tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/illegal-trade-37850/articlesillegal trade – The Conversation2023-09-08T00:25:14Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2126472023-09-08T00:25:14Z2023-09-08T00:25:14ZExposing Australia’s online trade in pest plants – we’ve found thousands of illegal advertisements<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546310/original/file-20230905-25-ejpcy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=107%2C83%2C7832%2C5214&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/new-plants-delivery-woman-opening-shipping-1836099568">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you buy plants online? You might be breaking the law without even knowing it.</p>
<p>We found hundreds of different invasive plants and prohibited weeds advertised on a popular online marketplace. </p>
<p>For the first time, <a href="https://neobiota.pensoft.net/article/104472/">our research</a> has exposed the frequent, high volume trade in pest plants across Australia. </p>
<p>State and territory governments are adopting our automated surveillance approach to help regulate the online trade in plants and <a href="https://theconversation.com/buying-bugs-and-beetles-or-shopping-for-scorpions-and-snails-australias-pet-trade-includes-hundreds-of-spineless-species-207932">other wildlife</a>. Biosecurity officers can receive automatic alerts for suspected illegal trade, rather than manually monitoring websites or relying on reports from the public. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo of someone shopping for plants online, showing hands on the laptop keyboard and plants on screen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547090/original/file-20230907-23-fsbn22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Australians love online shopping and that passion extends to plants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hands-searching-plants-buy-online-shop-746765218">Rawpixel.com, Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-true-damage-of-invasive-alien-species-was-just-revealed-in-a-landmark-report-heres-how-we-must-act-211893">The true damage of invasive alien species was just revealed in a landmark report. Here's how we must act</a>
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<h2>What’s the problem and why all the fuss?</h2>
<p>Certain plants are prohibited in Australia because they are harmful to our unique natural environment and agricultural industries. These weeds can threaten native species, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/mar/29/environmental-tragedy-as-fires-burn-through-one-fifth-of-northern-territory-national-park">fuel severe fires</a> and choke rivers. </p>
<p>Weeds are also a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-buffel-kerfuffle-how-one-species-quietly-destroys-native-wildlife-and-cultural-sites-in-arid-australia-149456">social and cultural threat for First Nations people</a>, because they can compete with traditional food and medicine plants, causing them to decline.</p>
<p>Overall, invasive plants are estimated to have <a href="https://theconversation.com/pest-plants-and-animals-cost-australia-around-25-billion-a-year-and-it-will-get-worse-164969">cost Australia A$200 billion since 1960</a>. </p>
<p>Weeds that are controlled under state and territory laws are referred to as “noxious” or declared plants. Each state and territory has different laws prohibiting the sale and cultivation of these declared plants. </p>
<p>Compliance is generally high within the horticultural industry, save for the occasional <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-22/bunnings-caught-selling-declared-weed-sagittaria-to-customers/7869226">high profile blunder</a>. The main problem for Australia is the widespread invasive plant trade on public online marketplaces.</p>
<p>Trade of ornamental plants, which are the kinds popularly grown in homes and gardens, is the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12953">major current pathway</a> enabling invasion and spread of weeds into new areas. They’re travelling long distances, to homes in new places. </p>
<p>Invasive cacti and ornamental pond plants are among the most frequently advertised plants, but many are banned from sale and distribution in Australia. </p>
<p>Internet trade has historically been tricky to monitor and regulate, which has led to a variety of invasive species being <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-expose-of-australias-exotic-pet-trade-shows-an-alarming-proliferation-of-alien-threatened-and-illegal-species-203354">widely traded</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo showing the invasive nature of water hyacinth, with purple flowers in a field of green." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547091/original/file-20230907-23-xlg0k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Water hyacinth is considered the world’s worst water weed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/flowers-water-hyacinth-purple-lined-according-583320415">KEEP GOING, Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-expose-of-australias-exotic-pet-trade-shows-an-alarming-proliferation-of-alien-threatened-and-illegal-species-203354">New exposé of Australia's exotic pet trade shows an alarming proliferation of alien, threatened and illegal species</a>
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<h2>Scraping the web</h2>
<p>We used specialised software called “web scrapers” to monitor trade on a public classifieds website. These automated web tools can be used to rapidly harvest information from advertisements. This allowed us to detect thousands of advertisements for weeds over a 12-month period.</p>
<p>We found 155 declared plant species traded on one website, and we suspect there could be more. </p>
<p>Prickly pear cacti were among the most frequently traded declared plants. This is concerning given their history in Australia. In the 1920s, about 25 million hectares of land became unusable due to prickly pear invasion. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo of a farmer standing in a field of prickly pear, it's more than double his height." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=805&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=805&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=805&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1012&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1012&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546312/original/file-20230905-27-quus11.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1012&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The invasion of prickly pear was so dense in areas of Queensland and New South Wales that farming became impossible.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.archivessearch.qld.gov.au/items/ITM1143347">Queensland Government</a></span>
