tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/heating-14778/articlesHeating – The Conversation2024-02-29T21:22:20Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2240542024-02-29T21:22:20Z2024-02-29T21:22:20ZThermal networks: The missing infrastructure we need to help enable carbon-free heating<p>Most of us who live in the Northern Hemisphere have a fundamental problem: we want to reduce our carbon emissions, but we also need to heat our homes.</p>
<p>The good news is there is a way to do both by creating thermal networks. A thermal network is a system of insulated, underground pipes that directly distribute heat to homes and other buildings using heat generated from clean sources — including nuclear reactors.</p>
<p>Rather than using their own furnaces, boilers, fireplaces or electric baseboard heaters to heat buildings, consumers would receive heat directly from a utility. </p>
<p>It’s an opportunity that is set to grow as Canada expands its nuclear energy supply and creates more heat in the process, especially with <a href="https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Canadian-government-launches-SMR-support-programme">small modular reactors</a> expected to start coming on-stream in the next decade.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-small-nuclear-reactors-the-solution-to-canadas-net-zero-ambitions-217354">Are small nuclear reactors the solution to Canada’s net-zero ambitions?</a>
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<h2>Scaling up</h2>
<p>Our research collaboration has produced — with the help of experts from McMaster University, The Boltzmann Institute and Canadian Nuclear Association — a <a href="https://www.eng.mcmaster.ca/mcmaster-institute-for-energy-studies/featured-publications/#thermal-networks-position-paper">position paper</a> presenting the case for large-scale thermal networks to be created across Canada, with nuclear power plants potentially providing up to half of the heat. </p>
<p>Similar technology using heat from non-nuclear sources is <a href="https://cieedacdb.rem.sfu.ca/district-energy-inventory">already a reality in Canada</a> in the form of <a href="https://toolkit.bc.ca/tool/district-energy-systems-2/">district energy systems</a>. </p>
<p>Many buildings in <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/content/dam/sfu/ceedc/publications/facilities/CEEDC%20-%20District%20Energy%20Report%202023.pdf">Toronto, Hamilton, Vancouver</a> and on university campuses, such as McMaster University, are served by hot water or steam-based central heating plants, using heat that is purpose-made and piped across campus. What’s more, Canada already <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/interactive/2021/toronto-deep-latke-water-cooling-raptors/">leads the world in district cooling networks</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">An overview of the basic principle of Toronto’s Deep Lake Water Cooling System produced by the Canada Green Building Council. Thermal networks will move thermal energy similar to the way networked water pipes do, except they will move heat from producer to consumer across a shared system.</span></figcaption>
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<p><a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/10/04/1080795/us-thermal-energy-networks/">Thirteen states in the United States</a> are implementing a thermal networks utility model. In <a href="https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/opinion/district-heating-and-cooling-is-one-of-europes-top-solution-to-reduce-fossil-imports-but-we-need-decisive-eu-action-to-tap-into-this-potential/">Europe</a>, 67 million people enjoy heating from thermal networks and district heating systems supplied by a variety of sources in a mix that is increasingly <a href="https://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/heat-roadmap-europe-4-quantifying-the-impact-of-low-carbon-heatin">less reliant on carbon</a>.</p>
<p>The idea is catching on, and it’s time to scale up.</p>
<h2>Leftover heat</h2>
<p>As many as 70 per cent of Canadians live in communities that could be warmed by thermal networks. The networks would deliver heated water that warms buildings in the same way household radiators distribute heat — but on a much <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.12.001">larger public scale</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/zibi-waste-heat-recovery-1.7117832">Such systems</a> are capable of efficiently sending heat through buried pipelines to homes, schools, hospitals, office buildings, shopping malls and other structures, greatly reducing the demand for electricity and heating fuel and making space on the electrical grid to accommodate growing electricity demand from electric vehicle chargers and heat pumps. </p>
<p>One of the most appealing aspects of this opportunity is that most of the required heat is already available and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121291">going unused</a>. Heat from major sources, such as <a href="https://www.powermag.com/district-heating-supply-from-nuclear-power-plants/">nuclear power plants</a>, can be transmitted as far as 100 km to where it is needed. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-nuclear-reactor-gentilly-2-1.6932355">Québec</a>, <a href="https://www.opg.com/releases/capital-power-and-opg-partner-to-advance-new-nuclear-in-alberta/">Alberta, Saskatchewan and New Brunswick</a> are all considering building new or re-starting existing reactors. Together with existing reactors, much of Canada’s population would fall within this range.</p>
<p>In the case of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.119546">reactors</a>, thermal networks could share their useful leftover heat instead of releasing it into the environment as is typically done today. This water, used in coiling, gathers heat but does not come into contact with nuclear material and is in no way contaminated. </p>
<p>The recent joint declaration at the <a href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/jcms/pl_88702/countries-launch-joint-declaration-to-triple-nuclear-energy-capacity-by-2050-at-cop28">UN climate conference COP28</a> to triple nuclear energy capacity by 2050 means there will be significantly more heat from large reactors, such as the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-darlington-nuclear-plant-1.6899969">new nuclear fleet proposed in Ontario</a>, which could supply warmth to homes in the Greater Toronto Area.</p>
<p><a href="https://smrroadmap.ca/">Small modular reactors</a>, which are expected to come on-stream widely as local alternatives to fuel-burning sources of electricity, could supply heat locally while also generating revenue from heat that would otherwise be wasted.</p>
<p>Alternatively, residual heat from <a href="https://www.ngif.ca/harvest-systems-successfully-demonstrates-waste-heat-recovery-from-pizza-pizza-ovens/">restaurants</a>, commercial and industrial processes, water heated by solar or geothermal energy, or the combustion of dried biomass can do exactly the same thing with <a href="https://www.irena.org/publications/2021/March/Integrating-low-temperature-renewables-in-district-energy-systems">little to no greenhouse gas emissions</a>.</p>
<h2>Funding the change</h2>
<p>Though our appetite for thermal networks is growing, apprehension over the cost of creating large-scale public systems has stifled enthusiasm for implementing them here.</p>
<p>Certainly, the challenge of laying new pipelines to every urban home is daunting, but that need not be a barrier. It’s not that long ago that water, electricity and natural gas were not delivered directly to homes and other buildings, either. </p>
<p>The managers of those utilities, both public and private, developed efficient methods for deployment, balanced the <a href="https://energy.utexas.edu/sites/default/files/UTAustin_FCe_History_2016.pdf">cost of their infrastructure</a> over decades and included the financing costs in customers’ bills. All of these techniques could help build thermal networks across Canada. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-need-to-reuse-waste-energy-to-achieve-net-zero-heating-systems-209416">Why we need to reuse waste energy to achieve net-zero heating systems</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.cga.ca/energy-magazine-post/when-was-canadas-natural-gas-distribution-system-built-and-what-is-it-made-of/">Natural gas only started to become commonly available in Canada</a> in the 1950s, with networks of buried pipes being extended to the most populated areas of the country through the 1980s. <a href="https://brilliantio.com/how-were-homes-heated-in-the-1960s/">Before then</a>, people had oil, coal or wood delivered, or used electricity from coal-fired plants — all of them significant sources of greenhouse gases. </p>
<p>The conversion made heating <a href="https://www.fortisbc.com/services/natural-gas-services/considering-upgrading-to-gas-up-to-2700-in-appliance-rebates-available-for-a-limited-time/annual-fuel-cost-comparison">cheaper and cleaner</a>. It <a href="https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/canadas-energy-transition/canadas-energy-transition-historical-future-changes-energy-systems-update-energy-market-assessment-global-energy.html">halved our carbon emissions</a>. It required a huge effort, but it happened, and it can happen again.</p>
<p>Thermal networks present an opportunity to harvest heat from natural sources or <a href="https://futurium.ec.europa.eu/en/urban-agenda/energy-transition/library/action-2-recommendation-paper-maximising-use-waste-heat-cities">heat that would otherwise be wasted</a> and use it for a vital purpose of keeping Canadians warm while helping to reduce carbon emissions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224054/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jim Cotton is the founder and CEO of Harvest Systems Inc. He receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Ontario Centre of Innovation and Boltzmann Institute. </span></em></p>Underground thermal networks have the potential to revolutionize how Canadians heat their homes while helping to reduce carbon emissions.James (Jim) S. Cotton, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212822024-02-06T15:51:10Z2024-02-06T15:51:10ZFuel poverty: as government support dries up, communities are taking action<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573777/original/file-20240206-22-xvyur2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4928%2C3260&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A cooperative in southern England installed solar panels on flats and used the revenue to fund energy-efficient improvements.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/roof-mounted-solar-panels-manchester-england-394391113">Marcin Wos/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/about-us/about-us1/media/press-releases/more-than-two-million-people-will-be-cut-off-from-their-gas-and-electricity-this-winter-because-they-cant-afford-to-top-up-citizens-advice-warns/">More than two million people</a> will be cut off from their gas and electricity this winter because they can’t afford to top up their prepayment meter. That’s according to a report from the charity Citizens Advice, which says it is helping more people than ever who cannot pay for energy.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/articles/whoismostlikelytoliveinhomesthatarehardertokeepwarm/2023-12-14">Data</a> from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) suggests that lone parents (75%), renters (60%), disabled adults (54%), and Black, African, Caribbean, or Black British adults (58%) are more likely to report difficulties in affording their energy payments compared to the national average of 43%.</p>
<p>Underlying all the vulnerable groups who will struggle to keep warm this winter is class. Apart from people aged 65 years and over (who are also more likely to live in homes with lower energy efficiency and so consume more gas and electricity as a result) those most affected by <a href="https://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2024-01-16c.676.5">fuel poverty</a> are people who live payday to payday and have very little savings, if any. Race sometimes becomes a factor as government <a href="https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/work-pay-and-benefits/pay-and-income/household-income/latest/">figures</a> show that Black households (54%) are most likely out of all ethnic groups to have a weekly income of less than £600 (US$760).</p>
<p>Soaring heating expenses, stagnating or declining wages and poorly maintained housing have marred millions of lives with debt and poor health. <a href="https://www.endfuelpoverty.org.uk/about-fuel-poverty/excess-winter-deaths-and-fuel-poverty/">Estimates</a> suggest that 10% of excess winter deaths are directly attributable to fuel poverty and 21.5% to cold homes.</p>
<p>So what support is available – and what is actually needed?</p>
<h2>National schemes don’t go far enough</h2>
<p>The government energy bill support <a href="https://www.gov.uk/get-help-energy-bills/getting-discount-energy-bill">scheme</a> gave every household a £400 discount on their energy bills for winter 2022-2023. This ended in March 2023. Now some households could get £150 off their electricity bill (or added to their prepayment meter) for winter 2023-2024 under the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/the-warm-home-discount-scheme">warm home discount scheme</a>.</p>
<p>This discount should be automatically applied to your bill, meaning there is no need to apply for the scheme if you are getting the guarantee credit element of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/the-warm-home-discount-scheme/guarantee-pension-credit">pension credit</a> or are on a low income and live in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/the-warm-home-discount-scheme/low-income-England-Wales">England and Wales</a>. You may need to apply for it if you are eligible and live in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/the-warm-home-discount-scheme/low-income-scotland">Scotland</a>, however.</p>
<p>The Citizens Advice <a href="https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/consumer/energy/energy-supply/get-help-paying-your-bills/grants-and-benefits-to-help-you-pay-your-energy-bills/">website</a> has useful information on grants and benefits to help with paying energy bills in England. Your local council may have other schemes so it is <a href="https://www.gov.uk/find-local-council">worth checking</a>. </p>
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<img alt="A paper electricity bill." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573780/original/file-20240206-22-ne8gjq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">UK energy bills have remained high for the last two years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/paper-electricity-bill-cost-increasing-notice-2132985595">Jevanto Productions/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-69625-6_124-1">Research</a> I conducted with others has shown that what support is available is inadequate. People may be unaware of their eligibility for the warm home discount and struggle to contact their energy supplier, as is sometimes required in Scotland. They may also be loath to contact their local authority for information on nearby “warm spaces” – public places that anyone can use to stay warm, like libraries.</p>
<p>Eligibility itself poses a problem because people in need often miss out due to narrowly defined criteria that excludes people on marginally higher incomes or who are self-employed. Inaccurate government data and flawed disability assessments are also an issue.</p>
<h2>Warm communities</h2>
<p>Fuel poverty is a devolved policy area in the UK, meaning that powers and funding rest with local government. But our <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-69625-6_124-1">research</a> shows that people in poverty and ethnic minority groups often do not trust city councils and local political representatives.</p>
<p>Fortunately, others are taking action. <a href="https://communityenergyengland.org/pages/what-is-community-energy">Community Energy England</a>, a not-for-profit company, <a href="https://communityenergyengland.org/pages/who-we-are">provides</a> <a href="https://communityenergyengland.org/how-to-pages/data-digital">free</a> <a href="https://communityenergyengland.org/how-to-pages/community-energy-fortnight-2023-resources">resources</a> for people who want to start <a href="https://communityenergyengland.org/how-to-pages/getting-started-with-community-energy">community energy projects</a>. One <a href="https://communityenergyengland.org/how-to-pages/case-studies">example</a>, <a href="https://www.brightonenergy.org.uk/">Brighton Energy Co-op</a>, has invested in the <a href="https://www.brightonenergy.org.uk/home/our-projects/">installation of solar panels</a> on <a href="https://www.brightonenergy.org.uk/home/our-projects/">buildings</a>, ranging from schools to blocks of flats and even a football stadium. Money raised from selling this electricity has helped repay investors and funded insulation and other energy efficiency improvements for vulnerable people. </p>
<p>Energy efficiency experts <a href="https://www.groundwork.org.uk/greendoctor/">Groundwork’s Green Doctors</a> also give vulnerable <a href="https://www.groundwork.org.uk/greendoctor/our-partners/">people</a> (remotely and in person) useful tips on how to <a href="https://www.groundwork.org.uk/london/saving-resources/">save energy</a> and where to find discounts. Their <a href="https://www.groundwork.org.uk/london/green-doctors-help-residents/">advice</a> includes demonstrating how to put reflective panels behind radiators so that more heat is kept within rooms instead of being lost through walls.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.fuelbankfoundation.org/">Fuel Bank Foundation</a> provides emergency credits for people whose prepayment meters run out. </p>
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<p>All of this work is helpful because <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/news/2023/12/homes-hit-hardest-by-fuel-poverty-not-benefiting-from-government-scheme.page">research</a> shows that households in the areas hardest hit by fuel poverty are not benefiting the most from government programmes.</p>
<h2>More help is needed</h2>
<p>People should not be dying as a result of <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/fuel-poverty-charity-reveals-45-people-per-day-die-from-cold-homes/">cold homes</a> in a country as wealthy as <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true">the UK</a> and given the statistics, the government ought to implement a programme of targeted benefits for elderly people with disabilities, addressing the extra costs related to disability and care needs. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352126874_Ethnic_Poverty_Causes_Implications_and_Solutions">research</a> also indicates that higher unemployment rates, low wages, and limited career progression in low-paid sectors frequently ends in fuel poverty, particularly among people in lower socioeconomic classes and especially those from Black communities.</p>
<p>Tackling fuel poverty requires <a href="https://energyforall.org.uk/">diverse</a>, long-term solutions. The support currently offered should expand to involve community-led approaches to improve energy efficiency and help those in dire need.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tolu Olarewaju does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Energy bill discounts have failed to meet the scale of the problem, research shows.Tolu Olarewaju, Economist and Lecturer in Management, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208182024-02-02T13:17:06Z2024-02-02T13:17:06ZHow can I get ice off my car? An engineer who studies airborne particles shares some quick and easy techniques<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572255/original/file-20240130-29-7n5wna.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C1024%2C763&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Condensation and cold combine to create that layer of ice on car windshields in winter. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oblodzone_szyby_samochodu,_zima_2009_%28ubt%29.jpeg">Tomasz Sienicki/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you live somewhere that gets cold in the winter, you’ve probably seen cars parked outdoors covered in a thin layer of ice on a chilly morning. But what causes this frost, and how can you get rid of it quickly?</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xcpTqRYAAAAJ&hl=en">mechanical engineering professor</a> who studies how water vapor interacts with airborne particles under different atmospheric conditions. Frosty windshields are similar to some of the thermodynamic questions I study in the lab, and they’re also a pesky issue that I deal with every winter on my way to work. </p>
<h2>Windshield condensation</h2>
<p>The air in Earth’s atmosphere always contains a certain amount of water vapor, but there’s only so much water vapor the air can hold. Scientists call that limit 100% <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/humidity">relative humidity</a>. <a href="https://www.weather.gov/arx/why_dewpoint_vs_humidity">The dew point</a> refers to the temperature at which relative humidity reaches 100%. </p>
<p>Wet air has high dew point temperature, while dry air has a low dew point temperature. With each degree drop in temperature, the air gets closer to its dew point temperature – or its water vapor carrying capacity. Any cooling after the dew point temperature has been reached causes <a href="https://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/ocean-observation/understanding-climate/air-and-water/">water to condense onto surfaces</a>, or form into fog.</p>
<p>Overnight, car windshields facing the cold dark sky are <a href="https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/principles-heating-and-cooling">radiatively cooled</a>, meaning they release heat out into their surrounding area in the form of visible and invisible light. As air comes in contact with the cold windshield, it can reach its dew point temperature. Then, the water vapor condenses onto the windshield.</p>
<p>When this radiative cooling drops the temperature on the windshield’s surface to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/freezing-point">below the freezing point</a>, 32 degrees Fahrenheit (zero degrees Celsius), the layer of condensed water on the windshield turns to frost. </p>
<h2>Defrosting your car</h2>
<p>To defrost an icy windshield, you can follow a few different approaches, some of which take longer and require more effort than others.</p>
<p>One option is to directly spray a small amount of warm liquid on the layer of frost to help melt it. For this approach to work, the spray liquid must be hot enough to raise the overall temperature of the frost layer to above <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ptable/melting-point/">the melting point</a>. But the temperature can’t be way hotter than the temperature of the glass or you’ll crack your windshield. </p>
<p>A better way to melt the ice without damaging your car is to spray your windows with a warm liquid that has a lower freezing point than water, like a mixture of rubbing alcohol and water. This warm mixture will melt the frost layer without heating up the glass, and the resulting liquid layer on the windshield will have a lower freezing point than water. It will remain liquid, and you can wipe it away with your windshield wipers. </p>
<p>Similar alcohol and water mixtures – <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/glycol">glycol, for example</a> – are commonly used to maintain the <a href="https://mayekawa.es/images/pdf/ASHRAE_ENERGY_EFFICIENT_ICE_RINK_2015.pdf">icy surface of skating rinks</a>.</p>
<figure>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A mix of water and rubbing alcohol can melt ice on your windshield.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This approach can melt the ice reasonably quickly and easily, without too much effort. You don’t even have to turn on your car. </p>
<p>If you have a little more time, you can start the car and run <a href="https://www.lifewire.com/how-do-car-defrosters-work-534663">the air defrost system</a> to blow hot air – aim for above 80 degrees Fahrenheit – onto the inside of the windshield. This warms the windshield and will eventually melt the frost layer. Once you see some melting, you can use the windshield wipers to wipe the rest of the ice away. </p>
<p>This option consumes more energy, as your car will have to heat up the windshield, but it doesn’t require you to do much. </p>
<p>Using the defrost system to blow warm air toward the windshield will also help to clear the inside of the windshield when it gets fogged up from condensation. Otherwise, if it’s dry outside, you can also clear up windshield fog by opening the car window and letting in outside air.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person wearing a winter jacket uses a scraper on their frost-covered windshield." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572257/original/file-20240130-23-r3f30r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can use an ice scraper to break the ice on your windshield into chunks, so your wiper blades can clean them off.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ColoradoWeather/c8d71e03eb5144afad7c01e72eccf5c2/photo?Query=windshield%20wipers&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=296&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=17&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/David Zalubowski</a></span>
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<p>If you are in a hurry or need some exercise, you can use an ice scraper to break up frost on your windshield, creating smaller islands of ice. The windshield wiper can then mechanically dislodge the chunks by moving them around and melting them. This requires more energy on your part, but it doesn’t require much from your car.</p>
<p>If you have a relaxed start to your day, you can let the Sun warm the windshield and slowly melt the frost layer for you. This technique saves energy in every way imaginable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220818/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suresh Dhaniyala does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When you’re running late in the winter, you don’t want to have to spend time scraping frost off your windshield. Try some expert-recommended techniques instead.Suresh Dhaniyala, Bayard D. Clarkson Distinguished Professor of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Clarkson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2198522023-12-28T09:20:24Z2023-12-28T09:20:24ZA brief history of Britain’s obsession with the hot water bottle<p>Last winter, UK retailers reported record sales of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/dec/12/hot-water-bottles-sell-out-uk-cold-snap-heating-bills">water bottles</a> as consumers look to cut their heating costs as the average <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-energy-bills-jump-80-percent-ofgem-price-cap/">household energy bills soared</a>. </p>
<p>Boiling a kettle to fill a hot water bottle uses less energy than an electric blanket or turning on the heating and so is the <a href="https://www.which.co.uk/news/article/the-cheapest-way-to-keep-warm-in-bed-alwIf3N5e4G5">cheapest option</a> to keep you warm, according to consumer insights publication Which?. </p>
<p>This year, bottles have been spotted on the <a href="https://harpersbazaar.com.au/burberry-autumn-winter-aw-2023/">London runway</a> as even <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-12792477/This-seasons-trendiest-accessory-hot-water-bottle-increased-demand-home-comforts-chic-covers-given-old-fashioned-heating-device-revival.html">luxury brands</a> are cashing in on their popularity.</p>
<p>Feeling the chill ourselves, we have dug into the history of the hot water bottle as part of a large research project on the global history of Boots The Chemists. </p>
<h2>The first hot water bottles</h2>
<p>Hot water bottles have been around in various forms for centuries. Early versions were made from materials such as <a href="https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co121472/hot-water-bottle-hot-water-bottle">metal</a>, <a href="https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co121335/d-shaped-hot-water-bottle-nottingham-england-1880-1940-hot-water-bottle">ceramic</a>, and glass. These bottles could lose heat quickly and were unpleasant, icy bed companions once cooled.</p>
<p>Refinement of the <a href="https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-international-natural-rubber-market-1870-1930/#:%7E:text=In%201839%20Charles%20Goodyear%20improved,shoe%20soles%2C%20and%20other%20products.">vulcanisation process</a> in the mid-19th century was a revolution for the humble “hottie”. Advertisements for rubber bottles started appearing in UK newspapers by the late 1860s. In November 1867, for example, Thornton and Co. promoted their “India Rubber” hot water bottle in the Glasgow Herald, with claims that its product was a “great comfort to invalids”. </p>
