tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/k-12-schools-111865/articlesK-12 schools – The Conversation2024-02-28T12:34:10Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220442024-02-28T12:34:10Z2024-02-28T12:34:10ZHow educator Gloria Jean Merriex used dance, drills and devotion to turn around a failing elementary school in a year<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577609/original/file-20240223-16-smmyyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C1311%2C531&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Movement was an essential part of Gloria Merriex's lessons at Duval Elementary School in Gainesville, Fla.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Boaz Dvir</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Duval Elementary – a school that served mostly Black and poor students in East Gainesville, Florida – failed the state’s <a href="https://www.fldoe.org/accountability/assessments/k-12-student-assessment/archive/fcat/">high-stakes standardized</a> test in 2002, district leaders pressured the school’s educators to more closely follow the curriculum.</p>
<p>But Gloria Jean Merriex, who taught third and fourth grade reading and fifth grade math, wasn’t interested. She argued that doing more of the same would yield more of the same results. She rebelled by creating a customized curriculum and going out of sequence, teaching the hardest units first.</p>
<p>Opting for a more kinetic approach to learning, she introduced music and movement. She revamped math and reading instruction by infusing the lessons with hip-hop, dance and other innovations.</p>
<p>And she got results, leading Duval from an <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2004/03/02/fcat-season-has-arrived/31659297007/">F to an A in 2003</a> and maintaining that academic excellence until she died of a diabetic stroke in 2008. Her students <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2008/05/21/duval-math-teacher-remembered/31566316007/">achieved the greatest gains in math among all of Florida’s fifth graders</a>. </p>
<p>As one who has spent years researching Merriex’s career for “<a href="https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/832309250">Class of Her Own</a>,” a documentary set for national release on April 16, 2024, I believe the example she set could help students from economically poor families make up the <a href="https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/news/23/05/new-data-show-how-pandemic-affected-learning-across-whole-communities">considerable ground they lost</a> during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A movie poster shows a Black woman who is an educator with the words 'Class of her own' in a chalk-type font." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Gloria Jean Merriex is the focus of a documentary titled ‘Class of Her Own,’ which is set to be released in April 2024.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Boaz Dvir</span></span>
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<p>The pandemic cost these students three-fourths of a year in math and more than a third of a year in reading, according to the <a href="https://educationrecoveryscorecard.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/ERS-Report-Final-1.31.pdf">Education Recovery Scoreboard</a>, a collaboration between educational researchers at Harvard and Stanford who are examining learning loss and recovery across the country. These students suffered more than twice the pandemic-induced math skills erosion than students from families of great economic means, the scoreboard shows.</p>
<p>Merriex’s students <a href="https://www.tmea.org/wp-content/uploads/Advocacy/CollegeBoardVoices_in_the_arts.pdf">consistently outscored their peers</a> until her <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2008/05/23/duval-teacher-gloria-merriex-dies-at-58/31566470007/">death at the age of 58</a>.</p>
<p>Based on what I learned of her approach in the classroom, here are some of the most important takeaways from Merriex’s life and career:</p>
<h2>1. Meet your students where they are, from where you are</h2>
<p>Merriex breathed new life into this somewhat vague cliché by being uncompromisingly authentic. She wasn’t always that way. For much of her time at Duval, she followed the cookie-cutter curricula. But when Duval failed the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test, she felt she’d been letting down her students all those years. </p>
<p>Merriex started incorporating community and cultural concepts into her curriculum. </p>
<p>A church choir member, she also began keeping her students on task by snapping her fingers, lighting a fire under them by turning static class exercises into dance routines and engaging them in call-and-response. In one exchange depicted in the documentary, Merriex calls out “one-fourths equal,” “two-fourths equal,” and her class responds in unison “25%,” “50%” and so on until they reach 100%. </p>
<p>In another, after giving an incorrect answer, one of her fifth graders says: “I made a mistake.” Merriex calls out, “It’s OK. Why?” Her students respond, “Not too many.”</p>
<p>It was out of this authentic stance that Merriex wrote the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lB7B_7JdHUI&t=10s">“Math Rap” and other hip-hop-fueled educational songs</a>. Her teaching style exemplifies research that has found Black students learn best through “<a href="https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1352&context=luc_diss">culturally relevant curriculum</a>” and by having classroom activities connected to “prior knowledge and … real life.”</p>
<p>Personally, <a href="https://www.centredaily.com/news/local/education/penn-state/article169726862.html">Merriex preferred other musical genres</a>, but she knew rap would resonate with her students. </p>
<h2>2. Make repetition a habit</h2>
<p>Merriex turned repetition into an art. She demonstrated that saying it once means simply mentioning it; to teach, you must repeat. And, through her reverse sequencing of teaching the most challenging concepts at the outset, she gave herself plenty of chances to revisit them throughout the year. </p>
<p>Several <a href="http://www.lingref.com/bucld/42/BUCLD42-16.pdf">domestic</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012148">international</a> studies illustrate the benefits of repetition to a <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.00158-21">variety of students</a>.</p>
<h2>3. Get parents involved</h2>
<p>Merriex believed parental involvement boosted student success – a notion that is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7">backed up by research</a>.</p>
<p>“If a kid forgot their homework, she’d get on the phone with their mom,” University of Texas at San Antonio assistant dean of research Emily Bonner says in the documentary.</p>
<p>To enable parents to keep up with their children, Merriex offered them evening math and reading classes. “And she sometimes used to go by their house, especially kids that are really going through a lot,” parent volunteer Anthony Guice says in the documentary.</p>
<p>Guice continues to share Merriex’s math and reading raps and dance routines with North Florida residents. </p>
<h2>4. Show you care</h2>
<p>Merriex provided free after-school tutoring and Saturday sleepover test prep at Duval. She sewed school uniforms and graduation gowns. She cooked meals. “She put us before anything, before her own health,” former student Brittany Daniels says in the documentary.</p>
<p>A diabetic, Merriex could ill-afford to do that. Research shows overwork can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7">hazardous to your health</a>, potentially even deadly.</p>
<p>“She only missed three days out of 30 years of school,” her daughter, Tayana Davis, a certified nurse, says in the documentary. “That’s when she was in the hospital.”</p>
<p>Thus, Merriex has provided us with two lessons, one unintentionally: Care, in a multitude of ways, for your students – and yourself.</p>
<h2>5. Embrace standardized testing</h2>
<p>Critics have long called standardized testing <a href="https://www.ascd.org/blogs/15-reasons-why-standardized-tests-are-problematic">inequitable and unfair</a>. Their <a href="https://www.nea.org/professional-excellence/student-engagement/tools-tips/history-standardized-testing-united-states">criticism reached a crescendo with passage of President George W. Bush’s 2001 No Child Left Behind Act</a>, which required yearly assessments and carried consequences such as being forced to restructure or or replace staff, including the principal, for schools that didn’t make adequate yearly progress.</p>
<p>In recent years, states have opted for less ominous evaluations through the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/assessments/">National Assessment of Educational Progress</a>. Most universities have <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2022/11/15/more-than-80-of-four-year-colleges-wont-require-standardized--tests-for-fall-2023-admissions/?sh=5d7971887fb9">scrapped SAT and ACT requirements</a> from their applications. </p>
<p>Yet Merriex, who rejected other educational mandates, welcomed Florida’s standardized test. She viewed it as an equalizing factor. She used the exam to raise expectations and motivate her students. One of the means to a bigger end, it played a part in her mission to give her students the knowledge and skills needed to succeed in school and beyond.</p>
<p>Recent studies show she had a point. Researchers have found a correlation between <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1315746110">how K-12 students do on standardized tests and how they do in college</a>. For this reason, some universities, such as <a href="https://fortune.com/2024/02/07/dartmouth-college-admissions-sat-testing-standardized-exams/amp/">Dartmouth</a> and <a href="https://sg.news.yahoo.com/yale-university-brings-back-standardized-200720370.html">Yale</a>, have reinstated the SAT and ACT. </p>
<p>Florida’s test certainly leveled the playing field for Merriex’s students. Their success transformed Duval from an underserved school into a well-funded <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AGFcXrLjKScC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=On+the+2003+FCAT,+Merriex+led+Duval+from+an+F+to+an+A&source=bl&ots=MmUEPuN-8H&sig=ACfU3U3t-r3qFhHbMrUVONk1FeA9JkcZ0A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjAnsyF0ryEAxVwrokEHZDjDtYQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q=Duval%20arts%20academy&f=false">magnet arts academy</a> in 2005.</p>
<p>It was quite telling that after her students took Florida’s state test every spring, Merriex continued drilling its concepts through the end of the year. </p>
<p>The most relevant Merriex lesson, however, has nothing to do with state tests or hip-hop or chanting. “You’ve got to know who your students are, and you need to teach those students,” Bonner, the research dean from Texas, says in the documentary.</p>
<p>Not every group of students responds to rap or chanting, but children respond to a teacher who knows and cares about them, seeks to genuinely connect with them and unleashes their true self in the classroom to bring out the best in them.</p>
<p>The year after Merriex died, 2009, <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2010/03/06/students-pumped-up-about-fcat/31745230007/">Duval failed</a> the state test. The school never regained its academic footing and ultimately <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2015/06/10/so-long-duval-elementary/31882978007/">closed in 2015</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222044/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Boaz Dvir receives funding from Kellogg and Smallwood Foundations for the production of the documentary </span></em></p>A new documentary highlights teaching techniques of an educator who went the extra mile for her students.Boaz Dvir, Associate Professor of Journalism, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232502024-02-27T12:30:48Z2024-02-27T12:30:48ZA Texas court ruling on a Black student wearing hair in long locs reflects history of racism in schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577713/original/file-20240224-24-mne9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=61%2C49%2C8118%2C5383&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">America's schools don't always welcome cultural expression. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/barber-cutting-young-boys-hair-in-barbershop-royalty-free-image/1717468327?phrase=black+boy+dread+locs&adppopup=true">MoMo Productions via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>A Texas judge ruled on Feb. 22, 2024, that the Barbers Hill School District <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2024/02/22/texas-crown-act-judge-barbers-hill">didn’t violate the law</a> when it punished Darryl George, a Black student, for wearing his hair in long locs. The Texas law in question – the CROWN Act – prohibits discrimination against hairstyles in schools and workplaces. The school district argued – and Judge Chap B. Cain III agreed – that the law doesn’t mention anything about hair length. In the following Q&A, <a href="https://american.academia.edu/KenjusWatson">Kenjus Watson</a>, an education professor at American University who studies the <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED619047">psychological and social effects of racism</a>, discusses how the decision upholds a long-standing legacy of cultural assimilation .</em></p>
<h2>What message has the court just sent?</h2>
<p>I’d argue it’s a harsh reminder that the natural appearance, cultural expressions and freedom of Black children are <a href="https://doi.org/10.47106/4rwj.11.02181931">incompatible with the objectives and ideals</a> of <a href="https://www.tcpress.com/the-white-architects-of-black-education-9780807740422">the school system in the U.S</a>. Those objectives and ideals were created to establish social order, enforce conformity, demand cultural assimilation and <a href="http://www.blackfeministpedagogies.com/uploads/2/5/5/9/25595205/a_third_uni.pdf">suppress marginalized groups</a>. </p>
<p>The court decision in Texas – and the no-long-hair policy in the Barbers Hill Independent School District – might seem outdated, misinformed or at odds with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-019-00540-3">best practices for culturally responsive education</a>. But as I and other researchers <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36891083/">have found</a>, strict monitoring and other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085918754328">anti-Black practices</a> – such as those regarding Black children’s hair, bodies, language, clothing and even their presence – <a href="https://culanth.org/fieldsights/schools-prisons-and-blackness-in-america-a-conversation-with-damien-sojoyner">are widespread in America’s schools</a>. </p>
<h2>What options do Black students have?</h2>
<p>Since education is compulsory for minors, the only options for Black families are to find schools that attempt to <a href="https://doi.org/10.58295/2375-3668.1484">prioritize their overall well-being</a> by being supportive of their children’s hairstyle and other cultural values, or to educate their children at home, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/struggling-with-racial-biases-black-families-homeschool-kids-38694">many Black families do now</a>.</p>
<p>Finding a culturally supportive school can be a challenge. Despite efforts from Black families, educators, leaders and allies to create more inclusive environments in schools, anti-Black racism is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2013.850412">pervasive in educational settings</a> – from pre-K through higher education.</p>
<p>Staying in a school system that is hostile to Black cultural expression can threaten children’s well-being. <a href="https://www.tcpress.com/racial-microaggressions-in-education-9780807764398">Extensive research</a> has found that <a href="https://hollisarchives.lib.harvard.edu/repositories/14/resources/9950">racial microaggressions</a> – <a href="https://issuu.com/almaiflores/docs/kw___lph_research_brief_final_versi">everyday acts of racism</a> – can adversely affect the mental and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-racial-battle-fatigue-a-school-psychologist-explains-192493">physical</a> health of Black people. </p>
<p>My own research has found that it can affect the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36891083/">biological health of Black young people</a>. The hormones the body releases under stressful racial events can damage the <a href="https://vimeo.com/469867415">DNA of Black students</a>. Over time, this can contribute to higher rates of disease and overall <a href="https://theconversation.com/study-racism-shortens-lives-and-hurts-health-of-blacks-by-promoting-genes-that-lead-to-inflammation-and-illness-122027">shorter life expectancy</a> among Black people in the U.S. Finding a supportive school can be an even more urgent matter of life and death. Researchers have found that enduring everyday racism in school is also a key factor behind <a href="https://theconversation.com/black-kids-and-suicide-why-are-rates-so-high-and-so-ignored-127066">rising suicide rates</a> for Black youth.</p>
<h2>What should school leaders consider?</h2>
<p>If educational leaders want to see Black students flourish, I believe they should dismantle racist policies that require order, conformity and assimilation. They should replace these with schoolwide <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100880">microaffirmative</a> practices that validate Black student cultural expressions, identities, resilience and brilliance. They can also prioritize mental and emotional health and wellness.</p>
<p>To move toward a new educational system that truly serves all students, I argue that it is crucial to listen to Black families and students in the development of school policies, curriculum and instruction. Doing so can help place Black families’ current experiences within the broader context of the ongoing struggle against <a href="https://theconversation.com/critical-race-theory-what-it-is-and-what-it-isnt-162752">discrimination and unjust legal decisions</a>, such as the one against Darryl George.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223250/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kenjus T. Watson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A scholar on racism weighs in on a recent court decision that upheld a school’s decision to punish a Black male student for wearing his hair in long locs.Kenjus T. Watson, Assistant Professor of Urban Education, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207252024-01-26T13:20:10Z2024-01-26T13:20:10ZFrance’s biggest Muslim school went from accolades to defunding – showing a key paradox in how the country treats Islam<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569761/original/file-20240117-21-kh948e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1022%2C680&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students attend a class at the Averroès school in Lille, France, in September 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/students-attend-a-class-at-the-averroes-high-school-in-news-photo/1801185507?adppopup=true">Sameer Al-Doumy/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>France is famously strict on enforcing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13310-7_6">what it calls “laïcité</a>”: keeping religion out of the public sphere. Yet more than <a href="https://www.vie-publique.fr/rapport/289657-lenseignement-prive-sous-contrat">7,500 private schools</a> receive government funding, and most are Catholic. In a country where about 1 in 10 people are Muslim, just three Muslim high schools receive state support – or did.</p>
<p>In December 2023, local authorities of the French Ministry of the Interior confirmed a decision to <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/frances-largest-muslim-school-threatened-closure-amid-scrutiny/story?id=105542824">revoke state funding from Lycée Averroès</a>, France’s largest and most acclaimed private Muslim high school. Authorities cited “<a href="https://www.la-croix.com/dissensions-autour-du-lycee-musulman-averroes-prive-de-subventions-publiques-20231211">serious breaches of the fundamental principles of the Republic</a>,” <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2023/11/27/lycee-prive-musulman-averroes-avis-consultatif-favorable-a-la-resiliation-du-contrat-avec-l-etat_6202633_3224.html">raised concerns over certain texts in religious education classes</a>, and accused administrators of opaque financial management, among various alleged infractions. </p>
<p>None of these claims are supported by previous inspection reports, and <a href="https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/hauts-de-france/nord-0/lille/lycee-musulman-averroes-syndicats-politiques-directeur-de-grande-ecole-tour-d-horizon-des-soutiens-affiches-2884994.html">many French scholars and activists have denounced the decision as politically motivated</a>, setting off a political firestorm.</p>
<p>Lycée Averroès, located in the suburbs of Lille, opened in 2003 and was granted state funding in 2008. In 2013, it was named the best high school in France, <a href="https://www.la-croix.com/Urbi-et-Orbi/Actualite/France/Le-lycee-musulman-Averroes-de-Lille-meilleur-lycee-de-France-2013-03-28-926203">according to the Parisien newspaper’s rankings</a>, and has consistently <a href="https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1309270/article/2023-03-29/lille-averroes-et-faidherbe-dans-le-top-3-des-lycees-de-la-region">ranked among the region’s best</a> in recent years. Teachers and administrators <a href="https://www.lycee-averroes.com/">pride themselves</a> on being dedicated to both French Republican and Islamic values. As <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2017.1303768">our research</a> has shown, the school often goes above and beyond to teach civic values such as equality and laïcité.</p>
<p>In many French Muslim communities, the school is seen as a beacon – an example of a Muslim institution that succeeded <a href="https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/religious-discrimination-against-muslims-in-france#:">despite discrimination</a>, <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/islam-and-the-governing-of-muslims-in-france-9781350214538/">political tensions around Islam</a>, and the French Republic’s <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/122/article/843095">strict secularism</a>.</p>
<p>The defunding decision represents a common paradox in contemporary France: Many of the steps its government takes to supposedly protect “<a href="https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/expressions/french-brief-reinforcing-principles-republic-french-paradox">French Republican values</a>,” better “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12942">integrate” Muslim minorities</a> or prevent radicalization have the potential <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/france-terrorism-muslims-confusion/2020/11/13/e40332be-2042-11eb-ad53-4c1fda49907d_story.html">to do the opposite</a>.</p>
<h2>High scores, high scrutiny</h2>