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<p>Aquatic weeds were another popular group. That includes water hyacinth, which is the world’s most widespread invasive alien species according to a recently published <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-true-damage-of-invasive-alien-species-was-just-revealed-in-a-landmark-report-heres-how-we-must-act-211893">global assessment</a>. </p>
<p>We found some sellers advertised uses for the declared plants they were trading, including for food and medicinal properties. </p>
<p>Aquatic weeds were often stated to have water-filtering properties and provide habitat for fish. Those traits make Amazon frogbit a popular choice for aquariums and ponds, but if the weed enters creeks and rivers it can have <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-11-25/amazon-frogbit-statewide-declaration/100648506">devastating consequences</a>.</p>
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<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/buying-bugs-and-beetles-or-shopping-for-scorpions-and-snails-australias-pet-trade-includes-hundreds-of-spineless-species-207932">Buying bugs and beetles, or shopping for scorpions and snails? Australia's pet trade includes hundreds of spineless species</a>
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<h2>Everyone can do their bit</h2>
<p>Better surveillance is not the only solution. Public awareness is key to reducing invasive plant trade. We can all make informed decisions about the plants we buy.</p>
<p>A significant hurdle is a phenomenon called “<a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ppp3.51">plant blindness</a>”. People tend to find plants harder to recognise than animals. We found many weeds sold using generic names such as lily, cactus or pond plant. Some people may not even know the true identity of a plant they are selling, let alone that it is a weed and illegal to trade.</p>
<p>Another complication is the fact that laws differ between states. Plants that might be legal for an interstate trader, might still be illegal for you to buy. This is why caution should be taken when sending or receiving plants by post. Always check your local regulations before buying or selling a plant online. You can find out what is declared on your state or territory’s biosecurity website or on <a href="https://weeds.org.au/">Weeds Australia</a>. </p>
<p>Online marketplaces must also cooperate with local policies. These platforms should be enforced to self-regulate trade and include measures to prevent illegal advertisements from being posted in the first place. Failure to act may result in significant penalties from governments. Last year the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ade0843#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CFacebook%20fined%20U%242%20million,animals%2Din%2Dbrazil%2F.">Brazilian government fined Meta</a> for failing to remove illegal wildlife trade from Facebook and WhatsApp. </p>
<p>For now, monitoring tools such as the web scrapers we have developed will help to prevent some weeds escaping backyards and into bushland. As plant lovers, it’s important to be mindful of the plants we choose to buy and keep. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lickable-toads-and-magic-mushrooms-wildlife-traded-on-the-dark-web-is-the-kind-that-gets-you-high-201180">Lickable toads and magic mushrooms: wildlife traded on the dark web is the kind that gets you high</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212647/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacob Maher receives funding from the Centre for Invasive Species Solutions. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Phill Cassey receives funding from the Centre for Invasive Species Solutions and the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Australians are trading pest plants online, potentially breaking the law without even realising it.Jacob Maher, PhD Candidate, University of AdelaidePhill Cassey, Australian Research Council Industry Laureate Fellow, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1386212020-06-04T04:20:30Z2020-06-04T04:20:30ZBack from extinction: a world first effort to return threatened pangolins to the wild<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335527/original/file-20200517-138629-1y8hfvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C449%2C3049%2C1746&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex Braczkowski</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pangolins are <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/what-is-a-pangolin">one of the most</a> illegally trafficked animals on the planet and are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/30/global-report-new-clues-about-how-coronavirus-formed-as-us-severs-ties-with-who">suspected to be linked</a> to the current coronavirus pandemic.</p>
<p>Pangolins are also one of the world’s most <a href="https://www.pangolins.org/tag/endangered-species/">threatened species</a> but new efforts are underway to reintroduce pangolins to parts of Africa where the animal has been extinct for decades.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-australian-birds-can-teach-us-about-choosing-a-partner-and-making-it-last-125734">What Australian birds can teach us about choosing a partner and making it last</a>
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<p>The reintroduction of pangolins has not been easy. But it’s vital to prevent this shy, mysterious creature from being lost forever.</p>
<h2>A cute but threatened species</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/what-is-a-pangolin">Pangolins</a> are the only mammals wholly-covered in scales, which they use to protect themselves from predators. They can also curl up into a tight ball.</p>
<p>They eat mainly ants, termites and larvae which they pick up with their sticky tongue. They can grow up to 1m in length from nose to tail and are sometimes referred to as scaly anteaters.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128155073000332" title="Chapter 33 - Conservation strategies and priority actions for pangolins">all eight</a> pangolin species are classified as “<a href="https://www.pangolins.org/tag/endangered-species/">threatened</a>” under International Union for Conservation of Nature <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=pangolin&searchType=species">criteria</a>. </p>