<p>Rubber bottles were soft, flexible, and retained heat for longer. While the basic design has changed very little, the familiar flask shape is widely attributed to Croatian inventor <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2808054/">Eduard Penkala</a>. Newspapers trumpeted the importance of checking a bottle properly before use to avoid debilitating burns and scalds. Seasonal articles, much like today, encouraged people to invest in a new bottle every few years.</p>
<h2>Hot water bottles at Boots</h2>
<p>Although we cannot be certain when Boots stocked its first rubber hot water bottle, it was pushing them hard by the 1920s. In this decade, new manufacturing techniques widened rubber’s application and ease of production for a host of household goods, clothing, and footwear. The material’s waterproof, wipe-down qualities and its extreme malleability transformed approaches to home hygiene. </p>
<p>Rubber gloves, baby teats, home enema tubes, rubberised plasters and elasticated girdles are all examples of products invented or improved between the first and second world wars and had a huge impact on everyday health, comfort, and convenience. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3649591/">Latex condoms</a> also date from this period, although given their Methodist origins, Boots refused to sell them. But they did stock a bewilderingly large range of rubber hot water bottles, carefully tiered by quality and price. </p>
<p>At the top-of-the-range was the “Regaid Super Red”, but customers could also buy the mid-priced model “Cumfy” (also in red), the lower-priced “Perfection” in grey, and a budget level “Primus”, marketed as a functional, if “drab” option for the budget conscious. </p>
<p>While varying in price, all Boots’ hot water bottles were touted to relieve pain as well as provide heat. A miniature version of the “Cumfy”, for instance, was sold as a handwarmer, a portable heat source for baby’s pram and as a relief for neuralgia (a shooting, stabbing nerve pain) or earache. </p>
<p>Housewives were given strict instructions on how to keep their bottle clean and to stop the rubber from deteriorating. Because very hot water might crack the rubber, Boots advised its customers to pour a cup of cold water into the bottle first. Then, after it was emptied, it should be hung upside down, with the stopper removed, in a “cool, dark place”.</p>
<h2>An uncomfortable history?</h2>
<p>Rubber transformed everyday comfort in Britain, but the industry has a complex history marked by economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and environmental abuses driven by European colonialism. Rubber plantation workers in <a href="https://kontinentalist.com/stories/rubber-race-and-colonial-exploitation">Southeast Asia</a>, for example, often endured harsh conditions to cultivate, tap, and process raw rubber sheets. On arrival to the manufacturer overseas, the rubber was <a href="https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-international-natural-rubber-market-1870-1930/">poured over cotton</a> – another product of the British empire – to make the hot water bottle pliable, soft and strong. </p>
<p>In the 1920s, Boots staff magazine, The Bee, featured several articles explaining where rubber came from and how hot water bottles were made. Like many corporate communications of the time, these told a sanitised story of manufacturing success. When Boots celebrated the “ideal conditions” that helped British factory girls take “justifiable pride” in the bottles they made, it marginalised the exploitative conditions needed to produce cheap cotton and rubber. Ironically, hot water bottles were often shipped back to rubber-producing countries to help colonial ex-pats deal with the climate.</p>
<p>Today, the variety of hot water bottle models and price points seem endless. This beloved classic shows no signs of losing its appeal for British consumers. As a cost-effective and familiar staple, we will likely continue to tuck ourselves up in bed with one for many more winters to come. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219852/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Hornsey receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Greenwood receives funding from Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hilary Ingram receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC)</span></em></p>Hot water bottles have been used to heat beds for centuries but our modern rubber iterations only came about in the mid-19th century.Richard Hornsey, Lecturer in Modern British History, University of NottinghamAnna Greenwood, Professor of Health History, University of NottinghamHilary Ingram, Research Fellow, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2177552023-12-04T16:06:16Z2023-12-04T16:06:16ZHow a hybrid heating system could lower your bills and shrink your carbon footprint<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561383/original/file-20231123-25-iy0m0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7668%2C4320&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hybrid systems combine two or more technologies to heat a house.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/heat-pump-airwater-technology-home-splittype-2318255183">ThomsonD/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>To heat your home without damaging the climate, you will need to replace your gas boiler. UK government advisers <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/oct/18/uk-infrastructure-needs-much-more-investment-say-government-advisers">recommend</a> switching to appliances that run on electricity.</p>
<p>However, if a root-and-branch conversion to electric heating is too expensive, even a partial shift to “hybrid heating” can cut your energy bills and household emissions relatively quickly – although phasing out gas and oil is still essential in the long run for <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-developing-world-to-quit-coal-rich-countries-must-eliminate-oil-and-gas-faster-new-study-199649">averting climate breakdown</a>.</p>
<p>A hybrid heating system combines two or more technologies to heat a building. Typically, this involves pairing a conventional gas boiler with a renewable alternative like an electric heat pump. But there are other possibilities. For instance, roof-mounted solar panels can generate electricity to help run an immersion heater, or solar-thermal panels can complement your heat pump or boiler by making hot water.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diagonally mounted solar panel with a white cable." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561380/original/file-20231123-19-656ekd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Solar-thermal technology can convert solar energy into heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/solar-heater-green-energy-192039521">Antlio/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Gas boilers supplied 92% of <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/834603/2017-18_EHS_Headline_Report.pdf">home heating</a> across the UK in 2017. <a href="https://www.nesta.org.uk/press-release/gas-boiler-emits-more-annual-co2-seven-transatlantic-flights/">Emissions</a> from the average boiler are equivalent to 2.2 tonnes of CO₂ a year, making residential heating one of the country’s biggest contributors to climate change. The UK government <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6194dfa4d3bf7f0555071b1b/net-zero-strategy-beis.pdf">will stop</a> the sale of new gas boilers from 2035.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, heat pumps are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/apr/15/high-costs-and-uncertainties-cast-a-chill-over-britains-heat-pump-market">slowly</a> gaining popularity through the government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/apply-boiler-upgrade-scheme">boiler upgrade</a> scheme, which offers grants of up to £7,500 (US$9,400). Electric heat pumps convert electricity to heat very efficiently by extracting heat from the air or ground outside and transferring it to water that is pumped through radiators. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings/heat-pumps">International Energy Agency</a> says that installing a heat pump can significantly lower household emissions, especially when the electricity powering it is from a renewable source like wind or solar. </p>
<h2>Is hybrid heating right for you?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hybrid-heat-pumps-study">Hybrid heating systems</a> can bring a number of advantages: a smaller carbon footprint as well as lower bills, while increasing the energy efficiency and value of a property.</p>
<p>From 2026, hybrid heating systems will become a standard replacement for gas heating in the <a href="https://www.dutchnews.nl/2022/05/from-2026-hybrid-heat-pumps-should-be-the-norm-says-minister/">Netherlands</a>. In <a href="https://www.renewable.news/energy-transition/german-heating-industry-suggests-hybrid-solutions-to-reduce-carbon-footprint/">Germany</a>, the heating industry favours a more gradual shift from oil and gas using hybrid heating systems.</p>
<p>Heat pumps can be difficult and expensive to install in some houses. This is because they generate heat at a lower temperature to gas boilers, so larger radiators and underfloor heating may be necessary to heat a home as efficiently on particularly cold days (especially if your house is poorly insulated).</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-heat-pumps-work-in-the-uks-climate-an-expert-answers-your-low-carbon-heating-questions-211150">Do heat pumps work in the UK's climate? An expert answers your low-carbon heating questions</a>
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<p>Complex renovations that are often necessary to install heat pumps require additional investment and can deter homeowners, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/apr/15/high-costs-and-uncertainties-cast-a-chill-over-britains-heat-pump-market">obstructing</a> the roll-out of low-carbon heating.</p>
<p>If insulating your home is particularly expensive or arduous, installing a heat pump and keeping a gas boiler as a back-up for particularly cold days could still slash your household emissions while maintaining the standard of heating you’re used to. It may also give you time to save up for renovations that can help you make the final shift to an all-electric system.</p>
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<img alt="A worker in overalls unrolls a yellow insulating foam in a wooden lattice." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561381/original/file-20231123-24-4t2h00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Energy-efficiency improvements, like installing insulation, are unavoidable for heat pump-only properties.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/worker-insulates-floor-mineral-wool-1170614671">Serhii Krot/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>How do hybrid systems compare?</h2>
<p>A 2021 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778821001493">study</a> found that a hybrid heating system consisting of an air-source heat pump and a condensing gas boiler reduced a typical UK household’s greenhouse gas emissions from heating by 30%. </p>
<p>A hybrid heat pump requires less remedial work: you may keep the original boiler and radiators. Cavity-wall and other forms of insulation will help you retain heat and use less energy, and these changes are essential for heating a property with a heat pump alone. Compared with an oil boiler, a hybrid heat pump system (combined with energy-efficiency measures) consumed roughly 70% less energy according to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778823004863#br0170">one study</a> – similar to a standalone heat pump.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778823004863#br0170">A case study</a> in Ireland also showed that hybrid heat pumps have 7% lower annual operating costs than a gas boiler alone, and 23% lower than an electric heat pump on its own. The disparity is because electricity can be a lot more expensive than gas, depending on fluctuating energy prices and how long the heat pump operates.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/renewables-are-cheaper-than-ever-so-why-are-household-energy-bills-only-going-up-174795">Renewables are cheaper than ever – so why are household energy bills only going up?</a>
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<p>While insulating homes and replacing gas heating systems with electric alternatives should remain the goal, installing a hybrid heating system can reduce bills and emissions quickly, especially when government support for upgrading your heating is <a href="https://www.hhic.org.uk/news/decarbonisation-of-heat-impossible-without-hybrid-heat-pump-incentive-says-expert">insufficient</a>.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jovana Radulovic does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Oil and gas must be eliminated from heating systems over the coming years.Jovana Radulovic, Head of School of Mechanical and Design Engineering, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148742023-10-17T16:42:46Z2023-10-17T16:42:46ZWhy heating your home this winter may be even harder than last year<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554293/original/file-20231017-29-o9d9t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8192%2C5464&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-gloves-hugging-hot-water-bottle-2212717459">Daisy Daisy/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Domestic energy prices <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">more than doubled</a> during 2022 compared with the year before. This meant that the number of UK households in fuel poverty who could not afford to heat their homes to a safe level rose from 4.5 million to 7.3 million.</p>
<p>The UK government attempted to alleviate the impact of rocketing bills with <a href="https://www.gov.uk/get-help-energy-bills/getting-discount-energy-bill">a package of support measures</a>. This included capping the unit cost of electricity and gas, a £400 rebate to all households using mains gas for heating and £200 for those using alternative fuels, and a further £650 “cost of living payment” to claimants of means-tested benefits.</p>
<p>Many of these schemes ended in spring 2023. And with wholesale gas costs and the government’s energy price cap having come down somewhat, you could be forgiven for thinking that the worst of the energy crisis has passed. </p>
<p>But that’s not the case for many billpayers – in fact, this winter is likely to be worse than the last for many households.</p>
<p>The energy price cap, introduced in 2019 by market regulator Ofgem, limits how much people pay for each unit of gas and electricity. The <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/information-consumers/energy-advice-households/energy-price-cap">latest price cap</a>, set on October 1 2023, means that a typical household will pay £1,834 a year for energy – less than £2,000 for the first time in 18 months.</p>
<p>This might sound like good news, but it’s still a substantial increase on the pre-crisis cap. In August 2021, the most a typical household could expect to pay in a year for energy was £1,277. </p>
<p>Although the unit prices of electricity and gas have fallen, there has been a steep increase in standing charges. These are a levy on all energy bills which cover the costs associated with supplying energy to homes. </p>
<p>Standing charges have gone up from around £186 a year pre-crisis to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/aug/25/ofgem-energy-price-cap-falls-but-consumers-still-face-high-bills">just over £300</a> now – effectively adding £110 to bills.</p>
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<img alt="An engineer atop of wooden electricity transmission pole." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554292/original/file-20231017-17-yx09a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Standing charges pay for the upkeep of the UK’s energy supply network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/engineer-repairing-cables-on-telegraphic-pole-1358108471">KingTa/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Standing charges are regressive because they are the same for everyone, regardless of <a href="https://www.moneysavingexpert.com/news/2022/08/ofgem-rules-out-shifting-the-costs-of-supplier-failure-out-of-th/">how much energy you consume</a>. Poorer households often use much less energy than wealthier ones, so standing charges make up a larger proportion of their energy costs. </p>
<p>In fact, some low-income households use such small amounts of energy that they are <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">paying little more than their standing charges</a>. </p>
<h2>Energy bill rebates ended</h2>
<p>The £400 energy bill rebate paid to all households last winter has now ended. Meanwhile, cost of living payments to claimants of means-tested benefits have <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/cost-of-living-payment?gclid=*&source=CIR10&advsrcSuggest=CIR10medical-loans/&gclid=2070a23933c012f4a389c71fabe04081&gclsrc=3p.ds&">increased from £650 to £900 a year</a>. This will be helpful to those who qualify, but one third of households eligible for means-tested welfare payments <a href="https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/low-income-not-claiming-means-tested-benefits">do not claim them</a> due to stigma, lack of awareness or bad experiences with the assessment process, and so will receive no assistance. </p>
<p>Many households who do receive these cost of living payments will spend it on other expenses, such as food, <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">rather than heating their home</a>. This reflects the fact that energy is often seen by struggling households as something that can be <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/over-half-of-parents-may-resort-to-washing-childrens-school-uniforms-by-hand-amid-cost-of-living-crisis/">rationed</a>.</p>
<p>If you’re in a household that does not qualify for the cost of living payment then the savings of around £150 that resulted from the lowering of the cap will <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-58090533">soon be more than cancelled out</a> by the lack of a rebate. </p>
<h2>Cold homes can kill</h2>
<p>Despite the financial support offered last winter, average levels of energy debt for people contacting Citizens Advice in England and Wales have risen sharply over the last year, from around £1,400 per household on average in March 2022 to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/aug/25/ofgem-energy-price-cap-falls-but-consumers-still-face-high-bills">£1,711 in July 2023</a>. One-third of UK energy customers are now <a href="https://www.stepchange.org/policy-and-research/2022-personal-debt-statistics.aspx">in arrears</a>. </p>
<p>So although energy bills have fallen slightly, many households are less resilient to financial shocks than they were in early 2022. Volatile energy prices are predicted to last until <a href="https://www.cornwall-insight.com/press/volatile-energy-prices-set-to-continue-into-2030/">the end of the decade</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.fuelpovertyresearch.net/comment/tackling-fuel-poverty-learning-from-winter-research/">Research</a> last winter found that households in fuel poverty were underheating their homes, causing damp and mould that can create <a href="https://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/resources-reports/fuel-poverty-cold-homes-and-health-inequalities-in-the-uk/read-the-report.pdf">serious health problems</a> and exacerbating anguish and stress. The health risks of a cold home increase with repeated exposure.</p>
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<img alt="A PVC window frame with black mould growing on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554291/original/file-20231017-23-w2wapr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Poorly heated homes are at risk of damp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mold-corner-window-516787591">Burdun Iliya/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>As temperatures begin to fall again, a range of measures are urgently needed to prevent a crisis worse than that of last winter.</p>
<h2>What can be done to help?</h2>
<p>Since energy prices are expected to remain high for years, long-term solutions are vital. There must be increased investment in efforts to insulate the UK’s leaky housing stock. But with winter just weeks away, what can the government do right now? </p>
<p>To start, it could offer greater energy bill rebates. Given the scale of the fuel poverty problem, eligibility for these rebates must be wide enough for anyone on a below average income to receive help. </p>
<p>Alternatively, the government could make the rebates universal again, and potentially recoup the costs by increasing taxes on the most wealthy or energy company profits. At the very least, unclaimed energy bill support from last winter should be used to support those <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/worst-of-the-energy-crisis/">likely to struggle in the coming winter</a>, rather than being returned to the treasury. </p>
<p>Cut funding for government-backed advice services could also be restored. And there are reforms to the retail energy market that could be implemented fairly quickly, such as bringing standing charges in line with levels of usage. </p>
<p>More fundamentally, there are a number of proposals that would be fairer than the current system and could be implemented together for maximum impact. These include a “<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/sustainable/sites/bartlett_sustainable/files/navigating_the_energy-climate_crises_working_paper_4_-_green_power_pool_v2-2_final.pdf">green power pool</a>”, which would ensure that the cheap power generated by renewables such as wind and solar benefits those most in need first and foremost, <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/social-tariff-consultation/">social tariffs</a> (discounted energy bills for low-income households), or a <a href="https://neweconomics.org/campaigns/national-energy-guarantee">national energy guarantee</a> that would secure access to enough free energy to meet everyone’s basic needs.</p>
<p>The government’s forthcoming autumn statement must not sidestep these issues if people in fuel poverty are to stay safe and warm this winter.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aimee Ambrose receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the Economic and Social Research Council and the Energy Innovation Centre. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucie Middlemiss receives funding from Horizon 2020, the Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions and the British Academy. She has previously received funding from the UK Energy Research Centre (UKRI) and the Nuffield Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Simcock receives funding from the Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions. He has previously received funding for fuel poverty research from the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) and the EU under the Horizon 2020 programme.</span></em></p>Time is running out to ensure that people in fuel poverty can afford to keep warm this winter.Aimee Ambrose, Professor of Energy Policy, Member of Fuel Poverty Evidence and Trustee of the Fuel Poverty Research Network, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLucie Middlemiss, Professor in Environment and Society, University of LeedsNeil Simcock, Senior Lecturer in Geography, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2117062023-09-14T12:29:46Z2023-09-14T12:29:46ZHeating and cooling space habitats isn’t easy – one engineering team is developing a lighter, more efficient solution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546491/original/file-20230905-23-lf6ix5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C27%2C6006%2C3983&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's hard to keep a spacecraft cool, but ongoing research on the International Space Station might yield a solution. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpaceXStarshipTestFlight/bd7689d98def429b9461fd88e6ce5ae0/photo?Query=rocket&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=697&currentItemNo=48&vs=true">AP Photo/Eric Gay</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/chinese-spacraft-successfully-lands-moons-far-side-and-sends-pictures-back-home">China</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-chandrayaan-3-landed-on-the-south-pole-of-the-moon-a-space-policy-expert-explains-what-this-means-for-india-and-the-global-race-to-the-moon-212171">India</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">the U.S.</a> have all achieved landing on the Moon in the 2020s.</p>
<p>Once there, their eventual goal is to <a href="https://time.com/6270882/china-moon-base-timeline/">set up a base</a>. But a successful base – along with the spacecraft that will carry people to it – must be habitable for humans. And a big part of creating a habitable base is making sure the heating and cooling systems work. </p>
<p>That’s especially true because the ambient temperature of potential places for a base can vary widely. Lunar <a href="https://www.space.com/18175-moon-temperature.html">equatorial temperatures</a> can range from minus 208 to 250 degrees Farenheit (minus 130 to 120 degrees Celsius) – and similarly, from minus 225 F to 70 F (minus 153 C to 20 C) <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mars/in-depth/">on Mars</a>.</p>
<p>In 2011, the National Academies of Science <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13048/recapturing-a-future-for-space-exploration-life-and-physical-sciences">published a report</a> outlining research in the physical and life sciences that scientists would need to do for the U.S. space program to succeed. The report emphasized the need for research about building heating and cooling systems for structures in space.</p>
<p>I’m an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=r2-awKwAAAAJ&hl=en">engineering professor</a>, and when that report came out, I submitted a research proposal to NASA. I wanted to study something called the liquid-vapor phenomenon. Figuring out the science behind this phenomenon would help with these big questions around keeping structures in space a comfortable and habitable temperature. </p>
<p>Over a decade after we submitted a proposal, my team’s project is now being tested on the International Space Station.</p>
<h2>Going with the ‘flow’</h2>
<p>Liquid-vapor systems – or two-phase systems – involve the simultaneous flow of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiht.2017.06.002">liquid and vapor</a> within a heating or cooling system. While many commercial air conditioners and refrigeration systems on Earth use two-phase systems, most systems used in spacecraft and on the International Space Station are purely liquid systems – or one-phase systems. </p>
<p>In one-phase systems, a liquid coolant moves through the system and absorbs excess heat, which raises the liquid’s temperature. This is similar to the way <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q56k37FsRcA">cars use radiators to cool</a>. Conversely, heated liquid in the system would eject the heat out to the ambient area, lowering the liquid’s temperature to its initial level. </p>
<p>But liquid-vapor systems could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiht.2017.06.002">transfer heat more effectively</a> than these one-phase systems, and they’re much smaller and lighter than purely liquid systems. When traveling in space, you have to carry everything on the craft with you, so small and light equipment is essential.</p>
<p>There are two key processes that happen in a closed, two-phase liquid-vapor system. In one, the liquid changes to a vapor during a process called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00231-020-02854-5">flow boiling</a>.” Just like boiling water on the stove, in flow boiling the liquid heats up and evaporates.</p>
<p>In systems used in space, the two-phase mixture passes through heat exchange components that transfer the heat generated from electronics, power devices and more into the mixture. This gradually increases the amount of vapor produced as the system absorbs heat and converts liquid to vapor. </p>
<p>Then, there’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.06.044">flow condensation</a>, in which the vapor cools and returns to a liquid. During flow condensation, heat leaves the system by radiating out into space.</p>
<p>Scientists control these two processes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.123998">in a closed loop</a> so they can extract and use the heat that’s released during condensation. In the future, this technology could be used to control temperature in spacecraft going to the Moon, Mars or beyond, or even in settlements or habitats on the lunar and Martian surfaces.</p>