<p>Private schools in France <a href="https://books.openedition.org/pur/109889?lang=en">can receive state funding</a> for up to <a href="https://www.cafepedagogique.net/2023/06/02/enseignement-prive-8-milliards-de-fonds-publics-et-pas-de-controles/">about three-quarters of their operating budgets</a> if they agree to certain stipulations. Teachers can provide optional religious education, but otherwise must follow the national curriculum and admit students of any religious background, based on merit alone. </p>
<p>The first Muslim schools opened in 2001, and <a href="https://www.theses.fr/2021UPSLP080">dozens more have been established</a> since. But <a href="https://books.openedition.org/pur/109988?lang=en">as the first one to be granted state funding</a>, Averroès has been under <a href="https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/973367/article/2021-04-01/suspension-des-subventions-du-lycee-averroes-le-tribunal-administratif-rappelle">particularly close scrutiny</a> since its inception. The school has previously faced controversies related to <a href="https://www.leparisien.fr/societe/lycee-musulman-averroes-a-lille-la-region-sommee-de-verser-500-000-euros-a-letablissement-12-10-2022-LMTHICKKVNCR7PXBLWSUY4D6JQ.php">funding it received from an organization in Qatar</a>, and a former teacher’s claims, made a decade ago, that Averroès was <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/20150206-teacher-quits-french-muslim-school-over-insidious-islamism">teaching “Islamism</a>.”</p>
<p>According to an <a href="https://static.blast-info.fr/attachments/stories/2023/gS9HjS-QQnumCrLXl7NLOw/attachment-kaCAkdjcQz2hkp2n1H3ixA.pdf">official 2020 report</a>, from 2015 through 2020 Averroès was inspected 13 times, making it “the most inspected school” in the region. Notably, it stated that “nothing in the observations … allows (us) to think teaching practices don’t respect republican values.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A statue of a seated man in robes on a pedestal, in front of a brightly lit stone wall at night." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570988/original/file-20240123-29-tsqi0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A statue of the medieval Muslim philosopher Averroes in Cordoba, Spain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/wall-and-averroes-memorial-royalty-free-image/500351883?phrase=averroes&adppopup=true">Domingo Leiva/Moment Open via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several public figures have argued that the decision to defund Averroès is representative of “<a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2023/12/16/la-decision-de-deconventionner-le-lycee-averroes-a-lille-est-inequitable-et-disproportionnee_6206186_3232.html">inequitable and disproportionate” treatment</a> that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105022">French Muslims often face</a> compared to their non-Muslim peers. As our research has shown, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2022.2131735">many Muslim schools undergo more</a> surveillance and criticism <a href="https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/090223/homophobie-au-lycee-stanislas-six-mois-de-silence-du-ministre-qui-confinent-la-lachete">compared to their Catholic</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199359479.001.0001">Jewish</a> counterparts. </p>
<p>These double standards largely stem from a political environment rife with <a href="https://www.senat.fr/rap/r19-595-1/r19-595-12.html">fears over Islamic extremism</a> after <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210905-how-the-november-2015-attacks-marked-a-turning-point-in-french-terror-laws">numerous high-profile attacks on French soil</a>. </p>
<p>However, policies intended to <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2020/11/18/le-projet-de-loi-contre-l-islam-radical-et-les-separatismes-finalise-et-transmis-aux-deputes-et-senateurs_6060131_823448.html">save French Muslim youth from radicalization</a> can have an adverse effect, making young Muslims feel that they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.3917/scpo.broua.2005.01">not seen as fully French</a>, and further alienating them. </p>
<p>For some, this sense of unequal treatment manifests in <a href="https://apnews.com/article/religion-paris-radicalism-secularism-france-951fe2ff0b42e8954193f6f9293b0803">frequent protests</a> and other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09639489.2018.1440197">demands for justice</a>. But it has sometimes fueled riots, vandalism and <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2024/01/17/les-emeutes-de-juillet-2023-dernier-episode-d-une-crise-politique-sans-fin_6211398_3224.html">social unrest</a>.</p>
<h2>Security and separatism</h2>
<p>Other policies that affect education and were made in the name of French secularism have also drawn controversy for potentially discriminating against Islam.</p>
<p>For example, a broad 2021 measure often referred to as <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/15/frances-controversial-separatism-bill-explained#:%7E:text=Under%20a%20so%2Dcalled%20%E2%80%9Cseparatism,be%20banned%20from%20French%20territory.">the “separatism law</a>” aimed <a href="https://www.vie-publique.fr/en-bref/283224-loi-separatisme-entree-en-vigueur-des-premieres-dispositions">to combat perceived nonallegiance to French values</a>. Among many requirements, the law made independent schools harder to open and easier for the state to close. </p>
<p>Although the text of the <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/rdr/1749">law does not explicitly mention Muslims</a>, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3917/migra.183.0003">political discourse surrounding the law</a> clearly targeted Islam. In an October 2020 speech defending the legislation, President Emmanuel Macron stated, “What we must tackle is Islamist separatism,” which he accused of “<a href="https://www.elysee.fr/en/emmanuel-macron/2020/10/02/fight-against-separatism-the-republic-in-action-speech-by-emmanuel-macron-president-of-the-republic-on-the-fight-against-separatism">repeated deviations from the Republic’s values</a>.” </p>
<p>Yet there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/separatisme-et-si-la-politique-antiterroriste-faisait-fausse-route-149078?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=bylinetwitterbutton">little evidence of such alleged “separatism</a>.” Rather, studies have <a href="https://www.ined.fr/en/publications/editions/document-travail/trajectories-and-origines-survey-on-population-diversity-in-france-initial-findings-en/">consistently shown</a> that Muslim support for French institutions mirrors that of the larger population.</p>
<p>Other examples of policies that purport to rein in radicalization, but may further fuel Muslims’ isolation, include the 2023 <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/france/article/2023/09/05/france-s-century-long-crusade-against-religious-symbols-at-school-from-the-crucifix-to-the-abaya_6124828_7.html">ban on abayas in public schools</a> and the <a href="https://www.editions-harmattan.fr/livre-la_politisation_du_voile_en_france_en_europe_et_dans_le_monde_arabe-9782747578875-18971.html">2004 “headscarf” law</a> that banned “ostentatious” <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691147987/the-politics-of-the-veil">religious symbols from public schools</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="About half a dozen women in headscarves look frustrated as they hold signs on the street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570989/original/file-20240123-17-fcypz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Veiled or not veiled, we want equality’: Parents and supporters protest in 2019 against a proposal to ban mothers who wear headscarves from school trips.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/parents-and-members-of-le-collectif-66-des-mamans-en-colere-news-photo/1146681939?adppopup=true">Raymond Roig/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One study argues the 2004 ban <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000106">harmed Muslim girls’ graduation rates</a>, subsequently affecting their employment opportunities. Similarly, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/french-schools-ban-on-abayas-and-headscarves-is-supposedly-about-secularism-but-it-sends-a-powerful-message-about-who-belongs-in-french-culture-213543">abaya ban</a> has been <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/27/how-do-you-distinguish-between-an-abaya-and-a-maxi-dress">criticized by human rights activists</a>, <a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-un-criticises-france-for-banning-abaya-in-schools/">the United Nations</a> and the <a href="https://www.uscirf.gov/news-room/releases-statements/uscirf-concerned-frances-expanding-interpretation-ban-religious">U.S. Commission for Religious Freedom</a> for unduly restricting freedom of religious expression and potentially fueling discrimination. </p>
<h2>The future of pluralism</h2>
<p>Based on <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/muslim-and-catholic-experiences-of-national-belonging-in-france-9781350380448/">our fieldwork</a>, we believe France’s Muslim schools <a href="https://theconversation.com/muslim-schools-are-allies-in-frances-fight-against-radicalization-not-the-cause-149802">may help reduce radicalization</a> and one of its causes: young people’s sense that being both fully French and fully Muslim <a href="https://www.europe1.fr/societe/selon-un-sondage-ifop-pour-le-journal-du-dimanche-78-des-francais-jugent-la-laicite-menacee-3927717">is incompatible</a>.</p>
<p>As one young French Muslim told us, “I’ve always been made to feel as though I’m not ‘une vraie française’ (a real French person).” Such “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09639489.2017.1323199">everyday exclusion</a>” can fuel <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-migrations-societe-2023-4-page-3.htm">alienation</a>, <a href="https://arcade.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/article_pdfs/Occasion_v09_hargreaves_final.pdf">resentment</a> or even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09639489.2022.2147913">emmigration</a>.</p>
<p>Institutions like Averroès, however, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2017.1303768">offer a haven</a> from the <a href="https://iupress.org/9780253218346/muslim-girls-and-the-other-france/">discrimination students may experience in public schools</a>, and create a space for pupils who want to wear a headscarf or abaya. In addition, they actively <a href="https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/provence-alpes-cote-d-azur/bouches-du-rhone/marseille/rentree-marseille-eleves-musulmans-catholiques-se-rassemblent-hommage-samuel-paty-1890562.html">denounce terrorism</a> and <a href="https://www.20minutes.fr/lille/1512739-20150108-lille-hommage-charlie-hebdo-lycee-musulman-averroes">radicalization</a>.</p>
<p>But recent actions suggest that the French government may have <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/france-closes-mosques-with-powers-that-some-critics-say-use-secretive-evidence-2022-04-05/">lost confidence in Muslim institutions</a> as a way to foster French values. France shut down <a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/france/#:%7E:text=The%20government%20dissolved%20by%20decree,21%20mosques%20since%20November%202020.">672 Muslim establishments between 2018 and 2021</a>, including mosques and <a href="https://www.newarab.com/news/france-has-shut-down-dozens-mosques-islamic-schools">independent Muslim schools</a>.</p>
<p>Most immediately, the decision to defund Averroès will impact its students and staff. The school offers scholarships to <a href="https://static.blast-info.fr/attachments/stories/2023/gS9HjS-QQnumCrLXl7NLOw/attachment-kaCAkdjcQz2hkp2n1H3ixA.pdf">approximately 62% of its student body</a>, including its nonstate-funded middle school – a number which will likely prove untenable without funding.</p>
<p>More broadly, such steps may intensify challenges to French Muslims’ sense of value and belonging, obstructing the path toward peaceful pluralism and paradoxically <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/31/opinion/france-terrorism-muslims.html">increasing the risk of radicalization and separatism</a>.</p>
<p>Yet we believe there is a third risk, as well. The French Republic considers secular neutrality and equality <a href="https://editionsdelaube.fr/catalogue_de_livres/etre-francais/">core pillars of French identity</a>, but many critics view its policies on Islam as prime examples of inequality and bias. Such discord may <a href="https://www.ldh-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/HL195-Idees-en-debat-Loi-sur-le-separatisme-la-liberte-de-culte-entravee.pdf">undermine these values’ legitimacy</a>, if not their very essence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vincent Geisser is affiliated with organization
President of the Center for Information and Studies on International Migration (CIEMI, Paris)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carol Ferrara and Françoise Lorcerie do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some of the measures the French government has taken to fight radicalization can do the opposite, three social scientists argue.Carol Ferrara, Anthropologist & Assistant Professor, Department of Marketing Communication, Emerson CollegeFrançoise Lorcerie, Professeure, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU)Vincent Geisser, Sociologue, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2157772023-11-03T12:44:21Z2023-11-03T12:44:21ZWe analyzed over 3.5 million written teacher comments about students and found racial bias<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556334/original/file-20231027-17-v7vc7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C51%2C8595%2C5704&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teachers had more negative comments about Black boys than they did about other groups.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/boy-sitting-in-class-and-trying-to-read-board-royalty-free-image/1413457551?phrase=students+in+trouble+black&adppopup=true">aldomurillo/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<p>Written teacher comments about students can show implicit racial or ethnic and gender biases in school discipline, according to our recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X231189444">study</a>. </p>
<p>To identify these biases, we analyzed more than 3.5 million teacher comments about students from thousands of schools in the U.S. These comments were written in student office discipline referrals. Teacher comments were gathered from a web application used by schools to provide information such as when and where student discipline referrals occurred. When purchasing the application, schools can provide permission for their de-identified data to be used for research purposes.</p>
<p>Our study showed that teachers wrote more when describing behavior incidents of Black students compared with white students. They also used more negative emotions, words like “anger,” “hurt” and “disrespectful,” and used more verbs, such as “scraped,” “hit” and “spanked.” We found the opposite was true for Asian and Hispanic students compared with white students.</p>
<p>Further, we found that teachers used more words, negative emotions, verbs and impersonal pronouns when describing incidents for boys compared with girls.</p>
<p>Our research shows that written teacher comments about students vary by the students’ demographic backgrounds. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X20902816">Research</a> shows that certain types of words provide insights into what people are thinking, feeling and experiencing psychologically. For example, the use of impersonal pronouns, such as “it” and “this,” are terms related to depersonalization and can reflect greater psychological distance from one group to another.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>According to the <a href="https://ocrdata.ed.gov/resources/downloaddatafile">Office for Civil Rights</a>, Black students account for nearly 15% of total public student enrollment but 30% of students suspended in school and 38% of those suspended out of school in the U.S.</p>
<p>Boys also receive substantially more <a href="https://doi.org/10.17988/bedi-41-04-178-195.1">office discipline referrals</a> than girls, and Black girls are more likely to receive office discipline referrals than white girls.</p>
<p>These inequities in student discipline have both short-term and long-term negative consequences, such as poor student-teacher relationships and lower academic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.12.001">achievement</a>. And these inequities are not <a href="https://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/special-education/disabling-inequity-the-urgent-need-for-race-conscious-resource-remedies">narrowing</a>.</p>
<p>Strategies for identifying and addressing teacher biases have remained elusive. One reason is that some biases are harder to identify than others. Explicit biases are more overt and can include a teacher making offensive comments based on the race, gender or disability status of their students.</p>
<p>Implicit biases, on the other hand, are more subtle. Implicit biases are more likely to affect decisions when teachers feel the need to act quickly, such as sending students to the office, without considering the consequences of their decisions. For example, implicit bias could explain why students of color receive more office discipline referrals than white students for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000178">subjectively defined behaviors</a>, such as defiance, as opposed to stealing or property damage.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Many schools are being more proactive about <a href="https://exceptionalchildren.org/webinar/equity-focused-pbis-approach-increasing-racial-equity-school-discipline">reducing disparities</a> in discipline that removes students from school.</p>
<p>These equity-focused approaches include strategies for teaching educators how to analyze their discipline data for patterns. The strategies also show educators how to better take student culture into account and to stop implicit biases before they occur.</p>
<p>For example, teachers could use activities such as a classroom teaching matrix – or chart – to help students and themselves see the similarities and differences between expectations at school versus at home. Such activities can help educators adapt their classroom expectations to make it easier for students to navigate varying classroom expectations for their behavior.</p>
<p>Research is ongoing to evaluate the effects of these equity-focused approaches on school and student outcomes. Ultimately, we hope these approaches will prevent disproportionate disciplinary practices from occurring and place the focus on designing effective, safe and supportive school environments for all students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215777/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kent McIntosh receives funding from the U.S. Department of Education, including grant #R305A230399 from the Institute of Education Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angus Kittelman, David Markowitz, and Maria Reina Santiago-Rosario do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Teachers use tougher language when describing the misbehavior of Black children, new research shows.Angus Kittelman, Assistant Professor of Special Education, University of Missouri-ColumbiaDavid Markowitz, Associate Professor of Communication, Michigan State UniversityKent McIntosh, Knight Chair of Special Education, University of OregonMaria Reina Santiago-Rosario, Research Associate, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2100952023-10-27T12:18:10Z2023-10-27T12:18:10ZLouisiana’s ‘In God We Trust’ law tests limits of religion in public schools<p>When Louisiana passed a law in August 2023 requiring public schools to post “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/08/03/louisiana-in-god-we-trust-law/70519434007/">In God We Trust</a>” in every classroom – from elementary school to college – <a href="https://www.theadvertiser.com/story/news/2023/01/19/louisiana-lawmaker-files-bill-to-put-god-in-every-school-classroom/69821507007/">the author of the bill claimed</a> to be following a long-held tradition of displaying the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/in-god-we-trust-reaffirmed-as-national-motto-again/">national motto</a>, most notably on U.S. currency. </p>
<p>But even under recent Supreme Court precedents, the Louisiana law may violate the <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/">establishment clause of the First Amendment</a>, which prohibits the government from promoting religion. I make this observation as one who has researched and <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XoV15X_SoA4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Frank+Ravitch&ots=scSow4fFWy&sig=5kTKn_GYJGWmnVY4Paj1XGg_TAI#v=onepage&q=Frank%20Ravitch&f=false">written extensively on issues of religion</a> in the public schools.</p>
<p>The Louisiana law specifies that the motto “shall be displayed on a poster or framed document that is at least 11 inches by 14 inches. The motto shall be the central focus … and shall be printed in a large, easily readable font.” The law also states that teachers should instruct students about the phrase as a way of teaching “patriotic customs.”</p>
<p>Similar bills are being promoted by groups like the <a href="https://cpcfoundation.com/about/">Congressional Prayer Caucus Foundation</a>, a nonprofit that supports members of Congress who meet regularly to <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2015/09/28/prayer-caucus-funded-taxpayers-defends-faith-government-policy/72428692/">defend the role of prayer in government</a>. To date, 26 states have considered bills requiring public schools to display the national motto. Seven states, including Louisiana, <a href="https://www.blitzwatch.org/in-god-we-trust-school-displays">have passed laws</a> in this regard.</p>
<h2>Recent shift in the law</h2>
<p>The Supreme Court has long treated public schools as an area where government-promoted religious messaging is unconstitutional under the First Amendment’s <a href="https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/first-amendment-and-religion">establishment clause</a>. For example, the Supreme Court held in <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1961/468">1962</a>, <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1962/142">1963</a>, <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1991/90-1014">1992</a> and <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1999/99-62">2000</a> that prayer in public schools is unconstitutional either because it favored or endorsed religion or because it created coercive pressure to religiously conform. In <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1980/80-321">1980</a>, the court also struck down a Kentucky law requiring the Ten Commandments to be posted in classrooms.</p>
<p>At the same time, the court has protected private religious expression for individual students and teachers in public schools. </p>