<p>There is an unprecedented demand for their scales, primarily from countries in Asia and <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12389" title="Assessing Africa‐Wide Pangolin Exploitation by Scaling Local Data">Africa</a> where they are used in food, cultural remedies and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/141072b0" title="Chinese Medicine and the Pangolin">medicine</a>. </p>
<p>Between 2017 and 2019, seizures of pangolin scales <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/02/pangolin-scale-trade-shipments-growing/">tripled in volume</a>. In 2019 alone, 97 tons of pangolin scales, equivalent to about 150,000 animals, were <a href="https://oxpeckers.org/2020/03/nigeria-steps-up-for-pangolins/">reportedly</a> intercepted leaving Africa.</p>
<p>There is further evidence of the illegal trade in pangolin species openly on <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/coronavirus-pangolins-outbreak-endangered-species-wildlife-trafficking-a9504776.html">social media platforms</a> such as Facebook.</p>
<p>The intense global trafficking of the species means the entire order (<em>Pholidota</em>) is threatened with <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12389" title="Assessing Africa‐Wide Pangolin Exploitation by Scaling Local Data">extinction</a>. For example, the Temminck’s pangolins (<em>Smutsia temminckii</em>) went extinct in South Africa’s KwaZulu Natal Province three decades ago.</p>
<h2>Reintroduction of an extinct species</h2>
<p>Each year in South Africa the African Pangolin Working Group (<a href="https://africanpangolin.org/">APWG</a>) retrieves between 20 and 40 pangolins through intelligence operations with security forces.</p>
<p>These pangolins are often-traumatised and injured and are admitted to the <a href="http://www.johannesburgwildlifevet.com/our-hospital">Johannesburg Wildlife Veterinary Hospital</a> for extensive medical treatment and rehabilitation before they can be considered for release.</p>
<p>In 2019, seven rescued Temminck’s pangolins were reintroduced into South Africa’s <a href="https://www.andbeyond.com/destinations/africa/south-africa/kwazulu-natal/phinda-private-game-reserve/">Phinda Private Game Reserve</a>in the KwaZulu Natal Province.</p>
<p>Nine months on, five have survived. This reintroduction is a world first for a region that last saw a viable population of this species in the 1980s.</p>
<p>During the release, every individual pangolin followed a strict regime. They needed to become familiar with their new surroundings and be able to forage efficiently.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335954/original/file-20200519-83384-16p7a3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Pangolins curl up into a tight ball of scales.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex Braczkowski</span></span>
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<p>Previous releases, including early on in South Africa and in other countries such as the <a href="https://pcsd.gov.ph/igov/2020/01/30/twenty-philippine-pangolins-released-back-into-the-wild/">Philippines</a>, the <a href="https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/13877/Its-UN-World-Wildlife-Day-Today-March-3-Rare-Giant-Pangolin-Seized-from-Poachers-Rescued-and-Released-by-WCS-and-Partners-in-Congo.aspx">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="https://www.discoverwildlife.com/news/rescued-pangolin-released-back-into-the-wild/">Thailand</a> had minimal post-release monitoring.</p>
<p>Pangolins released immediately following medical treatment had a low level of survival for various reasons, including inability to adapt to their release sites. </p>
<h2>A ‘soft release’ in to the wild</h2>
<p>The process on Phinda game reserve involved a more gentle ease into re-wilding a population in a region that had not seen pangolins for many decades. </p>
<p>The soft release had two phases:</p>
<ol>
<li>a pre-release observational period</li>
<li>an intensive monitoring period post release employing GPS satellite as well as VHF tracking tags. </li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335533/original/file-20200517-138610-1w0ip8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A satellite tag is fitted to each pangolin before release and transmits its location on an hourly basis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex Braczkowski</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The pre-release period lasted between two to three weeks and were characterised by daily walks (three to five hours) of individuals on the reserves. These walks were critical for acclimatising individuals to the local habitat, its sounds, smells and possible threats. It also helped them source suitable and sufficient ant and termite species for food.</p>
<p>Following that, the post release period of two to three months involved locating released pangolins daily at first, and then twice per week where they were weighed, a rapid health assessment was made and habitat features such as burrows and refuges monitored. </p>
<p>Phinda reserve manager Simon Naylor said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>A key component of the post release period was whether individuals gained or maintained their weight.</p>
<p>The way the animals move after release also reveals important clues to whether they will stay in an area; if they feed, roll in dung, enter burrows. Much of this behaviour indicates site fidelity and habitat acceptance.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-aussie-bats-wont-give-you-covid-19-we-rely-on-them-more-than-you-think-137168">No, Aussie bats won’t give you COVID-19. We rely on them more than you think</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Following nine months of monitoring and tracking, five of the seven survived in the region. One died of illness while the other was killed by a Nile crocodile. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335534/original/file-20200517-138665-ll321d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Released pangolins are located at burrows like this one.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex Braczkowski</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why pangolin reintroduction is important</h2>