<h2>Building and testing</h2>
<p>With the grant from NASA to do this work, I designed an experimental program called the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.123998">Flow Boiling and Condensation Experiment</a>.” My team built a fluid management system for the experiment and two test modules: one that helped us test flow boiling and one that helped us test flow condensation.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The International Space Station orbiting the Earth, shown below, with the Sun shown from a distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546486/original/file-20230905-21-47kml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Flow Boiling and Condensation Experiment is undergoing tests on the International Space Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/international-space-station-orbiting-earth-royalty-free-illustration/645390554">3DSculptor/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Right now, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/cooling-system-keeps-space-station-safe-productive">equipment used for heating and cooling</a> in space was designed based on experiments in Earth’s gravity. Our flow boiling and condensation experiment seeks to change that.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124296">First, we tested</a> whether the system and modules we built worked when subjected to Earth’s gravity. Once we learned they did, we sent them up in a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/analogs/parabolic-flight">parabolic flight aircraft</a>. This craft <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-zero-gravity-that-people-experience-in-the-vomit-comet-or-space-flight-133144">simulated reduced gravity</a> so we could get an idea of how the system performed in an environment similar to that of space.</p>
<p>In August 2021 we completed the flow boiling module and launched it to the International Space Station for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124000">testing in zero gravity</a>. By July 2022 we’d completed the boiling experiments. In August 2023 the flow condensation module followed, and we’ll start working on the final condensation tests soon.</p>
<h2>Responding to reduced gravity</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.123998">Liquid-vapor flow systems</a> are far more sensitive to gravity than the purely liquid systems used now, so it’s harder to design ones that work under reduced gravity. </p>
<p>The mechanism behind these systems has to do with the motion of liquid relative to the vapor, and what that motion looks like depends on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/buoyancy">a concept called buoyancy</a>.</p>
<p>Buoyancy is determined by gravity as well as the density difference between liquid and vapor. So any change in gravity affects the system’s buoyancy, and thus the movement of the vapor relative to the liquid. </p>
<p>In space, there are also different strengths of gravity that the systems might need to operate under. Space vehicles experience <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-microgravity-k4.html">microgravity</a> – near weightlessness – while a lunar habitat would operate under gravity conditions about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/lunar-gravity">one-sixth the strength of Earth’s gravity</a>, and a Martian habitat would be operating under gravity <a href="https://phys.org/news/2016-12-strong-gravity-mars.html">three-eighths the strength</a> of Earth’s gravity. </p>
<p>Our team is working on designing flow boiling and condensation models that can work under all these levels of reduced gravity.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Vapor condensing in microgravity in a flow condensation module.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Applications for space habitats</h2>
<p>This equipment could one day go into a human habitat on the Moon or Mars, where it would help maintain comfortable temperatures for people and machinery inside. A <a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-heat-pumps-use-much-less-energy-than-furnaces-and-can-cool-houses-too-heres-how-they-work-154779">heat pump</a> using our flow boiling and flow condensation systems could extract the heat that astronauts and their machines give off. It would then send this collected heat out of the habitat to keep the inside cool – similar to the way air conditioners on Earth work. </p>
<p>The temperatures in space can be extreme and hostile to people, but with these technologies, my team might one day help create craft and habitats that allow people to explore the Moon and beyond.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211706/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Issam Mudawar receives funding from NASA. </span></em></p>You can’t bring your AC to space, unfortunately, but innovative flow boiling and condensation research might lead to lighter, more efficient heating and cooling on spacecraft.Issam Mudawar, Betty Ruth and Milton B. Hollander Family Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2115712023-09-05T21:45:34Z2023-09-05T21:45:34ZNew research may point the way towards frost-free heat pumps<p>A chilly winter morning, the car windshield shrouded in a thick layer of frost. Who has not experienced the frustration of scraping ice or waiting for the defroster to work? It is a daily winter struggle, but what if this frost issue extends far beyond your car, into your very home? Welcome to the hidden battle with frost in our energy systems.</p>
<p>Frost forms when humid air comes into contact with freezing cold surfaces. The colder the surface and the more humid the air is, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110219">more likely</a> frost will form on the surface.</p>
<p>In buildings, frosting is a problem that impacts several systems, including heat pumps that keep indoor spaces warm. Researchers at the University of Saskatchewan are working to eliminate this chilly scenario by creating frost-resistant heat pumps.</p>
<h2>Current challenges</h2>
<p>Frost poses <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112387">serious challenges</a> to the functionality of heat pumps. The frost layer acts as an insulator, reducing the <a href="https://publications.ibpsa.org/conference/paper/?id=usim2022_p108">heat transfer capability</a>, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185737">increases energy use</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092646">negatively impacts the comfort of users</a>. Frost also blocks air passages, and a severe frost buildup can even <a href="http://cchrc.org/media/ASHP_SE_Report.pdf">damage or destroy the system</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings/heat-pumps">Heat pumps</a> <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/electricity/electrification">electrify</a> <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings/heating">heating</a> and play a pivotal role in our quest for energy efficiency and eco-friendliness, owing to their relatively high efficiencies. Acting as devices that transfer heat from one place to another, they are promising solutions for the <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-heat-pumps">future of heating</a>. With the potential to cut down <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings">energy consumption and emissions</a>, improving heat pumps is crucial in our eco-conscious world.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heat-pumps-can-cut-your-energy-costs-by-up-to-90-its-not-magic-just-a-smart-use-of-the-laws-of-physics-185711">Heat pumps can cut your energy costs by up to 90%. It’s not magic, just a smart use of the laws of physics</a>
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<p>To tackle frosting, commercial heat pumps usually go into <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.022">recurrent defrosting cycles</a>, during which heating is not accessible. Therefore, most heat pumps in cold climates are installed with <a href="http://cchrc.org/media/ASHP_SE_Report.pdf">backup fuel-burning or electric heating systems</a>. Several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2023.2199329">optimization techniques</a> have been suggested for the defrosting cycles to become more effective.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">An overview of the basic principle of a heat pump system produced by This Old House.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Given <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2019.03.002">the challenges</a> of removing frost from heat pumps, the prospect of creating frost-free systems becomes increasingly appealing. However, preventing frost without consuming excessive energy is a complex task, filled with intricate technical hurdles.</p>
<h2>Ongoing research</h2>
<p>A major part of the ongoing endeavours to develop frost-free heat pumps has roots in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.10.038">research into frost-free energy exchangers</a>. The outdoor unit of a heat pump system is a heat exchanger. It facilitates heat transfer from outdoor air to the refrigerant fluid running through the coils. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-heat-pumps-work-in-the-uks-climate-an-expert-answers-your-low-carbon-heating-questions-211150">Do heat pumps work in the UK's climate? An expert answers your low-carbon heating questions</a>
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<p>If heat exchangers prevent condensation, they can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4041557">reduce the risk of frosting</a>. This is what membrane energy exchangers do by removing moisture and preventing air saturation.</p>
<p>Future heat pumps can benefit from membrane energy exchangers that use <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2016026042A1">liquid working fluids</a>. The membrane energy exchanger would replace the traditional finned tubes in heat pump outdoor units and make them frost-resistant.</p>
<p>Using membranes to develop frost-free solutions for heat pumps is not without its challenges. We need to address several issues regarding membrane energy exchangers. Finding commercial membranes and non-corrosive <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119853">liquids</a> suitable for the application are two examples. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.04.009">Frost detection</a> is another challenge in membrane energy exchangers. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.12.116">Properties</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121912">behaviour</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4041185">triggering conditions</a> of frosting have already been investigated. Ongoing research by my team at the University of Saskatchewan is now trying to identify ideal membrane characteristics and design factors for the application.</p>
<h2>Shaping a sustainable future</h2>
<p>Future frost-resistant heat pumps will dramatically enhance energy efficiency, <a href="https://theconversation.com/heat-pumps-can-cut-your-energy-costs-by-up-to-90-its-not-magic-just-a-smart-use-of-the-laws-of-physics-185711">slash household bills</a> and take a significant step toward a more sustainable future. Scientists are contributing to the technological advancements required to realize this futuristic concept. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-heating-your-home-fuels-climate-change-and-why-government-measures-are-failing-to-stop-it-208518">How heating your home fuels climate change – and why government measures are failing to stop it</a>
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<p>These advancements are not just about the science; they symbolize a transformation in our everyday lives, making winter days more convenient and our homes and buildings more environmentally friendly at the same time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211571/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amirreza Mahmoudi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Heat pumps are essential for the large-scale adoption of more carbon friendly heating systems and recent research suggests a way forward for reducing one of the technology’s biggest hurdles — frost.Amirreza Mahmoudi, PhD Candidate in Mechanical Engineering, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105912023-08-29T12:25:03Z2023-08-29T12:25:03ZMachines can’t always take the heat − two engineers explain the physics behind how heat waves threaten everything from cars to computers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544645/original/file-20230824-17-rzbu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=85%2C54%2C5090%2C3391&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Extreme heat can affect how well machines function, and the fact that many machines give off their own heat doesn't help. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/MoroccoRenaultSandero/b86810360f694e719364ff6cfb327f27/photo?Query=manufacturing&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=317&currentItemNo=NaN&vs=true">AP Photo/Abdeljalil Bounhar</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Not only people need to stay cool, especially in a summer of <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/weather/2023/07/18/us-temperature-records-summer-heat-wave/70425231007/">record-breaking heat waves</a>. Many machines, including cellphones, data centers, cars and airplanes, become less efficient and degrade more quickly in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-est.2015.0050">extreme heat</a>. Machines generate their own heat, too, which can make hot temperatures around them even hotter. </p>
<p>We are <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=_C33NmEAAAAJ&hl=en">engineering researchers</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=q0jrPekAAAAJ&hl=en">who study</a> how machines manage heat and ways to effectively recover and reuse heat that is otherwise wasted. There are several ways extreme heat affects machines.</p>
<p>No machine is perfectly efficient – all machines face some internal friction during operation. This friction causes machines to dissipate some heat, so the hotter it is outside, the hotter the machine will be. </p>
<p><a href="https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201678">Cellphones</a> and similar devices with <a href="http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/58145.pdf">lithium ion batteries</a> stop working as well when operating in climates above 95 degrees Farenheit (35 degrees Celsius) – this is to avoid overheating and increased stress on the electronics.</p>
<p>Cooling designs that use innovative <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6188826">phase-changing fluids</a> can help keep machines cool, but in most cases heat is still ultimately dissipated into the air. So, the hotter the air, the harder it is to keep a machine cool enough to function efficiently. </p>
<p>Plus, the closer together machines are, the more dissipated heat there will be in the surrounding area. </p>
<h2>Deforming materials</h2>
<p>Higher temperatures, either from the weather or the excess heat radiated from machinery, can cause materials in machinery to deform. To understand this, consider what temperature means at the molecular level. </p>
<p>At <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/CLUE%3A_Chemistry_Life_the_Universe_and_Everything/05%3A_Systems_Thinking/5.1%3A_Temperature">the molecular scale</a>, temperature is a measure of how much molecules are vibrating. So the hotter it is, the more the molecules that make up everything from the air to the ground to materials in machinery vibrate.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sNvMfuOvHwg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">When metal is heated, the molecules in it vibrate faster and the space between them moves farther apart. This leads the metal to expand.</span></figcaption>
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<p>As the temperature increases and the molecules vibrate more, the average space between them grows, causing most materials to expand as they heat up. Roads are one place to see this – hot concrete expands, gets constricted and <a href="https://www.heraldnet.com/news/heat-wave-melted-county-roads-buckled-sidewalks/">eventually cracks</a>. This phenomenon can happen to machinery, too, and thermal stresses are just the beginning of the problem.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close-up of a street with several cracks running through the asphalt and a white paint stripe." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544793/original/file-20230825-17-s9qfkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Streets crack under heat because higher temperatures create more space between vibrating molecules, causing the material to expand and deform.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cracked-asphalt-royalty-free-image/1266178787?phrase=broken+street+hot&adppopup=true">Priscila Zambotto/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Travel delays and safety risks</h2>
<p>High temperatures can also change the way oils in your car’s engine behave, leading to potential engine failures. For example, if a heat wave makes it 30 degrees F (16.7 degrees C) hotter than normal, the viscosity – or thickness – of typical car engine oils can change <a href="https://wiki.anton-paar.com/kr-en/engine-oil/">by a factor of three</a>. </p>
<p>Fluids like engine oils become thinner as they heat up, so if it gets too hot, the oil may not be thick enough to properly lubricate and protect engine parts from increased wear and tear.</p>
<p>Additionally, a hot day will cause the air inside your tires to expand and increases the tire pressure, which could <a href="https://www.athensreview.com/news/impact-of-excessive-heat-on-tires/article_31542372-3169-11ee-a135-3711984fefc6.html">increase wear and the risk of skidding</a>. </p>
<p>Airplanes are also not designed to take off at extreme temperatures. As it gets hotter outside, air starts to expand and takes up more space than before, making it thinner or less dense. This <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/08/01/climate-change-extreme-heat-is-making-air-travel-worse/51ae039c-3077-11ee-85dd-5c3c97d6acda_story.html">reduction in air density</a> decreases the amount of weight the plane can support during flight, which can cause significant <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/airline-news/2023/07/14/extreme-heat-airplane-flight-delay-cancellation/70415739007/">travel delays</a> or flight cancellations. </p>
<h2>Battery degradation</h2>
<p>In general, the electronics contained in devices like cellphones, personal computers and data centers consist of many kinds of materials that all respond differently to temperature changes. These materials are all located next to each other in tight spaces. So as the temperature increases, different kinds of materials deform differently, potentially leading to <a href="https://www.pcmag.com/news/asus-confirms-thermal-stress-is-killing-the-rog-ally-sd-card-reader">premature wear and failure</a>.</p>
<p>Lithium ion batteries in cars and general electronics degrade faster at higher operating temperatures. This is because higher temperatures <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.05.040">increase the rate of reactions</a> within the battery, including corrosion reactions that deplete the lithium in the battery. This process wears down its storage capacity. Recent research shows that electric vehicles <a href="https://www.recurrentauto.com/research/what-a-c-does-to-your-range">can lose about 20% of their range</a> when exposed to sustained 90-degree Farenheit weather.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-factories-of-the-past-are-turning-into-the-data-centers-of-the-future-70033">Data centers</a>, which are buildings full of servers that store data, dissipate significant amounts of heat to keep their components cool. On very hot days, fans must work harder to ensure chips do not overheat. In some cases, powerful fans are not enough to cool the electronics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white room filled with large black data servers, which look like lockers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545073/original/file-20230828-94298-qbkjjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Data centers, which store large quantities of data, can overheat and require large-scale cooling − which adds to their environmental footprint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/DataCenterEnergyEfficiency/1f66b88d245a4f64ac6048bb84627ef2/photo?Query=data%20center&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=185&currentItemNo=1&vs=true">AP Photo/Julie Carr Smyth</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>To keep the centers cool, incoming dry air from the outside is often first sent through a moist pad. The water from the pad evaporates into the air and absorbs heat, which cools the air. This technique, called evaporative cooling, is usually an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01457632.2018.1436418">economical and effective way</a> to keep chips at a reasonable operating temperature. </p>
<p>However, evaporative cooling can require a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfba1">significant amount of water</a>. This issue is problematic in regions where water is scarce. Water for cooling can add to the already <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-generative-ai-bad-for-the-environment-a-computer-scientist-explains-the-carbon-footprint-of-chatgpt-and-its-cousins-204096">intense resource footprint</a> associated with data centers. </p>
<h2>Struggling air conditioners</h2>
<p>Air conditioners struggle to perform effectively as it gets hotter outside – just when they’re needed the most. On hot days, air conditioner compressors have to work harder to <a href="https://home.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm">send the heat from homes</a> outside, which in turn disproportionally increases electricity consumption and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF002434">overall electricity demand</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C0%2C8527%2C4263&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An apartment building wall with closed windows, an AC unit in each." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C0%2C8527%2C4263&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543804/original/file-20230821-19-xxe1t5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Heat waves can stress air conditioners, which are already working hard to dissipate heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpainHeatwave/7d830b0761634881b61119751a1aa911/photo?Query=air%20conditioner&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=253&currentItemNo=28&vs=true">AP Photo/Paul White</a></span>
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<p>For example, in Texas, every increase of 1.8 degrees F (1 degree C) creates a rise of <a href="https://www.iea.org/commentaries/keeping-cool-in-a-hotter-world-is-using-more-energy-making-efficiency-more-important-than-ever">about 4% in electricity demand</a>. </p>
<p>Heat leads to a staggering 50% increase in electricity demand during the summer in hotter countries, posing serious threats of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/07/11/texas-record-heat-ercot-power-grid/">electricity shortages</a> or blackouts, coupled with higher greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<h2>How to prevent heat damage</h2>
<p>Heat waves and warming temperatures around the globe pose significant short- and long-term problems for people and machines alike. Fortunately, there are things you can do to minimize the damage. </p>
<p>First, ensure that your machines are kept in an air-conditioned, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16102">well-insulated space</a> or out of direct sunlight. </p>
<p>Second, consider using high-energy devices like air conditioners or charging your electric vehicle during off-peak hours when fewer people are using electricity. This can help avoid local electricity shortages.</p>
<h2>Reusing heat</h2>
<p>Scientists and engineers are developing ways to use and recycle the vast amounts of heat dissipated from machines. One simple example is using the waste heat from data centers <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/03/16/from-heating-swimming-pools-to-vertical-farms-data-centres-are-proving-useful-but-is-it-en">to heat water</a>.</p>
<p>Waste heat could also drive other kinds of air-conditioning systems, such as <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/articles/absorption-chillers-chp-systems-doe-chp-technology-fact-sheet-series-fact-sheet">absorption chillers</a>, which can actually use heat as energy to support coolers through a series of chemical- and heat-transferring processes.</p>
<p>In either case, the energy needed to heat or cool something comes from heat that is otherwise wasted. In fact, waste heat from power plants could hypothetically support 27% of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.07.047">residential air-conditioning needs</a>, which would reduce overall energy consumption and carbon emissions.</p>
<p>Extreme heat can affect every aspect of modern life, and heat waves aren’t going away in the coming years. However, there are opportunities to harness extreme heat and make it work for us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210591/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People aren’t the only ones harmed by heat waves. The hotter it gets, the harder it is for machines to keep their cool.Srinivas Garimella, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of TechnologyMatthew T. Hughes, Postdoctoral Associate, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2112612023-08-20T20:04:13Z2023-08-20T20:04:13Z5 tips for getting off gas at home – for a cleaner, cheaper, healthier all-electric future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543177/original/file-20230817-23-84peqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=124%2C7%2C5052%2C3437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/induction-cooking-home-on-black-portable-1477848773">Elena M. Tarasova, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Burning gas in our homes to cook food or heat air and water has become a contentious issue. Gas is an expensive, polluting fossil fuel, and there’s mounting evidence to suggest it’s also <a href="https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2022/december/health-risks-from-indoor-gas-appliances">bad for our health</a>. </p>
<p>Five million existing Australian households will need to <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/getting-off-gas/">get off gas</a> within the next 30 years. But for homeowners, the upfront cost can be a major barrier to action. Renters rarely get a say over the appliances installed in their homes. And apartment owners can struggle to make individual changes too. </p>
<p>In most cases it’s worth making the switch, for the energy bill savings alone. For example, analysis suggests a household in Melbourne switching from gas to electricity can save <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-electric-homes-are-better-for-your-hip-pocket-and-the-planet-heres-how-governments-can-help-us-get-off-gas-207409">up to A$13,900</a> over a decade.</p>
<p>If you’re contemplating upgrading gas appliances in your home, or even disconnecting from the gas network altogether, here are a few handy tips and resources to cut through the confusion. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Homes must switch away from gas by 2050, says policy think tank (ABC News)</span></figcaption>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/keen-to-get-off-gas-in-your-home-but-struggling-to-make-the-switch-research-shows-youre-not-alone-209589">Keen to get off gas in your home, but struggling to make the switch? Research shows you're not alone</a>
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<h2>Tip 1 – Find trusted, independent information</h2>
<p>There is no shortage of information on how to make the switch from gas to all-electric appliances. The challenge is finding <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-lemon-law-to-make-all-the-homes-we-buy-and-rent-more-energy-efficient-204369">trusted and independent information</a>. </p>
<p>Not-for-profit organisation <a href="https://renew.org.au/">Renew</a> has compiled a range of <a href="https://renew.org.au/resources/how-we-can-help/efficient-electric-homes/how-we-can-help-going-off-gas/">presentations, guides, case studies and research</a>. <a href="https://www.choice.com.au/">Choice</a> provides independent reviews of household appliances, including operating costs. The Australian government’s <a href="https://www.energyrating.gov.au/">Energy Rating website</a> provides information on appliances to help consumers compare performance. Some <a href="https://www.yarracity.vic.gov.au/services/take-climate-action">local councils</a> and <a href="https://totallyrenewableyack.org.au/">community groups</a> also provide information, support and bulk-buying schemes.</p>