<p>The Louisiana law comes at a time of <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/events/understanding-the-threat-of-white-christian-nationalism-to-american-democracy-today/">rising concerns about Christian nationalism</a> and on the heels of a pivotal court case. In the 2022 case <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/21-418">Kennedy v. Bremerton School District</a>, the court overturned more than 60 years of precedent when it ruled that a public school football coach’s on-field, postgame prayer did not violate the establishment clause. In doing so, the court rejected long-standing legal tests, holding instead that courts should look to <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/21-418">history and tradition</a>.</p>
<p>The problem with using history and tradition as a broad test is that it can change from one context to the next. People – including lawmakers – are apt to ignore the negative and troubling lessons of U.S. religious history. Prior to the Kennedy decision, history and tradition were used by a majority of the court to decide establishment clause cases only in specific contexts, such as <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2013/12-696">legislative prayer</a> and <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2018/17-1717">war memorials</a>.</p>
<p>Now, states like Louisiana are trying to use history and tradition to bring religion into public school classrooms.</p>
<h2>A history of ‘In God We Trust’</h2>
<p>Contrary to what people often assume, the phrase “In God We Trust” has not always been the national motto. It <a href="https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2013/04/in-god-we-trust/">first appeared on coins</a> in 1864, during the Civil War, and in the following decades it sparked controversy. In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt urged Congress to <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/11/14/106767538.html?pageNumber=1">drop the phrase from new coins</a>, saying it “does positive harm, and is in effect irreverence, which comes dangerously close to sacrilege.”</p>
<p>In 1956, amid the Cold War, “<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-complex-history-of-in-god-we-trust-91117">In God we Trust</a>” became the national motto. The phrase first appeared on paper money the next year. It was a time of significant fear about communism and the Soviet Union, and atheism was viewed as part of the “communist threat.” Atheists were <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Anti-Atheist-Nation-Religion-and-Secularism-in-the-United-States/Klug/p/book/9781032310107">subject to persecution</a> during the <a href="https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/mccarthyism-red-scare">Red Scare</a> and afterward. </p>
<p>Since then, the motto has stuck. Over the years, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-religion-motto-idUSKCN1LD24K">legal challenges</a> attempting to remove the phrase from money have failed. Courts have generally understood the term as a form of <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1983/82-1256">ceremonial deism or civic religion</a>, meaning religious practices or expressions that are viewed as being merely customary cultural practices.</p>
<h2>The future of the law</h2>
<p>Even after the Kennedy ruling, the Louisiana law may still be unconstitutional because students are a captive audience in the classroom. Therefore, the mandate to hang the national motto in classrooms could be interpreted as a form of religious coercion. </p>
<p>But because the law requires a display rather than a religious exercise like school prayer, it may not violate what has come to be known as the <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1991/90-1014">indirect coercion test</a>. This test prevents the government from conducting a formal religious exercise that places strong social or peer pressure on students to participate. </p>
<p>The outcome of any constitutional challenge to the Louisiana law is far from clear. Prior cases involving the Pledge of Allegiance offer one example. Though the Supreme Court dismissed on standing grounds the <a href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-latest-controversy-about-under-god-in-the-pledge-of-allegiance">only establishment clause challenge to the pledge</a> it has considered, lower courts have held that reciting the pledge in schools is constitutional for a variety of reasons.</p>
<p>These reasons include the idea that it is a form of <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/08/28/on-ceremonial-occasions-may-the-government-invoke-a-deity/">ceremonial deism</a> and the fact that since 1943 students have been <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/02/19/us/pledge-of-allegiance-explainer-trnd/index.html">exempt from having to say the pledge</a> if it violates their faith to do so. </p>
<p>The Louisiana law, however, requires instruction about the national motto. </p>
<p>If the law is challenged in court and upheld, teachers could teach that the motto was adopted when the nation was emerging from <a href="https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/age-of-eisenhower/mcarthyism-red-scare">McCarthyism</a> and fear of communism was widespread. Moreover, they could teach that many people of faith throughout U.S. history would have viewed this sort of display as against U.S. ideals.</p>
<h2>Division is likely</h2>
<p>More than two centuries before Roosevelt argued that it was sacrilegious to put “In God We Trust” on coins, the Puritan minister and Colonist Roger Williams famously proclaimed that “<a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780429054860-4/forced-worship-stinks-god-nostrils-margaret-mur%C3%A1nyi-manchester">forced worship stinks in God’s nostrils</a>.” Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island, at least in part, to promote religious freedom.</p>
<p>Additionally, there is no prohibition on alternative designs for the national motto posters as long as the motto is “the central focus of the poster.” In Texas, a parent donated rainbow-colored “In God We Trust” signs and others written in Arabic, which were subsequently <a href="https://www.dallasnews.com/news/education/2022/08/29/southlake-schools-rejects-in-god-we-trust-signs-featuring-rainbows-arabic/">rejected by a local school board</a>. This situation, which gained significant media attention, brought the exclusionary impact of these laws <a href="https://theconversation.com/uncivil-obedience-becomes-an-increasingly-common-form-of-protest-in-the-us-209928">into public view</a>.</p>
<p>It could be argued that accepting wall hangings that favor Christocentric viewpoints – and rejecting those that reflect other religions or add symbols such as the rainbow – is <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/20-1088">religious discrimination by government</a>. If so, schools might be required to post alternative motto designs that meet the letter of the new law in order to uphold free speech rights and prevent religious discrimination. </p>
<p>The Louisiana law would have been brazenly unconstitutional just two years ago. But after the Kennedy decision, the law may survive a potential legal challenge. Even if it does, one thing is for certain: It will be divisive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210095/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frank S. Ravitch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Does Louisiana’s requirement for public schools to post ‘In God We Trust’ in all classrooms violate the doctrine of separation of church and state? A legal scholar weighs in.Frank S. Ravitch, Professor of Law & Walter H. Stowers Chair of Law and Religion, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148012023-10-10T12:33:00Z2023-10-10T12:33:00ZWhy more school counselors and psychologists alone won’t solve America’s mental health crisis among students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552850/original/file-20231009-20-mytxlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C19%2C6342%2C4208&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Student-to-counselor ratios in America's schools often exceed what is recommended.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/counselor-listens-royalty-free-image/1383919246?phrase=school+psychologist&adppopup=true">SDI Productions via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Of all the challenges that threaten the well-being of America’s schoolchildren, one of the most serious and severe is the lack of school counselors and school psychologists. Despite the <a href="https://kffhealthnews.org/news/article/parents-health-spiral-kids-mental-illness/">increased demand</a> for their services, there’s simply not enough professionals in these fields to go around.</p>
<p>For instance, the American School Counselor Association recommends that there be <a href="https://schoolcounselor.org/About-School-Counseling/School-Counselor-Roles-Ratios">one school counselor for every 250 students</a>. However, in the 2021-22 school year – the most recent year for which data are available – the <a href="https://schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/b9d453e7-7c45-4ef7-bf90-16f1f3cbab94/Ratios-21-22-Alpha.pdf">ratio of school counselors to students was one for every 408 students</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, the National Association of School Psychologists recommends <a href="https://www.nasponline.org/standards-and-certification/nasp-practice-model/about-the-nasp-practice-model">one school psychologist for every 500 students</a>. But the ratio of school psychologists to students stands at just <a href="https://www.nasponline.org/about-school-psychology/state-shortages-data-dashboard">one for every 1,127 students</a>.</p>
<p>The Biden administration is well aware of the shortage and has taken action to close the gap. </p>
<p>For instance, in 2021, U.S. Surgeon General Vivek H. Murthy issued an <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf">advisory</a> that calls for, among other things, <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf">expanding the mental health workforce in schools</a> by using federal, state and local funds.</p>
<p>President Joe Biden released a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/03/01/fact-sheet-president-biden-to-announce-strategy-to-address-our-national-mental-health-crisis-as-part-of-unity-agenda-in-his-first-state-of-the-union/">Mental Health Strategy</a> in 2022 that seeks to provide mental health care to more children. And in May 2023, the Biden administration announced <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/today-biden-harris-administration-announcing-more-95-million-awards-across-35-states-increase-access-school-based-mental-health-services-and-strengthen-pipeline-mental-health-professionals-high-needs-school-districts-t">US$286 million for 264 grantees</a> to train and hire school mental health professionals – a move that grantees say will enable them to prepare more than 14,000 new mental health professionals for America’s schools. That’s a significant number, but schools would need to hire more than five times that amount to meet recommended ratios. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0iIu5qwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">professor of school psychology</a> – and as a recipient of <a href="https://education.ufl.edu/news/2023/02/08/uf-and-acps-grant-will-work-to-expand-school-based-mental-health-services/">one of those grants</a> – I also know that as important as it is to train more school counselors and school psychologists, increasing their numbers alone is not enough to change the course of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8890771/">rising mental health needs</a> among America’s children and youth. That is, doubling staffing of mental health professionals in schools doesn’t guarantee they will be used effectively or appropriately. Without accompanying changes to school systems and priorities, I fear the mental health needs among our youth will continue to accelerate, as it did <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6945a3.htm?s_cid=mm6945a3_w">during the pandemic</a>.</p>
<p>To address this challenge, I see three areas where schools need to revamp the way they meet students’ mental health needs.</p>
<h2>1. Free up school counselors and school psychologists</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A girl sits on a bench in a coatroom in a school as an school worker listens to her." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552860/original/file-20231009-29-ppy07g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One-on-one time with school counselors and psychologists can be hard to come by in schools with high student-to-counselor ratios.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/primary-school-teacher-supporting-girl-in-cloakroom-royalty-free-image/1498436295?phrase=mental+health+elementary+students&adppopup=true">10'000 Hours</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research, including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740914003673">my own</a>, shows that school-based mental health professionals are overwhelmed with job duties that are outside the scope of supporting students’ mental health. For instance, school counselors also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040720932563">serve as the testing coordinators in most schools</a>. </p>
<p>School psychologists report <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1013688">being overloaded with evaluations</a> to determine if students are eligible for special education services. About one-third of those responding to a <a href="https://www.nasponline.org/research-and-policy/research-center/member-surveys">recent membership survey</a> of the National Association of School Psychologists indicated they don’t provide mental health interventions and services at all. </p>
<p>These school counselors and school psychologists report that about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09535-0">25% to 50% of their day is consumed with paperwork and other miscellaneous duties</a>. Constantly working outside their areas of expertise and desired practice is leading to burnout that <a href="https://indianacapitalchronicle.com/2023/07/17/a-crisis-of-their-own-indiana-school-counselors-detail-overwhelming-duties-pushing-some-out/">leads many to leave the field</a>.</p>
<p>To alleviate the situation, schools could search for ways to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12314">shift tasks</a> that don’t require specialized knowledge, such as test coordination and certain types of paper work, to staff with less extensive and expensive training. </p>
<p>This would allow current school mental health practitioners – and the additional <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/today-biden-harris-administration-announcing-more-95-million-awards-across-35-states-increase-access-school-based-mental-health-services-and-strengthen-pipeline-mental-health-professionals-high-needs-school-districts-t">14,000 the Biden administration hopes to bring into the field</a> – to engage in the wider range of services their students need. This could be a way to better align their practice with <a href="https://www.nasponline.org/standards-and-certification/nasp-practice-model/nasp-practice-model-overview">the recommendations of their professional associations</a> and potentially lead to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jcad.12299">more job satisfaction</a> and less burnout. </p>
<h2>2. Make time for mental health in schools</h2>
<p>In my work with school districts across the Southeast, mental health professionals are being hired but then restricted to working with kids only during the student’s lunchtime or certain classes, such as art, music or physical education. Although I don’t advocate for children missing class, I also don’t think it’s a good idea for children to work on self-regulation strategies or investigate negative belief patterns while eating a hot dog or missing their favorite extracurricular. It also limits the number of students any one professional can support during a school day.</p>
<p>Some schools around the world have <a href="https://www.oecd.org/publications/more-time-at-school-1f50c70d-en.htm">extended the school day</a>. Some in the U.S. have moved to a year-round schedule with positive effects, such as <a href="https://jlarc.virginia.gov/pdfs/reports/Rpt430.pdf">improved achievement scores for students from low-income and minority backgrounds</a>. Perhaps by rethinking the school day and the school year, more school time could be made for mental health professionals to take a holistic approach to all the areas a child may need instruction and support.</p>
<h2>3. Prioritize prevention</h2>
<p>Prioritizing prevention includes promoting a positive school climate and teaching healthy habits for maintaining one’s mental well-being to all youth. A positive school climate – including social, emotional and physical safety, respectful behavior, an emphasis on learning, and social connectedness with peers and teachers – is shown to reduce <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.142919">risky behaviors</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.09.030">aggression</a>. It also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.09.030">increases positive mental health outcomes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3043">academic success</a>.</p>
<p>Teaching life skills, like being aware of one’s own and other people’s emotions, what’s causing the emotions, how to manage them in healthy ways and where to seek help, has also been shown to prevent the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864">development and escalation of mental illness among children and youth</a>.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.schoolmentalhealth.org/media/SOM/Microsites/NCSMH/Documents/Quality-Guides/Tier-1-Quality-Guide-1.29.20.pdf">evidence-based</a> curricula that schools can use to teach and reinforce these skills. For example, <a href="https://www.positiveaction.net/">Positive Action</a> is designed to teach pre-K-to-12th grade students how their thoughts, feelings and behaviors are related. It is taught in classrooms by teachers for about 15 minutes, three to four days each week, for an entire school year. </p>
<p>There is <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/InterventionReports/wwc_positive_action_042307.pdf">evidence</a> of large to moderate effects of Positive Action in elementary schools on student <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.06.012">mental health</a>, behavior and academic achievement. If these prevention strategies were prioritized in policy and funding, I believe America’s schools and school mental health professionals would be better positioned to more systematically address the unrelenting rise of children’s mental health needs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214801/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joni Williams Splett receives funding from the U.S. Department of Education and Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute. She is affiliated with the American Psychological Association, National Association of School Psychologists and Florida Association of School Psychologists. </span></em></p>Not enough time is being set aside for school counselors and psychologists to help students work on mental health issues, a professor of school psychology says.Joni Williams Splett, Associate Professor of School Psychology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2117202023-08-25T12:26:55Z2023-08-25T12:26:55ZHow educational research could play a greater role in K-12 school improvement<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544629/original/file-20230824-17-yoegke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C35%2C5832%2C3882&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Billions of dollars are being spent on education research. Is it working?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/students-work-together-in-a-classroom-setting-royalty-free-image/1209763734?phrase=elementary%2Bschool%2Btest">Fly View Productions/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For the past 20 years, I have taught <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=q0iwOrMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">research methods in education</a> to students here in the U.S. and in other countries. While the purpose of the course is to show students how to do effective research, the ultimate goal of the research is to get better academic results for the nation’s K-12 students and schools.</p>
<p>Vast resources are already being spent on this goal. Between 2019 and 2022, the <a href="https://ies.ed.gov">Institute of Educational Sciences</a>, the research and evaluation arm of the U.S. Education Department, distributed <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/pdf/IESBR2019_2020.pdf">US$473 million</a> in 255 grants to improve educational outcomes.</p>
<p>In 2021, colleges and universities spent approximately <a href="https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf23303">$1.6 billion on educational research</a>.</p>
<p>The research is not hard to find. The Educational Research Information Center, a federally run repository, <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/projects/eric.asp">houses 1.6 million educational research sources</a> in over 1,000 scholarly journals.</p>
<p>And there are plenty of opportunities for educational researchers to network and collaborate. Each year, for instance, <a href="https://www.aera.net/Portals/38/docs/About_AERA/RulesandPolicies/AM%20Site%20Selection%20Procedures.pdf?ver=2016-06-16-110502-963">more than 15,000 educators and researchers</a> gather to present or discuss educational research findings at the annual meeting of the <a href="http://www.aera.net">American Educational Research Association</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, for all the time, money and effort that have been spent on producing research in the field of education, the nation seems to have little to show for it in terms of improvements in academic achievement.</p>
<h2>Growing gaps</h2>
<p>Even prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, test scores were beginning to decline. <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/studies/statemapping/2021036.aspx">Results from the 2019 National Assessment of Educational Progress,</a>, or NAEP – the most representative assessment of what elementary and middle school students know across specific subjects – show a widening gap between the highest and lowest achievement levels on the NAEP for fourth grade mathematics and eighth grade reading between 2017-19. During the same period, NAEP outcomes show stagnated growth in reading achievement among fourth graders. By eighth grade, there is a greater gap in reading achievement between the highest- and lowest-achieving students.</p>
<p>Some education experts have even suggested that the chances for progress get dimmer for students as they get older. For instance, in a <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/pdf/IESBR2019_2020.pdf">2019-2020 report to Congress</a>, Mark Schneider, the Institute of Educational Sciences director, wrote: “for science and math, the longer students stay in school, the more likely they are to fail to meet even NAEP’s basic performance level.”</p>
