-opD99c-o89tYk-pj8URJ-oZgsaX-d6dF71-pACCqv-oZhj5K-pgJzm3-d6dWL7-pgJDFf-cTSTGN-pgur4D-pyA5J1-d6dLG7-d6dRgQ-pAmpWk-d6dDQ9-d6dXXb-EukVE7-d6dMTQ-pwbxi-d6dBFL-BCQpWm-B7Cx8H-AHBYYL-scosUx-BF9yAX-oZhQDn-pgMWsZ-oZhKuz">DFID - UK Department for International Development</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bride price is a custom whereby the groom pays the parents of the bride at the time of marriage. Many commentators think that bride price payments are an <a href="http://www.irinnews.org/report/59032/tanzania-study-links-payment-bride-price-abuse-women">abusive practice</a> since they believe these traditions are equivalent to buying and selling girls.</p>
<p>However, we find that bride price can benefit women as well.</p>
<p>In both Indonesia and Zambia, educated girls attract higher bride prices. For example, women who have completed primary schooling receive approximately 60 percent higher bride prices in Indonesia. </p>
<p>Indeed, females who belong to ethnic groups where traditional bride price amounts are larger are more likely to be enrolled in school than females who do not belong to these groups.</p>
<h2>What our studies show</h2>
<p>Moreover, we find that two large programs that built thousands of new primary schools in Indonesia and Zambia interact with bride price traditions in important ways. </p>
<p>In low income countries, <a href="http://econweb.ucsd.edu/%7Ekamurali/papers/Working%20Papers/Cycling%20to%20School%20(NBER%20WP%2019305).pdf">distance strongly affects school enrollment</a>, particularly for girls. School construction programs reduce the costs of attending school by building new schools that reduce the distance to schools.</p>
<p>We used census data to estimate the effect of these programs on female education by comparing growth in educational attainment for girls in districts where many schools were built to the growth in educational attainment for girls in districts where fewer schools were built. </p>
<p>We found that girls from ethnic groups with a strong bride price custom were more likely to respond to the school construction programs by enrolling in school.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140140/original/image-20161003-27269-aecpn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A girl taking a numeracy test at a primary school in Zambia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gpforeducation/28459097735/in/photolist-KmQjfT-KeU9Rn-KeU9HM-KmQiE4-s9teyX-s9TPh7-sodfxu-s2YFio-mC8MhY-6CwUkm-2WBkwX-8DJQeq-zkXo4-7gwM3Y-97AEYb-97xyrH-97xyKM-cVZ9xo-djT9dv-oMFC1d-9DZLJ-97xySF-mu8DZt-97AFtG-9DZCr-zkDsb-6K7LV9-97AFrG-87dFSA-uMWga2-6K3ELv-WnQ21-eDD2R2-97xyyR-2WBkwP-zkDs5-zkDrX-97xyJZ-xt1yUE-xt2rY3-5xAw98-97xyLX-97AFsG-D9Q7ap-97xyFK-HTb5CY-HTb5ns-CKVFR4-HTb5bf-zkZ1Z">Global Partnership for Education - GPE</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In both countries, we found that education increased more for girls from ethnic groups with bride price customs in districts where more schools were built: In Indonesia, an additional school per 1,000 students increased the probability of a girl from an ethnic group with a traditionally high bride price completing primary school by 3 percent. In contrast, the school construction had no effect on education for girls who did not belong to ethnic groups with strong bride price traditions. </p>
<p>While 3 percent may seem small, the effect of an additional school per 1,000 students on girls’ education is enough to close 20 percent of the gap in primary school completion between boys and girls. Moreover, 3 percent is the effect on the average girl, and it likely masks larger effects for girls in areas with few schools and smaller effects for girls who lived near a school already. </p>
<p>In Zambia, we find that school construction had similar effects on school enrollment for girls from ethnic groups with strong bride price traditions. Again, for girls in the non-bride price ethnic groups, the effect is close to zero. </p>
<p>My <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/nbau/files/norms_policy_draft.pdf?m=1458321879">study of another custom</a> –– matrilocality, shows how other cultural norms can provide incentives to parents to invest in their daughters’ education. Matrilocality means that newly-weds stay with the parents of the bride after marriage and care for them in their old age. In such cases parents can benefit directly from their investments in their daughter’s education. </p>
<p>Indeed, I found that matrilocal ethnic groups in Indonesia are more likely to enroll daughters in school relative to sons when compared to non-matrilocal ethnic groups. On the flipside, I found that in patrilocal ethnic groups, where sons stay with their parents and care for them in their old age, boys are more likely to be enrolled in school relative to their female siblings.</p>
<h2>Unintended consequences</h2>
<p>But what happens when parents no longer rely on their children as much for old age support? </p>
<p>When parents have other ways of supporting themselves in their old age, they may invest less in their children’s education. <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/nbau/files/norms_policy_draft.pdf?m=1458321879">Studying</a> the introduction and expansion of two pension plans in Indonesia, I found that women who were young when the pension plans were put into effect, and who would traditionally be expected to care for their parents, received less education. </p>