<p>You could also visit some of the all-electric homes open to the public for <a href="https://sustainablehouseday.com/">Sustainable House Day</a>. This can help you learn what works from people who have already made the change. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/MyEfficientElectricHome">My Efficient Electric Home</a> group on Facebook is another active and helpful forum. </p>
<p>If you are going all-electric as part of a wider retrofit, consider an independent <a href="https://www.homescorecard.gov.au/">Residential Efficiency Scorecard assessment</a>. This will help you understand what to else you can do to maximise <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-other-99-retrofitting-is-the-key-to-putting-more-australians-into-eco-homes-91231">thermal comfort, environmental benefits and financial outcomes</a>.</p>
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<h2>Tip 2 – Plan your approach</h2>
<p>Once you understand what to do, the next step is planning how to go about it. Think about what is most important to your household. What is driving the change? If it’s your health, you might like to start by eliminating indoor air pollution from the gas stove. Or if you want to save money, start using reverse-cycle air conditioning to heat your home, rather than gas.</p>
<p>There are three main ways to go all-electric: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Replace all your gas appliances at once</strong>. Making the change quickly minimises disruption to your home. You may save money on installation costs by doing everything in one go. You will avoid ongoing fixed gas supply charges once you disconnect from the gas network, but you may be required to pay an “<a href="https://energy.act.gov.au/switching-off-your-gas-connection/">abolishment fee</a>” for permanent disconnection. That fee can vary significantly, depending on your location and gas provider. Costs <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/sustainability/would-you-pay-1000-to-get-off-gas-consumer-dismay-over-disconnection-cost-20230223-p5cmw9.html">could be up to $1000 (or more)</a> but some states like Victoria have capped the price a <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/fossil-gas-death-spiral-regulator-sets-exit-fee-to-socialise-cost-of-mass-disconnection/">household can be charged at $220</a>. Renters wouldn’t be able to permanently disconnect without permission from the landlord, so they would still be open to paying the daily connection fee even if they found alternative electric options for everything else. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Replace your gas appliances one at a time</strong>, as finances allow. However, there will come a point where <a href="http://www.ata.org.au/wp-content/projects/CAP_Gas_Research_Final_Report_251114_v2.0.pdf">financially you will be better off</a> replacing all the remaining gas appliances. This is largely because it will not be affordable to keep paying the daily connection cost for gas if you just have one gas appliance remaining. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Just stop using gas appliances</strong> in favour of existing electric appliances that do the same job, such as a <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/the-traps-laid-by-the-fossil-gas-industry-for-uninformed-households/">reverse cycle air conditioner for space heating</a>. You may have – or can buy – plug-in electric alternatives, such as a microwave ovens, portable induction cooktops, air fryers and heaters. These can be a good option for renters when landlords won’t make changes.</p></li>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cooking-and-heating-without-gas-what-are-the-impacts-of-shifting-to-all-electric-homes-210649">Cooking (and heating) without gas: what are the impacts of shifting to all-electric homes?</a>
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<p>You could even borrow portable appliances to see how they work before committing to buying your own. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Households share their electrification journey (Renew)</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Tip 3 – Access available rebates and resources</h2>
<p>Most states offer various rebates for households to reduce the upfront cost of replacing gas appliances. These could reduce costs by thousands of dollars. Some rebates also target rental housing. Here is a list of key rebates available in different states:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.epw.qld.gov.au/about/initiatives/household-energy-savings-program">Queensland</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.energy.nsw.gov.au/households/rebates-grants-and-schemes">New South Wales</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.climatechoices.act.gov.au/policy-programs/home-energy-support-rebates-for-homeowners">ACT</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/for-households/victorian-energy-upgrades-for-households">Victoria</a></li>
<li><a href="https://recfit.tas.gov.au/household_energy/energy_saver_loan_scheme">Tasmania</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.sa.gov.au/topics/energy-and-environment/using-saving-energy/retailer-energy-productivity-scheme">South Australia</a></li>
</ul>
<p>Some not-for-profit organisations (such as the <a href="https://www.bsl.org.au/services/energy-assistance/">Brotherhood of St Laurence</a>) offer financial and other support for lower-income households struggling to pay their energy bills.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-an-easy-400-a-year-ditch-the-gas-heater-in-your-home-for-an-electric-split-system-201941">Want an easy $400 a year? Ditch the gas heater in your home for an electric split system</a>
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<h2>Tip 4 – Wait for a sale or negotiate a better deal</h2>
<p>It might sound simple but you can always save money by waiting until these electric appliances are on sale. If you are buying multiple appliances you can try to negotiate a better price. Factory seconds outlets offer lower prices as well.</p>
<h2>Tip 5 – Know the issues</h2>
<p>While the shift to all-electric will likely provide many benefits there are some things you need to consider:</p>
<ul>
<li>The carbon emissions from electricity are falling fast, and many homes have rooftop solar. Combining <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/getting-off-gas/">all-electric with solar panels</a> will maximise returns. </li>
<li>You may have to adjust to how new technologies operate and perform. For example, you may need <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/goodfood/tips-and-advice/do-you-really-have-to-buy-new-cookware-all-your-burning-questions-about-induction-cooking-answered-20230810-p5dvd0.html">new, metallic cookware for an induction cooktop</a> and become familiar with their fast response. Additionally, some people find heat from reverse cycle air conditioners to be drier and/or draughtier than gas heating. Floor-mounted units heat more effectively. </li>
<li>It is not just the energy performance of appliances that matters. For example, noise from heat pump hot water services can vary across different brands. They can also require more space for installation.</li>
<li>Undertaking a wider energy retrofit (for example, increasing insulation in walls, ceiling and underfloor, upgrading windows to double glazing) may mean you can buy a smaller, cheaper reverse cycle air conditioner when replacing gas heating.</li>
<li>Electric appliances also need maintenance to make sure they perform optimally. For example, reverse cycle air conditioners have filters that must be regularly cleaned. While this can be done by households, it can be hard for people with mobility issues.</li>
<li>Depending on the capacity of your electricity switchboard or wiring, extra electric appliances may require upgrades.</li>
<li>For renters, while you could use portable appliances, you may not be able to disconnect from gas completely, meaning you would still have to pay a daily connection fee.</li>
<li>Gas and electricity prices can change over time, for many reasons. For example, if fixed gas distribution costs are spread over fewer customers.</li>
</ul>
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<h2>A worthwhile investment</h2>
<p>Australian states and territories have started banning gas in new builds. Victoria and the ACT will soon require <a href="https://theconversation.com/cooking-and-heating-without-gas-what-are-the-impacts-of-shifting-to-all-electric-homes-210649">new housing and major renovations to be all-electric</a>. Others are likely to follow. </p>
<p>For people in existing housing around Australia, it can be daunting to make the switch. Many of us have grown up with gas in our homes and when one appliance breaks, the easiest thing to do is replace like-for-like. But the weight of evidence shows it’s worth taking the time to look at the alteratives and invest in upgrading to all-electric appliances. The benefits far outweigh the costs. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-electric-homes-are-better-for-your-hip-pocket-and-the-planet-heres-how-governments-can-help-us-get-off-gas-207409">All-electric homes are better for your hip pocket and the planet. Here's how governments can help us get off gas</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trivess Moore has received funding from various organisations including the Australian Research Council, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, Victorian Government and various industry partners. He is a trustee of the Fuel Poverty Research Network.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alan Pears consults to and advises a number of not-for-profit organisations involved in transition from gas issues such as the Australian Alliance for Energy Productivity, Energy Efficiency Council, Renew. He has received funding from A2EP, EEC and Energy Consumers Australia for work in this area. He writes a regular column for Renew magazine, and for other websites such as Reneweconomy and thefifthestate. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Willand receives or has received funding for research from various organisations, including the Australian Research Council, the Victorian State Government, the Lord Mayor’s Charitable Foundation, the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, the Future Fuels Collaborative Research Centre, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Centre and the British Academy. She is affiliated with the Australian Institute of Architects.</span></em></p>Thinking about getting your home off gas, but don’t know where to begin? Here’s a few handy tips to get you on your way.Trivess Moore, Senior Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversityAlan Pears, Senior Industry Fellow, RMIT UniversityNicola Willand, Senior Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2111502023-08-15T15:34:12Z2023-08-15T15:34:12ZDo heat pumps work in the UK’s climate? An expert answers your low-carbon heating questions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542805/original/file-20230815-27-x6fr6v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C228%2C4619%2C3462&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/heat-pump-unit-on-side-home-375931141">WathanyuSowong/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Retrofitting every house in the UK to net zero standard by 2050 will require replacing all gas boilers, mostly with heat pumps. The target rate is <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1166439/heat-pumps-investment-roadmap.pdf">600,000 a year by 2028</a> – but in 2022, fewer than <a href="https://www.heatpumps.london/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-heat-pumps#:%7E:text=The%20UK%20heat%20pump%20market,pumps%20per%20year%20by%202028.">60,000 heat pumps were installed</a>.</p>
<p>As the government <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/20/gas-boiler-lobby-uk-heat-pump-plans-leak">prevaricates</a> over asking manufacturers to make more heat pumps, debate rages over whether they are a wise replacement. A recent article in <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/heat-pumps-not-suited-to-our-climate-says-green-entrepreneur-willie-haughey-m6fvltszk">The Times</a>, for example, claimed that heat pumps do not work in cold Scottish winters.</p>
<p>In fact, heat pumps have been tried and tested around the world. Apprehension about them in the UK is down to the fact that most people are unfamiliar with them.</p>
<p>Heat pumps use the same technology as refrigerators, which has been around for <a href="https://finn-geotherm.co.uk/the-history-of-heat-pumps/">over 200 years</a>. They provide heating to six out of every ten homes in <a href="https://rapidtransition.org/stories/heat-pumps-in-cold-weather-snow-problem/%23:%7E:text=Norway%2520tops%2520the%2520global%2520table,growing%2520slowly%2520until%2520the%25202000s">Norway</a>, a country with a cold climate similar to northern parts of the UK. </p>
<p>The reason heat pumps are so popular there is that they convert one unit of electricity into two-or-more units of heat. So, if the electricity is generated by renewable sources such as wind, the whole operation is carbon-neutral.</p>
<p>Just like a fridge sucks heat from its interior and dissipates it through coils on its back, a heat pump sucks heat from the outside air and transfers it to the water that gets pumped through the radiators of a central heating system. </p>
<p>This technology is incredibly flexible. The external heat source can also be the ground or water, which is more efficient than taking heat from the air. The heat can be transferred direct to the air inside a building if it has ducted heating (more typical in a shop or office), and many heat pumps can also work in reverse, cooling as well as heating.</p>
<p>Heat pumps are, however, much more complex than gas boilers – burning fossil fuels is primitive by comparison. Modern heat pumps use advanced technology to ensure they perform optimally. So, if the conditions for an installation are not thoroughly assessed, a heat pump may underperform, and that is where the UK’s inexperience with heat pumps could pose a problem.</p>
<h2>Will it work in cold weather?</h2>
<p>While the technology will not work as efficiently in colder weather, heat pumps will always generate more heat energy than the amount of electricity they consume.</p>
<p>The part of the heat pump that draws heat from the air outside can ice up when temperatures fall below freezing, but <a href="https://www.viessmann.co.uk/en/heating-advice/heat-pumps/why-is-my-heat-pump-icing-up.html#:%7E:text=Some%20air%20source%20heat%20pumps,contact%20with%20the%20cold%20surface">manufacturers</a> include heating elements and defrost cycles to manage that. </p>
<p>Ground- and water-source heat pumps don’t suffer from either of these problems, as temperatures underground or in lakes and rivers are more stable year-round.</p>
<p>If a heat pump doesn’t perform effectively in cold weather, chances are the unit was incorrectly specified for the location. But Chris Carus from <a href="https://locohome.coop/2023/08/heat-pumps-the-facts/">Loco Home Retrofit</a> in Glasgow notes that variation in how efficiently heat pumps operate is undermining trust in the technology. </p>
<p>“This variation is often due to oversizing of the heat pump and/or undersizing of the heat emitters and pipework,” Carus said. “The likely cause is that some installers avoid the rigour of pipework and radiator upgrades in order to secure a sale … [There may be] greater fear of complaints about poor comfort than poor efficiency.”</p>
<h2>Is my house ready for one?</h2>
<p>Heat pumps are typically designed to provide water <a href="https://nef.org.uk/high-temperature-air-source-heat-pumps-a-good-or-bad-idea/">at a lower temperature</a> than gas boilers – the water being pumped around radiators will be between 35 and 45°C, rather than 60-75°C. If your house is fitted with a boiler, the radiators will have been designed to work with higher-temperature water, potentially including very narrow (as wide as a pencil) pipes. So, it may not be possible to pump enough low-temperature water through the system to keep the house really warm.</p>
<p>The easy solution is to install a high-temperature heat pump, which is slightly less efficient than the more common low-temperature unit. Or, if the house is being refurbished, the pipes and radiators can be enlarged.</p>
<p>Better still, if the house is retrofitted with more insulation and made more air-tight – with double- or triple-glazed windows, for example – the overall demand for heating will fall significantly, meaning fewer radiators are needed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cross-section of a window frame showing three glass panes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542807/original/file-20230815-25-y8tdtp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heat pumps and efficiency measures can slash energy bills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/glazing-buildings-installation-windows-window-device-1524800855">Fotogrin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s holding low-carbon heating back?</h2>
<p>This is the nub of the problem: heat pumps are not a solution in isolation. Rather, they ought to belong to a broader campaign for making buildings more energy efficient. </p>
<p>Recent years have shown that simply pumping more energy into homes to make them liveable exposes people to sudden rises in the costs of gas and electricity. Government policies are beginning to target <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/energy-efficiency-taskforce">energy efficiency</a> to help homes use less energy.</p>
<p>There will be houses where heat pumps are not viable, and alternatives such as <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/heat-networks">district heating networks</a>, which pump hot water from a central source to several different apartments or buildings, will be more appropriate. </p>
<p>In the Times article, Lord Haughey is quoted as saying that direct electric heating systems would be more appropriate, as they are simpler to install and require less maintenance than heat pumps. But they will use much more electricity, and therefore cost more to run.</p>
<p>Gas is cheaper in the UK than most developed countries, but electricity is very expensive <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/international-domestic-energy-prices">by comparison</a>. Per kilowatt-hour, electricity costs four times more than gas in the UK, effectively cancelling out the efficiency advantages of heat pumps and ensuring they run at about the same cost as a gas boiler, even though they can use up to four times less energy.</p>
<p>As part of a broader response to climate change, heat pumps are the best option for home heating for a large part of the UK population. Instead of constantly pointing out their problems, which are legitimate but inevitable with any technology, we should recognise their many advantages and make sure they are installed properly. </p>
<p>If the UK decarbonises its electricity grid and rebalances the costs of gas and electricity, heat pumps will not only help the country reach net zero. They will reduce household bills, improve air quality, and protect people from energy supply shocks.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ran Boydell receives funding from the UK and Scottish governments for research projects on the built environment. He is affiliated with the Scottish Ecological Design Association (SEDA).</span></em></p>Heat pumps are relatively scarce in the UK – but that could be about to change.Ran Boydell, Associate Professor in Sustainable Development, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2094162023-07-31T17:08:53Z2023-07-31T17:08:53ZWhy we need to reuse waste energy to achieve net-zero heating systems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539953/original/file-20230728-23-6n3k7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C3000%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Just generating heat is not enough. We must also capture, store, and utilize waste heat year-round and especially in the winter months.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/David J. Phillip)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/why-we-need-to-reuse-waste-energy-to-achieve-net-zero-heating-systems" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>As we move toward a cleaner energy future, there is a growing push to electrify everything, from cars to home heating. While that sounds ideal, it is also much more than a matter of simply plugging in.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/power-grid-demand-electric-vehicles-1.6440595">grid is nowhere near ready to satisfy our carbon-free energy needs</a>, especially as more and more Canadians switch to electric vehicles and we wait for more carbon-free sources of electricity to supply the growing demand.</p>
<p>We’re <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/spikes-in-air-conditioning-use-with-warming-could-tax-electric-grid/">already pushing the system on the hottest days of the year to keep our electric air conditioning running</a>, mainly by supplementing with inefficient carbon-producing natural gas or coal power plants during peak demand periods.</p>
<p>If we were all relying on electrical forms of heating, electricity demand would be substantially higher on the coldest days of the year and overwhelm the grid. The solution to this problem, however, lies not in the heat we generate but the heat we reuse. </p>
<h2>The importance of heating</h2>
<p>Heating systems keep many of us alive.</p>
<p>In a cold-climate country such as Canada it takes far, far more energy to heat homes in winter than to cool them in summer. To compare the overall energy required for heating and cooling buildings we look at <a href="https://www.degreedays.net/">heating degree days (HDD) versus cooling degree days (CDD)</a>.</p>
<p>In Toronto, for example, heating degree days outnumber cooling degree days about 7-1. Consumers may not be aware of this huge disparity, since most home heating comes from burning natural gas, while most cooling comes from electricity, but if we moved all that demand to the grid, it would become apparent all too quickly.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A chart representing heating degree days and cooling degree days by various key urban areas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538570/original/file-20230720-27-9p0mm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chart representing heating degree days and cooling degree days by various key urban areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(James S. Cotton)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Air conditioning already pushes the electrical grid when cooling indoor spaces to 23 C when it is above 35 C outside, but warming our indoor spaces to 20 C when it is -40 C outside means covering a 60-degree gap.</p>
<p>If we were to move all our heating demands to the electrical grid, even with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.11.011">the most modern, efficient air-source heat pumps</a>, <a href="https://www.pollutionprobe.org/future-hold-natural-gas-report">peak demand would be about four to five times what it is today</a>, and that’s not a problem anyone can solve quickly.</p>
<h2>Utilize everything</h2>
<p>Fortunately, there is another option that can keep us warm without burning additional fuel. By storing the heat generated from all sources, including waste heat, and drawing from it through the coldest months of the year, our research shows we can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261923006554">use discarded waste heat</a>.</p>
<p>A huge amount of heat generated today is simply dissipated into our surroundings and wasted, and when it’s cold outside, we use new energy to make fresh heat. That doesn’t make sense.</p>
<p>A typical pizza restaurant produces <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US10094553B2/en?oq=14%2f791980">enough leftover heat</a> every year to heat <a href="https://www.cga.ca/natural-gas-statistics/natural-gas-facts/">seven family homes</a>. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778821004540">hockey arena creates huge amounts of heat</a> in the process of making ice and keeping it frozen. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A chart showing the different demands of heating versus cooling systems at peak demand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538571/original/file-20230720-21-61nj78.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A chart showing the different demands of heating versus cooling systems at peak demand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(James S. Cotton)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Same for a grocery store and its many freezers and refrigerators, a factory running industrial-scale production equipment, and any large building running commercial air-conditioners. Today <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196890423004971">we dump all that heat into the air instead of holding onto it for when we need it</a>, leading to unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<p>We need to start seeing the heat we make as a readily recoverable, carbon-free resource and do much more to harness it. There is already technology that can harvest and store such heat for months in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032121000290">underground thermal batteries</a> until it is needed.</p>
<h2>Integrated heat harvesting systems</h2>
<p>We can recover the heat by piping water through hot underground batteries and running those pipes into nearby buildings, like a big boiler-and-radiator system, except the boiler is <a href="https://energy.mcmaster.ca/icepick">actually an underground battery</a> charged not with electricity, but with heat.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-21st-century-reinvention-of-the-electric-grid-is-crucial-for-solving-the-climate-change-crisis-173631">A 21st-century reinvention of the electric grid is crucial for solving the climate change crisis</a>
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<p>McMaster University is preparing to put replacement back-up generators into play, <a href="https://dailynews.mcmaster.ca/articles/new-electric-boilers-will-reduce-campus-carbon-emissions-23-per-cent">which will supplement grid power during peak times</a>.</p>
<p>When demand is critical on the hottest days of the year, the gas-powered generators will create the extra electricity needed to operate the campus—including sensitive labs and research facilities. If we were to capture and store the waste heat produced and tie into it in the winter, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670723001518">we could halve their net carbon emissions into the atmosphere</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram overviewing the ICE-Harvest plan." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538828/original/file-20230723-192659-grm0uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Modular Integrated Community Energy and Harvesting System has the potential to provide winter-long heat at considerable carbon savings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(James S.Cotton)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>McMaster leads a wider research co-operative demonstration project called <a href="https://www.gridsmartcity.com/partners-sponsors-in-motion/innovation/mcmaster-ice/">Integrated Community Energy and Harvesting</a>, or ICE-Harvest, with 30 municipalities and 19 industrial partners taking part.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261923006554">In a new paper in the journal <em>Applied Energy</em></a>, we show how such localized systems use the same energy twice.</p>
<h2>Heat batteries already exist</h2>
<p>Capturing, saving and using leftover heat is an efficient solution that can be managed by localized microthermal networks. Think of it this way: the Canadian chain Pizza Pizza is <a href="https://www.ngif.ca/harvest-systems-successfully-demonstrates-waste-heat-recovery-from-pizza-pizza-ovens/">piloting a system</a> that uses heat recovered from its ovens to heat its own hot water. The chain can then sell what is left over. In the same way an arena can sell its heat to a retirement home across the street; a grocery store to a neighbouring school, and so on.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tenth-of-all-electricity-is-lost-in-the-grid-superconducting-cables-can-help-199001">A tenth of all electricity is lost in the grid. Superconducting cables can help</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<hr>
<p>This solution would require <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670723001518">new infrastructure</a>, including buried pipes to circulate heat from source to storage and from storage to user. That would be expensive to set up, but such costs could readily be spread out over decades, as previous generations did to build highways, hydro lines and gas pipelines.</p>