<p>Scores on the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/national_results.asp">International Assessment of Adult Competencies</a>, a measure of literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills, suggest a similar pattern of achievement. Achievement levels on the assessment show a slight decline in literacy and numeracy between 2012-14 and 2017. Fewer Americans are scoring at the highest levels of proficiency in literacy and numeracy. </p>
<p>As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=q0iwOrMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">educational researcher who focuses on academic outcomes for low-income students and students of color</a>, I believe these troubling results raise serious questions about whether educational research is being put to use.</p>
<p>Are school leaders and policymakers actually reading any of the vast amount of educational research that exists? Or does it go largely unnoticed in voluminous virtual vaults? What, if anything, can be done to make sure that educational research findings and recommendations are actually being tried?</p>
<p>Here are four things I believe can be done in order to make sure that educational research is actually being applied. </p>
<h2>1. Build better relationships with school leaders</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in a blue suit accompanies an elementary school-aged boy as they walk down a school hallway." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544653/original/file-20230824-29-8rlhm4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">School principals can help shape educational research.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/elementary-student-walking-with-teacher-in-school-royalty-free-image/1423165500?phrase=black+high+school+principal&adppopup=true">Kali9/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Educational researchers can reach out to school leaders before doing their research in order to design <a href="https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2018/05/higher-education-and-k-12-form-partnerships-help-educators-and-learners">research based on the needs of schools</a> and schoolchildren. If school leaders can see how educational research can specifically benefit their school community, they may be more likely to implement findings and recommendations from the research.</p>
<h2>2. Make policy and practice part of the research process</h2>
<p>By implementing new policies and practices based on research findings, researchers can work with school leaders to do further research to see if the new policies and practices actually work. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://oese.ed.gov/offices/office-of-discretionary-grants-support-services/innovation-early-learning/investing-in-innovation-i3/">The Investing in Innovation (i3) Fund</a> was established by the <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PLAW-111publ5">American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009</a> to fund the implementation and evaluation of education interventions with a record of improving student achievement. Through the fund, <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20184013/pdf/20184013.pdf">$679 million was distributed through 67 grants</a> – and 12 of those 67 funded projects improved student outcomes. The key to success? Having a <a href="https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/innovation-grants-yield-some-clear-winners-lessons-to-learn/2018/06">“tight implementation”</a> plan, which was shown to produce at least one positive student outcome.</p>
<h2>3. Rethink how research impact is measured</h2>
<p>As part of the <a href="https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-education-schools/edu-rankings">national rankings for colleges of education</a> – that is, the schools that prepare schoolteachers for their careers – engagement with public schools could be made a factor in the rankings. The rankings could also include measurable educational impact.</p>
<h2>4. Rethink and redefine how research is distributed</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.teachhub.com/teaching-strategies/2021/07/what-is-evidence-based-instruction/">Evidence-based</a> instruction can <a href="https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/te/ebi.pdf#:%7E:text=This%20brief%20provides%20an%20overview%20of%20evidence-based%20instruction%2C,instruction%20as%20part%20of%20the%20teacher%20induction%20process.">improve student outcomes</a>. However, public school teachers often <a href="https://www.edutopia.org/article/using-research-improve-teaching">can’t afford</a> to access the evidence or the time to make sense of it. Research findings written in everyday language could be distributed at conferences frequented by public school teachers and in the periodicals that they read. </p>
<p>If research findings are to make a difference, I believe there has to be a stronger focus on using research to bring about real-world change in public schools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211720/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Detris Honora Adelabu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A veteran education researcher raises questions about whether educational research is actually being put to use.Detris Honora Adelabu, Clinical Professor of Applied Human Development, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2051712023-05-23T12:25:42Z2023-05-23T12:25:42ZNew approach to teaching computer science could broaden the subject’s appeal<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527051/original/file-20230518-23-xsgvbi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Language arts students can program chatbots for literary characters.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/side-view-of-youthful-african-american-schoolboy-royalty-free-image/1425235236">shironosov/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-and-information-research-scientists.htm#tab-1">growing demand for computer science skills</a> in professional careers and many areas of life, K-12 schools <a href="https://www.eschoolnews.com/steam/2023/02/23/what-is-computer-science-education-lacking/">struggle to teach</a> computer science to the next generation.</p>
<p>However, a new approach to computer science education – called <a href="https://www.fierceeducation.com/teaching-learning/teaching-computational-thinking-essential-future-college-students">integrated computing</a> – addresses the main barriers that schools face when adding computer science education. These barriers include a <a href="https://news.gallup.com/reports/196379/trends-state-computer-science-schools.aspx">lack of qualified computer science teachers</a>, a lack of funds and a focus on courses tied to standardized tests.</p>
<p>Integrated computing teaches computer science skills like programming and computer literacy within traditional courses. For example, students can use integrated computing activities to <a href="https://youtu.be/KG_JqpmmkdQ">create geometric patterns in math</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/x5w6x7f33Wk">simulate electromagnetic waves in science</a> and <a href="https://youtu.be/654BOJwAWCg">create chatbots for literary characters</a> in language arts. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://education.gsu.edu/profile/lauren-margulieux/">professor of learning technologies</a>, I have been <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YGV0Y24AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">designing integrated computing activities</a> for K-12 students for the past five years. I work with faculty and students in teacher training programs to <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.26716/jcsi.2022.11.15.35">create and test integrated computing activities</a> across all academic subjects. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://laurenmarg.com/research/">my research</a>, I have found that integrated computing solves three major hurdles to teaching computer science education in K-12 schools.</p>
<h2>Challenges to teaching computer science</h2>
<p>Fitting a new academic discipline into an <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/0ebc645c-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/0ebc645c-en">already crowded curriculum</a> can be a challenge. Integrated computing allows computer science education to become part of learning in other classes, the way reading skills are also used in science, math and language arts classes. </p>
<p>Teacher knowledge is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2023.2178868">another difficulty when it comes to teaching computer science</a> in K-12 schools. While people who specialize in computer science are often recruited to more lucrative careers than teaching, integrated computing develops all teachers’ computer science knowledge. Teachers do not need to become computer science experts to teach computer literacy and programming skills to their students. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Teacher holds tablet while working in classroom" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527129/original/file-20230518-19-2wsuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers do not need a computer science degree to incorporate computing into their classrooms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/indian-teacher-using-digital-tablet-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/526297603">LWA/Dann Tardif/DigitalVision Collection/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In fact, the most surprising result of my research is how quickly teachers learn to teach integrated computing activities. In about two hours, <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.26716/jcsi.2022.11.15.35">teachers can use a pre-made computer science lesson</a> in their classrooms. In the future, I will teach them to use artificial intelligence to create their own lessons for their students. For example, a science teacher recently asked me how she could create a data analysis activity for her class. AI tools would allow her to <a href="https://www.ironhack.com/us/en/blog/chatgpt-for-data-analysts">quickly design the technical aspects</a> of this activity. </p>
<p>And finally, integrated computing also addresses students’ reluctance to take elective computer science classes when they have little knowledge of computer science. In 2022, over half of U.S. public high schools offered computer science, but just <a href="https://www.edweek.org/technology/computer-science-education-is-gaining-momentum-but-some-say-not-fast-enough/2022/09">6% of students</a> took these classes. Students who do take computer science in high school typically have had <a href="https://doi.org/10.2190/9LE6-MBXA-JDPG-UG90">early exposure to computer science</a>. Integrated computing can give all students early exposure to computer science, which I believe will increase the number of students who take computer science courses later in school. </p>
<h2>Computer science for everyone</h2>
<p>Early exposure to computer science in school is especially important for students from groups <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/exploring-the-state-of-computer-science-education-amid-rapid-policy-expansion/">underrepresented in computer science</a>. A <a href="https://advocacy.code.org/stateofcs">2022 report</a> from Code.org, a nonprofit that advocates for more computer science education in K-12 schools, found that students who are Latino, female or from low-income or rural areas are <a href="https://www.edweek.org/technology/computer-science-education-is-gaining-momentum-but-some-say-not-fast-enough/2022/09">less likely</a> to be enrolled in foundational computer science courses.</p>
<p>Teachers who want to build their computer science knowledge and apply it to their classroom can try these free self-paced, online <a href="https://gavirtualpd.catalog.instructure.com/browse/computerscience">integrated computing courses</a> that I developed, and which are tied to micro-credentials. Also, this sortable list of <a href="https://integratedcomputing.org/">integrated computing activities</a> provides free lesson plans. The activities require only a computer – no prior knowledge is needed, and young learners can complete them outside of class, too.</p>
<p>Integrated computing provides a path to increase computer literacy for all K-12 students. As technology advances at an increasing rate, I believe schools must take care that our young people do not fall behind.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205171/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Margulieux receives funding from Snap, Inc., Google, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Education. </span></em></p>Integrated computing enables teachers to incorporate basic programming skills into K-12 students’ regular math, science and language arts classes.Lauren Margulieux, Associate Professor of Learning Technologies, Georgia State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2026912023-03-31T18:15:47Z2023-03-31T18:15:47ZDeclines in math readiness underscore the urgency of math awareness<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518595/original/file-20230330-1139-7yolln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C73%2C6134%2C4000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Math scores plummeted during the COVID-19 pandemic. What will it take to raise them back up?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-solving-mathematical-addition-royalty-free-image/950609102?phrase=math%20classroom&adppopup=true">Ridofranz / iStock / Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When President Ronald Reagan <a href="https://ww2.amstat.org/mam/98/what.is.maw.html">proclaimed the first National Math Awareness Week</a> in April 1986, one of the problems he cited was that too few students were devoted to the study of math.</p>
<p>“Despite the increasing importance of mathematics to the progress of our economy and society, enrollment in mathematics programs has been declining at all levels of the American educational system,” Reagan wrote in his proclamation.</p>
<p>Nearly 40 years later, the problem that Reagan lamented during the first National Math Awareness Week – which has since evolved to become “<a href="https://ww2.amstat.org/mathstatmonth/aboutmathstatmonth.html">Mathematics and Statistics Awareness Month</a>” – not only remains but has gotten worse.</p>
<p>Whereas 1.63%, or about <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_325.65.asp">16,000</a>, of the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d12/tables/dt12_310.asp">nearly 1 million</a> bachelor’s degrees awarded in the U.S. in the 1985-1986 school year went to math majors, in 2020, just 1.4%, or about <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_325.65.asp">27,000</a>, of the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d12/tables/dt12_310.asp">1.9 million</a> bachelor’s degrees were awarded in the field of math – a small but significant decrease in the proportion.</p>
<p>Post-pandemic data suggests the number of students majoring in math in the U.S. is likely to decrease in the future.</p>
<p>A key factor is the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/24/us/math-reading-scores-pandemic.html">dramatic decline in math learning</a> that took place during the lockdown. For instance, whereas 34% of eighth graders were proficient in math in 2019, test data shows the percentage <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/24/us/math-reading-scores-pandemic.html">dropped to 26% after the pandemic</a>.</p>
<p>These declines will undoubtedly affect how much math U.S. students can do at the college level. For instance, in 2022, only <a href="https://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/2022/2022-National-ACT-Profile-Report.pdf">31% of graduating high school seniors were ready for college-level math</a> – down from 39% in 2019.</p>
<p>These declines will also affect how many U.S. students are able to take advantage of the growing number of <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/home.htm">high-paying math occupations</a>, such as <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/data-scientists.htm">data scientists</a> and <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/actuaries.htm">actuaries</a>. Employment in math occupations is projected to <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/home.htm">increase by 29%</a> in the period from 2021 to 2031.</p>
<p>About <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/home.htm">30,600 math jobs</a> are expected to open up per year from growth and replacement needs. That exceeds the 27,000 or so math graduates being produced each year – and <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/field-of-degree/mathematics/mathematics-field-of-degree.htm">not all math degree holders</a> go into math fields. Shortages will also arise in several other areas, since math is a gateway to many STEM fields.</p>
<p>For all of these reasons and more, as a <a href="https://manilsuri.umbc.edu/">mathematician</a> who thinks deeply about the <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9781324007036">importance of math</a> and what it means to our world – and even to <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=lFWFsSkAAAAJ&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=lFWFsSkAAAAJ:j3f4tGmQtD8C">our existence as human beings</a> – I believe this year, and probably for the foreseeable future, educators, policymakers and employers need to take Mathematics and Statistics Awareness Month more seriously than ever before.</p>
<h2>Struggles with mastery</h2>
<p>Subpar math achievement has been endemic in the U.S. for a long time. </p>
<p>Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress shows that <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/mathematics/nation/achievement/?grade=12">no more than 26% of 12th graders</a> have been rated proficient in math since 2005.</p>
<p>The pandemic <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/mathematics/nation/groups/?grade=4#nation-gaps-gaps">disproportionately affected</a> racially and economically disadvantaged groups. During the lockdown, these groups had <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/mathematics/2022/#student-experiences">less access to the internet and quiet studying spaces</a> than their peers. So securing Wi-Fi and places to study are key parts of the battle to improve math learning.</p>
<p>Some people believe math teaching techniques need to be revamped, as they were through the <a href="https://www.vox.com/2014/4/20/5625086/the-common-core-makes-simple-math-more-complicated-heres-why">Common Core</a>, a new set of educational standards that stressed alternative ways to solve math problems. Others want a return to more traditional methods. Advocates also argue there is a need for colleges to <a href="https://www.nctq.org/publications/Teacher-Prep-Review:-Building-Content-Knowledge">produce better-prepared teachers</a>.</p>
<p>Other observers believe the problem lies with the “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/44330/mindset-by-carol-s-dweck-phd/">fixed mindset</a>” many students have – where failure leads to the conviction that they can’t do math – and say the solution is to foster a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2021.784393/full#B21">“growth” mindset</a> – by which failure spurs students to try harder.</p>
<p>Although all these factors are relevant, none address what in my opinion is a root cause of math underachievement: our nation’s ambivalent relationship with mathematics.</p>
<h2>Low visibility</h2>
<p>Many observers worry about how U.S. children fare in <a href="https://data.oecd.org/pisa/mathematics-performance-pisa.htm">international rankings</a>, even though math anxiety makes <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536509.pdf">many adults in the U.S.</a> steer clear of the subject themselves.</p>
<p>Mathematics is not like art or music, which people regularly enjoy all over the country by visiting museums or attending concerts. It’s true that there is a National Museum of Mathematics in New York, and some science centers in the U.S. devote exhibit space to mathematics, but these can be geographically inaccessible for many.</p>
<p>A 2020 study on media portrayals of math <a href="https://doi.org/10.29333/iejme/8260">found an overall “invisibility of mathematics</a>” in popular culture. Other findings were that math is presented as being irrelevant to the real world and of little interest to most people, while mathematicians are stereotyped to be singular geniuses or socially inept nerds, and white and male. </p>
<p>Math is tough and typically takes much discipline and perseverance to succeed in. It also calls for a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/947/1/012029">cumulative learning approach</a> – you need to master lessons at each level because you’re going to need them later. </p>
<p>While research in neuroscience shows almost everyone’s brain is <a href="https://blogs.ams.org/matheducation/2019/02/01/everyone-can-learn-mathematics-to-high-levels-the-evidence-from-neuroscience-that-should-change-our-teaching/">equipped to take up the challenge</a>, many students balk at putting in the effort when they don’t score well on tests. The <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2018.00026/full#B6">myth that math is just about procedures and memorization</a> can make it easier for students to give up. So can <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1304392.pdf">negative opinions</a> about math ability conveyed by peers and parents, such as declarations of not being “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/well/family/fending-off-math-anxiety.html">a math person</a>.”</p>
<h2>A positive experience</h2>
<p>Here’s the good news. A 2017 Pew poll found that despite the bad rap the subject gets, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/01/09/many-americans-say-they-liked-math-and-science-in-school-thought-about-a-stem-career/">58% of U.S. adults enjoyed their school math classes</a>. It’s members of this legion who would make excellent recruits to help promote April’s math awareness. The initial charge is simple: Think of something you liked about math – a topic, a <a href="https://www.mathsisfun.com/puzzles/">puzzle</a>, a fun fact – and go over it with someone. It could be a child, a student, or just one of the many adults who have left school with a negative view of math.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three seashells are shown under the words " src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518209/original/file-20230329-24-bfj94q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Math exercise for shells can be downloaded at https://www.manilsuri.com/assets/shell_patterns.pptx.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Manil Suri</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Can something that sounds so simplistic make a difference? Based on my years of experience as a mathematician, I believe it can – if nothing else, for the person you talk to. The goal is to stimulate curiosity and convey that mathematics is much more about <a href="https://theconversation.com/pi-gets-all-the-fanfare-but-other-numbers-also-deserve-their-own-math-holidays-200046">exhilarating ideas that inform our universe</a> than it is about the school homework-type calculations so many dread.</p>