<p>We know so little about this group of mammals that are vastly understudied and hold many secrets yet to be discovered by science but are on the verge of collapse.</p>
<p>The South African and Phinda story is one of hope for the Temminck’s pangolin where they once again roam the savanna hills and plains of Zululand.</p>
<p>The process of relocating these trade animals back into the wild has taken many turns, failures and tribulations but, the recipe of the “soft release” is working.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duan Biggs receives funding from Australian Research Council, Luc Hoffmann Institute.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raymond Jansen is affiliated with the African Pangolin Working Group as founder and chairman of this non-profit organisation. Furthermore, I was responsible for retrieving these pangolins out of the illegal wildlife trade. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Richard Braczkowski and Christopher J. O'Bryan do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pangolins are illegally traded, linked to the coronavirus pandemic and driven to extinction in some areas. That’s why it’s vital to reintroduce this threatened species back into the wild.Alexander Richard Braczkowski, Research Associate, Griffith UniversityChristopher J. O'Bryan, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of QueenslandDuan Biggs, Senior Research Fellow Social-Ecological Systems & Resilience, Griffith UniversityRaymond Jansen, Professor: Zoology & Ecology, Tshwane University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1376082020-05-04T19:50:43Z2020-05-04T19:50:43ZThe darknet – a wild west for fake coronavirus ‘cures’? The reality is more complicated (and regulated)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332232/original/file-20200504-83730-e9qxp9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4345%2C2721&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The coronavirus pandemic has spawned <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/fake-coronavirus-vaccines-and-repurposed-drugs-are-being-sold-on-the-dark-web">reports</a> of unregulated health products and fake cures being sold on the dark web. These include <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/20200427-french-police-seize-14-000-face-masks-bound-for-black-market">black market PPE</a>, illicit medications such as the widely touted “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/06/hydroxychloroquine-trump-coronavirus-drug">miracle</a>” drug <a href="https://decrypt.co/24802/dark-web-vendors-are-selling-face-masks-for-bitcoin">chloroquine</a>, and fake COVID-19 “cures” including blood supposedly from <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-30/blood-recovered-coronavirus-patients-dark-web-passive-vaccine/12199324">recovered coronavirus patients</a>.</p>
<p>These dealings have once again focused public attention on this little-understood section of the internet. Nearly a decade since it started being used on a significant scale, the dark web continues to be a <a href="https://theconversation.com/dark-web-not-dark-alley-why-drug-sellers-see-the-internet-as-a-lucrative-safe-haven-132579">lucrative safe haven</a> for traders in a range of illegal goods and services, especially illicit drugs. </p>
<p>Black market trading on the dark web is carried out primarily through darknet marketplaces or <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1748895813505234?casa_token=yBIwwCagNiMAAAAA:9OWxEytBtLbudsRKv0nmTr6qLFmiEwBiqUfpvrgotiGrcN03RBb_V_mmSr_LLACrs_QDDvmufa2gMBo">cryptomarkets</a>. These are anonymised trading platforms that directly connect buyers and sellers of a range of illegal goods and services – similar to legitimate trading websites such as eBay. </p>
<p>So how do darknet marketplaces work? And how much illegal trading of COVID-19-related products is happening via these online spaces? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dark-web-not-dark-alley-why-drug-sellers-see-the-internet-as-a-lucrative-safe-haven-132579">Dark web, not dark alley: why drug sellers see the internet as a lucrative safe haven</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Not a free-for-all</h2>
<p>There are currently more than a <a href="https://darknetlive.com/markets/">dozen darknet marketplaces in operation</a>. Protected by powerful encryption technology, authorities around the world have largely <a href="https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10611-016-9644-4&casa_token=HsGOAAiu-GMAAAAA:1GFH2-Imgd-Br1tEBfyenyQhTmxBSQcKf7TGHGrUaoRPp6GYU6TqL6gp8HjHG6W2iyflofpcLMWKBJnI08s">failed to contain their growth</a>. A steadily increasing proportion of illicit drug users around the world report sourcing their drugs online. In Australia, we have one of the world’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-01/australian-concentration-of-dark-net-drug-dealers/9824954">highest concentrations</a> of darknet drug vendors per capita.</p>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, cryptomarkets are not the “lawless spaces” they’re often presented as in the news. Market prohibitions exist on all mainstream cryptomarkets. Universally prohibited goods and services include: hitman services, trafficked human organs and snuff movies. </p>
<p>Although cryptomarkets lie outside the realm of state regulation, each one is set up and maintained by a central administrator who, along with employees or associates, is responsible for the market’s security, dispute resolution between buyers and sellers, and the charging of commissions on transactions. </p>
<p>Administrators are also ultimately responsible for determining what can and can’t be sold on their cryptomarket. These <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/doi/10.1108/9781838670306">decisions are likely informed by</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li>the attitudes of the surrounding community comprising buyers and sellers</li>
<li>the extent of consumer demand and supply for certain products</li>
<li>the revenues a site makes from commissions charged on transactions</li>
<li>and the perceived “heat” that may be attracted from law enforcement in the trading of particularly dangerous illegal goods and services. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/illuminating-the-dark-web-105542">Illuminating the 'dark web'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Experts delve into the dark web</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/sb/sb24">report</a> from the Australian National University published last week looks at several hundred coronavirus-related products for sale across a dozen cryptomarkets, including supposed vaccines and antidotes. </p>