<p>Existing and emerging technology can measure and regulate the gathering, sharing and distribution of heat in a system where the accounts of heat producers are credited as they add to the supply and end users are charged when they draw from the supply. It is just a matter of time before industrial, commercial and institutional players realize there is value in their cooling towers.</p>
<p>These are not far-fetched ideas. They are practical and available to be implemented now and are a realistic climate action strategy. Here in the northern hemisphere, heat is a valuable resource that’s already there waiting to be tapped, and we can no longer afford to waste it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209416/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James (Jim) S. Cotton works for and owns shares in Harvest Systems Inc. He receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (CRDPJ 401203143 - 2018) and the Ministry of Research and Innovation and Science administered by Ontario Centre of Innovation (27851-2018), Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and Ontario Research Fund - Research Infrastructure. The author would also like to acknowledge the McMaster Energy Research Cooperative partners for their contributions: HCE Energy Inc., GridSmartCity LDC Cooperative (Brantford Power, Burlington Hydro, Energy+, ENWIN, ERTH Power, Essex Power Lines, Halton Hills Hydro, Kingston Hydro, Kitchener Wilmot Hydro, Milton Hydro, Niagara Peninsula Energy, Oakville Enterprises Corp., Waterloo North Hydro, Welland Hydro Electric Systems Corp.), Alectra Utilities, Enbridge Gas, S2e Technologies, Geosource Energy and Siemens Canada Limited</span></em></p>As the drive towards electrification advances, one fact seems clear: it is far easier to reuse waste heat for our homes and businesses than it is to generate it anew.James (Jim) S. Cotton, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2095892023-07-24T02:39:07Z2023-07-24T02:39:07ZKeen to get off gas in your home, but struggling to make the switch? Research shows you’re not alone<p>More than five million households in Australia are connected to the gas network. Tackling climate change requires homes and businesses to move away from gas, and instead embrace electric appliances as the power grid shifts to renewable energy.</p>
<p>People can <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Getting-off-gas-why-how-and-who-should-pay.pdf">save</a> considerable money by switching away from gas – even more so if they have solar panels installed. But still, millions of Australians haven’t yet made the move. Why?</p>
<p>Our new research, <a href="https://www.bsl.org.au/research/publications/enabling-electrification/">released today</a>, seeks to shed light on this question. We focused on lower-income households in Victoria and found while most participants supported the transition from gas, few owned electric appliances for heating, cooking and hot water. </p>
<p>There were two main barriers: people couldn’t afford the upfront cost of buying new electric appliances, or were renting and so had little or no say over what appliances were installed. Overcoming these and other challenges is crucial to ensure no-one gets left behind in Australia’s energy transition. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="baby floating in bath beside rubber ducks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538551/original/file-20230720-15-10gmso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Few study participants owned electric appliances for heating, cooking and hot water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making it fair for all</h2>
<p>Victoria has <a href="https://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/climate-action-targets">committed</a> to net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2045. To help achieve this, the state government is developing a <a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/renewable-energy/victorias-gas-substitution-roadmap">plan</a> for the state to electrify. Other states and <a href="https://www.climatechoices.act.gov.au/energy/switching-from-gas#:%7E:text=The%20ACT%20will%20transition%20away%20from%20fossil%20fuel,ACT%20during%203%20March%20%E2%80%93%2020%20April%202023.">territories</a> are also moving in this direction. </p>
<p>But to date, not enough research and policy attention has been paid to making this transition fair and equitable for everyone.</p>
<p>Low-income households <a href="https://www.bsl.org.au/research/publications/energy-stressed-in-australia/">spend</a> a larger proportion of their income on energy bills compared to higher-income households. This is despite those households using less energy.</p>
<p>The affordability of gas will become worse as more households electrify. That’s because part of a gas bill includes the fixed cost of running gas infrastructure – so as progressively fewer people use gas, the remaining users pay more. </p>
<p>And those who don’t make the move away from gas miss out on the long-term economic benefits. <a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0039/579882/Victorias-Gas-Substitution-Roadmap-Embracing-electricity-to-cut-your-bills-at-home.pdf">Analysis</a> last year suggested a typical Victorian household could reduce its annual energy costs by A$1,020 by replacing gas heating, cooking and hot water systems with electric ones. The figure rises to $1,250 for those with solar power. These savings will be amplified if the price of gas continues to rise relative to electricity.</p>
<p>That’s why it’s important to help as many lower-income people as possible to make the switch to electric appliances. Our research set out to understand what might prevent or enable that shift. </p>
<p>We studied households in Victoria: the state with the highest prevalence of residential gas use in Australia and where plans for an economy-wide transition away from fossil gas are underway.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-electric-homes-are-better-for-your-hip-pocket-and-the-planet-heres-how-governments-can-help-us-get-off-gas-207409">All-electric homes are better for your hip pocket and the planet. Here's how governments can help us get off gas</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="hands reach towards gas heater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538553/original/file-20230720-21-zgmt4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gas will become less affordable as more people move to electric appliances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We conducted an online survey, which received 220 eligible responses. We also undertook focus groups with 34 people. All participants were from lower-income households.</p>
<p>Most participants – 88% – used gas in the home, reflecting its prevalence in Victoria.</p>
<p>More than two-thirds indicated some level of support for a transition away from household gas to cleaner energy sources. Support was greater with higher levels of education. There was no significant difference based on financial stress, housing tenure, location or age. </p>
<p>But this support had not translated into action. Just one in ten surveyed households had replaced gas appliances with electric ones within the past five years. Among those who had switched or planned to switch, the main reasons were lower running costs and environmental benefits. </p>
<p>Respondents considered electric appliances to be safer and better for the environment. Gas appliances were considered better for heating and cooking. Many respondents were unsure about the relative benefits of electric versus gas appliances when it came to cost, reliability, safety and the environment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=175&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=175&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=175&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=221&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=221&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538548/original/file-20230720-15-61nj78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=221&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Graph showing the benefits of gas versus electric appliances, as perceived by participants in the study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Preferences were strongly linked to what people were currently using. Most people preferred gas cooktops over electric ones, because of the perceived speed, ease and flexibility. However, few participants had used electric induction stoves, which can also offer these benefits.</p>
<p>People who spoke a language other than English were significantly more likely to prefer gas for heating and hot water.</p>
<p>For those who had not replaced gas appliances, being a renter was one of the biggest barriers to electrification. Some renters said they lived in poor housing, but were unwilling to request improvements in case the landlord increased the rent or evicted them. </p>
<p>Respondents also said they would struggle to afford the upfront costs of electrification, such as buying new appliances and, in some cases, wiring upgrades and other building modifications. </p>
<p>Many participants were aware of and had received state government assistance to help with energy bills. But far fewer people knew about or had used <a href="https://www.solar.vic.gov.au/home-heating-cooling-upgrades?redirectSrc=heatingupgrades.vic.gov.au">programs</a> that could support them to adopt electric appliances.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gas-cooking-is-associated-with-worsening-asthma-in-kids-but-proper-ventilation-helps-151591">Gas cooking is associated with worsening asthma in kids. But proper ventilation helps</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Embracing the switch</h2>
<p>An overall strategy is needed to help all households make the shift to electric appliances and technology. Our research suggests this must include specific measures for lower-income households, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>targeted and well-promoted electrification programs</p></li>
<li><p>more evidence-based information on the benefits of electric appliances</p></li>
<li><p>incentives for landlords and standards requiring efficient electric appliances in rental homes</p></li>
<li><p>means-tested rebates for electric appliances such as reverse cycle air-conditioners and heat pump hot water, and where appropriate, no- or low-interest loans. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>These measures should, where possible, be linked to measures to improve household energy efficiency. And lower-income households, as well as others facing barriers to getting off gas, must be included when planning the transition. </p>
<p><em>Researchers David Bryant and Damian Sullivan from the Brotherhood of St Laurence contributed to this article and co-authored the research upon which it is based.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heat-pumps-can-cut-your-energy-costs-by-up-to-90-its-not-magic-just-a-smart-use-of-the-laws-of-physics-185711">Heat pumps can cut your energy costs by up to 90%. It’s not magic, just a smart use of the laws of physics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209589/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sangeetha Chandrashekeran receives funding from the Australian Research Council's Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course (Project ID CE200100025). This project was also funded by Energy Consumers Australia (<a href="http://www.energyconsumersaustralia.com.au">www.energyconsumersaustralia.com.au</a>) as part of its grants process for consumer advocacy projects and research projects. The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of Energy Consumers Australia.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia de Bruyn worked for the Australian Research Council's Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course (Project ID CE200100025) at the time of conducting this research. This project was also funded by Energy Consumers Australia (<a href="http://www.energyconsumersaustralia.com.au">www.energyconsumersaustralia.com.au</a>) as part of its grants process for consumer advocacy projects and research projects. The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of Energy Consumers Australia.</span></em></p>Victoria has a plan for the state to electrify, but how do we make the transition fair and equitable for everyone? New research suggests a way forward.Sangeetha Chandrashekeran, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course, The University of MelbourneJulia de Bruyn, Associate Investigator, ARC Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2085182023-07-03T11:15:31Z2023-07-03T11:15:31ZHow heating your home fuels climate change – and why government measures are failing to stop it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534550/original/file-20230628-22-io92tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5499%2C3679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heat pumps are three times more energy-efficient than boilers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/caucasian-hvac-heating-cooling-technician-his-2202142891">Virrage Images/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK’s housing stock is old, energy inefficient and heavily reliant on fossil fuel heating systems – mainly gas boilers. With heating responsible for 17% of the UK’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/heat-and-buildings-strategy/heat-and-building-strategy-accessible-webpage#fn:35">carbon emissions</a>, homes and their central heating must transform if the country is to achieve net zero by 2050. </p>
<p>While there isn’t a single solution that will suit every home, government advisers on <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Element-Energy-Trajectories-for-Residential-Heat-Decarbonisation-Executive-Summary.pdf">the Climate Change Committee</a> (CCC) estimate that 8 million heat pumps need to be installed in existing homes by 2035.</p>
<p>The CCC recently published a <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/2023-progress-report-to-parliament/">damning assessment</a> of the UK’s progress towards its 2030 climate goals, saying annual emission reductions outside the power sector must nearly quadruple. Home heating is of particular concern, as heat pumps are being rolled out at one-ninth the rate they need to be by 2028, alongside falling rates of energy efficiency improvements.</p>
<p>Heat pumps extract heat either from the air, ground or nearby water and transfer it into a building, providing heating and hot water through pipes and radiators. Some heat pumps can even work in reverse to cool homes during the summer. </p>
<p>Heat pumps run on electricity and use energy <a href="https://es.catapult.org.uk/news/heat-pumps-shown-to-be-three-times-more-efficient-than-gas-boilers/">three times more efficiently</a> than gas boilers.</p>
<p>Better still, UK homeowners are becoming more comfortable with this technology. A survey of 2,500 households in May 2023 revealed that <a href="https://www.nesta.org.uk/report/heat-pumps-a-user-survey/">more than 80%</a> that had installed a heat pump were satisfied. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two large white boxes with fans attached to the exterior wall of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534551/original/file-20230628-23-ymya5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Air-source heat pumps like these are effective in most weather conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-air-source-heat-pump-units-1914071401">Nimur/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>UK trails European neighbours</h2>
<p>Only 59,862 heat pumps were installed in the UK in 2022. Although this is an increase of 40% on 2021, it’s far from the government’s target of 600,000 a year by 2028. To fully replace all of its gas boilers, the UK would need to be installing <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/heat-and-buildings-strategy/heat-and-building-strategy-accessible-webpage">1.7 million heat pumps</a> annually by 2036. </p>
<p>Heat pumps are being rolled out faster elsewhere. In Norway, <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-heat-pumps/executive-summary">60%</a> of buildings have heat pumps; in Sweden, <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-heat-pumps/executive-summary">over 40%</a>. Meanwhile, less than <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1091144/Energy_Report_2020_revised.pdf">1%</a> of UK buildings had a heat pump in 2021. And compare the UK’s 2022 record with other countries in <a href="https://www.ehpa.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Heat-Pump-Key-Facts-May-2023_compressed.pdf">Europe</a>: France installed 462,672 heat pumps (up 20%), Germany 236,000 (up 53%) and the Netherlands 123,208 (up 80%).</p>
<p>European governments support heat pump installations in various ways. The <a href="https://www.climatexchange.org.uk/media/4625/cxc-a-review-of-heat-decarbonisation-policies-in-europe-feb-2021.pdf">Netherlands</a> has gradually raised taxes on homes burning natural gas for heating and <a href="https://www.government.nl/topics/sustainable-energy-at-home/apply-for-a-subsidy-for-sustainable-energy-and-energy-saving-for-owner-occupied-homes-isde">offered subsidies</a> for heat pumps. <a href="https://www.climatexchange.org.uk/media/4625/cxc-a-review-of-heat-decarbonisation-policies-in-europe-feb-2021.pdf">France</a> has combined a 30% tax credit on improvements to heating and home insulation costing up to €16,000 with a 0% interest loan of up to €30,000 for energy efficiency upgrades.</p>
<p>These measures address two things which prevent people from getting a heat pump: the upfront cost of installation and the renovations required to prepare a home. Heat pumps are <a href="https://www.homebuilding.co.uk/news/heat-pump-price-war-as-heat-pump-goes-on-sale-for-same-price-as-gas-boiler">becoming cheaper</a> but they are still more expensive than gas boilers and many UK homes lack the double-glazed windows, insulated walls and lofts, and pipework and radiators that help them perform optimally.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A worker in protective clothing adjusts rolls of thick cladding in the eaves of a house." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534553/original/file-20230628-31-75rb52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The CCC estimates that fewer homes were insulated in 2022 than the year before.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/construction-worker-thermally-insulating-house-attic-1907495419">Irin-K/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since 2012, government policy has failed to drastically improve home energy efficiency or encourage low-carbon heating. </p>
<p>The carbon emissions reduction target introduced by Gordon Brown’s Labour government in 2008 required energy suppliers to cut emissions by helping customers make their homes more energy efficient. When it closed in 2012, it had <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/sites/default/files/docs/2013/05/cert_finalreport2013_300413_0.pdf">beaten</a> its target of saving 293 million tonnes of carbon dioxide. 41% of these savings came from installing insulation, in turn making homes more suitable for a heat pump.</p>
<p>The green deal followed in 2013 and the renewable heat incentive in 2014 under David Cameron’s Conservative-led coalition government. </p>
<p>Green deal loans for energy-efficiency upgrades attracted just <a href="https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Green-Deal-and-Energy-Company-Obligation.pdf">14,000 applicants</a> as homeowners baulked at the relatively <a href="https://www.eceee.org/library/conference_proceedings/eceee_Summer_Studies/2013/5b-cutting-the-energy-use-of-buildings-policy-and-programmes/the-uks-green-deal-a-modelled-case-study-impact-review/">high cost of borrowing</a> and were unconvinced by the projected <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214629616301803">energy savings</a>. The scheme was scrapped in 2015.</p>
<p>The renewable heat incentive paid homeowners quarterly over seven years for installing a heat pump but asked them to fund the installation upfront. In 2018, the government <a href="https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Low-carbon-heating-of-homes-and-businesses-and-the-Renewable-Heat-Incentive.pdf">blamed</a> high upfront costs, poor awareness and complex installations for the poor uptake. The incentive ended in 2022. </p>
<h2>Ban the boiler?</h2>
<p>Launched in 2022 under Boris Johnson, the boiler upgrade scheme offers homeowners a £5,000 grant to replace their gas boiler with an air-source heat pump (£6,000 for a ground-source heat pump) and aims to lower the cost difference between the two. Installing a new combi-boiler costs <a href="https://www.which.co.uk/reviews/boilers/article/buying-a-new-boiler/boiler-prices-how-much-does-a-new-boiler-cost-aK2dh2j3Cabo#the-cost-of-a-new-boiler">between £600 and £2,150</a> whereas a heat pump is <a href="http://asf-hp-cost-demo-l-b-1046547218.eu-west-1.elb.amazonaws.com/">£5,000 to £8,000</a> after the government subsidy.</p>
<p>The government also plans to implement a <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1146981/clean_heat_market_mechanism.pdf">clean heat market mechanism</a> that will ask boiler manufacturers to sell four heat pumps for every 100 gas boilers in 2024/25, or pay for the equivalent in heat pump credits if they can’t (one heat pump credit is worth £5,000). </p>
<p>These measures may improve on earlier failures if the rules for industry are clear and the incentives are generous enough for consumers to consider investing in a heat pump, as examples with other low-carbon technologies have shown. </p>
<p>For instance, evidence suggests carmarkers are already <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/uk-car-sales-hit-30-year-low-2022-could-grow-15-this-year-smmt-2023-01-05/">selling more battery-electric vehicles</a> in anticipation of a law requiring them to sell a rising proportion of zero-emission vehicles each year from 2024. And the feed-in-tariff scheme requiring energy suppliers to buy electricity from homeowners at an agreed price for <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/environmental-and-social-schemes/feed-tariffs-fit">10 to 25 years</a> helped <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/publications/feed-tariff-fit-annual-report-2020-21">nearly a million households</a> install solar panels.</p>
<p>Beyond targets for boiler manufacturers, the UK government will ban natural gas boilers in new buildings from 2025. While Germany’s governing coalition is implementing a ban on installing gas boilers in existing properties <a href="https://www.haufe.de/immobilien/wirtschaft-politik/kabinett-beschliesst-gesetz-fuer-mehr-oeko-beim-heizen_84342_285314.html">from 2028</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The white cover of a gas boiler with the pilot light visible." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534552/original/file-20230628-24-55u44i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gas boilers remain relatively cheap and convenient to install in the UK.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fire-burns-gas-burner-blue-flame-548058724">Andrzej Wilusz/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Before such a ban is tabled in the UK, there are policies that could raise the dismal heat pump installation rate. First, like the Dutch, the UK could gradually lower taxes on residential electricity and increase them on gas. </p>
<p>Second, the government <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Annex-Reform-of-domestic-EPC-rating-metrics-to-support-delivery-of-Net-Zero.pdf">could</a> ensure <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-measure-energy-efficiency-in-homes-isnt-working-162565">energy performance certificates</a> more accurately assess the energy efficiency of homes and their readiness for heat pumps. And third, the government should dismiss <a href="https://www.hvnplus.co.uk/news/boiler-group-slams-government-over-absurd-clean-heat-market-mechanism-04-04-2023/">opposition from boiler manufacturers</a> and implement the clean heat market mechanism.</p>
<p>Decarbonising heat and encouraging heat pumps is essential for achieving net zero. Tighter rules and targets for industry must sit alongside attractive incentives for consumers if the UK is to reach 600,000 installations a year in five years’ time.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ned Lamb is funded by the Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council's Low Temperature Heat Recovery and Distribution Network Technologies (LoT-NET) programme.</span></em></p>The UK trails European neighbours on replacing gas boilers with energy-efficient heat pumps.Ned Lamb, Research Associate on Low-Carbon Energy Systems, Warwick Business School, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2021922023-04-12T16:36:27Z2023-04-12T16:36:27ZSeven ways to recycle heat and reduce carbon emissions<p>Heating of space and water in buildings accounts for about 44% of all energy consumed globally according to the <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022/renewable-heat">International Energy Agency</a>. This heat is still overwhelmingly generated by burning fossil fuels, making it an enormous source of the carbon emissions driving climate change. But you might be surprised to learn just how much heat is wasted each day. Finding ways to recover and recycle it could drastically reduce emissions.</p>
<p>Consider a standard petrol or diesel car. The engine provides the momentum and produces excess heat that a radiator removes. This heat is largely wasted, except in winter when it warms the windscreen and passengers. Generators that supply electricity to the grid work in a similar way – their excess heat could be diverted to heat buildings instead. In the UK, there are many <a href="https://www.mwm.net/en/news/news-releases/flexible-energy-supply-in-uk-more-than-300-mwm-gas-engines-in-distributed-power-plants-secure-stability-of-the-national-power-grid/">gas engines</a> on standby to supply the power grid when needed. I was part of the team that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217307890?via%3Dihub">linked the heat</a> from a gas power generator to a building central heating system.</p>
<p>The idea of combined heat and power is nothing new. In Nottingham, the energy for the city’s district heating network and some electricity comes from a <a href="https://enviroenergy.co.uk/about-us/district-energy/">waste incinerator</a>. This also reduces the amount of rubbish sent to landfill. But once you realise just how much heat is out there, waiting to be reused, the problem of decarbonising heating doesn’t seem so mighty. Here are seven examples.</p>
<h2>1. Data centres</h2>
<p>Computers processing data <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1645349">get hot</a> – just feel the bottom of a laptop. Data centres are rooms filled with computers that may house the IT servers for an entire office building. The heat they generate is extracted and dumped, usually by energy-hungry air conditioners. </p>
<p>Elsewhere, data centres have been used as “<a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-64939558">digital boilers</a>” to heat swimming pools. In many cases, cold water runs through pipes between the two buildings where it helps to cool the data centre servers. The heated water is then pumped back to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/technology-62076634">warm the pool</a>.</p>
<h2>2. Ice rinks</h2>
<p>Believe it or not, any artificially cooled ice rink produces lots of heat. This is because of the refrigeration cycle that keeps the water you skate on frozen. Think about this process as you would your freezer at home. When you put something at room temperature in the freezer, like a water tray for making ice cubes, the heat is extracted to freeze the water and pumped outside of the fridge. You can feel the side or the back of the freezer getting warmer as this happens.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People skating in an ice rink." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519588/original/file-20230405-462-m3e030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keeping all the ice frozen generates a lot of heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/child-ice-skating-night-vienna-austria-489166294">Ground Picture/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similar to data centres, this heat can be captured by circulating water and distributing it via pipes to other parts of the building or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037877882033406X">buildings nearby</a>.</p>
<h2>3. Kitchens and bathrooms</h2>
<p>In most homes, extraction fans and windows remove steam from kitchens and bathrooms. Certain types of <a href="https://www.cse.org.uk/advice/advice-and-support/mechanical-ventilation-with-heat-recovery">ventilation systems</a> can recover the heat from this humid air instead, reducing how much energy is needed for heating. It’s estimated that this could save <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778817313531?casa_token=J_aopc8H8wcAAAAA:ulZ3vlANbJwLW7Y2yxWHXJuE8LoA15z-sA7ZTz_RANZ9DYsvhYTD4LJzK7KImEca_CPZ_2uV6-M">between 23 and 56%</a> of the cost of an energy bill when combined with other energy-saving measures, such as wall and loft insulation.</p>