<p>Raising math awareness is a first step toward making sure people possess the basic math skills required not only for employment, but also to understand math-related issues – such as gerrymandering or climate change – well enough to be an informed and participating citizen. However, it’s not something that can be done in one month.</p>
<p>Given the decline in both math scores and the percentage of students studying math, it may take many years before America realizes the stronger relationship with math that President Reagan’s proclamation called for during the first National Math Awareness Week in 1986.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Manil Suri does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nearly four decades after President Ronald Reagan proclaimed the first National Math Awareness Week, math readiness and enrollment in college math programs continue to decline.Manil Suri, Professor of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1967732023-01-09T13:22:29Z2023-01-09T13:22:29ZRussia’s war in Ukraine threatens students daily and forces teachers to improvise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503077/original/file-20230104-18-50ezwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C29%2C5000%2C3293&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In the remains of her classroom, 16-year-old Khrystyna Ignatova visits her desk in the Chernihiv School #21, in Chernihiv, Ukraine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/RussiaUkraineWarBombedOutSchoolPhotoGallery/37d128ec4a664d61b9da94b928de1df5/photo">AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Svitlana Popova’s students didn’t realize she was leading their online math class while outside the charred remains of her home in Ukraine until they saw a news video <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/after-school-was-destroyed-ukrainian-teacher-conducts-online-lessons-outside-her-ruined-home/32063262.html">about it on social media</a>.</p>
<p>Her students were in their own difficult circumstances, too – seeking refuge away from their homes, some in other countries.</p>
<p>Popova is a mathematics teacher in the town of Borodyanka, in the Kyiv region of Ukraine. Her school was seized as a headquarters by Russian military forces and heavily damaged before their retreat. After her classroom transitioned to online instruction, Russian tanks fired on her house and burned it down. Yet this dedicated teacher continued to lead virtual lessons from a small umbrella-covered table in the yard.</p>
<p>Ordinary Ukrainians have been hailed for their heroism since Russia’s full-scale invasion. “There are no small matters in a great war,” Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy affirmed in an emotional <a href="https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/novorichne-privitannya-prezidenta-ukrayini-volodimira-zelens-80197">New Year’s address</a>. “Each of us is a fighter,” Zelenskyy stated. “Each of us is the basis of defense.” </p>
<p>Listing the tools of war – ship’s helms, steering wheels, weapons, scalpels – Zelenskyy ended with an unexpected inclusion: the teacher’s pointer. This passing remark highlights an often hidden front in Ukraine’s defensive struggle – the fight by countless teachers and parents to keep more than <a href="https://data.unicef.org/how-many/how-many-children-under-18-are-there-in-ukraine/">8 million children</a> educated, even as their worlds have been thrown into upheaval.</p>
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<h2>Educational efforts</h2>
<p>Like Ukraine’s stunning resistance itself, local educators are rising to the occasion despite enormous challenges. Viral videos show teachers continuing to instruct their small pupils in <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-shelter-school-children-bombs-russia/32006135.html">bomb shelters</a> during active bombardments, or conducting lessons inside a <a href="https://westobserver.com/news/europe/blackout-in-ukraine-how-the-indomitable-people-get-out-of-the-way-during-a-blackout-they-spin-mincemeat-and-dry-their-hair-in-stores/">post office</a> after schools lose electricity. Gas stations and grocery stores, powered by generators long after homes and schools lose power, are being <a href="https://tsn.ua/en/ato/blackout-in-ukraine-how-does-unbreakable-nation-survive-without-power-people-grind-meat-and-dry-hair-at-stores-2217976.html">transformed</a> into hubs for filming virtual lessons.</p>
<p>One Kyiv teacher spent hours <a href="https://apostrophe.ua/ua/news/kyiv/2022-12-21/nesokrushimyiy-pedagog-set-porazila-uchitelnitsa-kotoraya-vela-onlayn-urok-pod-otkryityim-nebom-na-obestochennyih-ulitsah-kieva/286605">crouching on a snowy sidewalk</a> outside a store, determined to finish sharing the day’s homework assignment despite rolling blackouts. Other teachers now bring their <a href="https://suspilne.media/218802-na-uroki-z-ukritta-ak-vcitelka-z-harkova-navcae-ditej-pid-cas-vijni/">pets</a> for online lessons, lifting spirits and providing psychological support. Many teachers, like Popova, comfort their students despite their own traumatic losses.</p>
<h2>Long-term displacement</h2>
<p>As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=w-3ou1AAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">anthropologist working in Ukraine</a> since 2015, I have long observed the effects of armed conflict on Ukrainian children. After Russia first <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12086">invaded</a> in 2014, regular <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/urkaine-bomb-scares-russia/31672638.html">bomb threats</a> to schools have been attributed by Ukrainians to Russian governmental efforts to sow fear. </p>
<p>Between that first invasion and the second in February 2022, armed conflict with Russia internally displaced <a href="https://www.unian.info/war/10416549-donbas-war-death-toll-rises-up-to-nearly-13-000-un.html">1.5 million</a> Ukrainians and damaged <a href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/5be942fdef.html">740 schools</a>. I have analyzed the impact of this <a href="https://www.kristinahook.com/research">warfare</a> on children for <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429397745-4">trauma healing</a> since Russia’s invasion began nine years ago. Still, these earlier challenges pale in comparison with what the Ukrainian educational system faces today.</p>
<p>Russia’s nationwide offensive against Ukraine in early 2022 led to the largest refugee flows in Europe since World War II. In the weeks following the invasion, nearly 16 million Ukrainians were driven from their homes to seek refuge <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2022/5/628a389e4/unhcr-ukraine-other-conflicts-push-forcibly-displaced-total-100-million.html">abroad</a> and <a href="https://www.iom.int/news/needs-growing-over-8-million-internally-displaced-ukraine">elsewhere in Ukraine</a>. Many of these were women and children, exacting a heavy toll on Ukraine’s female-majority teaching corps, as well as their students. </p>
<p>With large numbers of Ukraine’s young people at least temporarily resettled in primarily European countries, some teachers <a href="https://suspilne.media/218802-na-uroki-z-ukritta-ak-vcitelka-z-harkova-navcae-ditej-pid-cas-vijni/">reported</a> a surge in their students’ motivation linked to the structure of returning to their online Ukrainian schooling. “The children missed it (school) … because most of them were on the road for a long time. It was very emotionally draining, and when they returned to school, it was something they were used to,” one teacher <a href="https://suspilne.media/218802-na-uroki-z-ukritta-ak-vcitelka-z-harkova-navcae-ditej-pid-cas-vijni/">told a Ukrainian reporter</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A Ukrainian teacher conducts class online.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Teaching online, again</h2>
<p>Teachers around the world developed remote-teaching skills during the COVID-19 pandemic. Now that war had driven their classes apart again, Ukrainian teachers adapted those skills to teach students across Europe and the world.</p>
<p>Some private online schools like <a href="https://optima.school/">Optima</a> made their materials available free of charge. This step allowed Ukrainian students to study at home if they could not otherwise access schooling because of the war. It also provided a way for Ukrainian refugee children to retain access to school materials in their native language. Still, new obstacles emerged.</p>
<p>Many countries that took in Ukrainian refugees required the children to attend local schools, even if they didn’t speak the local language. Some children thrived, like the young Ukrainians who <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-63987153">stunned</a> their Welsh hosts by learning the local language in less than 12 weeks. Yet for many children, these host country efforts at integration created new problems. In my ongoing ethnographic research, Ukrainian parents described how these attendance requirements left their children frustrated. “The children just sit there not understanding anything all day,” one parent told me.</p>
<p>Parents told me that after their children finished these long days in a foreign school, many would begin their day’s real learning late at night. Parents said Ukrainian language materials gave children the chance to stay on schedule with their grade level back home. Failure to do so might further derail their future state exams and graduation dates. </p>
<p>By nightfall, however, children had lost their most productive educational hours. Harmful spirals soon followed. Even formerly top students experienced exhaustion-driven pressures to copy virtual assignments. Losing their joy of learning added to the strain of the war’s intense <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/09/11/1121426264/traumatized-and-displaced-but-determined-kids-in-ukraine-head-back-to-school">trauma</a> in these young lives. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A teacher stands in front of a classroom" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503071/original/file-20230104-129741-ut6fnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These Ukrainian refugee children attend a school in Germany, but many of their compatriots struggle to learn other languages.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/december-2022-lower-saxony-osnabr%C3%BCck-teacher-hilde-news-photo/1245646583">Friso Gentsch/picture alliance via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A focus on education</h2>
<p>Ukraine’s literacy rate is 99.8%, one of the <a href="https://uatribune.com/en/literacy-and-education-in-ukraine/">highest in the world</a>, and education is a national point of <a href="https://euromaidanpress.com/2022/12/30/they-thought-we-are-cave-people-stereotypes-ukrainian-refugees-face-in-europe/">pride</a>. In wartime, Ukraine’s government is working to adapt its educational system to new realities. </p>
<p>Home schooling is permitted, so long as students can pass standardized tests. Still, many supervising parents are overburdened with the tasks of daily survival in the face of the Russian military’s relentless <a href="https://onu.delegfrance.org/by-targeting-civilians-russia-is-deliberately-violating-international">attacks</a> on the civilian population. One mother <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/quiet-war-fought-ukraines-mothers/">revealed</a> to a reporter that she soothes her children to sleep in bomb shelters before arranging shovels around them in case they become trapped in the rubble of a missile attack. Another mother told me she sends her young child to school with an emergency backpack filled with food, water and clothes in case he becomes trapped with his teachers.</p>
<p>The Russian military has also damaged or destroyed over <a href="https://nationalinterest.org/feature/war-ukraine%E2%80%99s-schools-204596">2,400 schools</a>, adding to construction burdens. When the school year <a href="https://nationalinterest.org/feature/war-ukraine%E2%80%99s-schools-204596">began</a> in September, government data indicated that <a href="https://nationalinterest.org/feature/war-ukraine%E2%80%99s-schools-204596">less than 25%</a> of Ukrainian schools nationwide were able to offer full-time, in-person instruction. Even those that were intact are now required to have a bomb shelter before they can hold in-person lessons. Major <a href="https://kse.ua/support/safe-education/">campaigns</a> have rushed to build bomb shelters for schools, but, even so, many are simple, dirt-floor basements. </p>
<p>In addition, Russia’s intentional targeting of Ukraine’s electrical grid and civilian infrastructure poses new dangers to children’s health and schooling. Power outages have affected an estimated 10 million people, over one-quarter of the Ukrainian population. <a href="https://24tv.ua/vikliki-dlya-sistemi-navchannya-yak-ukrayinski-shkolyari-zdobuvayut_n2195435">Over half</a> of Ukraine’s pupils are enrolled online and need electricity to attend classes and do schoolwork. Continued electrical outages would be a foreboding new hurdle.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Metal, ceiling tiles and dust are strewn across a ruined room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503074/original/file-20230104-22-hbyyux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fighting in eastern Ukraine destroyed this school in Paraskoviivka, in Donetsk Oblast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rubble-lies-in-reconstructed-school-building-damaged-by-a-news-photo/1453281266">Vitalii Pavlenko/Global Images Ukraine via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Under occupation</h2>
<p>The status of children’s education in Russian-controlled territories is even more alarming. Russia’s occupation has ushered in new forms of ideological <a href="https://nus.org.ua/articles/osvita-pid-chas-vijny-yak-pidtrymuyut-vchyteliv-iz-tot-ta-yaki-problemy-mayut-ukrayinski-uchni-za-kordonom/">coercion</a> in the classroom. Teachers in the liberated Kharkiv region have spoken of <a href="https://www.kyivpost.com/russias-war/ukrainian-teachers-speak-of-intimidation-torture-for-refusing-to-teach-russian.html">arbitrary arrests and torture</a> by the Russian military when they refused to teach their students that Ukraine was a territory of Russia. </p>
<p>Ukrainian teachers have also tried to <a href="https://euromaidanpress.com/2022/11/12/how-schoolchildren-in-russian-occupied-ukraine-are-taught-to-hate-their-homeland/">protect</a> their students from Russia’s forcible deportations of minors, a crime of <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/why-russias-war-ukraine-genocide">genocide</a> under international law.</p>
<p>Courage has become synonymous with global descriptions of Ukrainian citizens enduring war, and teachers exemplify this everyday heroism. Still, Russia’s targeting of Ukraine’s youngest citizens unfortunately goes much deeper than the physical devastation of their <a href="https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-war-crimes-schools-d1e52368aced8b3359f4436ca7180811">schools</a>, <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/russia-attacks-ukraine-kindergarten-orphanage-sumy-oblast-shelter-casualties-reported-1682656">kindergartens</a> and <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/02/ukraine-cluster-munitions-kill-child-and-two-other-civilians-taking-shelter-at-a-preschool/">nurseries</a>. In a survey of existing educational challenges, one brave parent admitted, “I am really scared for the future of our children.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196773/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristina Hook has received funding from the National Science Foundation, USAID Research and Innovation Fellowship Program, U.S. Fulbright Program, University of Notre Dame, and University of Alberta for her ethnographic research in Ukraine. She is an Assistant Professor of Conflict Management at Kennesaw State University's School of Conflict Management, Peacebuilding, and Development and a nonresident fellow at the Marine Corps University's Krulak Center for Innovation and Future Warfare. </span></em></p>The war in Ukraine affects everyone – including teachers and students, who are meeting the challenges with their people’s famed determination.Kristina Hook, Assistant Professor of Conflict Management, Kennesaw State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1908142022-12-08T13:33:02Z2022-12-08T13:33:02ZWhite teachers often talk about Black students in racially coded ways<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492368/original/file-20221028-13-t8n33a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C68%2C5084%2C3427&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Educators stereotype Black students in subtle ways.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/fourth-grade-girls-on-computers-royalty-free-image/608899871?phrase=black%20students%20classroom&adppopup=true">Jonathan Kirn via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When a white Texas middle school teacher <a href="https://www.kxan.com/news/local/pflugerville/pflugerville-teacher-who-made-inappropriate-comments-no-longer-employed-by-district/">told his students</a> in November 2022 that he was “ethnocentric” and thought his race was “superior,” he attempted to explain his position by arguing that he was hardly the only person who held such a view.</p>
<p>“Let me finish …” the teacher is seen telling his students on a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxMM-WwrNWs">now-viral video</a> as they began to push back against his remarks. “I think everybody thinks that; they’re just not honest about it.”</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Texas teacher tells his students he is racist.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The teacher in question has <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/white-teacher-at-bohls-middle-school-in-pflugerville-benched-over-viral-rant-on-superior-race">since been fired</a>. His termination is hardly surprising given that he was captured on video making blatantly racist remarks in a public school classroom. But as we discovered while performing a study at a predominantly Black school with mostly white teachers, many of them – whether consciously or unconsciously – often harbor negative racial views and stereotypes about Black students and their families. The key difference is they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859221119115">verbalize those negative views in less obvious ways</a> than the Texas teacher.</p>
<p>At the school we studied, the negative views were not isolated occurrences, but rather a part of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859221119115">culture of coded racial stereotypes</a>, which we argue encourages the disciplining of Black students at disproportionately higher rates.</p>
<p>Our findings were published in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859221119115">peer-reviewed study</a> that appeared in Urban Education in 2022. They are based on a study that began in 2015 when administrators at a predominantly Black high school asked our research team for help understanding why the predominantly white teaching staff was struggling to form positive relationships with the students. In the first part of our partnership with the school, we found that while Black students made up 89% of the student body, they represented 97% of all disciplinary infractions. Conversely, while white students made up 8% of the student population, they received only 1% of the disciplinary referrals. This early quantitative finding confirms studies from across the nation that showed that, even when controlling for rates of misbehavior and poverty, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541670">Black students are still disproportionately</a> disciplined compared to their white peers.</p>
<p>We are education researchers who specialize in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PkC_OxQAAAAJ&hl=en">cultural</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Olivia-Marcucci-2156367933">racial justice</a> issues. We believe our findings shine light on how often educators hold racial biases against the students they’ve been entrusted to teach.</p>
<h2>Stereotyping was prevalent</h2>
<p>The racial biases came to light as we conducted focus groups with teachers and students to ask them about their school’s culture and experiences with classroom discipline.</p>
<p>Of the teachers who participated in the focus groups, 84% were white. During focus group discussions, 36 out of 38 teachers voiced a stereotype at least once, though some did so up to 10 times. While some teachers pushed back against stereotypes they heard, and even more often acknowledged systemic racism in the lives of their students, the teachers still frequently used stereotypes when discussing their students and families.</p>
<p>In a series of focus groups, we asked educators from the school to reflect on their experiences in the school, interacting with students, and their thoughts on the school discipline practices. We were particularly interested in hearing their thoughts on the types of infractions for which students were disciplined and how specific punishments were decided on. For example, why were some students who disrupted class sent back from the office to the classroom immediately, but others received 10 days of in-school suspension? </p>
<p>The majority of the focus group questions were not focused on race explicitly. Even so, we still noticed an undercurrent of racially coded stereotypes as the teachers reflected on the statistical trends in school discipline and on their school culture as a whole. </p>
<p>For example, in one focus group, a white teacher notes that when the then-vice principal, a Black man, went to the school as a student, “we had a much more diverse student body. So, he had an opportunity to see different types of behavior. And I think a lot of these kids that we have, the chronic misbehaviors, they don’t have that option. They’re in a class, class by class where they’re all very similar socioeconomic background, and that really makes a difference, I think. Their parents are working and are unable to monitor them. Maybe they didn’t have such a successful high school experience, so they don’t have the tools that some of the other kids – we still have a few of them, fortunate to have a number in my classes.”</p>
<p>The teacher directly connects the presence of “chronic misbehaviors” with a change in the school’s demographics. The teacher opines that in the past, when the student body was nearly equally Black and white, that Black individuals, such as the then-vice principal, in his example, could observe better behavior in school. The teacher therefore communicates an anti-Black stereotype in a coded way, implying that Black students needed white students to “see different types of behavior.”</p>
<p>In a different example, two white teachers began talking about how parents at their school didn’t care about their children. At one point, they pretended to be parents, with one of the teachers even making a joke that one of the parents completely forgot they even had a child: </p>
<p>Teacher 1: Yeah, just somebody saying, ‘Hey, you know you have a baby, right?’
Teacher 2: I do?
Teacher 1: Yeah.
Teacher 2: Oh.