<p>Women who were born after the pension plan was put into place and came from matrilocal ethnic groups were 13 percent less likely to complete secondary school. The effect was stronger in places where more pension plan offices, which likely enrolled more people, were built.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140147/original/image-20161003-20213-hfwak2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A junior high school in Ghana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/eifl/27074126790/in/photolist-HfrYDu-4LK2yD-odJPuS-nQyxwF-7ZetsF-ogQ3fA-5mN1TL-7ZeuSt-pVgRU-myQ3L7-ggG9uS-myNmyM-b8dBPv-b8dBqH-myPQ8m-evmMjq-7LkN6F-4v1K1R-myQ1eJ-7XG6DB-pVgRT-myPhJt-myNDEZ-6aojhj-myPYdu-myNnYv-8Fr5Ge-82LndH-kghoE-785APS-myPiN2-myQsGd-52vqQM-myNKwk-5zWkHy-8Fr69k-7Zvc9J-myPZhd-kb5nYp-dDBzRD-myNKue-DX2VoY-787Swj-6n4qve-a5NAAE-784aZB-myNCoa-8jmv8X-49WVS-8cbtV4">EIFL</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Comparing patrilocal boys to non-patrilocal boys in Ghana, I found similar results. Patrilocal parents educated their sons less in response to the pension plan. A patrilocal boy born after the creation of the pension plan was 8 percent less likely to complete primary school. </p>
<p>So, the expansion of pension plans –– a well-intentioned policy –– had an unintended negative consequence. It reduced female education in Indonesia and male education in Ghana.</p>
<p>Parents’ expectations about old-age support may affect other decisions besides education. Research suggests that parents’ expectations that boys will support them in their old age may lead to son preference. This has already led to unbalanced sex-ratios in <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2010.00317.x/abstract">China</a>, as well as <a href="https://scholars.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/avrahamebenstein/files/patrilocality_and_missing_women_april_2014.pdf">other countries</a>.</p>
<p>All this shows that culture matters. While bride price traditions may have other significant downsides, our findings suggest that bride price helps ensure that daughters are educated. </p>
<p>If we neglect the importance of culture, policies designed to increase female education and boost female welfare may be less effective than they could otherwise be. They may even have negative unintended consequences.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie Bau receives funding from the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research and the International Growth Centre. </span></em></p>Here’s how cultural practices are playing a role in many countries in incentivizing parents to educate their girls.Natalie Bau, Assistant Professor of Economics, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/658632016-09-22T14:04:08Z2016-09-22T14:04:08ZAre women less likely to become entrepreneurs?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138807/original/image-20160922-22514-1u9wqq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A great deal of attention is paid to the glass ceiling that prevents women from climbing the corporate ladder. The under-representation of women at the executive level in large corporations is thought to be one of the main obstacles <a href="http://www.cityam.com/227553/government-backed-davies-review-targets-women-holding-one-third-of-board-seats-by-2020">to female economic empowerment</a>. But there is an additional obstacle that is less widely publicised – and just as debilitating. This is the glass ceiling that women face when they want to become self-employed and start their own business.</p>
<p>This is the finding of new research, recently published by my colleague Tanya Wilson and I <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014292115001622">in the European Economic Review</a>. We found that, at a time where self-employment and small business activity is an increasingly important feature of most advanced economies, women are held back when it comes to starting and growing their own businesses by significant financial constraints that are stronger for them than for men.</p>
<p>Not only is this bad for gender equality, it is also bad for the wider economy. Self-employment and small business activity have become increasingly important features of most advanced economies. In the UK, for example, small firms now account for 48% of all private sector employment, and increases in total employment since the start of the Great Recession have been mostly <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/articles/trendsinselfemploymentintheuk/2001to2015">driven by the growth in self-employment</a>.</p>
<h2>Recent rise in women entrepreneurs</h2>
<p>Meanwhile a sharp rise appears to be taking place in women engaged in entrepreneurial activity. Official <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/surveys/informationforhouseholdsandindividuals/householdandindividualsurveys/labourforcesurveylfs">UK labour force surveys</a> show that from 2009 to 2014, the proportion of men in self-employment increased by 6%. Over the same period, the proportion of self-employed women jumped by a remarkable 22%. </p>
<p>But women still face severe obstacles as entrepreneurs, just as they do when trying to advance within large corporations. One of the main problems women face is access to the funds necessary to start a business or expand an existing one. A glass ceiling emerges for women in self-employment when they suffer relatively more from these liquidity constraints than their male counterparts do.</p>
<p>Our study used data from the <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/media-centre/statements/the-wealth-and-assets-survey/index.html">official survey of UK wealth and assets</a> to try and detect the existence of liquidity constraints for entrepreneurs. It showed a strong relationship between personal wealth and entrepreneurial activity. The greater one’s personal wealth is, the more likely they are to start a business. </p>