<h2>4. Wastewater treatment plants</h2>
<p>Sewage and water treatment plants produce <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/technology-53178463">a lot of heat</a>, which is generated from the composting of organic material in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/24/4782">sludge</a> (temperatures can reach 70°C). This excess heat can be reused directly or via heat pumps.</p>
<h2>5. River and sea water</h2>
<p>A heat pump works in a similar way to a kitchen fridge, in which the heat is extracted from the food and drink inside and released outside. The temperature of river and sea water changes less between days and seasons than the air, and <a href="https://www.araner.com/blog/seawater-heat-pumps">heat pumps</a> can use these stable water temperatures as a source of heating in winter and cooling during summer. Think about the water bottle inside the fridge as the river water, and the heat pumped outside the fridge as the source of heating for a house.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A lake with buildings, trees and a hill on the far side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518322/original/file-20230329-16-znn3xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">River, lake and sea water are stable heat sources for heat pumps.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amin Al-Habaibeh</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>6. Flooded coal mines</h2>
<p>The water in coal mines offers an even more efficient solution. Ground temperatures do not change much <a href="https://geothermal-energy-journal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40517-017-0082-z">deeper than 1 metre</a>. At much lower depths, temperatures actually <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261912000542?casa_token=vUH82yNC8qMAAAAA:tqYcinjxQKw-6aarzRKXHvBcQwClizVftON1TCFo1GXAGR_eilsp0XRbwZ4vxPvKw9KADAkw6a0">increase</a>. Abandoned coal mines tend to fill with lukewarm water from rain and the water table, and the UK has the equivalent of <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-legacy-of-dirty-coal-could-create-a-clean-energy-future-88969">400,000 Olympic swimming pools</a> stored in these mines, all at a fairly stable temperature. In winter, when the weather is very cold, this warm water is a suitable source of heat that can be transferred to buildings via heat pumps.</p>
<h2>7. You</h2>
<p>The average human body emits around 100 watts of heat at rest. When exercising, that heat can reach 1,000 watts: enough to boil one litre of water in <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-one-way-to-burn-less-fossil-fuel-use-human-energy-to-heat-buildings-instead-181525">six minutes</a>.</p>
<p>When people gather indoors, the heat they emit starts to accumulate. Crowded public places can be used to heat other parts of the same building or adjacent buildings.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An infrared image of a house showing significant heat losses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518318/original/file-20230329-17-wu22mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An infrared image of a house in winter: the lighter the colour, the warmer the surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amin Al-Habaibeh</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Infrared imaging reveals how much heat is typically lost from the buildings we spend much of our lives in. Combined with insulation and some of the technologies discussed here, humanity could meet much of its heating needs without additional sources – and cut one of the biggest sources of climate-warming emissions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202192/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amin Al-Habaibeh has received funding from European Commission, Research Fund for Coal and Steel, July 2014 -June 2017 (Contract No.: RFCR-CT-2014-00001); and Innovate UK, Knowledge Transfer Partnership number 9032.</span></em></p>Everything from ice rinks to crowded public places is a potential source of home heating.Amin Al-Habaibeh, Professor of Intelligent Engineering Systems, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981342023-01-24T21:23:30Z2023-01-24T21:23:30ZTargeted policies can help decarbonize Canada one home at a time<p>Be it through the food we eat, vehicle we use or way we live, <a href="https://www.visualcapitalist.com/a-global-breakdown-of-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-sector/">we use fossil fuels and emit greenhouse gases</a> in various activities in our daily lives. We need to reduce emissions across sectors, starting with our homes. This requires <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-action/">ambitious and quick action</a>.</p>
<p>As we face more and more climate change-induced weather extremes, we heavily rely on the use of home heating and cooling infrastructure. The emissions from space heating and cooling in homes represent almost one-fifth of <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/34572;jsessionid=50402C37879DE297641075CEE7FB3BA4">global greenhouse gas emissions</a>. </p>
<p>In Canada, home emissions account for around <a href="http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2019/eccc/En81-4-2017-1-eng.pdf">six per cent of emissions</a>, largely because most <a href="https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-commodities/natural-gas/report/canadian-residential-natural-gasbill/index.html">homes rely on natural gas-fired</a> or oil-powered furnaces and boilers, although additional emissions are associated with air conditioning. </p>
<p>Canada should decrease emissions from residential buildings by 50 per cent by 2030 and achieve a net-zero emissions building stock by 2050 <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/net-zero-emissions-2050.html">to meet its climate targets</a>. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102926">recent study</a> found that the first step towards this goal is using targeted policies that encourage the use of low-carbon technology in our homes, like heat pumps. </p>
<h2>Some provinces take the lead on decarbonization policy</h2>
<p>Across levels of Canadian governments, many types of policies have been designed to encourage switching from fossil fuel-based to low-carbon technologies. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1514012983449509892"}"></div></p>
<p>These include subsidies or loans for switching to low-carbon technologies, educational programs and adopting economy-wide policies such as <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/pricing-pollution-how-it-will-work.html">carbon pricing</a>, regulations for building emissions and renewable natural gas mandates.</p>
<p>For example, the province of British Columbia offers its residents subsidies for <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/bans-fossil-fuel-heating-homes-1.6327113">switching away from fossil fuel-based heating systems</a>. It also offers bonuses for performing additional <a href="https://www.betterhomesbc.ca/rebates/cleanbc-better-homes-and-home-renovation-rebate-programs/">low-carbon retrofits</a>.</p>
<p>Prince Edward Island offers an <a href="https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/service/residential-home-heating-loan-program">interest-free loan for up to $30,000</a> to residents who upgrade the current heating system in their homes to a cleaner, more efficient low-carbon system that reduces their carbon footprint.</p>
<p>Canada recently updated the carbon price, in line with its planned yearly increases in stringency.</p>
<p>While such efforts to decarbonize buildings are increasing, current policies seem to be insufficient for Canada to meet its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.064">greenhouse gas reduction commitments</a>. </p>
<h2>Five factors that influence Canadians to decarbonize</h2>
<p>Heat pumps can significantly <a href="https://www.cleanenergytransition.org/post/why-heat-pumps-are-key-to-building-decarbonization#:%7E:text=An%20Energy%20Policy%20study%20published,resources%20used%20for%20electricity%20production.">decarbonize Canada’s homes</a> because they are powered by electricity, and not fossil fuels. They also provide similarly efficient space cooling with the same system, and may be able to reduce consumer energy costs.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/m3qgftmaeS8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Replacing boilers that burn natural gas with electricity-dependent heat pumps to heat and cool homes can help reduce emissions.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But despite many policies that incentivize their adoption, these heat pumps are used in only around <a href="https://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/showTable.cfm?type=CP&sector=res&juris=ca&rn=27&page=0">five per cent of home heating systems in Canada</a>. Why is adoption so low?</p>
<p>Using data from a nationally representative sample of 3,138 Canadian homeowners, we explored the main motivators for heat pump adoption in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102926">our study</a>.</p>
<p>We found that while one-third of Canadian homeowners express willingness to adopt heat pumps, they are generally unaware of existing government efforts or policies in place to support its adoption. Only five per cent of our respondents were able to name such policies from memory. This policy awareness was higher in British Columbia, and for heat pump subsidies and carbon taxes. </p>
<p>However, policy awareness, we found, is a weak positive predictor of willingness to adopt heat pumps. We found that homeowners are more willing to adopt a heat pump if they </p>
<p>1) believe it can effectively heat and cool their home,</p>
<p>2) think it can improve air quality and help fight climate change,</p>
<p>3) are interested in technology, </p>
<p>4) support policies that encourage heat pump adoption, and </p>
<p>5) don’t perceive heat pumps as being too expensive or inconvenient to install. </p>
<h2>The top-down approach</h2>
<p>So, instead of focusing their efforts on educating homeowners about existing policies, our research suggests that policymakers should aim to increase homeowners’ confidence in low-carbon infrastructure like heat pumps. They must highlight the effectiveness and environmental benefits of these technologies. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1504925891691958275"}"></div></p>
<p>Policies can also be designed to help remove barriers of high financial and inconvenience costs during heat pump installation. For example, subsidy amounts could cover inconvenience costs and more funding could be directed towards training contractors in such installations.</p>
<p>Considering these drivers and barriers while tailoring policy design and structure will help augment the adoption of such low-carbon technologies, and by extension home decarbonization. </p>
<p>While this holds true in Canada, at both the national and provincial levels, it can also be replicated in other jurisdictions with similar climates or policy regimes such as Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and the northern United States.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198134/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ekaterina Rhodes receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Insight Development Grant # 430-2020-00214.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meghan Corbett received funding from from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Insight Development Grant # 430-2020-00214.</span></em></p>Policies that encourage the use of low-carbon technology like heat pumps can help motivate residents to decarbonize their homes.Ekaterina Rhodes, Assistant Professor, School of Public Administration, University of VictoriaMeghan Corbett, Master's student, Public Administration, University of VictoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1944822022-12-16T12:09:48Z2022-12-16T12:09:48ZMedieval great halls were at the heart of the festive season – here the community kept warm by staying together<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499820/original/file-20221208-12402-hv1x1s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/107TX8">Getty Open Collection, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles,</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The great hall is one of the most enduring images from the middle ages – and with good reason. Surviving written sources as well as archaeological and architectural analysis all attest to the importance of the hall within manor houses, castles and palaces during festive periods. </p>
<p>Taking mostly English examples, it’s clear that the social dynamics of a great hall were all-important to its role. But the warmth of the hall is also mentioned frequently.</p>
<p>A story from Bede’s <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/bedes-ecclesiastical-history-of-the-english-people">Ecclesiastical History</a>, completed in 731, contrasts the cold outdoors with the pleasure of the fireside. Edwin of Northumbria and his advisors were discussing the merit of conversion to Christianity. As the conversation moved, one among them compared human life with <a href="https://aclerkofoxford.blogspot.com/2012/05/venerable-bede-and-blink-of-eye.html">the flight of a sparrow</a> through the hall where the king might sit with his men in winter: “In the midst there is a comforting fire to warm the hall; outside the storms of winter rain or snow are raging.”</p>
<p>Another famous hall of Old English literature, Heorot from the epic poem <a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/50114/beowulf-modern-english-translation">Beowulf</a>, was built for King Hrothgar of the Danes. The noblest of all halls, it was the stage for welcome, entertainment, displays of lordship – ring-giving – feasting, flirting and sleep. And the scene of the nocturnal devastation wreaked by the monster Grendel and his mother, both of whom were dispatched by Beowulf. </p>
<p>Up to the 13th century, the great hall remained the focal point of the household, and the primary location for heat. The hearths of the 12th-century hall can be seen in the foreground (on the ground) of this photograph of <a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/warkworth-castle-and-hermitage/">Warkworth Castle</a>, also in Northumberland. The main source of heat would have been an open fire or a charcoal-burning brazier.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A ruined castle building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499035/original/file-20221205-26-cm1h9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Warkworth Norman Hall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Norman hall at Warkworth would have been about 17 metres by 12 metres, so not vast, but built of stone and therefore a place that would retain heat. Since it was warm, the hall would have been at a premium as a place for servants to sleep, especially in colder months. While the lord slept in his chambers, the servants took pot luck around the complex.</p>
<p>The great hall was the place for food, prepared and consumed for the most part during the day, <em>prandium</em>, but also into the evening, <em>cena</em> and by candlelight, making it one of the best-lit places in the complex of buildings that made up a lordly dwelling. Lighting would have been by <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Changing_Values_in_Medieval_Scotland/y-tLUGvwFDYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=tallow+candle+medieval&pg=PA54&printsec=frontcover">tallow candles</a>, also known as Paris candles, which feature regularly in medieval accounting rolls.</p>
<p>The hall was a place to display tapestries (especially from the 14th century) and wall paintings, and for dancing, music and poetry, from the troubadours of southern France to the <em>Minnesänger</em> (singers of love songs) of Germany. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RQ_586CLHDM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Richard Coeur-De-Lion - Troubadours et Trouvères / Trovadores Alla Francesca.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Christmas entertainment in the hall, over the 12 days of the season, would involve the whole household and guests. They would be party to the procession of the boar’s head, games of social inversion such as the Bean King (whoever found a pre-dropped bean in their food became king for the day), and further gift-giving, singing, and in the case of Henry II’s court, a jump, a whistle, and a fart from <a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-eels-electing-bean-kings-and-roland-the-farter-part-of-the-medieval-christmas-and-new-year-festivities-174003">Roland the Farter</a>.</p>
<h2>Changing spaces</h2>
<p>Changes in the function, design and place of the great hall from the 13th to the early 16th century are covered in wonderful detail by Chris Woolgar in <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Great_Household_in_Late_Medieval_Eng.html?id=bJkXw2DNItoC">The Great Household in Late Medieval England</a>. Among the many changes was a move to consolidate what had been separate buildings.</p>
<p>The hall was now part of a complex of rooms that also included the kitchen, buttery and pantry – separated from the dining space by a screen, and on the other side by the “solar”, the private quarters for the lord (so named for its position to catch the sun for warmth and light).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A ruined castle building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499115/original/file-20221205-23-mcmogb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ludlow Castle solar and Great Hall in the middle left and centre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Re-building for domestic purposes can be seen at <a href="https://www.ludlowcastle.com/history/">Ludlow Castle</a> in the 1280s, with the insertion of these new elements. It can also be observed at almost exactly the same time a little further south at <a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/goodrich-castle/">Goodrich Castle</a> in Herefordshire, where William de Valence made a series of alterations.</p>
<p>By the 15th century, the great hall was just one of a number of different spaces for entertaining. Nevertheless, it continued to hold an important place for the household including over the Christmas period. The hall provided the arena for dramatic episodes in medieval storytelling: the early 14th-century alliterative poem <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/sir-gawain-and-the-green-knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a> uses a feast at new year, in the depth of winter, as the setting for its playful tale of gamesmanship, honour and chivalry amid the warmth and comfort of the hall. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-eels-electing-bean-kings-and-roland-the-farter-part-of-the-medieval-christmas-and-new-year-festivities-174003">Eating eels, electing bean kings and Roland the Farter: part of the medieval Christmas and New Year festivities</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Medieval society was used to hardship, being always only two bad harvests from mass starvation. The great hall itself was also a reminder of the social hierarchies of lordship. Not everyone was invited in – only servants, guests and family. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, its role as a warm place and social hub is worth some thought. There are, perhaps, areas of resonance with <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-unusual-energy-saving-tips-to-help-you-slash-your-bills-195759">our current situation</a>: a cold winter, difficulties heating rooms, and the importance of a shared warm space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Giles Gasper receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, The Leverhulme Trust, and Research England.</span></em></p>Many people gathered and slept in a shared warm space in medieval times.Giles Gasper, Professor in High Medieval History, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1957592022-12-13T17:11:41Z2022-12-13T17:11:41ZFive unusual energy-saving tips to help you slash your bills<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500699/original/file-20221213-13986-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=110%2C30%2C6587%2C4428&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heat the room you'll spend the most time in.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-middleaged-woman-next-fireplace-relaxes-1024115590">Nikodash/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As temperatures drop over the winter period and the cost of energy rises across the UK and Europe, how to spend less money on gas and electricity is on everyone’s minds. </p>
<p>The UK energy regulator Ofgem <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/energy-advice-households/average-gas-and-electricity-use-explained">reports</a> that an average two- to three-person household in the UK consumes eight kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity and 33kWh of gas daily. This equates to around 2,900kWh of electricity and 12,000kWh of gas a year. For comparison, an electric oven in your house uses 2kWh for 30 minutes of use. </p>
<p>With the rising cost of living, even the smallest tweaks and changes will help you save money. And by following these somewhat unusual energy-saving tips, you will not only cut costs but will also help to conserve resources for future generations.</p>
<h2>1. Vacuum your fridge</h2>
<p>Keeping your <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9276/9/11/128">fridge clean</a> and organised can help save energy in two ways. First, <a href="https://www.realtor.com/advice/home-improvement/how-to-clean-refrigerator-coils/">by cleaning the coils</a>, you can keep your fridge running more efficiently, which will reduce the amount of energy it uses. </p>
<p>Second, while fridges work more efficiently when full, it’s important not to overcrowd them, as enabling cool air to circulate will keep the temperature at an optimal level. This will prevent the cooling system from having to work harder to keep the food cold, thus saving energy. </p>
<h2>2. Get more from your kettle</h2>
<p>Removing limescale from your kettle can also help save energy as limescale can cause the kettle to take longer to heat up, using more energy. But be aware that if your appliances are getting on in age, it may be better to replace them with more energy-efficient upgrades which can save even more money in the long run. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/archived/green-tips/use-a-thermos-flask-to-save-energy">Using a thermos flask</a> for any leftover kettle water is an excellent money saving tip. Not only does it mean that any excess water you’ve just boiled doesn’t go to waste, but it also means you’ve got boiling water when you need it without having to reboil the kettle again.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman pouring kettle water into mug." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500405/original/file-20221212-103551-8rn68c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A descaled kettle boils quicker and so uses less energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dirty-coolant-tubes-radiating-fins-back-1878792160">goffkein.pro/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Heat one room efficiently</h2>
<p>Heating only specific areas that you use the most can be beneficial in many ways. Limiting the areas that need to be heated, perhaps using <a href="https://www.techadvisor.com/article/723403/best-smart-thermostat-2.html">a smart thermostat with multiple zone setting</a>, can help you avoid wasting energy to heat the entire house. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stay-warm-when-youre-working-from-home-without-turning-the-heating-on-195250">How to stay warm when you're working from home (without turning the heating on)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>By <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032118303381">heating only the areas you need</a>, you are also putting less strain on your heating, ventilation, or air conditioning system. This can help to reduce the wear and tear on your system and help it last longer. And limiting the amount of air that needs to be heated reduces the amount of dust and other contaminants.</p>
<p>You might also want to think about rearranging your furniture to make sure that <a href="https://theconversation.com/10-ways-to-keep-your-house-warm-and-save-money-this-winter-67285">your radiators have enough space to breathe</a>. Leaving a gap between any furniture or curtains lets the air circulate properly, which means your are heating your room in the most efficient way possible. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Couple lifting up sofa in living room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500404/original/file-20221212-105856-k8glwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rearrange your furniture to give your radiators room.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-happy-african-american-couple-moving-1702087351">fizkes/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Consider going off-peak</h2>
<p>Some energy suppliers offer cheaper tariffs if you run your appliances during off-peak times when fewer people are demanding energy supplies – and this can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778816313913">save you money</a>.</p>
<p>Your washing machine, dishwasher and tumble dryer are often the highest energy using appliances. In the UK, for example, avoiding using them during the peak hours of between 4pm and 9pm will not only result in lower electricity costs if you have an off-peak tariff. It will also reduce strain on the electricity grid and cut the need for additional energy production at peak times, which can reduce emissions from power plants. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman loading up washing machine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500406/original/file-20221212-105171-vpmwvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can save money on specific energy tariffs by doing your laundry later at night.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-worthy-caucasian-blonde-smiling-housewife-1541044256">Dusan Petkovic/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Unplug devices, close doors and do the washing up</h2>
<p>Focusing on your own <a href="https://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/boardman07-hometruths.pdf">behaviour</a> matters the most when it comes to energy conservation. You should make sure to put on layers of clothes so that you can be comfortable without having to crank up the thermostat. </p>
<p>Also be more conscious of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778814010019">turning off unwanted lights</a>, closing the doors when leaving a room to conserve the heat and unplugging devices that are not being used. </p>
<p>For small loads of dirty dishes, you should wash them by hand in a small amount of water rather than running a dishwasher half empty. Use pan lids when cooking to reduce the amount of energy used. </p>
<p>These are all small but positive actions that can reduce wasteful energy use, save money and help conserve the environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sankar Sivarajah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>By following these unusual energy-saving tips, you will not only cut costs but will also help to conserve resources for future generations.Sankar Sivarajah, Professor of Technology Management and Circular Economy, University of BradfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1952502022-12-07T10:19:44Z2022-12-07T10:19:44ZHow to stay warm when you’re working from home (without turning the heating on)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498315/original/file-20221130-18-2hu33j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C8%2C5955%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A blanket and dog help.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-working-on-laptop-home-1688044990">eva_blanco/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re working from home all or part of the time, the chances are that your home working space is getting chillier as winter sets in. But with heating so expensive right now, having it on all day isn’t really an affordable option. So what can we do to stay warm? </p>
<p>In evolutionary terms, we are tropical animals: when naked and at rest, we’re <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4977175/">most comfortable in air around 28°C</a>, with an average skin surface temperature of 33°C. But to survive and function normally, we must also maintain our deep body (core) temperature close to 37°C. The process of doing so (thermoregulation) involves our body “sensing” its temperature – we have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763409001559">sensors just beneath the skin’s surface</a>