<p>While the study confirms some unscrupulous dark web traders are indeed exploiting the pandemic and seeking to defraud naïve customers, this information should be contextualised with a couple of important caveats.</p>
<p>Firstly, the number of dodgy covid-related products for sale on the dark web is relatively small. According to this research, they account for about 0.2% of all listed items. The overwhelming majority of products were those we are already familiar with – particularly illicit drugs such as cannabis and MDMA. </p>
<p>Also, while the study focused on products listed for sale, these are most likely listings for products that either do no exist or are listed with the specific intention to defraud a customer.</p>
<p>Thus, the actual sale of fake coronavirus “cures” on the dark web is likely minimal, at best. </p>
<h2>A self-regulating entity</h2>
<p>By far the most commonly traded products on cryptomarkets are illicit drugs. Smaller sub-markets exist for other products such as stolen credit card information and fraudulent identity documents. </p>
<p>This isn’t to say extraordinarily dangerous and disturbing content, such as child exploitation material, can’t be found on the dark web. Rather, the sites that trade in such “products” are segregated from mainstream cryptomarkets, in much the same way convicted paedophiles are <a href="https://www.judcom.nsw.gov.au/sentencing-trends-21/">segregated from mainstream prison populations</a>.</p>
<p>Since the outbreak of the coronavirus, dark web journalist and author <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/australia-books-blog/2018/mar/22/the-darkest-web-exploring-the-ugly-world-of-illegal-online-marketplaces">Eileen Ormsby</a> reported some cryptomarkets have quickly imposed bans on vendors seeking to profit from the pandemic. For instance, the following was tweeted by one cryptomarket administrator:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Any vendor caught flogging goods as a “cure” to coronavirus will not only be permanently removed from this market but should be avoided like the Spanish Flu. You are about to ingest drugs from a stranger on the internet –- under no circumstances should you trust any vendor that is using COVID-19 as a marketing tool to peddle tangible/already questionable goods. I highly doubt many of you would fall for that shit to begin with but you know, dishonest practice is never a good sign and a sure sign to stay away.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>So it seems, despite the activities of a few dodgy operators, the vast majority of dark web traders are steering clear of exploiting the pandemic for their own profit. Instead, they are sticking to trading in products they can genuinely supply, such as illicit drugs. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-dark-web-and-how-does-it-work-63613">What is the dark web and how does it work?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137608/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Martin receives funding from the Australian Institute of Criminology and the National Health and Medical Research Council. </span></em></p>These online spaces are more regulated than many media reports would have you believe. And the vast majority of dark web traders are steering clear of exploiting the pandemic.James Martin, Associate Professor in Criminology, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/841352017-09-19T17:56:58Z2017-09-19T17:56:58ZThe trade in body parts of people with albinism is driven by myth and international inaction<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/186199/original/file-20170915-8108-1sthgq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Witchcraft related beliefs pose serious human rights violations for people with Albinism.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>In the last decade, close to 200 killings and more than 500 attacks on people with albinism have been reported in 27 <a href="http://www.underthesamesun.com/content/issue#human-rights-abuse-and-attacks">sub-Saharan African countries</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.underthesamesun.com/content/issue#superstition-and-witchcraft">Tanzania</a> has the highest number of recorded attacks globally at more than 170. There have also been reports of attacks in the Democratic Republic of Congo, <a href="https://www.amnesty.org.uk/ritual-murders-people-albinism-malawi">Malawi</a>, <a href="http://clubofmozambique.com/news/people-albinism-need-urgent-attention-mozambique-un-expert-tells-geneva-human-rights-council/">Mozambique</a> and <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/albino-child-killed-and-dismembered-in-burundi-a6885786.html">Burundi</a>.</p>
<p>Most of these attacks are fuelled by rising <a href="https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=56280#.Wbuhr8gjHIV">demand</a> for the body parts of people with albinism used in rituals by traditional healers, known as <em>muti killing</em> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/16/tanzania-humanrights">black magic, <em>juju</em></a>. </p>
<p>The hair and bones, genitals and thumbs of people with albinism are said to possess <a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Albinism/Pages/Witchcraft.aspx">distinct powers</a>. Alleged to bring wealth or success, they are often dried and ground, put into a package to be carried, to be secreted in boats, businesses, homes or clothing, or scattered in the sea.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/religion/illegal-trade-in-body-parts-threatens-africans-with-albinism/2016/02/11/f02e15f8-d0d9-11e5-90d3-34c2c42653ac_story.html?utm_term=.1561bbdae400">illegal trade</a> for body parts operates at regional, national and international levels.</p>
<p>In Tanzania the government is working with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/may/13/albinism-in-tanzania-slow-progress-in-combatting-violence-and-discrimination">non governmental organisations</a> and civil society which has resulted in more thorough investigations, new laws, and some convictions. </p>
<p>But countries such as Mozambique and Malawi need to act more diligently to discourage the illegal trade. While President Peter Mutharika of Malawi has <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36418596">condemned the attacks</a> on people with albinism, the general response beyond these words has been slow.</p>