<p>The data also revealed evidence that this relationship between personal wealth and the propensity to start a new business is strongest among single women. Just £1,000 more money in the bank would lead to an 8.5% increase in the probability a single woman starts a new business. </p>
<h2>Collateral damage</h2>
<p>But women face a much harder job of securing access to the capital needed to start or grow their business – and single women especially. There are several possible explanations for this. It could be that single women have less collateral necessary for securing a loan such as a property. There may be gender discrimination in the granting of credit. It is also possible that single women are highly risk averse and choose not to borrow money even when borrowed funds would be forthcoming.</p>
<p>While discrimination and different tastes for risk are generally hard to conclusively demonstrate, the data do reveal that women are less likely than men to acquire formal loans when starting a business. Plus, the lower propensity to acquire a formal loan among single women seems to be the consequence of a lack of collateral.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138810/original/image-20160922-22540-1y3pbxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stuck under the glass ceiling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If this is the main obstacle preventing single women from engaging in entrepreneurship, and no market mechanisms emerge to help correct the situation, then a new public initiative that provides sufficient collateral to single women who lack access to funds might be one of those occasions where taxpayer money is well-spent.</p>
<p>Although public programmes that encourage business start-ups do already exist in the UK, they are generally quite restrictive and do not cover a large proportion of single women. An example is the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/new-enterprise-allowance">New Enterprise Allowance</a>, launched in 2011, which provides a weekly allowance for the first six months in self-employment and allows one to apply for a government-funded loan to help with start-up costs.</p>
<p>In 2013, a parallel initiative was introduced, called <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/start-up-loans-changes-benefit-ex-service-personnel">X-Forces</a>. This programme extends eligibility for start-up funds to former military personnel and their families. However, the proportion of single women covered by this programme is also likely to be small.</p>
<p>Therefore, it would be of great social value if new private initiatives emerged that helped crack the glass ceiling in self-employment. However, if the private sector fails to correct the situation, then new public programmes could potentially help to further accelerate the recent rise of female entrepreneurship.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert M. Sauer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows how women are held back when it comes to starting and growing their own businesses.Robert M. Sauer, Professor of Economics, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/563672016-04-06T20:11:13Z2016-04-06T20:11:13ZHillary Clinton as president will not necessarily be a feminist coup<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117061/original/image-20160401-14173-1na4q0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hillary Clinton is a flawed presidential candidate. But she's still probably the best on offer.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Lucas Jackson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Donald Trump’s colourful tilt at becoming the Republican candidate for US president has somewhat overshadowed the tensions emerging in the Democratic race. A female president is obviously long overdue, so there is pressure to select Hillary Clinton as the Democratic candidate. </p>
<p>Clinton is the only female candidate and has the experience and skills needed for the job. But many women – including some feminists – do not support her. </p>
<p>Some older feminists have criticised younger women for betraying the feminist cause. Former secretary of state Madeleine Albright demanded that all women vote for Clinton. She <a href="http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/albright-theres-a-special-place-in-hell-for-women-who-dont-back-clinton/article/2582614">claimed</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is a special place in hell for women who don’t help each other. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This provoked angry reactions from many of the young women supporting Clinton’s rival for the Democratic nomination, Bernie Sanders. They see this as an outdated view that fails to understand current political debates.</p>
<p>They could validly contest the claim that Clinton’s success would shatter the glass ceiling. This is an outdated and inadequate metaphor. In the more than 50 years since the start of the second wave women’s movement, we have failed to “normalise” women in powerful positions, so the presumption that Clinton’s ascendancy means others would follow is a specious one.</p>
<p>The evidence shows that a first female in a leadership role doesn’t necessarily attract successors. No women succeeded Golda Meir, Margaret Thatcher or, more recently, Joan Kirner or Carmen Lawrence. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/07/30/about-one-in-ten-of-todays-world-leaders-are-women/">Data collected</a> by the Pew Research Centre show that 63 of 142 nations <a href="http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2014/">studied by the World Economic Forum</a> have had a female head of government or state at some point in the 50 years up to 2014. But, in nearly two-thirds of those nations, a woman was in power for less than four of the 50 years – including 11 countries (17%) where a woman led for less than a year. This suggests that a single crack in the ceiling is usually quickly repaired.</p>