Teacher 1: Oh, wooord.</p>
<p>Nothing about this interaction is racially explicit. But the teacher’s joke invokes a stereotype of Black parents as disengaged from their children’s lives by using a stereotypical African American vernacular – “wooord.” When white teachers at a predominantly Black school make statements like these, they are upholding the stereotype that Black parents lack concern for their children – even if that is not the teachers’ intention.</p>
<h2>A way of bonding</h2>
<p>Using <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691123899/interaction-ritual-chains">a theory</a> that measures the speed of bonding, we found that when teachers used anti-Black stereotypes, they often bonded with each other more quickly and effectively. Certain types of communication — often ones that happen nonverbally — can <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691123899/interaction-ritual-chains">help individuals bond with each other</a>. These bonds then make individuals feel better about themselves and their community. In the data, teachers often used nonverbal communication or noises like “uh-huh,” laughter, and conversational rhythm, while stereotyping their students. </p>
<p>For example, in the “Hey, you know you have a baby, right?” joke, both teachers laughed as a result of the joke. Just as importantly, the rest of the teachers in the room also laughed. Laughter is an important display of bonding. In other interactions, teachers used verbalizations like “mhmmm” or “This is it” to support each other as they engaged in stereotyping their students.</p>
<h2>Reform through reflection</h2>
<p>Based on what <a href="https://www.guilford.com/books/Dual-Process-Theories-of-the-Social-Mind/Sherman-Gawronski-Trope/9781462514397/contents">social psychologist Russell Fazio</a> has found, if teachers are given time to reflect on their potential biases, they have a better chance of removing those biases from their teaching. Through <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED521618">systematic and sustained professional learning</a>, teachers can become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-019-0299-7">aware of their implicit and explicit biases and how those biases may impact their behavior</a>. This type of professional learning must be coupled with structural reforms to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2019.1579743">re-professionalize teaching</a> to achieve lasting, anti-biasing results. </p>
<p>Since our study was completed, the educators, school and district have sought to revamp their disciplinary policies and school culture, including deep discussions about how their biases might affect how they discipline students. The school has begun to use <a href="https://www.wested.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/resource-restorative-justice-in-u-s-schools-an-updated-research-review.pdf">restorative justice practices</a>, an alternative approach to discipline that focuses on humanizing individuals and repairing harm after a wrong occurs. The school hired a full-time staff person to support restorative justice. According to the current principal, in the year following, suspensions dropped by 47% in one year and chronic absenteeism dropped by 7%.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190814/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>ROWHEA ELMESKY received an internal university grant which helped fund this study. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olivia Marcucci does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Though difficult to pinpoint, white educators often put forth stereotypes when they discuss Black students among themselves, new research has found.Rowhea Elmesky, Associate Professor of Education, Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. LouisOlivia Marcucci, Assistant Professor of Education, Johns Hopkins UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1922282022-11-02T12:27:56Z2022-11-02T12:27:56ZWhy schools’ going back to ‘normal’ won’t work for students of color<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491961/original/file-20221026-1498-z5dr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C12%2C8627%2C5497&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students of color have long needed more from schools than is typically provided.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-indigenous-navajo-young-teacher-checking-her-royalty-free-image/1413335596">THEPALMER/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>National test results released in September 2022 show <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/24/us/math-reading-scores-pandemic.html">unprecedented losses</a> in <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/">math and reading scores</a> since the pandemic disrupted schooling for millions of children.</p>
<p>In response, educational leaders and policymakers across the country are <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2022/05/13/restoring-pandemic-losses-will-require-major-changes-in-schools-and-classrooms-superintendents-say/">eager to reverse these trends</a> and catch these students back up to where they would have been.</p>
<p>But this renewed concern seems to overlook a crucial fact: Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, many schools were failing to adequately serve children of color. As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aFMqdpIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">scholar of racial equity</a> in K-12 education, I see an opportunity to go beyond getting students caught up. Rather than focus only on trying to close pandemic-related gaps, schools could seek to more substantially improve the quality of education they offer, particularly for students of color, if they want to achieve equitable and sustainable results.</p>
<h2>Studying schools</h2>
<p>For more than a decade, I’ve been conducting research on how schools can successfully serve Black and Latino students. Most of this work has focused on New York City, but what I have learned is critical for any school.</p>
<p>In one long-term <a href="https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/research-alliance/evaluating-expanded-success-initiative">study of a citywide initiative</a> targeted at improving outcomes for Black and Latino boys, my colleagues and I collected data across more than 100 schools and through interviews with over 500 school leaders, teachers and students. </p>
<p>Based on this work, I’d like to highlight four critical conditions to improve the success and well-being of students of color.</p>
<h2>1. Classrooms that reflect the students they serve</h2>
<p>Research shows <a href="https://cepa.stanford.edu/content/causal-effects-cultural-relevance-evidence-ethnic-studies-curriculum">students do better overall</a> when their teachers and <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/10919/84024">the books students read</a> reflect their race, ethnicity and cultures. Yet statistics show that seldom happens.</p>
<p>Children’s books <a href="https://readingspark.wordpress.com/2019/06/19/picture-this-diversity-in-childrens-books-2018-infographic/">depict nonhuman characters</a>, like dogs and bears, almost three times as often as they <a href="https://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/literature-resources/ccbc-diversity-statistics/">depict characters who are Black</a>, four times as often than Asian characters, five times as often than Hispanic characters, and nearly 30 times as often than Indigenous characters. </p>
<p>Moreover, while the teacher workforce remains nearly <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020103/index.asp">80% white</a>, research shows that students who had <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w25254">teachers of the same race</a> had better chances of graduating from high school and enrolling in college. </p>
<h2>2. Connection, not control</h2>
<p>Students of color are more than twice as likely to be <a href="https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018">arrested at school</a> as their white counterparts. And Black children who behave in the same ways as white children are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2011.12087730">twice as likely</a> to be suspended for the same actions. </p>
<p>Many schools have established <a href="https://www.weareteachers.com/restorative-justice/">restorative justice programs</a>, which emphasize repairing harm versus doling out punishment. These efforts can help <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010096">shift teachers’ roles</a> from controlling student behavior to forming connections with young people. </p>
<p>These connections can also be built outside formal classroom environments. Activities such as peer mentoring groups and student-led clubs are good opportunities for cultivating student-faculty connections. In those environments, students are more likely to <a href="https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/research-alliance/research/publications/strategies-improving-school-culture">feel comfortable being themselves</a> and expressing their feelings about both learning and other issues relevant to their lives.</p>
<h2>3. Equitable access to academic challenge</h2>
<p>Teachers <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.04.001">expect less of their Black and Latino students</a> than they do of white and Asian classmates. Black and Latino students are also underrepresented in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2020.1728275">gifted and talented programs</a> and less likely to be placed in such advanced coursework as <a href="https://edtrust.org/resource/inequities-in-advanced-coursework/">eighth-grade algebra</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/bejeap-2018-0189">Advanced Placement courses</a> in high school.</p>
<p>When students have less access to rigorous learning opportunities, it can limit their progress in other areas as well. Students are <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/coe_cpb.pdf">more likely to enroll in college</a> when they have taken four years of math and science. Yet Black and Latino students are less likely to be exposed to <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/stem-course-taking.pdf">more advanced math and science courses, such as calculus and physics</a>.</p>
<h2>4. Teacher preparation and support</h2>
<p>Teachers need strong preparation to serve an <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/index.asp">increasingly racially and ethnically</a> diverse student population. But many teacher education programs <a href="https://doi.org/10.7249/RR2990">are not preparing teachers</a> to meet the needs of the students they teach, particularly in schools that primarily serve students of color. </p>
<p>Teachers are required to have ongoing training to keep their <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/all-teachers-go-through-recertification-how-can-we-make-the-process-better/2017/12">subject-matter knowledge up to date</a>. Similarly, school districts could provide ongoing support for teachers to present broader depictions of history and society as part of developing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315582066">culturally relevant classrooms</a>, which draw on students’ backgrounds, identities and experiences. </p>
<p>The current political climate has become <a href="https://time.com/6192708/critical-race-theory-teachers-racism/">hostile to educators</a> who broach topics of race and racism. Teachers may call on principals and other education leaders to shield them from <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/06/16/teacher-resignations-firings-culture-wars/">backlash</a> against exposing students to historical or current examples of racial injustice.</p>
<p>As schools seek to address pandemic-related gaps, there is now a unique opportunity to reimagine public education. For many students of color, business as usual wasn’t enough. Let’s learn from where we’ve been and aim for better than a return to normal.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192228/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriana Villavicencio receives funding from the Spencer Foundation and the William T. Grant Foundation. </span></em></p>A scholar explains why schools can’t focus only on closing pandemic-related learning gaps.Adriana Villavicencio, Assistant Professor of Education, University of California, IrvineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1923752022-10-20T13:13:22Z2022-10-20T13:13:22ZDisasters like Hurricane Ian can affect academic performance for years to come<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490475/original/file-20221018-8262-gkofgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C134%2C5617%2C3591&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder can vary from one student to the next.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/want-to-go-home-royalty-free-image/1160693779?phrase=classroom%20test%20&adppopup=true">LumiNola via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When leaders at a middle school in New Orleans asked me to help students who were struggling after the city had been struck by Hurricane Katrina, we didn’t see eye to eye.</p>
<p>They wanted me to focus on helping the children overcome <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0985">test anxiety</a>. Their concern was enabling the children to pass a high-stakes standardized test.</p>
<p>As a developmental psychologist who specializes in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=64GwCx0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">how children respond to adverse events</a> that cause stress and anxiety, I – and my colleagues – had something else in mind. We wanted to learn more about the severity of the children’s trauma. We wanted to know how they were coping with any lingering effects of having their lives uprooted by the hurricane. Our objective was to develop an intervention to reduce their overall anxiety, not just help kids do well on a test.</p>
<p>Based on the destruction I saw surrounding the school – which was located in one of the hardest-hit areas of the city – we felt strongly that our cause was the more noble of the two. I reflected on my time in New Orleans in the wake of Hurricane Katrina after I saw how hard Florida had been hit by Hurricane Ian.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="White spray paint on a brick wall states: 'Katrina 8-29-05' and 'Help Us!'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490478/original/file-20221018-6861-lk145c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans in late August of 2005.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/katrina-on-the-wall-royalty-free-image/172703647?phrase=hurricane%20katrina&adppopup=true">Parker Deen via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>For instance, I recalled when I looked out the classroom window in New Orleans seeing the watermarks 8 feet (2½ meters) high on the houses surrounding the school, most of them still boarded up and uninhabited. Only a house here and there had been renovated.</p>
<p>The children were traumatized in many ways: By the high-crime neighborhood they lived in but loved. By the fact that their neighborhood was now partially gone because of damage from the storm. By having to see the hurricane’s devastation every day – even a year after Katrina <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Hurricane-Katrina">made landfall in Louisiana on Aug. 29, 2005</a>.</p>
<p>So we asked about screening the kids for post-traumatic stress disorder. School leaders, however, kept stressing the need for the students do well on the standardized tests.</p>
<p>The conflict eventually led me to an important realization: We didn’t have to choose between overcoming text anxiety and PTSD. We could do both. I figured that helping children regulate their emotions while taking a test could also potentially help them regulate their emotions in everyday life.</p>
<p>So began our decade of research into what it takes to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9324-z">rebuild children’s emotional wellness</a> in the years that follow a hurricane.</p>
<p>As Florida officials <a href="https://www.tampabay.com/news/education/2022/10/17/hurricane-hit-florida-school-districts-are-getting-back-class/">struggle to get the state’s schools back on track</a> in the wake of Hurricane Ian, we believe our post-Katrina research in New Orleans offers important insights on how to make sure those efforts address the emotional toll the hurricane may have taken on the state’s K-12 students.</p>
<h2>A matter of years</h2>
<p>One of the most important lessons is that just as it will <a href="https://www.deseret.com/2022/10/6/23390915/hurricane-ian-toll-in-florida">likely take years</a> to rebuild the infrastructure and homes hit by Hurricane Ian, it could take a similar amount of time to help some children regain a sense of normalcy. My own research – and that of <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/article-abstract/2776439">many others</a> – shows that while children are often resilient in the face of disasters, the effects of trauma can be insidious and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9352-y">linger for years to come</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A frontal view of a boarded up school in New Orleans in the wake of Hurricane Katrina." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490477/original/file-20221018-22-i3gluw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Hurricane Katrina destroyed neighborhoods and schools.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/katrina-aftermath-6-royalty-free-image/145999073?phrase=katrina%20hurricane%20kids&adppopup=true">futurewalk via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>And not all children will be affected the same. Many may have intense and lasting symptoms of anxiety that are stable over time. Others may initially show a few symptoms that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12420">get worse or grow as time passes</a>. Some children may show symptoms that evolve over time into other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-021-00398-2">symptoms</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3201_15">Common symptoms</a> include hyperarousal, which is when a kid’s body kicks into high alert, and emotional numbing, which often evolves later and involves difficulty experiencing emotions, usually positive ones.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000138">research shows that witnessing disasters</a> and home damage is associated with PTSD symptoms, which may show up as test anxiety and ultimately lead to lower academic achievement.</p>
<p>Because of the variability in how symptoms show up, screening children for distress is warranted. School-based screenings and interventions that help children regulate their emotions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0491-1">may be beneficial</a> for all youths in hard-hit areas. School-based screenings may also be warranted both in the immediate aftermath and over the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201300470">long term</a>. The screenings can help to further identify youths in need of referral to more <a href="https://www.wmpllc.org/ojs/index.php/jem/article/view/3033">intensive services</a>.</p>
<p>In 2010, my colleagues and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-010-9032-7">I suggested</a> children affected by disasters be screened for anxiety related distress. For my colleagues and me, it’s heartening to know that the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/11/well/family/anxiety-screening-recommendation-children.html">U.S. Preventive Services Task Force</a>, an independent volunteer panel of experts in disease prevention and evidence-based medicine, has recommended an even broader approach: anxiety screenings for all children and adolescents ages 8-18, not just those affected by disasters. It will be particularly critical to follow this policy recommendation in areas affected by Ian and other disasters. </p>
<h2>Targeting test anxiety</h2>
<p>In our post-Katrina research, we also found that targeting test anxiety through an intervention was associated with reduced PTSD symptoms. </p>
<p>When students experience PTSD, they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000138">more likely to experience test anxiety</a>. And when they experience test anxiety, they are less likely to score well on tests, our research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000138">shows</a>. Indeed, scientists and now many policymakers accept that childhood exposure to adverse or traumatic events may have negative effects on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000780">developing brain</a>.</p>
<p>Therefore, if schools want to help students do better, my research suggests they should focus on helping kids learn to regulate their anxiety. One way to do this is to use <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-cognitive-behavior-therapy-2795747">cognitive behavioral therapy</a>, which is a treatment that helps people identify and change negative thought patterns that affect their behavior and emotions. This involves a number of techniques, such as helping kids directly face their fears and difficulties – in this case, tests – instead of avoiding problems. Prior research has found a link between students with PTSD and “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520802084061">school refusal</a>” behavior – that is, refusing to go to school.</p>
<p>Another technique is called <a href="https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/muscle-relaxation-for-stress-insomnia">progressive muscle relaxation</a>. This technique involves tensing and then releasing all of the muscles in your body, progressively from your toes to your face. Another technique was deep breathing.</p>
<p>Test-anxious kids who were taught these techniques after Katrina saw their grades improve an average of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.11.005">one letter grade</a>, in this case from mostly C’s to mostly B’s. Our research also suggest these techniques <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-014-0491-1">may help prevent long-term difficulties</a>. The same techniques could be useful in Florida as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192375/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl F. Weems has received or currently receives funding from the US National Science Foundation, US National Institutes of Health, US Environmental Protection Agency, US Department of Justice, the State of Iowa Department of Health and Human Services (formerly Department of Human Services), and Youth Shelter Services of Iowa. </span></em></p>Teaching students techniques to cope with anxiety and stress can help them bounce back after a hurricane upends their life.Carl F. Weems, Professor and Chair, Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894422022-10-04T12:23:50Z2022-10-04T12:23:50ZFour essential features to seek in an after-school program<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487545/original/file-20220930-18-vt20ou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C8%2C5542%2C3667&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Effective homework help can reduce stress for students and their families.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/staff-member-assists-a-child-as-they-attend-online-classes-news-photo/1231222620?adppopup=true">Patrick T. Fallon via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to after-school programs, there are all types from which to choose. But when it comes to finding a program that offers high-quality service and engaging activities that help children do better in school, that can be a challenge.</p>
<p>I know this because in the early 2000s, I evaluated after-school sites in the state of Florida as part of the federal <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/programs/21stcclc/index.html">21st Century Community Learning Centers</a> program.</p>
<p>I’ve seen some highly effective programs, such as one that taught students with developmental disabilities how to kayak and sail. But I’ve also seen a program in which officials seemed to be packing as many kids as they could into their facility because the program got funded based on how many students were registered. There were no structured activities. They even balked at my assessing how well they delivered services like homework assistance. They had so many kids to oversee, the notion of providing students with high-quality help seemed hardly to be a consideration. </p>
<p>At a different program I went to evaluate, at a rural high school in the Florida Panhandle, kids didn’t even know they were in a program.</p>
<p>“Program? What program?” a student responded to me once when I announced the reason I was there. “Coach just told us to meet someone in the library today for something.”</p>
<p>That was nearly 20 years ago. Since then, after-school programming has continuously <a href="http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/AA3PM/#resources">struggled to meet demand</a>, so finding a high-quality program may be even more difficult.</p>
<p>In 2020, one survey found, there were <a href="http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/AA3PM/#resources">24.6 million children</a> who would have enrolled in an after-school program if one were available to them – 5.2 million more than in 2014, when the figure stood at 19.4 million.</p>
<p>Participation in an after-school program offers many benefits. Research has found, for instance, that it can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6">boost students’ overall academic performance and behavior in school</a>.</p>
<p>As an educator who focuses on how to ensure after-school programs actually help children learn, here are four elements that I urge parents and other caretakers to consider to make sure their children’s time in a program is time is well spent. Since many students <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/06/22/1105970186/pandemic-learning-loss-findings">suffered learning losses</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/children8121134">during the COVID-19 pandemic</a>, I believe a sharper academic focus in after-school activities has taken on even greater importance.</p>