<h2>Deep-rooted cultural myths</h2>
<p>Arrests and prosecution are complex because the illegal cross border trade is highly secretive and controlled by wealthy and influential buyers.</p>
<p>The champions against this illegal trade face a number of challenges, including <a href="https://www.academia.edu/271411/The_Myths_Surrounding_People_With_Albinism_In_South_Africa_and_Zimbabwe">complex and deep-rooted cultural myths</a>. For example, in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230852434_The_myths_surrounding_people_with_albinism_in_South_Africa_and_Zimbabwe">northern South Africa</a>, a mother was told the cause of her child’s albinism was a previous encounter with a child with albinism.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The mother attended a party while pregnant and saw a mother with a baby precariously strapped to her back in a blanket. Fearing the baby was about to fall she went forward to help tighten the blanket. She then saw to her fright that the baby had albinism. She believed that, as a direct result of this encounter, she had given birth to a child affected with the same condition.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The illegal traders who “harvest” the body parts usually come from poor families and they lure strangers or their own family members for the promise of about <a href="http://www.underthesamesun.com/content/issue#human-rights-abuse-and-attacks">USD$75,000</a> for a whole set of body parts. Even the <a href="https://theconversation.com/grave-robbers-and-killing-sprees-living-with-albinism-in-east-africa-32300">graves</a> of people with albinism have to be sealed with concrete to stop grave robbers.</p>
<p>Activists have reported an increase in fear among people with albinism because it is believed that demand for body parts increases <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2015-05-14-albinos-in-tanzania-fear-death-as-polls-near">closer to general elections.</a>. The wealthy and educated elite running for office consult traditional healers for good luck potions.</p>
<h2>Global action</h2>
<p>Despite the seriousness of these human rights abuses, governments across East and Southern Africa have been criticised for insufficient action to prevent and to prosecute. </p>
<p>The trade in the body parts of people with albinism will be one of the key issues in focus at an upcoming United Nations <a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Albinism/Pages/Witchcraft.aspx">expert meeting on witchcraft and human rights</a> at its headquarters in Geneva.</p>
<p>The meeting will challenge the various actors including governments, academics and civil society to increase awareness and understanding to discourage the illegal trade.</p>
<p>The director of the <a href="http://www.whrin.org/">Witchcraft and Human Rights Information Network</a>, Gary Foxcroft, has made a global call: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>This is the first time the UN has properly recognised the scale of the problem and the need to bring together experts from across the world to identify all the challenges and solutions. Our goal is a UN Special Resolution for the UN Human Rights Council to recognise the scale of the problem, provide a clearly articulated outline of the problem and recommendations. We want people to feel inspired and to go back to their countries and know that they are not alone. This is a major step forward.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The UN Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism, Ikponwosa Ero, has called for <a href="http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=ID56280#Wb1ygoWcG1s">more effective oversight</a> over the practice of traditional healers, pointing to the secrecy that often surrounds witchcraft rituals. </p>
<p>The trafficking of body parts from people with albinism must urgently be addressed, clear national policies are needed, and communities must be effectively educated about albinism to demystify this genetic condition.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84135/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Baker receives funding from The Wellcome Trust and Lancaster University.</span></em></p>An upcoming UN meeting on witchcraft and human rights in Geneva is set to focus on the rising attacks on Albinos and the trade of body parts in sub-Saharan African.Charlotte Baker, Senior Lecturer in French and Francophone Studies, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/762652017-04-21T06:45:57Z2017-04-21T06:45:57ZWhy is the illicit rhino horn trade escalating?<p>In South Africa, domestic trade of rhinoceros horn, forbidden since 2008, is about to become legal again. On April 7 2017, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/05/world/africa/south-africa-rhinoceros-horns-rhinos.html">a court effectively overturned the national ban</a>. </p>
<p>This controversial move was welcomed by commercial rhino breeders, who argue that legalising safe, sustainable horn removal from living animals could prevent wild rhino poaching. But animal preservation groups have <a href="http://www.animals24-7.org/2017/04/08/rhinos-worldwide-put-at-risk-in-south-african-crap-game/">warned</a> that any legal trade would have the opposite effect. </p>
<p>Poaching has indeed reached new heights this year. <a href="http://www.francetvinfo.fr/animaux/especes-menacees/rhinoceros-abattu-au-zoo-de-thoiry-la-france-nouveau-terrain-de-chasse-des-braconniers_2086919.html">On March 7</a>, a rhinoceros was killed in the Thoiry zoo, near Paris, and its main horn was sawed off and stolen. This is the first time a living rhinoceros in a European zoo has been killed for its horn. </p>
<p>That same week, in South Africa, 13 rhinos <a href="http://www.sapeople.com/2017/03/09/alarming-reports-eight-rhino-poached-past-24-hours-south-africa">were found dead</a> in a single day, decimated by poachers. </p>
<p>Only 62 rhinos were poached across Africa in 2006. The following year this figure shot up to 262 animals, then <a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/17/WorkingDocs/E-CoP17-68-A5.pdf">1,090 by 2013</a>, 90% of which were killed in South Africa. </p>
<h2>A sharp fall in population</h2>
<p>According to 2015 surveys, there are <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/iucn-reports-deepening-rhino-poaching-crisis-africa">less than 30,000 rhinoceros</a> left on the planet. </p>