<p>The other justification is that having women in power will lead to feminist changes in policies and culture. This common trickle-up theory doesn’t seem to work. Few women in very senior positions have managed to make real changes to the dominant system of masculinised merit and control. </p>
<p>So, four decades after the UN International Women’s Year (1975), women are still the second sex, the “Other”. This means women usually are allowed power only if they fit into masculine worlds. So it is not evident that a female president would necessarily advance serious gender equity.</p>
<p>There are other questions for American voters to consider – for example what Clinton can offer to deal with pressing political issues such as climate change, and the inequities caused by failing markets, wars and terrorism. While feminist perspectives on these issues would be valuable, there is some perception that Clinton is not the person to offer them. </p>
<p>As New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/14/opinion/sunday/when-hillary-clinton-killed-feminism.html?_r=0">wrote</a>, women voters:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… were looking at Hillary as a candidate rather than a historical imperative. And she is coming up drastically short on trustworthiness.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Clinton’s problem is she has been around for a long time, both as Bill’s wife and recently as secretary of state. With Sanders, on the other hand, the attention is on his potential as a change-maker rather than on his record. He claims to have solutions to financial regulation and he promotes wide social democratic values, including most of the feminist reforms that Clinton espouses. </p>
<p>By labelling Clinton a centrist and naming her past sins and connections, Sanders is able to give her serious competition before the Democratic National Convention.</p>
<p>If, as expected, Clinton becomes the Democratic nominee, she will also be the best candidate for president, given the likely Republican choices. Neither Trump nor Ted Cruz has credibility in most areas of concern to thoughtful voters, including feminists. </p>
<p>Trump’s latest faux pas of agreeing, albeit briefly, to <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/mar/30/donald-trump-women-abortions-punishment">criminalise women who have an abortion</a> has created widespread condemnation. This single issue may revive Clinton’s support from feminists but still leaves concerns about wider residual misogyny. </p>
<p>The risk is that Clinton may still be too harshly judged and not given the credit she deserves, with many potential voters deciding to stay away and thereby jeopardising her chances of winning the presidency.</p>
<p>The history of powerful women is fraught with examples of unfair judgement of who they are and what they do. Women in power are often not judged in the same ways as men are; they face additional demands and expectations simply because they are women. </p>
<p>Women in power are also expected to adhere to higher standards than men – and often it is other women who most vocally make those demands. For example, women may be judged harshly if they show anger, raise their voice, or show vulnerability. Men get away with all of these.</p>
<p>The risk is that Clinton’s record and history, including her tolerance of her husband’s infidelities, may be used against her, while Trump’s chequered past is better tolerated. Former New York Times executive editor Jill Abramson <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/mar/28/hillary-clinton-honest-transparency-jill-abramson">defended Clinton</a> on this point:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s fair to expect more transparency. But it’s a double standard to insist on her purity.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>So women voters should turn out for an imperfect Hillary if she wins the Democrat nomination. Young women who didn’t support her before should take some credit for the fact that competition from Sanders caused her to adopt more progressive policies.</p>
<p>While Clinton in power will no doubt have to deal with financial and militaristic issues and make compromises, she is still most likely to be the best candidate on offer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56367/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eva Cox does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The rise of women to very powerful positions has not, to date, opened the way for other women. So there is no reason to believe a Hillary Clinton presidency would change that.Eva Cox, Professorial Fellow, Jumbunna IHL, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/550062016-02-22T11:40:11Z2016-02-22T11:40:11ZWomen sellers short-changed on eBay despite gender privacy policy – study reveals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112151/original/image-20160219-25888-11nfsvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-790342p1.html">shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the auction website eBay, women are receiving on average about 80 cents for every dollar men earn when selling the same product, according to <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/2/2/e1500599">new research</a>.</p>