<h2>1. Objectives and purpose</h2>
<p>If a parent wants only a place for their child to be safe until they get off work, a program’s purpose may not matter. But <a href="http://afterschoolalliance.org/documents/AA3PM/National-AA3PM-Healthy-Futures-2022-Fact-Sheet.pdf">most adults believe</a> after-school programs should enable kids to explore topics of interest, try out new things and gain skills like communication and teamwork.</p>
<p>If a program description explicitly states that it provides homework assistance, tutoring, academic enrichment activities or opportunities to do community service, that is a good first step. Some programs have no discernible objectives, or they are broad and vague.</p>
<p>When programs use project-based academic activities, they can be effective in helping students to better understand specific subjects, such as math. The programs can be even more effective when the activities <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED522625.pdf">incorporate material from the child’s regular school</a>.</p>
<p>That way, a program can <a href="http://www.expandinglearning.org/sites/default/files/em_articles/3_afterschoolprogramquality.pdf">maximize its academic impact</a>. School-based programs have an advantage in this regard, since program staff can more easily communicate with staff from a child’s school.</p>
<h2>2. Scheduled activities</h2>
<p>If a program lacks a schedule that spells out what students will be doing, that can be a telltale sign that it doesn’t have much to offer. In my experience as a program evaluator, high-quality programs usually schedule activities in a way that helps promote their objectives.</p>
<p>For example, there are benefits when a specific time is set up for participants to complete homework with qualified staff who can provide meaningful help. When students complete their homework before coming home, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09602-8">lessens stress</a> for students and their families by saving more time for family activities and sleep.</p>
<h2>3. Qualified staff</h2>
<p>Parents should inquire about what kind of training and credentials staff have to do their jobs.</p>
<p>In terms of credentials, some examples include a <a href="https://www.cdacouncil.org/en/">child development associate</a> certification, a certification in <a href="https://youth.gov/youth-topics/positive-youth-development">positive youth development</a> or a certification through the <a href="https://netanational.org/">National Enrichment Teachers Association</a>. Such credentials show <a href="https://acycpjournal.pitt.edu/ojs/jcycw/article/view/433">another level of professionalism</a>.</p>
<p>Some programs may <a href="https://niost.org/Afterschool-Matters-Fall-2017/fostering-arts-education-through-a-university-afterschool-partnership">partner with a local college or university</a> to bring on college students as volunteers. Research shows that college students bring a certain <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED498868.pdf">passion and enthusiasm</a> to programs, and that participants “<a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED498868.pdf">feel special</a>” when older peers take an interest in them.</p>
<p>Parents should also ask how many staff members are on hand. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services <a href="https://childcare.gov/consumer-education/ratios-and-group-sizes">recommends a ratio</a> of no more than 10 to 12 school-age students per qualified adult and groups of no more than 20 to 24 students with two qualified adults. When group and class sizes are reasonable, it better enables staff to provide high-quality learning experiences that can also include individual attention as warranted.</p>
<h2>4. Daily attendance</h2>
<p>Daily attendance patterns can offer clues about the level of student interest in a program. Don’t assume or accept that attendance is low because a program is too academic. Research has found that academic activities <a href="https://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/Documents/The-Value-of-Out-of-School-Time-Programs.pdf">do not lower attendance</a> at high-quality after-school programs.</p>
<p>Officials at successful programs expect regular attendance and collect attendance data. They know that if students don’t attend their programs, it will be a big challenge for the program to meet its goals and objectives.</p>
<p>When a program has clearly defined objectives, a schedule to meet those objectives, qualified staff members and students who attend regularly, the program tends to yield <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED545471.pdf">positive results</a>, such as
<a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED499113">higher test scores and better work habits</a>. </p>
<p>Parents and caretakers who know to look for these features should be better able to choose the best after-school program to meet their children’s needs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189442/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David S. Fleming receives funding from the Nita M. Lowey 21st Century Community Learning Centers </span></em></p>A scholar who used to evaluate after-school programs says they should do more than just be a place for kids to hang out and socialize.David S. Fleming, Professor of Education and Department Chair, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1886692022-08-29T13:38:03Z2022-08-29T13:38:03ZWhat are green jobs and how can I get one? 5 questions answered about clean energy careers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481333/original/file-20220826-16-wl02rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=49%2C24%2C8194%2C5462&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Solar installation jobs are among those expected to grow in the next decade.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/working-on-installing-solar-panels-royalty-free-image/1350971530?adppopup=true">Brenda Sangi Arruda / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>When President Joe Biden signed the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/08/16/biden-inflation-reduction-act-signing/">Inflation Reduction Act</a> in August 2022, he called it the “<a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/07/statement-by-president-biden-on-senate-passage-of-the-inflation-reduction-act/">largest investment ever</a>” to fight climate change. He also said it would lead to the creation of well-paying union jobs to help “<a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/19/fact-sheet-the-inflation-reduction-act-supports-workers-and-families/">reduce emissions across every sector of our economy</a>.” These jobs are also known as “clean energy jobs,” and the number of these jobs is expected to increase in the coming years as a result of the act’s <a href="https://www.democrats.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/inflation_reduction_act_one_page_summary.pdf">US$369 billion</a> investment in energy security and climate change.</em></p>
<p><em>Here, Shaun Dougherty, an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=K3uUtzcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">expert in career and technical education</a>, answers five questions about clean energy jobs, their expected growth and what kind of education a person needs to get one.</em></p>
<h2>1. What is a ‘clean energy’ job?</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.bls.gov/green/green_definition.htm">general</a>, the term applies to any job that is related to producing goods and delivering services focused on conserving or protecting natural resources, or reducing their use.</p>
<p>So, there are jobs in manufacturing equipment for solar panel and wind turbine components. There are also sales jobs in solar energy – that is, selling solar panels to homeowners and landlords – as well as in installation, maintenance and repair in both the solar and wind industries. There is also <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/environmental-engineers.htm">growing demand for environmental engineers and scientists</a>, whose jobs include helping to design solar panels and wind turbines and determine where they are placed.</p>
<h2>2. How many green jobs will be created in the next few years?</h2>
<p>About 9 million clean energy jobs will be created over the next decade, according to an <a href="https://www.bluegreenalliance.org/site/9-million-good-jobs-from-climate-action-the-inflation-reduction-act/">analysis</a> from the Political Economy Research Institute at UMass Amherst.</p>
<p>The federal government has also projected <a href="https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2022/data-on-display/green-growth.htm">strong growth in clean energy jobs</a> in the coming decade. Many of these jobs are expected expected to be as installers and technicians for both solar and wind energy. For instance, there is a projected 68% increase in wind turbine service technician jobs, and a projected 52% increase in solar panel installation jobs over the next decade. However, the growth in the actual number of such jobs will be relatively small: 4,700 and 6,100, respectively.</p>
<p>There is also a <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/environmental-scientists-and-specialists.htm">growing need for environmental scientists and specialists</a>, who use their knowledge of science to protect the environment and people’s health. The federal government projects there will be 7,300 new jobs in these fields over the next decade.</p>
<h2>3. How much do these jobs pay?</h2>
<p>Clean energy jobs pay <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/advancing-inclusion-through-clean-energy-jobs/">at least $2 more per hour</a> – or nearly 10% more – than the national average of $23.86 per hour.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2022/data-on-display/green-growth.htm">Estimates</a> from the Department of Labor show that across occupations, clean energy jobs pay well. For example, solar installers could make about $47,000 per year, wind turbine technicians about $52,000 annually and engineers nearly $100,000. </p>
<h2>4. What kind of education do you need to get a green job?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-24/green-jobs-have-higher-wages-lower-entry-barriers">Not a whole lot</a> beyond high school. Solar installation jobs usually require only a high school diploma. Turbine technicians need more advanced training, but that’s usually a certificate that can be earned at a technical or community college. The highest-paying jobs as environmental scientists or engineers, however, require a two- or four-year college degree. </p>
<p>Also, college isn’t the only way to get a clean energy job. You can get a clean energy job through <a href="https://www.jobcorps.gov/train">Job Corps</a>, a federal program that works with young people who have had difficulty getting an education or employment. Research shows Job Corps, at least historically, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22233">boosts earnings</a> for the young people it serves.</p>
<p>It <a href="https://www.k12climateaction.org/blog/brief-on-policy-principles-for-green-school-infrastructure-and-cte">might be difficult</a>, however, to get the kind of technical education you need from your local high school. It <a href="https://www.greenenergytimes.org/2018/08/massachusetts-schools-awarded-funds-for-clean-energy-education-programs/">also depends on where you live</a>.</p>
<h2>5. Where’s the best place to live to get a green job?</h2>
<p>Right now, there are more green jobs in the places that are set up to supply renewable energy and that have created incentives to build the infrastructure for clean energy. For solar, this means <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/solar-jobs-state-states">famously sunny places</a> like California, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Texas, Florida and Colorado. It also includes states that have created incentives to increase the potential for clean energy use, such as North Carolina, New York and Massachusetts. <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/what-are-top-10-states-clean-energy-jobs">Texas is top for wind energy</a> employment, but other Plains states, like the Dakotas, also fare well.</p>
<p>A recent report from the Brookings Institution – a nonprofit public policy organization based in Washington, D.C. – highlighted where it is cheapest to produce wind and solar energy. This includes areas where there <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/how-renewable-energy-jobs-can-uplift-fossil-fuel-communities-and-remake-climate-politics/">a lot of jobs in nonrenewable energies</a>, as opposed to clean energy.</p>
<p>This is a hopeful sign. It suggests that clean energy jobs may be coming to areas that might otherwise lose out as the country moves toward greater reliance on renewable energy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188669/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shaun M. Dougherty does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Jobs in the clean energy industry are expected to grow thanks to a historic federal investment in fighting climate change. Many of the jobs have low barriers to entry, an expert says.Shaun M. Dougherty, Professor of Education & Policy, Boston CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860182022-08-22T12:26:52Z2022-08-22T12:26:52ZAdvanced Placement courses could clash with laws that target critical race theory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479968/original/file-20220818-445-lh51rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C30%2C5134%2C3392&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lawmakers have passed many laws that seek to control how teachers educate students about racism in the U.S.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teacher-holding-papers-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/103056390?adppopup=true">Hill Street Studios / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientific theories to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124510380723">justify racism</a>. <a href="https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/what.htm">Laws</a> and <a href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dred-scott-v-sandford">Supreme Court decisions</a> that denied Black people equal rights. The imperialist view that Anglo-Saxons were called upon by God to <a href="https://faculty.tnstate.edu/tcorse/h2020/josiah_strong.htm">civilize the “savages” of the world</a>.</p>
<p>These topics might all sound like material from a course on systemic racism or critical race theory, which includes the <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/what-is-critical-race-theory-and-why-is-it-under-attack/2021/05">idea that racism is embedded in America’s legal systems and policies</a>.</p>
<p>In reality, these topics are all part of the framework for the College Board’s <a href="https://www.bestcolleges.com/blog/most-popular-ap-exams/">widely popular</a> <a href="https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/media/pdf/ap-us-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf">Advanced Placement course on U.S. history</a>.</p>
<p>At a time when <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/anti-crt-bills-are-aimed-to-incite-the-gop-base-not-parents/">mostly Republican-led state legislatures</a> have passed a <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/22525983/map-critical-race-theory-legislation-teaching-racism">rash of laws to restrict how public schoolteachers can educate students about America’s racist past</a>, I worry that AP courses like U.S History and U.S. Government and Politics could be in jeopardy. The danger is posed by those who support the various <a href="https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/legislation/document/20212022/203938">new state laws against the teaching of “divisive” topics</a> and critical race theory.</p>
<p>I raise this concern as a researcher who <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318787268">studies AP courses</a> and the ways educators can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721717745543">better prepare students to participate in America’s democracy</a>.</p>
<p>Recent developments show my concerns about the <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691178721/learning-in-the-fast-lane">future of Advanced Placement</a> are not unfounded. For instance, two school districts in Oklahoma had their accreditation <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/two-okla-districts-get-downgraded-accreditations-for-violating-states-anti-crt-law/2022/08">downgraded for running afoul of the state’s law against critical race theory</a>. While those cases didn’t involve AP coursework, they both show that people really are going after school districts on critical race theory-related issues.</p>
<p>Educators in <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/12/06/tennessee-teacher-fired-critical-race-theory/">Tennessee</a>, <a href="https://www.salon.com/2022/04/13/fired-over-crt-missouri-high-school-teacher-accused-of-teaching-critical-race-theory-loses-job/">Missouri</a>, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/texas-principal-forced-resign-critical-race-theory-rcna5036">Texas</a> and elsewhere have been fired or forced to resign for discussions of race and racism. Teachers across the country are <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/02/14/critical-race-theory-teachers-fear-laws/">teaching in fear</a>.</p>
<p>The fear may be heightened for educators who teach AP courses, which – by their very design – require teachers to deal with sensitive and controversial subjects that deal with matters of race.</p>
<h2>Preparing for a showdown</h2>
<p>These controversial subjects would include Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “<a href="https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html">Letter from a Birmingham Jail</a>.” In that 1963 letter, King – who had been <a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/188/walker-v-city-of-birmingham">arrested for parading without a permit</a> during anti-segregation protests in Birmingham, Alabama – critiques what he refers to as an “unjust law.”</p>
<p>“Sometimes a law is just on its face and unjust in its application,” King wrote. He added that such laws exist when those in power impose laws against a minority that they don’t abide by themselves. <a href="https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/texas-ban-critical-race-theory-schools-proves-gop-still-doesn-n1271101">Historians</a> and <a href="https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2022-01-17/critical-race-theory-martin-luther-king">critical race scholars</a> view King’s letter as an early example of critical race theory. The letter is featured in AP English Language and Composition.</p>
<p>I’m not the only one who is taking seriously how AP course requirements might contradict laws against critical race theory.</p>
<p>Consider an <a href="https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/about-ap/what-ap-stands-for">advisory</a> that the College Board itself put out in March 2022. The advisory states that courses that do not cover topics in the required curriculum will lose their AP designation.</p>
<p>This could affect the college plans of large numbers of America’s students, who rely on AP courses to <a href="https://apstudents.collegeboard.org/getting-credit-placement/search-policies">earn college credit</a> while still in high school. This enables students to save money by skipping certain courses in college.</p>
<p>The Advanced Placement program has been widely adopted throughout the country. As of fall 2021, <a href="https://reports.collegeboard.org/ap-program-results/2021">32 states had statewide or systemwide AP credit policies</a> that require colleges to award credit to students who score high enough on their AP exams. </p>
<p>The College Board reports that <a href="https://reports.collegeboard.org/ap-program-results/2021">more than 1.17 million U.S. public high school graduates</a> in the class of 2021 – 34.9% – took at least one AP exam. Despite the disruptions from the pandemic, that figure is up from the roughly 898,000 – or 28.6% – who did so in the class of 2011.</p>
<p>Despite the laws that seek to control how teachers can discuss race and the history of racism in the United States, the College Board plans to <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/schools-to-pilot-ap-african-american-studies-course-amid-upheaval-over-teaching-race/2022/02">pilot a new AP course in African American studies</a> in the fall of 2022 at about 60 schools.</p>
<h2>Precautions taken</h2>
<p>Anticipating the potential for conflicts with the College Board, the Yorba Linda school board in Orange County, California, <a href="https://www.kcrw.com/news/shows/greater-la/grocery-stores-insects-yorba-linda/critical-race-theory">made Advanced Placement courses exempt</a> from restrictions it enacted regarding classroom conversations on race.</p>
<p>A College Board official told me that as of yet, there have been no cases of schools removing content in AP history. How long that will be the case remains to be seen.</p>
<p>Historically, there have already been cases in which <a href="https://bannedbooks.library.cmu.edu/beloved-by-toni-morrison/">books have been removed</a> from the reading list for AP classes. For instance, in 2007, Jefferson County Public Schools – a school district that covers Louisville, Kentucky – <a href="https://ncac.org/update/joint-letter-to-jefferson-county-superintendent-about-removal-of-beloved-from-high-school-english-classes">removed Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” from an AP English class</a> at Eastern High School. “Beloved,” along with other books authored by Toni Morrison, is among the <a href="https://blog.prepscholar.com/ap-literature-reading-list">most frequently referenced</a> texts on the AP Literature and Composition exam.</p>
<p>When states ban critical race theory, it potentially affects more than just AP history and AP English. <a href="https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/media/pdf/ap-us-government-and-politics-course-framework-effective-fall-2018.pdf">AP U.S. Government and Politics</a>, for example, requires educators to teach students about race-based gerrymandering and different perspectives on affirmative action. The <a href="https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/media/pdf/ap-psychology-course-and-exam-description.pdf">AP Psychology course description</a> includes conversations about how race affects criminal trials.</p>
<h2>Vague and contradictory</h2>
<p>Some of the new laws that ban critical race theory are confusing and contradictory. A <a href="https://www.legis.ga.gov/api/legislation/document/20212022/204303">new law in Georgia</a>, for example, includes systemic racism as a “divisive topic” that “any curriculum … may not teach.” However, the bill explicitly allows teachers to address how “the enactment and enforcement of laws” can lead to “oppression, segregation, and discrimination.” </p>
<p>This contradiction has the potential to create uncertainty and uneasiness among AP teachers.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://legiscan.com/TX/text/HB3979/id/2339637">bill passed in Texas</a> states that “no teacher shall be compelled … to discuss current events or widely debated and currently controversial issues of public policy.” Controversy, however, is a centerpiece of <a href="https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-english-language-and-composition-course-and-exam-description.pdf">AP English Language and Composition</a>. The curriculum requires teachers to consider controversial issues and to help students “develop a critical and informed understanding of the controversy and the authority to enter the conversation themselves.”</p>
<h2>Critical choices</h2>
<p>If people complain that AP courses violate laws against critical race theory, the College Board may have to show that it is serious when it says it will strip AP designation from schools that remove required material from the AP curriculum.</p>
<p>Research is on the College Board’s side. Studies show that discussions on race and racism help <a href="https://www.chicano.ucla.edu/files/news/EducatingTowardaMultiRacialDemocracy0622.pdf">prepare students to participate in America’s multiracial democracy</a>. There are academic benefits as well. A <a href="https://cepa.stanford.edu/content/causal-effects-cultural-relevance-evidence-ethnic-studies-curriculum">Stanford University study</a> found that a ninth grade ethnic studies course boosted Black and Hispanic students’ GPA by 1.4 points and their attendance by 21 percentage points. The authors of that study say the findings point to wider academic benefits of lessons that are culturally relevant to students, such as lower dropout rates.</p>
<p>Since many parents and members of the public <a href="https://www.tc.columbia.edu/ncrest/publications--resources/0031721716629653.pdf">see the value of taking AP courses</a>, this could force opponents of critical race theory to make a crucial choice: Do they want to constrain classroom discussions about race? Or do they want to keep AP and all its benefits intact for the sake of America’s students? The College Board has made it clear they can’t have it both ways.</p>
<p>_This article has been updated to include the correct hyperlink to the version of the Georgia bill that became law. _</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186018/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suneal Kolluri does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>AP teachers could find themselves at odds with laws that restrict how they can teach about racism in America’s past.Suneal Kolluri, Assistant Professor of Education, University of California, RiversideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1885612022-08-16T12:28:52Z2022-08-16T12:28:52Z1 in 10 teachers say they’ve been attacked by students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479042/original/file-20220814-25-pk88p7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C16%2C5590%2C3715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Physical assaults against educators are on the rise.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/silhouetted-man-in-the-building-royalty-free-image/92297581?adppopup=true">Hal Bergman Photography via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