<p>Rhinoceros are divided into <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/rhino">five separate species</a>. Africa (mainly South Africa, Namibia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe) is home to white rhino (around 20,400 specimens, 18,500 of which are in South Africa) and the black rhino (5,200 specimens, 1,900 of which are in South Africa). As their names indicate, the Indian rhino (3,500 specimens living in India and Nepal), the Sumatran rhino (250 animals) and the Javan rhino (only 50 animals) are found in Asia. </p>
<p>Depending on its age and species, an adult rhinoceros can have up to a few kilograms worth of horn, the white rhino <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/rhinoceros/african_rhinos/white_rhinoceros/">being the best endowed</a> (up to 6kgs). Indian and Javan rhinos have only one horn, while the other three species have two.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164857/original/image-20170411-26720-1as7vud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rhinos poached by African country in 2006-2014.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/17/WorkingDocs/E-CoP17-68-A5.pdf">R. Emslie et al</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2015, a total of 1,342 white and black rhinos were poached across the continent. Over the last few years, as many (or more) rhinoceros <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?293410/South%5FAfrica%5Frhino%5Fpoaching%5Ffigures%5F2016">have been killed</a> in South Africa than are naturally born in Kruger National Park and on private farms put together. </p>
<h2>Bogus medicinal properties</h2>
<p>Rhino horn, highly valued in China and Vietnam, is used in traditional Asian medicine to treat fevers and cardiovascular disease. More recently, <a href="https://qz.com/82302/theres-a-country-that-will-pay-300000-per-rhino-horn-to-cure-cancer-and-hangovers-and-its-wiping-out-rhinos/">it has been prescribed</a> as a cancer treatment and an aphrodisiac.</p>
<p>While there is <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0262407914608289">no scientific evidence</a> for such medicinal properties, these unfounded beliefs are feeding soaring Asian demand for powdered rhino horn. Prices are skyrocketing: <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-03-vietnam-seizes-kgs-rhino-horn.html">up to US$60,000 a kilo</a>, which is more expensive than gold.</p>
<p>In truth, rhino horn is simply a <a href="https://www.ohio.edu/research/communications/rhino_horn.cfm">formation of keratin</a>, a protein found in human nails and animal claws, with a few amino acids and minerals, phosphorus and calcium.</p>
<h2>Controlling a lucrative criminal market</h2>
<p>Criminal trade in wild animals constitutes one of the world’s largest illegal markets, <a href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Studies/Illicit_financial_flows_2011_web.pdf">according to the UN</a>, along with drugs, counterfeit products and human trafficking. Each year, it affects tens of millions of specimens of animals and plants. </p>
<p>In 2014, this trade was estimated at between <a href="https://cites.org/eng/international_dimension_of_illegal_wildlife_trade">US$10 billion and US$20 billion</a>.</p>
<p>Today, there is <a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2014/May/wildlife-crime-worth-8-10-billion-annually.html">clear evidence</a> that <a href="http://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Global-Initiative-Tipping-Point-Part1-July-2016.pdf">organised crime groups</a> have taken over this illicit market. It is among the most highly developed criminal activities confronting <a href="https://cites.org/eng/disc/text.php">the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora</a> (CITES), a 1977 international agreement signed by 182 countries. </p>
<p>With support from Interpol, Europol, the World Customs Organisation and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), CITES applies the ban on rhinoceros-horn trading. Using a system of permits and certificates delivered under special conditions, CITES regulates the market for <a href="http://checklist.cites.org/#/en">rhinos and about 35,000 other wild species</a>, categorised into <a href="https://cites.org/eng/app/index.php">three groups</a> according to the level of protection required. </p>
<p>The white rhino, which is not necessarily threatened with extinction, is an appendix species II for South Africa and Swaziland, meaning the trade there must be controlled in order not to jeopardise the animal’s survival. For all other African range states, the white rhino is listed on appendix I: all trade of this endangered species is forbidden, except for non-commercial purposes such as scientific research. </p>
<p>Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has sought assistance in controlling their trade.</p>
<p>Prior to the 2000s, and up until 2007, pressure on consumer countries (Yemen, Korea, Taiwan and China) to stop the rhino trade helped reduce poaching activity, leading to an increase in the African rhino population. </p>
<p>But demand for rhino horn <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150922-rhino-horn-south-africa-conservation-trade-poaching/%22%22">surged in the mid-2000s</a>, chiefly in Vietnam, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/nov/25/cure-cancer-rhino-horn-vietnam">because of rumours</a> that a government official suffering from cancer went into remission after its use.</p>
<p>Likewise, there is still demand in China and Hong Kong <a href="http://www.traffic.org/home/2013/9/17/pioneering-research-reveals-new-insights-into-the-consumers.html">for wealth-signaling objects</a> made of rhino horn, such as libation cups and jewellery. </p>
<p>Where, then, do all these horns come from? According to <a href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/wildlife/World_Wildlife_Crime_Report_2016_final.pdf">UNODC</a>, today the major shipments of rhino horn originate primarily in South Africa, followed by Mozambique (where rhinos are gone, but poachers have dipped into stocks at South Africa’s Kruger National Park), Zimbabwe and Kenya.</p>
<p>Both the United Arab Emirates and Europe have served <a href="https://visionscarto.net/routes-of-rhino-horn">as trading routes</a>. In 2011, the Czech government <a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/com/sc/66/E-SC66-51-01-A6.pdf">discovered that some of its citizens</a> were selling trophies they had hunted in South Africa to Vietnamese traders. Some 90 rhino horns were also stolen from museums and auction houses across Europe between January 2011 and June 2012 by the Irish <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_se/article/rathkeale-rovers-irish-traveller-gang-rhino-horn-chinese-artefact-theft">Rathkeale Rovers</a>, a gang since dismantled by Europol. </p>