as well as in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4870994/">deeper tissues like the brain</a> – then adjusting our heat production, gain and loss accordingly. </p>
<p>In a cold room, the skin’s cold receptors are the first to be stimulated and cause the skin’s blood vessels to constrict, redirecting warm blood beneath the insulating fat layer we have just beneath the skin. Because hands and feet require blood flow to keep them warm and functional and have little fat coverage, they cool quickly. So, in a cold room, the first parts of us to feel the cold are the extremities: our fingers and toes. </p>
<p>If <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6858151/">cooling continues</a>, the superficial nerves, muscles and joints (especially of the arms) can become impaired, meaning that dexterity, speed of movement and sensitivity to touch suffer. This can make tasks like typing and texting harder, slower and more prone to error. Work efficiency can be further impaired by the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/18/9725">distraction of feeling cold</a>. </p>
<h2>The solutions</h2>
<p>Our first task is to keep our extremities warm by keeping blood flowing to them, and the best way of doing this is by maintaining (or raising) our core body temperature. </p>
<p>There’s no need to heat a whole house or room. You’re much better off heating yourself up, and it starts with making sure you’re wearing appropriate clothing.</p>
<p>Clothes such as woollen jumpers and leggings trap millions of tiny pockets of air which provide insulation. Thermals are great, but multiple layers of ordinary clothing can work just as well. If sitting, a blanket or duvet over the legs and waist can help. Add a hot water bottle underneath, or use a wearable electric blanket if you want. Remember, heating the human not the house is much cheaper.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man in bed with duvet on head with cat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498316/original/file-20221130-22-16zzue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bed doesn’t have to be the only cosy place.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-attractive-caucasian-man-sitting-on-1894443517">boytsov/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/energy-bills-how-much-money-does-turning-down-the-thermostat-actually-save-194756">Energy bills: how much money does turning down the thermostat actually save?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Because the temperature of the hands and feet dominates the overall perception of thermal discomfort, focusing on these areas is key. Think insulating socks, slippers and fingerless gloves. Placing your hands in your armpits when not typing can help, too. If you want to splash out, heated gloves and slippers could also be an option.</p>
<p>As mountaineers say, “if you want warm hands wear a hat”. Scalp blood vessels <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/jappl.1957.10.2.235">don’t constrict as much</a> in the cold, meaning that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1359624/">heat can be lost</a> through the head. So it’s worth having a hat available on your desk. Heat can also be lost as it rises from underneath clothing and escapes at the neck. So wearing a scarf, buff or polo neck helps, too. </p>
<p>You also might like to try exercising. Around three-quarters of the energy used for exercise comes out as heat, so just stepping up and down the bottom step of a staircase can generate <a href="https://extremephysiolmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-7648-2-16">100 watts of heating</a> and start to raise your body temperature in a few minutes. A short period of exercise now and again can make a big difference to your thermal comfort and is good for your general health, too. </p>
<h2>Other tips</h2>
<ul>
<li><p>Keeping hydrated is important for ensuring blood flow to the extremities. You don’t need to drink loads, but drink if you are feeling thirsty. Warm drinks are definitely comforting and make you feel “warmer” but don’t, in fact, affect <a href="https://blog.nols.edu/2016/01/11/do-hot-drinks-really-warm-you-up#:%7E:text=Adding%20a%20hot%20liquid%20to,t%20really%20change%20that%20much">your core temperature</a> much, or for long.</p></li>
<li><p>You need to eat enough calories to burn for heat generation. Most of us eat more than enough, though, and “extra” isn’t generally needed unless you are ill or malnourished for other reasons.</p></li>
<li><p>Our cold receptors are very sensitive to changes in temperature, so draughts can make us feel disproportionately cold – and also waste energy and cost money. Use draught excluders at doors. Ensure that heat loss around and through windows is minimised. Make sure that the attic is well insulated. Also, as cold feet cause thermal discomfort, keeping them off the floor out of any draughts helps. </p></li>
<li><p>Stress can also reduce blood flow to the skin, making you feel colder so try and avoid stress when working at home (if you can). Or kill two birds with one stone: if you feel yourself becoming stressed, step away from your desk and do a few minutes of exercise. You could even stick your hat, scarf and coat on and go for a brisk walk around the block, which should clear your head and warm you up.</p></li>
<li><p>You can check the temperature of your fingers by touching your lips, if your fingers feel warm on your lips they are getting some blood flow, if they feel cold you need to do something to warm them up. </p></li>
<li><p>If you are using your heating if possible heat the room you’ll be in rather than the whole house. <a href="https://www.hip-magazine.co.uk/turning-thermostats-down-by-1c-uk-could-save-uk-households-1-4-billion/">Turning the thermostat down</a> by just 1°C from 20 to 19°C can <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/money/2022/oct/09/uk-energy-bills-save-winter-gas-electricity-costs#:%7E:text=Turn%20down%20the%20thermostat%20from%2020C%20to%2019C&text=Most%20families%20are%20happy%20with,your%20heating%20bill%20by%2010%25">save you 10% a year</a> in energy costs, and there are further savings to be made by <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/128720/6923-how-much-energy-could-be-saved-by-making-small-cha.pdf">reducing the temperature</a> to the minimum recommended level of 18°C.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195250/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Tipton receives funding from a range of research funders, nothing specifically related to this article. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugh Montgomery works on climate change at UCL and (unpaid) for UCLPartners (NHS). He co-founded the UK Climate and Health Council (voluntary action group). He collaborates with recipients of research grants relating to the health impacts of climate change including the (Wellcome Trust-funded) Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change,</span></em></p>Keeping your fingers and toes warm is the key.Mike Tipton, Professor of Human and Applied Physiology, University of PortsmouthHugh Montgomery, Professor of intensive Care Medicine, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1948412022-11-29T18:02:27Z2022-11-29T18:02:27ZHeat pumps without home insulation could raise bills and energy demand – here’s what the government can do<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497926/original/file-20221129-24-eif7yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3600%2C2398&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Infrared imaging reveals where most heat is lost from a house.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/infrared-thermal-real-image-radiator-heater-408399907">Ivan Smuk/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/heat-and-buildings-strategy">aims</a> to replace 1.7 million gas boilers a year by <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/independent-assessment-the-uks-heat-and-buildings-strategy/">the mid-2030s</a>, as part of its plan to reach net zero. This will require rapidly scaling up the installation of heat pumps which can run on renewable electricity. Just <a href="https://www.heatpumps.org.uk/uk-heat-pump-market-set-to-almost-double-this-year">67,000</a> were installed in 2021. And for these new heat pumps to work as effectively as possible, consistent action on home insulation is needed.</p>
<p>The government recently announced a £1 billion scheme which would give <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-joins-with-households-to-help-millions-reduce-their-energy-bills">households</a> in lower council tax bands up to £15,000 to upgrade their home’s energy efficiency. Chancellor Jeremy Hunt also <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1118417/CCS1022065440-001_SECURE_HMT_Autumn_Statement_November_2022_Web_accessible__1_.pdf">promised</a> a £6 billion support package for home insulation in 2025-28. </p>
<p>The extra funding is welcome but, because it only offers help to a fraction of those who need it, it has the hallmarks of another <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629616301803?via%3Dihub">short-lived</a> funding announcement which tackles only part of the problem. </p>
<h2>Why heat pumps benefit from energy efficiency</h2>
<p>Depending on its design and the season, a <a href="https://www.ehpa.org/about-heat-pumps/">heat pump</a> is very efficient at turning electricity into heat. But it is much harder (and demands more energy) to maintain a constant temperature in a draughty home. Heat pumps have to be made bigger <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629620303108?via%3Dihub">in such circumstances</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-you-get-a-heat-pump-heres-how-they-compare-to-a-gas-boiler-151493">Should you get a heat pump? Here's how they compare to a gas boiler</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Switching to heat pumps en masse might strain electricity supplies, particularly during peak hours. Replacing one in five boilers with a heat pump would increase weekday evening electricity demand by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261917308954">14%</a> according to one estimate. Higher overall energy consumption means more renewable energy is needed for <a href="https://ukerc.ac.uk/publications/unlocking-britains-first-fuel-energy-savings-in-uk-housing/">decarbonisation</a>. </p>
<p>This is why researchers have proposed <a href="https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/handle/10871/122907">improving the energy efficiency</a> of a home before replacing its heating source. Schemes like the renewable heat incentive required energy efficiency measures like insulation to unlock funding for changing heating systems. But there are schemes like the heat pump ready programme which pay less attention to reducing energy demand.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An engineer in high-visibility jacket installs an air conditioning unit to the exterior of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497936/original/file-20221129-26-wswf7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heat pumps run on electricity and can replace boilers and furnaces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/technician-checking-outdoor-air-conditioner-unit-755610148">Rakratchada/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Electricity is also more expensive than gas, both per unit of energy (kilowatt-hour) and for the daily standing charge. So locking consumers into higher electricity demand could create higher bills. In the middle of a cost of living crisis, it is irresponsible to promote and install heat pumps without making sure they can operate as efficiently and cost-effectively as possible.</p>
<p>These risks are easily avoided. Civil servants, researchers and construction workers know how to improve the energy efficiency of homes, and all of the technologies necessary to do this exist. The problem is that the many in government, boiler and heat pump manufacturers and companies that run gas infrastructure are preoccupied with replacing household heating technology, when they actually need to address a whole home’s energy needs.</p>
<h2>Follow the blueprint</h2>
<p>Most heat pump installations require some modification of existing radiators and pipes. Working out where heat is escaping and blocking gaps or insulating cavities is not a major complication to this process. It does, however, require a range of different skill sets. Joiners, plasterers and builders need to share a language and understanding with the heating engineer and the plumber. Tradespeople already work in multi-trade groups, heat pump installation requires a similar combination of expertise.</p>
<p>It’s true that there are <a href="https://es.catapult.org.uk/news/skills-shortages-holding-back-home-decarbonisation/">not enough</a> qualified tradespeople with skills across plumbing, heating, building and electrical work to deliver energy efficiency measures for all homes, and to meet anticipated demand for heat pumps.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A worker up a ladder injects insulating foam into a brick wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497937/original/file-20221129-18-4rvz7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A home energy efficiency drive could create jobs nationwide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/house-insulation-by-injecting-microbead-pearls-1894725127">Corlaffra/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But that creates a huge opportunity for the construction industry to cut home energy demand and carbon emissions while providing high-skilled, well-paid jobs across all regions of the UK. The industry itself has even produced <a href="https://www.constructionleadershipcouncil.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Construction-Leadership-Council-National-Retrofit-Strategy-Version-2.pdf">a blueprint</a> for how this could be achieved, although government plans do not so far acknowledge these recommendations. </p>
<p>Energy efficiency measures might raise the cost of a heat pump installation. But, if done together, the additional costs may not be much. The government’s Climate Change Committee advisory body estimated that, on average, a UK home would need £3,000 to cover insulation and draught proofing to make installing a heat pump <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/independent-assessment-the-uks-heat-and-buildings-strategy/">energy efficient</a>. Making these renovations in one go would limit disruption and, in the longer term, create a more comfortable home with lower operating costs.</p>
<p>The best way to keep costs low for the public and the government is with a programme that enables whole house improvements for all homeowners. This entails financial support for those who most need it, building capacity and trust in the construction industry and encouraging households who can already afford it to contribute to work on their homes.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 10,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194841/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Owen has received funding from UK Research & Innovation (UKRI), through the UK Energy Research Centre, to explore how small construction firms can deliver energy efficiency in existing homes. She is a member of the Construction Leadership Council's Repair, Maintenance and Improvement (RMI) Working Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Faye Wade has received funding from UK Research & Innovation (UKRI), Built Environment-Smarter Transformation, the Scottish & Norhern Ireland Plumbing Employers Federation (SNIPEF) and Energy Saving Trust Scotland to study the role of heating engineers in low carbon transitions. Faye has also received funding via Scottish Government to evaluate pilots for the Energy Efficient Scotland retrofitting programme, and via the Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions (CREDS) to study supply chains for energy retrofit. </span></em></p>Home energy efficiency improvements should not be a luxury for those who can afford it.Alice Owen, Professor in Business and Sustainability, University of LeedsFaye Wade, Chancellor's Fellow, Sociology, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1917942022-10-10T13:26:16Z2022-10-10T13:26:16ZFour ways to reduce your household energy use – proven by research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488266/original/file-20221005-6883-3peami.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many households are already feeling the effects of rising energy prices.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-couple-jacket-covered-blanket-sitting-1247928553">Budimir Jevtic/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A particularly cold September has given us a glimpse of the winter to come. The cold will bite hardest for the <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8730/">13%</a> of England’s households that are already in fuel poverty. As the energy crisis intensifies, this is expected to rise further.</p>
<p>European leaders have therefore rushed to implement measures to protect households. The UK’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/energy-bills-support/energy-bills-support-factsheet-8-september-2022">Energy Price Guarantee</a> caps the unit price of electricity and gas at 34p and 10p respectively. While this will ease some concerns over rising energy bills, many households will still be priced out of warming their home in the coming months.</p>
<p>So here are four ways research indicates households can reduce their energy use in time for the winter – and save money in the process.</p>
<h2>1. Air dry laundry</h2>
<p>Washing and drying clothing is responsible for around <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/household-electricity-survey--2">12%</a> of household electricity use in the UK.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.norfolknaturalliving.com/blogs/journal/is-hand-washing-your-clothes-better-than-using-the-washing-machine#more-sustainable">Hand washing</a> is frequently suggested as an energy-saving alternative to machine washing. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person crouched over a soapy bucket of water hand washing their clothing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488055/original/file-20221004-14-6s0krm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hand washing laundry is often touted as an energy saving alternative to machine washing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hand-women-washing-clothes-thailand-style-276054953">aromaso/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet modern washing machines are highly efficient, typically using <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187537">0.5 kilowatt hours</a> for a 9kg wash. This is considerably less than the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/18/7537">0.82 kilowatt hours</a> used on average by hand washing. Even inefficient washing machines tend to use less energy than hand washing as much less hot water is required.</p>
<p>By instead restricting use of the tumble dryer, greater reductions in energy use can be achieved. Tumble dryers use a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/household-electricity-survey--2">lot of energy</a>, with a single cycle using up to 4.5 kilowatt hours. This will cost £1.50 per cycle at the price cap.</p>
<p>By air drying laundry instead, I calculated that the average household could save over £130 a year.</p>
<h2>2. Use less hot water</h2>
<p>Facing critical gas shortages, the German city of Hanover <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/28/german-cities-impose-cold-showers-and-turn-off-fountains-in-face-of-russian-gas-crisis">turned off the hot water</a> in the bathrooms of all public buildings earlier this year. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1552841219809705986"}"></div></p>
<p>While energy-saving measures this severe are unlikely, hot water production in the UK is a major consumer of energy, accounting for roughly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778821004035?casa_token=xTAh7oY7yM8AAAAA:E-iJfrf8Z0YDsMcJRElfs2XHNswtyHpW8ims2UDwPFYv5-usqyz5ARij2m1nalnuKLB94qd1jw">one quarter</a> of household energy use. There are several ways households can reduce their hot water use.</p>
<p>One way is reducing the time spent in the shower. A high-pressure shower lasting nine minutes uses around <a href="https://www.waterwise.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/United-Utilities_Water-and-Energy-Efficient-Showers_Project-Report.pdf">4.3 kilowatt hours</a> of gas. At the price cap, this will cost households 44p per shower. By reducing the time spent showering to six minutes, households can save 15p on heating water for each shower.</p>
<p>If you have a hot water tank, making sure it is well insulated can also deliver cost savings. This will keep water warmer for longer and reduce heating costs. </p>
<p>Another approach is to install a low-flow shower head. This restricts the flow of water while maintaining the feel of a high-pressure shower. At lower flow rates, a shower will consume less hot water. For households that average two nine-minute showers a day, this could save over £100 per year. </p>
<p>However, a low-flow shower head will only work well in areas where the water pressure is already sufficiently high. Reducing the flow of an already low-pressure shower would transform the shower into a dribble. </p>
<h2>3. Make better use of heating</h2>
<p>As the energy crisis intensifies, it is important to make sure heating is not wasted unnecessarily. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261917315829?casa_token=lm5ZgEAZhMUAAAAA:iqGWb6BegjNur8LBAkMpQpQJbLia8FWyhVA_R0evSz82rDLFdv1c_JEQjftGRyXSn6HG13dj1w#b0015">Research</a> indicates that energy use could be slashed by up to 30% by reducing heating when occupants are asleep or away. </p>
<p>This can be done by manually dialling down the thermostat or by turning the heating off altogether. For those who habitually forget to lower the heating, a smart thermostat could prove a useful investment. These can be controlled remotely via your mobile, or automatically through presence sensors and allow heating to be lowered when the home is unoccupied.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person's hands adjusting a thermostatic radiator valve against a blue wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488059/original/file-20221004-12-62f4a1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Homes with heating controls use much less energy than homes without.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-adjusts-radiator-valve-heating-manual-1901588584">Robert Bodnar T/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Energy is also wasted by heating unused rooms. Thermostatic radiator valves are one way to control the temperature across different rooms. They regulate the flow of hot water through radiators and can be programmed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.05.023">modulate the temperature for each room</a>. </p>
<p>Thermostatic radiator valves can deliver substantial energy savings. One study found that they result in <a href="https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/249922/">10%–18%</a> less energy use compared to homes with no heating controls. However, it is important that the doors between rooms remain closed to prevent energy being wasted.</p>
<h2>4. Maximise insulation</h2>
<p>Although we can make better use of heating, Britain’s homes are hugely energy inefficient. Its housing stock is one of the <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Annex-2-Heat-in-UK-Buildings-Today-Committee-on-Climate-Change-October-2016.pdf">least insulated</a> in Europe. </p>
<p>Maximising your insulation is one way to reduce your energy use. Secondary glazing in the form of window shutters can <a href="https://issuu.com/hspubs/docs/technical-paper-1---thermal-performance-of-traditi">halve</a> the amount of heat lost through a single glazed window. I calculated that this could save the average UK home over £50 per year in heating costs.</p>
<p>But window shutters do not always represent an immediate energy-saving strategy. Shutter installation can be costly and if installed on a building’s exterior may require planning permission. </p>
<p>Closing blinds or curtains at night and during cold spells instead represents a cheaper way of retaining heat. Research indicates that blinds can reduce the amount of heat lost through windows by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.11.008">up to 38%</a>.</p>
<p>Changes in habits and small investments can substantially reduce energy consumption. If widely implemented, they can ease <a href="https://theconversation.com/turning-down-your-thermostat-really-can-ease-a-gas-supply-crisis-heres-how-178915">the energy crisis</a>. While the Energy Price Guarantee will provide temporary relief to many, investment in energy efficiency measures such as insulation must be prioritised to reduce our energy burden longer term.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aurore Julien is a CIBSE Member and received funding from the UKERC for a PhD covering rapid energy savings to mitigate a natural gas crisis (2014).</span></em></p>Europe is facing the prospect of an acute energy crisis – how does research suggest households can reduce their energy use?Aurore Julien, Lecturer in Environment, Energy and Resources, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1855872022-07-14T04:39:52Z2022-07-14T04:39:52ZHeat yourself, not your house: how to survive winter with a 15°C indoor temperature<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472220/original/file-20220704-36074-8ghc1m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>How high should you put the heating up over winter? If you don’t mind the bills and ecological impact, you have the encouragement of the World Health Organization to keep the house warm. They recommend an indoor temperature of <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275839/WHO-CED-PHE-18.03-eng.pdf">at least 18°</a>, declaring that you face health risks at lower temperatures. This advice is echoed by the <a href="https://www.energy.gov.au/households/household-guides/seasonal-advice/winter">Australian government</a>. The tone of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535294">some reports</a> is monitory and severe. </p>
<p>Based on these instructions, anyone would feel a reflex to bump up the thermostat. But before you brace for the bill-shock amid soaring energy prices, consider a different approach. Some people cope positively with the freeze and others face deep winter with panic. Given the range of psychological responses, I can only imagine there would be a difference in how people’s health would fare. If I’m full of dread at the prospect of feeling chilly, this stress could aggravate existing health issues.</p>
<p>It is entirely possible to avoid heating your entire house to 18°C to stay warm. If you view your cold house as a project, you can take pleasure in the power of staying warm in your modern cave, while remembering that we evolved to withstand the cold with fewer options than we have today.</p>
<h2>Staying warm in a cold house</h2>
<p>Over the last couple of winters, I’ve discovered many strategies for comfortable living at lower room temperatures. To add to traditional methods such as multiple layers of clothing and physical activity, there are now excellent appliances to fend off the chill. Personal heating devices have become rightly popular, such as electrical heated throw rugs to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90022948">warm your clothing</a> rather than ambient air.</p>
<p>These new devices – think a more flexible electric blanket – are extremely efficient. Canberra energy efficiency enthusiast David Southgate found using these devices rather than heating the air <a href="https://southgateaviation.files.wordpress.com/2020/02/2019-annual-report-v2.pdf">cut his heating bill</a> by 95%.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="electric throw" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472222/original/file-20220704-18-sz6rcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Electric throw rugs and other personal heating devices are gaining popularity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Personally, I have found adequate clothing makes a temperature of 15°C acceptable. In fact, dressing warmly poses more risk of overheating with low levels of activity. It’s satisfying to create your own warmth rather than rely on artificially supplied warmth. You start to notice thermodynamic properties of clothing that you’d never appreciate by relying on a thermostat.</p>
<p>If you wear a hooded gown, you’ll find not only that your ears are warm from being covered, but your uncovered face becomes flushed. That’s because warmth generated by your body wafts upward to escape through the aperture of the hood. As a result, the air that you breathe is also warm.</p>