<p>We already know that products aimed at women, such as razors and deoderant, tend to be more expensive <a href="https://theconversation.com/price-discrimination-isnt-only-about-pink-razors-54132">on the high street</a>, but this research suggests that this seemingly built-in gender inequality persists even when men and women are bidding for the same thing on eBay.</p>
<p>Considering eBay’s policy of not stating the gender of its users, the persistence of sexism – when buyers can identify a seller’s gender – points to greater disparities in other markets when gender is known. In more than half of the evaluations of sellers’ profiles that participants in the study were asked to conduct, the researchers found that buyers were able to identify a seller’s gender.</p>
<p>The research, by sociologist Tamar Kricheli-Katz and economist Tali Regev, looked at data from more than a million transactions from 2009 to 2012 involving the most popular products auctioned on eBay in the US. As well as finding that women sellers were paid less for their goods than men, the research also found that women buyers tend to pay 3% more. </p>
<p>An irony of these findings is that, on average, women sellers enjoy a higher reputation on the site and appear to be trusted more than men when it comes to accounting for the condition of used products. Despite this, women receive 97 cents for every dollar a man receives when selling the same used product. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112161/original/image-20160219-25885-1f8dkck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Would you expect to pay less to a woman seller?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-2745739p1.html">david muscroft / Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This inequality was most clearly demonstrated in a complimentary experiment conducted by the researchers on Amazon Mechanical Turk, another online marketplace. Gift cards with a defined dollar value sold for more depending on whether they were offered for sale by a man or a woman. Amazon gift cards with a value of US$100 sold for US$83.34 when sold by “Alison” and US$87.42 when sold by “Brad”.</p>
<h2>Embedded beliefs</h2>
<p>The fact that prices on eBay could be affected by gender seems absurd. But it comes down to the widely shared and deeply embedded beliefs that society has when it comes to men and women, <a href="http://gas.sagepub.com/content/4/2/139.short?rss=1&ssource=mfc">which influence our behaviour</a>. We have both conscious and unconscious assumptions about gender that we internalise from an early age, which are reproduced through our social relationships and which <a href="https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/understanding-gender-and-organizations/book233320">pervade society</a> through school and the mass media.</p>
<p>Gender roles are further sustained by <a href="https://libcom.org/files/Mary%20Holmes%20What%20is%20Gender%20Sociological%20Approaches.pdf">regulatory institutions</a>. For example, welfare models and family policies influence our sense of the proper role of women in society because they shape our sense of women’s work roles. This, in turn, influences the behaviour of individuals making all sorts of decisions.</p>
<p><a href="https://hbr.org/2007/09/women-and-the-labyrinth-of-leadership">Study</a> <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00529.x/abstract">after</a> <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00529.x/abstract">study</a> has found that people associate women and men with different traits. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1048984303000584">Time</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gwao.12040/abstract">again</a> women are associated with qualities such as being gentle and sensitive, conveying less assertion and control than men. As a result, individuals make assumptions as to how men and women should – and will – behave, which goes towards explaining why women often end up paying more than men for identical products. </p>
<p>These are the same assumptions that lead bank lending officers to be <a href="http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5k43bvtkmb8v.pdf?expires=1455891884&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=F653D51DBF5835261729BA74D9F107EC">less likely to lend money to female entrepreneurs</a> – and when they do lend, to charge a higher rate of interests. The same goes for accessing government support for a business start-up. </p>
<p>This is not to say that women entrepreneurs are less successful than men, but that they have to work hard to counter traditional gender labels in order to instil credibility and trust about the legitimacy and economic viability of their businesses.</p>
<p>Undoubtedly, there is still some way to go to achieve parity. While positive initiatives geared toward levelling the playing field have been started by <a href="http://www.kpmg.com/us/en/about/csr/diversity-inclusion/pages/womens-initiatives.aspx">some big businesses</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/403004/BIS-15-90_Inclusive_support_for_women_in_enterprise_The_Burt_report_final.pdf">governments</a>, a helpful institutional framework and greater awareness of the inequalities that exist is needed to bring about equality in both the market and workplace.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elina Meliou does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Women sellers are receiving on average about 80 cents for every dollar men earn when selling the same product, according to new research.Elina Meliou, Lecturer in Organisational Behaviour and HRM, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.