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<h2>The import of trophies</h2>
<p>Though the international rhino horn trade has been forbidden since 1977, CITES recognises some exceptions. It allows, for instance, limited hunting of Appendix II and I species, including, under exceptional circumstances, of endangered white and black rhinoceros</p>
<p>This allowance recognises that well-managed and sustainable hunting is actually consistent with and contributes to conservation efforts. It provides both livelihood opportunities for rural communities and incentives for habitat conservation. And it generates benefits that <a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/document/E-Res-17-09.pdf">can be invested</a> in conservation. </p>
<p>It also demonstrates that effective conservation, management and monitoring plans and programs are in place in a number of African range states, meaning that some populations are recovering enough to sustain limited off-takes as trophies. </p>
<p>Though bringing these rhinoceros-hunting trophies (including horns) hunted in South Africa home as personal property is authorised by CITES, their sale is not. Trophies may then be exported to certain African countries under specific conditions (a non-detriment finding by the exporting country is required beforehand). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164867/original/image-20170411-26712-12sre97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rhino horns are sought after for social status and medicine, and even trophies are hunted down.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/en/skull-black-rhino-skeleton-62976/">Wikilmages/Pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Between 2006 and 2011, 1,344 hunting trophies, including African rhino horns from both species [were legally exported](https://cites.org/sites/default/files/fra/cop/16/prop/F-CoP16-Prop-10.pdf (page 5) as personal property. They mainly came from South Africa, where just under 75 trophy-hunting expeditions were organised prior to 2006, and to a lesser extent, Namibia. Vietnam was the top importing country, ahead of the US, Spain and Russia.</p>
<p>After a sudden upsurge in requests for hunting permits from Vietnam, where it was discovered that rhino horns had been illegally sold, South African <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/27/dirty-war-africas-rhinos">authorities in 2012 put an end to permits</a> for Vietnamese nationals.</p>
<h2>Opening the market?</h2>
<p>As demonstrated in last week’s South African court case <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/05/world/africa/south-africa-rhinoceros-horns-rhinos.html">overturning the ban</a> on the rhino trade, some countries are showing signs of restlessness under the current CITES regime.</p>
<p>Swaziland, for instance, would also like to see change. During the last international meeting of CITES signatory parties in late September 2016, <a href="http://oxpeckers.org/2016/09/3101/">this small country submitted a proposal to allow limited</a> regulated trade in white rhino horn. It has a small population of about 75 white rhinos living protected in parks. </p>
<p>Between 1988 and 1992, an intense period of poaching wiped out 80% of Swaziland’s rhino population. This left it with a large stock of horns that it would like to be able to sell. The proposition was voted down by the majority of CITES countries.</p>
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<p>Now, South Africa’s legal U-turn could open a new avenues for the rhino trade. Most South African farmers believe that the ban only encourages poaching and that they themselves could fulfil Asian demand by providing horns from living animals. </p>
<p>Farmers know how to cut the horn with a saw so that it will grow back, a painless procedure for the animal that is put under anaesthetic for around 15 minutes. Protecting rhinos on ranches costs them millions of dollars as they face raids from poachers.</p>
<p>The current poaching crisis differs from a <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/rhinoceros/african_rhinos/">prior crisis</a> in the 1990s in two ways. First, the illegal rhino horn trade has been taken over by organised crime groups because it is less severely punished than other illegal trades (although this is changing thanks to new legislation introduced in most countries).</p>
<p>Then there’s the skyrocketing traffic to East Asia, which reveals the region’s ever-growing demand of miscellaneous African animal products for traditional Asian medicine, from rhino horns to elephant ivory and, now, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/13/africas-donkey-population-decimated-by-chinese-demand%22">skin of domestic African donkeys</a></p>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>Conservation groups should remain resolute at this critical juncture. </p>
<p>National, regional and sub-regional networks have intensified their fight against this transnational criminal market and are now being coordinated by the <a href="https://www.cites.org/eng/prog/iccwc.php">International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crim</a>, which brings together CITES with various anti-fraud organisations. Thus far, their <a href="https://cites.org/fra/news/pr/Wildlife_enforcement_networks_meet_to_further_strengthen_collaboration_to_combat_industrial_scale_crime_03102016">battle</a> has produced <a href="https://www.interpol.int/fr/Crime-areas/Environmental-crime/Operations">very good results</a>.</p>
<p>It is now up to Asian authorities to raise awareness and discourage the use of rhino horn. China has already taken steps in this direction and, in November 2016, Vietnamese authorities burnt a <a href="https://cites.org/fra/CITES_SG_remarks_destruction_ivory_rhino_horn_vietnam_12112016">stock of rhino horn</a>. </p>
<p>Still, some say it will take a generation to change attitudes. Can the planet’s remaining 30,000 rhinoceros survive until then?</p>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast for Word</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacques Rigoulet does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rhino horn trade continues to be a highly lucrative business across the world.Jacques Rigoulet, Vétérinaire, expert CITES, Muséum national d’histoire naturelle (MNHN)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.