<p>When it comes to clothing, we can equate warmth simply with insulation. In turn, we assess the insulating qualities of textiles with their thickness or <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/everyday/warmest-materials-fabrics-winter-clothing/101155486">air-trapping abilities</a>. We often tend to overlook the design of the clothing, which plays a key role in funnelling body warmth to exposed skin. The archetype of the hood was known two millennia before thermostats in both Greece (the garments μαφόρτης and κάλυμμα) and Rome (the garments <em>cucullus</em>, <em>lacerna</em> and <em>tunica palliolata</em>). They’re just as effective today. </p>
<p>Wearing a cowl won’t warm up your hands; but if the rest of you is warm – especially your feet – your exposed hands will benefit by the circulation. For anyone unconvinced by this assurance, fingerless gloves are a backstop.</p>
<p>The way medical science has catastrophised indoor temperatures lower than 18°C wouldn’t be so bad if it were only incurious and unimaginative. Alas, there are alarming ecological consequences of a population believing that they’ll automatically get sick in the cold.</p>
<p>Carbon emissions from domestic heating are significant. You get a picture from gas bills in Queensland, which go up 1.4 times from summer to winter. In colder states, the figure is <a href="https://www.energycouncil.com.au/analysis/winter-energy-bills-avoid-a-shock">much higher</a>: 3.5 times in Victoria and 5.2 times in nippy Tasmania. We have to scrutinise if we really need our thermostats pegged at 18°C.</p>
<p>Before we accept recommendations on indoor temperatures by medical authorities, we need to know if the science has grappled with different experiences of cold.</p>
<p>Future research must distinguish between people in a cool room who feel cold and miserable or feel protected against cold by a range of practical measures.</p>
<p>Understanding the effect of these variables is urgent, because current authoritative guidance pushes us into heating our houses more than we have to. For most of the world, that means burning fossil fuel.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Nelson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Official advice suggests warming your house to 18°C. But it’s perfectly possible to live in an unheated house with personal warming devices and better clothing.Robert Nelson, Honorary Principal Fellow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1838542022-05-26T11:25:42Z2022-05-26T11:25:42ZCost of living: the unhealthy coping strategies which are likely to rise as energy bills soar – plus how to get help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465476/original/file-20220526-26-vlob4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3840%2C2160&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boy-freezing-warm-clothing-dilapidated-old-1312060946">Vlaimages/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The burden of very high energy prices does not fall evenly across society. The most vulnerable customers are more likely to be on the most expensive tariffs because they’re more likely to pay for their energy via prepayment meters and <a href="https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/Global/CitizensAdvice/Energy/Energy%20Consultation%20responses/Vulnerable%20consumers%20and%20high%20energy%20prices.pdf">face barriers to switching</a>, such as <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/sites/default/files/docs/2020/01/consumer_vulnerability_strategy_2025.pdf">limited access to the internet</a>. </p>
<p>One in six of the poorest households have energy bills at least <a href="https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/rising-energy-costs-the-impact-on-households-pensioners-and-those-on-low-incomes/">25% above</a> the average. These include people with unavoidably high energy costs, such as those confined to the home due to poor health or old age, as well as large families and those living in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484721007782">energy-inefficient homes</a> who cannot afford to insulate them or rely on their landlords to do so. </p>
<p>People living in privately rented properties will be hit particularly hard, as this sector of housing contains the greatest number of the least energy efficient properties and the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484721007782">most vulnerable occupants</a>. </p>
<p>My research, conducted with colleagues at <a href="https://www.fuelpovertyresearch.net/">the Fuel Poverty Research Network</a>, looked at how vulnerable households cope when faced with significant increases in energy prices. We found that people have ingenious strategies for beating the cold but they come at a cost to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484721007782">their health and wellbeing</a> if they become routine.</p>
<h2>Cold food and exercise as a distraction</h2>
<p>We interviewed private renting tenants living in fuel poverty. Fuel poverty essentially means an inability to afford to heat the home to a safe and comfortable level. We discovered that it was routine in all of the 50 households we studied to do the following things to reduce energy costs: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>spend as much time outside the home as possible (riding public transport, sitting in libraries, staying with family and friends, staying at work longer)</p></li>
<li><p>eat food cold out of tins and eat the cheapest, least nutritious food such as white bread and packet noodles</p></li>
<li><p>only heat and use one or two rooms in the home using plug-in electric heaters, and turn off radiators in other rooms</p></li>
<li><p>only use rooms that get sunshine</p></li>
<li><p>get children to do additional exercise to keep them warm and distract them from the cold</p></li>
<li><p>use smart meters, where installed, to help ration daily energy use. This leads, in some cases, to cutting back on other essential uses of energy such as lighting.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These strategies can be damaging to health, especially if sustained over long periods. Underheating the home <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535294/">increases the risk of serious illnesses</a> such as heart attacks or strokes, breathing problems, flu and depression. Growing up in a cold home can affect attainment at school and lead to bullying if it makes <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/articles/what-is-fuel-poverty/">personal hygiene a luxury</a>. </p>
<p>Not eating enough or eating food with a low nutritional value has <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447925/">multiple health consequences</a>. Cutting back on lighting makes accidents more likely and restricting access to electronic devices used to communicate with others can <a href="https://www.iriss.org.uk/resources/esss-outlines/digital-inclusion-exclusion-and-participation">increase loneliness and isolation</a>. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.shu.ac.uk/centre-regional-economic-social-research/publications/energy-in-efficiency-what-tenants-expect-and-endure-in-private-rented-housing">earlier research</a> showed how tenants felt unable to complain to their landlord about the cold for fear of being evicted. Those we interviewed were aware of their weak position as low-income tenants looking for accommodation at a time when housing is in short supply and rents are high. </p>
<p>They also knew that, while an energy efficient home is more desirable, installing cavity wall insulation or double glazing windows might allow the landlord to <a href="https://www.shu.ac.uk/centre-regional-economic-social-research/publications/energy-in-efficiency-what-tenants-expect-and-endure-in-private-rented-housing">raise the rent</a> beyond what they could afford. </p>
<p>A paper that myself and colleagues <a href="https://www.shu.ac.uk/centre-regional-economic-social-research/projects/all-projects/reaching-the-hardest-to-reach-and-highly-vulnerable-in-energy-advice-and-support">published in 2019</a> found vulnerable households struggle to get help from energy providers. The people we spoke to lacked the confidence to speak with the firms supplying their energy and felt that when they did, they were pushed towards generic online material rather than offered solutions tailored to their circumstances. Their anxiety was often interpreted by energy company staff as aggression, and conversations were rarely productive. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An elderly woman reads a bill by the radiator with despair." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465487/original/file-20220526-19-g69x0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Energy prices are exacerbating a wider cost of living crisis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-woman-holding-gas-bill-front-1347745217">Solarisys/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since 2019, the number of people living in fuel poverty <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/news/government-plans-for-energy-crisis-woefully-inadequate/#:%7E:text=Fuel%20poverty%20charity%20National%20Energy%20Action%20%28NEA%29%20says,six%20months%20from%20October%202021%20to%20April%202022.">has doubled</a>. It’s likely to double again by the winter, with 12 million households expected to enter fuel poverty by <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-61562657">November 2022</a>. </p>
<p>This is a significant threat to public health which already <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-cold-weather-and-covid-19/health-matters-cold-weather-and-covid-19">costs tens of thousands of lives</a> each winter. Combined with the broader cost of living crisis, many millions of households will be relying on unhealthy coping strategies to reduce their energy consumption in the difficult months ahead.</p>
<h2>How to get help</h2>
<p>If you’re a tenant in the private rented sector struggling to afford to heat your home, help is available which does not entail you having to deal with your landlord or energy provider directly. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/">Citizens Advice</a> is an independent and impartial advice provider and can help you find the best energy deal available. It can also ensure that you’re receiving all of the income and discounts <a href="https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/consumer/energy/energy-supply/get-help-paying-your-bills/grants-and-benefits-to-help-you-pay-your-energy-bills/">you’re entitled to</a>. They can liaise with your energy provider to reach agreements about energy debt. </p>
<p>It is illegal to rent out a property with an energy performance certificate lower than an E rating on the A-G scale. Landlords are <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/domestic-private-rented-property-minimum-energy-efficiency-standard-landlord-guidance">legally required</a> to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/domestic-private-rented-property-minimum-energy-efficiency-standard-landlord-guidance#:%7E:text=The%20MEES%20Regulations%20refer%20to,VAT%20%2D%20the%20cost%20cap.">spend up to £3,500</a> on improving the energy performance of their properties. </p>
<p>You can also speak to the <a href="https://england.shelter.org.uk/housing_advice/repairs/health_and_safety_standards_for_rented_homes_hhsrs#:%7E:text=Improvement%20notices%20are%20often%20used%20to%20deal%20with,notice.%20The%20council%20might%20suspend%20an%20improvement%20notice.">environmental health team</a> at your local council. They can assess the dangers posed to you by your home and take action if threats to your health are identified.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183854/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aimee Ambrose has received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council, the Eaga Charitable Trust and the Arts and Humanities Research Council, as well as public sector bodies and charities. </span></em></p>Millions of people will risk their health to afford heating and electricity in the months ahead.Aimee Ambrose, Professor of Energy Policy and Trustee of the Fuel Poverty Research Network, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1815252022-04-26T13:18:26Z2022-04-26T13:18:26ZHere’s one way to burn less fossil fuel – use human energy to heat buildings instead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459791/original/file-20220426-18-abbvt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C2038%2C1364&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Capturing energy from clubbers could help power homes and buildings.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/exitfestival/28128407771">Exit Festival/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the cult film <a href="https://www.warnerbros.com/movies/matrix">The Matrix</a>, unwitting humans’ body heat was siphoned off by machines to use as their energy source. Although that might not be the ideal situation to find ourselves in, the basis of the idea – using the warmth we generate to heat our buildings – could help fight climate change by cutting <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-it-would-take-to-end-emissions-from-fossil-fuels-170815">fossil fuel use</a>.</p>
<p>Let’s look at the science. The average human body emits about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781782420323500132">100 watts of heat</a> at rest. When exercising, that heat can easily exceed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9694408/#:%7E:text=During%20strenuous%20exercise%20the%20body's,temperature%20by%20a%20few%20degrees.">1,000 watts</a>: energy that could boil one litre of water in six minutes. For comparison, a standard (3 kW) home kettle takes more than two minutes to heat a litre of water.</p>
<p>Where does that energy come from? Mostly, food. The body’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/human-disease/Metabolic-control">internal metabolism</a> uses products of digestion, such as carbohydrates and fatty acids, to produce the energy that drives muscle contraction. However, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1566070216300303">about 70-95%</a> of energy produced is released as heat. This shows that the human body isn’t very efficient at generating mechanical energy from food: in fact, it’s slightly less efficient than a petrol engine.</p>
<p>Much of this heat is removed from the body through convection, infrared radiation and <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-perspiration-to-world-domination-the-extraordinary-science-of-sweat-62753">sweating</a>, which cools skin using evaporation. This explains why in extremely <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-humid-is-it-3-things-to-keep-you-cool-in-a-hot-and-sticky-summer-and-3-things-that-wont-176365">hot and humid</a> conditions, you don’t feel comfortable – your sweat isn’t evaporating as easily into the saturated air. </p>
<p>Using infrared cameras, we’re able to see that heat as it moves from bodies to their surroundings. These cameras depict areas of increased heat (where more heat is being lost) as lighter in colour, and cooler areas as darker – showing us where most heat is being wasted.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="An infrared-colour image of the author" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=730&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=730&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=730&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=918&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=918&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458591/original/file-20220419-13-wpw5hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=918&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In infrared, you can see which parts of me are hotter and cooler.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amin Al-habaibeh</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When people gather indoors, this heat starts to accumulate. Imagine a theatre with a 500-person capacity. Assuming each person is producing 100 watts of thermal energy, this means 50 kW of heat will be emitted overall: equivalent to 25-30 <a href="https://www.tameside.gov.uk/EnergyEfficiency/Top-Tips-%E2%80%93-June-Don%E2%80%99t-Fill-The-Kettle-Too-Full">average</a> kitchen kettles continuously boiling water.</p>
<p>If those people are physically active – for example, dancing – together they could generate 150 kW of heat, or 3600 kWh over 24 hours. The average household in the UK consumes about <a href="https://usave.co.uk/energy/how-much-energy-does-the-average-uk-household-consume/#:%7E:text=According%20to%20Ofgem%2C%20the%20average,kWh%20of%20gas%20each%20year.">1,000 kWh</a> of gas per month. Since an average domestic gas boiler has an approximately 30 kW output, just 500 dancers could produce the energy of five gas boilers.</p>
<p>The next question is how this human heat can best be used to warm buildings. Usually, buildings use ventilation or air conditioning systems to reduce temperatures and enhance air quality. This extracted heat is then lost to the outside environment, wasting energy. Instead, crowd heat could be extracted via <a href="https://www.ipieca.org/resources/energy-efficiency-solutions/efficient-use-of-heat/heat-exchangers/">mechanical heat exchangers</a> – devices that transfer heat from one area to another – and used to heat incoming air in neighbouring buildings. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An infrared-colour image of people walking and sitting in a room" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458592/original/file-20220419-20-1tnfsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Infrared images can be used to pinpoint where human body heat is being wasted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amin Al-habaibeh</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A more flexible option is to use <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166516216301604?via%3Dihub">heat pumps</a>, which are a bit like reverse air conditioning systems that pump heat in instead of out. That heat can also be stored for later use, for example in water cylinders or modified bricks. Technology like this is already used in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359431115010388">data centres</a>, where the significant amounts of heat emitted by computer networks need to be extracted to avoid system failure.</p>
<h2>Thermal energy in action</h2>
<p>The concept of body heating systems is already a reality in some parts of the world. In Sweden, the <a href="https://earthbound.report/2012/11/02/building-of-the-week-kungsbrohuset/">Kungsbrohuset</a> office building – located above Stockholm’s central subway station – is already <a href="http://www.diva-portal.se/smash/get/diva2:1114930/FULLTEXT01.pdf">partially heated</a> by the body heat of daily travellers through the station, reducing its heating needs by 5-10%. A heat pump extracts heat from the station, where it’s stored in water that’s used for heating the offices above. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, in Mall of America in Minnesota, energy from sunlight and the heat of over 40 million annual visitors has <a href="http://minnesotaconnected.com/lifestyle/local-businesses/did-you-know-the-mall-of-america-has-no-central-heating_178620/">replaced</a> central heating. And the <a href="https://www.bodyheat.club/">BODYHEAT</a> system, currently undergoing installation at an arts centre in Glasgow, uses heat pumps to capture clubbers’ thermal energy and store it in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/30/arts/dance/geothermal-body-heat-glasgow-nightclub.html">underground boreholes</a> that will provide the building with heat and hot water.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large, multicoloured play area inside a glass building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459458/original/file-20220425-22-ad6oc2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mall of America has used sunlight and body heat to warm its internal space since 1992.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mall_of_America-2005-05-29.jpg">Jeremy Noble/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I’ve studied the heating system at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263521000601?via%3Dihub">Nottingham Playhouse</a>, with an auditorium capacity of 750 people. We found that as audience numbers increase inside the theatre, so does the temperature, meaning that the central heating can be lowered on nights with packed crowds. Using this principle, we can develop “<a href="https://theconversation.com/get-ready-for-the-invasion-of-smart-building-technologies-following-covid-19-168646">smart buildings</a>” able to adjust their heating based on the number of people in a room and the expected resulting increase in temperature. This simple solution can be used in many types of buildings – even those without heat pumps installed.</p>
<p>With the <a href="https://theconversation.com/energy-bills-are-spiking-after-the-russian-invasion-we-should-have-doubled-down-on-renewables-years-ago-179336">recent hike</a> in energy prices and the global push towards reaching <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-companies-pledge-net-zero-emissions-to-fight-climate-change-but-what-does-that-really-mean-166547">net zero</a> carbon emissions, systems like these could provide a simple and revolutionary way to cut fossil fuel use and lower energy bills by making use of the wasted heat that fills busy public spaces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181525/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amin Al-Habaibeh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Extracting and storing human body heat we generate could improve building sustainability while cutting bills.Amin Al-Habaibeh, Professor of Intelligent Engineering Systems, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1800052022-04-11T11:28:42Z2022-04-11T11:28:42ZNo space for a heat pump? Here’s how your whole street could get off gas heating<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457351/original/file-20220411-14-n50092.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5892%2C3934&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cloudy-day-winter-view-row-typical-1016564182">Jevanto Productions/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From spiralling fossil fuel prices and volatile supply chains to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ipcc-finds-the-world-has-its-best-chance-yet-to-slash-emissions-if-it-seizes-the-opportunity-179653">worsening climate crisis</a>, there has never been a better time to stop heating homes with natural gas. The UK has the chance to replace as many gas boilers as possible before another winter of punishing heating bills descends. But if, like me, you long to keep your house warm and comfortable while keeping costs as low as possible, it can be difficult to know what the best solution is.</p>
<p>Replacing a gas boiler with a heat pump is a <a href="https://twitter.com/janrosenow/status/1492086853159301121?s=20&t=w5h_NpKrMPgsGJR5e7pgEQ">good solution for many homes</a>. Like a fridge in reverse, heat pumps take energy from either the air or ground and run a compressor using electricity to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-57159056">turn this into heat and hot water</a>. </p>
<p>But what if you lack the outside space necessary, like residents of many terraced houses or apartments? Ground source heat pumps need some space for a borehole or a horizontal trench, while air source heat pumps are best installed where their noise won’t disturb those who like to keep windows open at night. An alternative is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-sewage-plants-and-data-centres-could-help-heat-one-in-five-uk-homes-161612">district heat network</a>, which channels waste heat from power stations or other industrial sources to homes and businesses, but they are most useful in dense urban areas where people live close to large sources of heat. </p>
<p>Shared ground heat exchange is another heating system you’re less likely to have heard of, but <a href="https://www.regen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/HeatPumpReport_Final_04PDF.pdf">one report suggests</a> it could be eligible in 80% of UK homes. In common with ground source heat pumps, a shared ground heat exchange uses electricity to turn low-grade heat from boreholes into a cosy home with plenty of hot water. A street which had recently installed a shared ground heat exchange would show no sign of it, but each home would be connected to a set of shared boreholes that draw heat from the ground. </p>
<p>These can be installed well away from the houses and linked to them through a pipe running under the pavement. This gets around the need for each home to have outside space. Instead, each house would need a small heat pump of a similar size to a conventional gas boiler, which should fit snugly under most staircases or in an airing cupboard. </p>
<p>Shared ground heat exchanges can also return heat to the ground in summer, where it can be extracted later in the year, cutting the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122481">size and cost of installation</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two large fan units beside an external brick wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457353/original/file-20220411-11-cbuoyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Installing a heat pump can take up a lot of private space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-air-source-heat-pumps-installed-1914071398">Nimur/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you want to replace your gas boiler with a heat pump, it’s typically your responsibility to instigate the work and fund the installation. This can prevent households low on time and money from making the switch to low-carbon heating.</p>
<p>Accessing a shared ground heat exchange could instead work a lot like signing up for broadband. A provider would install and operate the system, and as a household, you’d decide when you’re ready to ditch your boiler and connect. You would pay the operator a connection fee and then pay for heat through a normal electricity bill. </p>
<p>Allowing households the chance to connect when they choose without taking on any work themselves could deliver a much faster uptake of low-carbon heating. For instance, 8.5 million homes could enjoy heating supplied by energy from boreholes by 2050, compared to <a href="https://www.regen.co.uk/publications/rethinking-heat/">2.1 million in current projections</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram comparing heat pumps, shared ground heat exchange and district heating networks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=259&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=259&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=259&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455272/original/file-20220330-5634-anhkzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shared ground heat exchange works best at the intermediate level between detached houses and inner-city neighbourhoods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Leeds</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s the catch?</h2>
<p>There are issues which need to be worked out for shared ground heat exchange to take off on a significant scale, but none of these are insurmountable. </p>
<p>There are currently only a few companies installing shared ground heat exchange in the UK, and installation costs remain high. This should change once new providers start to recognise the advantages this technology offers for decarbonising lots of home heating systems quickly. </p>
<p>If a company is to invest in drilling the boreholes and installing the pipework, they (and, importantly, their investors) will need to know that money will be repaid over time. This may mean it’s best for whole streets to join at the same time, requiring coordination, possibly by local authorities. </p>
<p>Shared ground heat exchange also suffers from a lack of awareness among national and local policymakers. <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/policy-leeds/doc/shared-ground-heat-exchange-decarbonisation-heat">Recent work</a> from the Leeds and Leeds Beckett universities is aimed at addressing this gap.</p>
<p>Heat pumps and district heat networks are great in the right settings. As a combination of the two, and with the right support, shared ground heat exchange could help more households decarbonise their heating and hot water and stop relying on the imported gas which is inflating their bills.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Barns receives funding from the Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council and Research England. </span></em></p>Shared ground heat exchanges could provide low-carbon heating for up to 80% of homes in the UK, research suggests.David Barns, Research Assistant in Shared Ground Heat Exchange Policy, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.