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<p>Ten percent. That’s the portion of K-12 teachers in the United States who say they’ve been physically attacked by a student, a <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/how-many-teachers-have-been-assaulted-by-students-or-parents-we-asked-educators/2022/08">new survey has found</a>.</p>
<p>Various <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/threats-of-student-violence-and-misbehavior-are-rising-many-school-leaders-report/2022/01">news outlets</a> have <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/2021/9/27/22691601/student-behavior-stress-trauma-return">reported</a> what has been described as a “<a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/schools-student-misbehavior-remote-learning-covid-11639061247">wave of student misbehavior</a>” since students returned from remote learning to in-person instruction. The purported surge in student misconduct is part of an upward trend in student assaults on teachers. The percentage of teachers who have been attacked by students has <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/a05/teacher-attacked-by-students?tid=4">increased from 6% to 10%</a> over the past decade, federal data shows.</p>
<p>As school districts across the country report critical <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/08/03/school-teacher-shortage/">shortages</a> in teaching staff, some people worry that the attacks on teachers <a href="https://www.theedadvocate.org/the-lasting-effects-after-a-student-assaults-a-teacher/">might push qualified candidates away from the profession</a>. Such concerns are well founded. </p>
<p>In my <a href="https://www.yahoo.com/video/teachers-must-often-face-student-121206767.html">research interviews with high school teachers who were attacked by students</a>, I learned from teachers firsthand that these assaults <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.22030">have a negative effect on their morale</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1368394">make them want to leave their jobs</a>.</p>
<p>As I point out in my book “<a href="https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title/12635/suspended">Suspended: Punishment, Violence, and the Failure of School Safety</a>,” attacks are leaving teachers traumatized. In some cases, educators told me they started illegally carrying guns to school after they were attacked.</p>
<p>Teachers also told me they feel as if principals don’t have their backs. In fact, several teachers who have been attacked by students expressed <a href="https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/threatened-and-attacked-students-when-work-hurts">fear of retribution from administrators</a>. </p>
<p>Why would a principal not support a teacher for reporting being attacked? Teachers informed me the principals were worried about their schools getting a bad reputation, which could make it harder to recruit new teachers and students. At least one school in my study could not recruit substitute teachers because the school had a reputation for violence between students and staff.</p>
<p>When teachers reported to principals they had been victimized by students, the principals would minimize their concerns, according to the teachers. The principals would also shift the focus to what the teacher did or didn’t do leading up to the attack.</p>
<h2>Call for tougher laws</h2>
<p>Over the past decade, teachers have urged policymakers to create legislation that addresses violent student behavior. Teachers have <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9fjAtYES-wA">spoken publicly</a> about how being attacked by students hampered their ability to teach effectively.</p>
<p>Lawmakers have tried to come up with tougher laws to deter violence against teachers. However, many bills fail because of concerns that the bills would erode students’ right to due process. In turn, as I found in my book, many teachers feel powerless because violent students are being allowed to stay in their classes. </p>
<p>For example, in Connecticut, <a href="https://www.cga.ct.gov/2018/ACT/pa/pdf/2018PA-00089-R00SB-00453-PA.pdf">Public Act 18-89</a> would have allowed teachers to have students removed from their classroom if those students engage in violent acts. It would have also allowed teachers to set the standards for the student’s return to the classroom.</p>
<p>Although this proposal received substantial support in the Connecticut House and Senate, then-Gov. Dannel Malloy <a href="https://cea.org/governors-veto-denies-support-for-classroom-safety-and-resources-for-students-in-need/">vetoed the bill</a>, arguing that it <a href="https://www.cga.ct.gov/olr/Documents/year/special/2018VP-20180618_2018%20Veto%20Package.pdf">ran counter to his efforts to reduce exclusion from the classroom and to cut off the school-to-prison pipeline</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.revisor.mn.gov/bills/text.php?number=SF2323&session=ls89&session_year=2016&session_number=0&version=latest&format=pdf">Teacher Protection Act</a> in Minnesota would have compelled public schools to expel students who assaulted teachers. But the legislation <a href="https://www.minnpost.com/education/2016/03/legislature-lawmakers-debate-vastly-different-approaches-student-discipline-minnes/">failed to gain much traction</a> because of fierce opposition from <a href="https://educationminnesota.org/">Education Minnesota</a> – a nonprofit organization that represents educators. This particular organization wanted to <a href="https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/threatened-and-attacked-students-when-work-hurts">prioritize restorative justice initiatives</a> that seek to keep students in school to make amends rather than have students be suspended or expelled.</p>
<p>Thus, the challenge for policymakers and administrators is to find a way to protect teachers without jeopardizing students’ right to due process. The well-being and stability of America’s teaching force depends on finding the right balance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188561/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Bell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Calls for tougher laws against assaults on teachers have been thwarted by efforts to keep kids in school.Charles Bell, Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice Sciences, Illinois State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1850962022-08-15T12:38:15Z2022-08-15T12:38:15ZComputer science benefits students with learning disabilities – but not always for the long term<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474160/original/file-20220714-32419-6llaip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5150%2C3423&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Schools can help students see themselves working in computer science.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/students-working-in-computer-lab-royalty-free-image/102754951?adppopup=true">Hill Street Studios/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>When computer science courses are delivered through career and technical education in high school, the courses can help students with learning disabilities feel better about their ability to succeed in STEM. The classes also help the students see the usefulness of computer science.</p>
<p>This is what we found in a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14782103211049913">recent study</a> with our co-authors – education scholars <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uEh9GkMAAAAJ&hl=en">Michael Gottfried</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jennifer-Freeman-16">Jennifer Freeman</a>.</p>
<p>We used national survey data from more than 20,000 students across the country to dig into this connection between computer science and science, technology, engineering or mathematics, a group of subjects generally known as STEM.</p>
<p>In our work, we found that – compared with other students with learning disabilities – those who took computer science courses in a career and technical education program were more likely to believe they could succeed in STEM. They were also more likely to believe STEM was useful for future employment or college options.</p>
<p>We also found that – within career and technical education programs – students with learning disabilities were just as likely to take computer science courses as students without learning disabilities. All our findings were still evident even after we took into account key student characteristics, such as family income, first language, gender and racial or ethnic identity.</p>
<p>Students with learning disabilities in our study are those who have a disability that affects their learning to write, read, spell or perform mathematical calculations. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Computer science is one of the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/home.htm">fastest-growing</a> fields in the current economy. Employment experts predict a 13% increase – about 667,000 new jobs – in these computer occupations from 2020 to 2030. That’s more than three times the rate of anticipated overall job growth. </p>
<p>However, there have not been enough <a href="https://www.techservealliance.org/news/the-state-of-the-technology-talent-shortage/">computer science graduates</a> in recent years to fill these jobs.</p>
<p>Based on our work, computer science courses appear to help students with learning disabilities develop positive attitudes toward STEM. These attitudes are linked to persistence in both <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5403895/">computer science</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5839644/">STEM more generally</a>. This makes it important for educators to encourage students to study, and stick with, computer science and STEM and make sure these students have access to these courses. </p>
<p>At the moment, students with learning disabilities are <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4198258">underrepresented in computer science fields</a> in college and the labor market. Specifically, <a href="https://cra.org/crn/2020/11/expanding-the-pipeline-the-status-of-persons-with-disabilities-in-the-computer-science-pipeline/">fewer than 8%</a> of students in undergraduate computer science programs have any disability. This is compared with about <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_311.10.asp">19% of all undergraduates</a>. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>A big question that remains is why students with learning disabilities don’t persist in computer science fields in college and, ultimately, pursue careers in the field. Even though computer science courses in high school help develop confidence and a sense of purpose, that may not be enough to encourage them to stick with it longer term. </p>
<p>One possible explanation might be that students with learning disabilities don’t see themselves as part of the STEM community. In our research, we looked to see if there was a link between computer science coursework and a feeling of STEM community membership. We found this connection for general education students but not for students with learning disabilities.</p>
<p>Another possible explanation may be that students with learning disabilities start high school with lower levels of STEM confidence and less of a sense that computer science will be useful to them in the future. Just participating in computer science courses may not be enough to make up the difference in this regard.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>One important next step will be to look at the factors that help students with learning disabilities keep studying computer science and STEM. For example, does a positive attitude toward STEM actually lead students with learning disabilities to study computer science or pursue careers in the field? We plan to explore such a question in future work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay Stratte Plasman receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the Institute of Education Sciences. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shaun M. Dougherty does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While computer science courses can help students with learning disabilities see themselves in careers in the field, they are still underrepresented. A team of researchers explores why.Jay Stratte Plasman, Assistant Professor in Workforce Development and Education at The Ohio State University, The Ohio State UniversityShaun M. Dougherty, Associate Professor of Public Policy & Education, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1881842022-08-08T12:21:33Z2022-08-08T12:21:33ZThe most recent efforts to combat teacher shortages don’t address the real problems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477473/original/file-20220803-21-syg3j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5973%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teachers face a range of challenges, but hiring more teachers won't fix them.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakCalifornia/9e1c06a48efb4871b626326500ba287d/photo">AP Photo/Marcio Jose Sanchez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>States have recently focused their efforts to reduce <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/08/03/school-teacher-shortage/">the nation’s teacher shortage</a> by promoting strategies that “<a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/states-relax-teacher-certification-rules-to-combat-shortages/2022/06">remove or relax barriers to entry</a>” to quickly bring new people into the teaching profession. </p>
<p><a href="https://edsource.org/2021/california-commission-continues-to-ease-testing-requirements-for-teachers/664620">California</a>, for example, allows teacher candidates to skip basic skills and subject matter tests if they have taken approved college courses. <a href="https://www.santafenewmexican.com/news/education/new-mexico-lawmakers-seek-clearer-details-on-type-of-teacher-vacancies/article_dedd2a0e-0dc3-11ed-9948-afd9903735fd.html">New Mexico</a> is replacing subject skills tests with a portfolio to demonstrate teaching competency. </p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://www.kxii.com/2022/05/07/oklahoma-removes-requirement-pass-general-education-portion-competency-exam-future-teachers/">Oklahoma</a> eliminated the Oklahoma General Education Test as a certification requirement. <a href="https://www.khou.com/article/news/education/missouri-education-department-loosens-restrictions-teacher-certifications/63-c5bead98-ec0c-4b7a-9e0d-a731f515863c">Missouri</a> no longer looks at a prospective teacher’s overall grades – just the ones earned in select courses required to become a teacher. <a href="https://www.al.com/educationlab/2022/07/alabama-approves-immediate-changes-to-teacher-certification-praxis.html">Alabama</a> has moved to allow some who score below the cutoff scores on teacher certification exams to still get a teacher’s license, and Arizona’s education requirements for teachers now allow <a href="https://www.fox13now.com/arizona-teachers-no-longer-need-college-degree">people without a college degree</a> to begin teaching – so long as they are currently enrolled in college.</p>
<p>All of these efforts focus on <a href="https://www.ed.gov/coronavirus/factsheets/teacher-shortage">recruiting new teachers</a>, mostly by <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/states-relax-teacher-certification-rules-to-combat-shortages/2022/06">lowering requirements to make it easier</a> for people to become certified to teach in public schools.</p>
<p>But these approaches do not address the actual causes of the <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/ct-illinois-teacher-shortage-salary-woes-20220430-vc4g5xtbkrgfbh6tehowohtqqm-story.html">nationwide teacher shortage</a>. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=VziSjl8AAAAJ">we</a> found doing research for our book “<a href="https://www.infoagepub.com/products/How-Did-We-Get-Here">How Did We Get Here?: The Decay of the Teaching Profession</a>,” college students who are interested in becoming teachers and current teachers agree: The root cause of the problem is a longstanding overall lack of respect for teachers and their craft, which is reflected by decades of <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/teacher-pay-penalty-dips-but-persists-in-2019-public-school-teachers-earn-about-20-less-in-weekly-wages-than-nonteacher-college-graduates/">low pay</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-education-reforms-can-support-teachers-around-the-world-instead-of-undermining-them-166528">hyperscrutiny</a> and <a href="https://www.apa.org/education-career/k12/violence-educators-technical-report.pdf">poor working conditions</a>. </p>
<h2>Disrespect to the profession is driving teachers away</h2>
<p>Even before COVID-19 hit, teachers were <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/A_Coming_Crisis_in_Teaching_REPORT.pdf">leaving the profession at an increasing rate</a>. In the late 1980s, annual teacher turnover was 5.6%, but it has grown to around 8% over the past decade. </p>
<p>The stress of <a href="https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2022/07/26/teachers-mental-health-crisis-pay-covid-pandemic-burnout/">teaching through a pandemic</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/teacher-burnout-hits-record-high-5-essential-reads-185550">has been speculated to drive away even more teachers</a>. About 1 in 6 teachers expressed that they would <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA1108-1.html">likely leave their job</a> pre-pandemic, but this increased to 1 in 4 by the 2020-21 school year. While teachers continue to leave classrooms, <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/the-teacher-shortage-is-real-large-and-growing-and-worse-than-we-thought-the-first-report-in-the-perfect-storm-in-the-teacher-labor-market-series/">fewer people are signing up</a> to replace them. </p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/the-teacher-shortage-is-real-large-and-growing-and-worse-than-we-thought-the-first-report-in-the-perfect-storm-in-the-teacher-labor-market-series/">the number of incoming teachers declined</a> from 275,000 in 2010 to under 200,000 in 2020 and is projected to be under 120,000 by 2025. And even those staying on the job are so unhappy, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/mar/25/teachers-strikes-us-low-pay-covid">many have been striking</a>.</p>
<p>We found that the reasons teachers are leaving primarily revolve around the disrespect they and the profession consistently face. For example, teachers <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/teacher-pay-penalty-dips-but-persists-in-2019-public-school-teachers-earn-about-20-less-in-weekly-wages-than-nonteacher-college-graduates/">earn about 20% less</a> than similarly educated professionals.</p>
<p>They also faced an <a href="https://theconversation.com/teacher-burnout-hits-record-high-5-essential-reads-185550">escalating workload</a>, even before the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09533-2">pandemic placed additional demands</a> on their time, energy and mental health.</p>
<p>In addition, teachers have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-education-reforms-can-support-teachers-around-the-world-instead-of-undermining-them-166528">experiencing diminishing control</a> over what and how they teach. They are also regularly exposed to a continued tide of <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/teacher-begs-parents-discipline-disrespectful-kids-viral-video-1701487">disrespectful student behavior</a> and parental hostility, as highlighted by a <a href="https://www.apa.org/education-career/k12/violence-educators-technical-report.pdf">survey of 15,000 educators</a> that revealed a growing trend of students verbally and physically harassing teachers, as well as parents engaging in online harassment and retaliatory behaviors for teachers simply doing their jobs.</p>
<p>This overall lack of respect drives turnover from existing teachers and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-07-2018-0129">discourages potential teachers</a> from considering the profession.</p>
<p>One college student told us, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-07-2018-0129">I looked into teaching as a career pretty strongly</a> … and every person I talked to, be it a grade school teacher or college professor, told me the same thing – that it was a lot of work, it was an unstable work environment, and the pay was very poor for the amount of work that you put in.” Unsurprisingly, she chose another career path.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in camouflage stands in a classroom and hands a piece of paper to a student" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477475/original/file-20220803-24-k2avdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">In early 2022, New Mexico’s teacher shortage got so bad that the governor called in the National Guard to serve as substitutes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakSoldiersasTeachers/dad689df567f4a77874497b3506f0963/photo">AP Photo/Cedar Attanasio</a></span>
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<h2>The wrong solutions for the problem</h2>
<p>A growing number of states have eliminated or have proposed to remove <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/states-relax-teacher-certification-rules-to-combat-shortages/2022/06">basic skills and subject matter exam requirements</a> for teacher certification. Those prerequisites have long served as <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10090/chapter/2">quality control checks</a> for prospective teachers. While they do not guarantee effective teaching, they do serve as a minimum qualification threshold.</p>
<p>We believe efforts to loosen requirements for new teachers will bring more disrespect to the profession. History also suggests that they will make it so that schools that serve mostly students of color will have <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/crdc-teacher-access-report">even fewer certified and experienced teachers</a> than they already do.</p>
<p>But more directly, these efforts to boost teacher recruitment don’t address the reasons teachers are leaving the profession in the first place, which drive <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/blog/teacher-shortages-take-center-stage">90% of the demand for new teachers</a>.</p>
<p>Lowering the standards to allow more people to enter the teaching profession may, for a short period, boost the number of people available to stand in front of classrooms. But that approach does not make teaching an attractive profession to consider, nor worthwhile for someone to stay and thrive in. Solving the teacher shortage problem requires solutions that reduce the numbers of teachers leaving the field and specifically address the lack of respect, low pay, hyperscrutiny and poor working conditions that they regularly endure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188184/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Looser requirements for teacher certification don’t fix teachers’ problems, which are low pay, high workload and lack of respect.Henry Tran, Associate Professor of Education Leadership, University of South CarolinaDouglas A. Smith, Associate Professor of Education, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1878152022-08-03T12:09:33Z2022-08-03T12:09:33Z4 ways to get the new school year off to a good start<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476956/original/file-20220801-70681-ng2xb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C40%2C6679%2C4426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Simple steps can make the transition back to school run smoother.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-kneeling-down-to-little-girl-at-school-royalty-free-image/1353484056?adppopup=true">Courtney Hale / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a former school principal and district superintendent, I’ve witnessed firsthand how some students struggle to settle into routines when a new school year begins.</p>
<p>Some students would show up late, if they came at all. Some told their parents they were sick and wanted to stay home. </p>
<p>A lot of this was due to the anxiety over going to a new school or having to adapt to new friends, new teachers and a new schedule. But sometimes it was the simple result of kids having gotten used to staying up late and sleeping in over the summer. The sudden change of having to wake up early to go to school can make kids very cranky.</p>
<p>Even though it can be challenging for some kids to start a new school year, there are a few simple steps that parents can take to make the process easier and less stressful. Here are four of my top recommendations:</p>
<h2>1. Reestablish a bedtime</h2>
<p>Don’t wait until the night before the first day of school to bring back bedtime. Do it a week or two before school starts. Then, stick to the schedule throughout the school year.</p>
<p>Sleep deprivation is one of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2005.11.001">biggest detriments</a> to students of any age doing well in school. Children of all ages need <a href="https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/sleep.html">adequate sleep</a> to improve their mood and their behavior.</p>
<p>Proper amounts of sleep range from <a href="https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/sleep.html">nine to 12 hours for elementary and middle schoolers and from eight to 10 hours for high schoolers</a>.</p>
<p>And, to ensure your child’s sleep is uninterrupted, keep technological devices out of the bedroom.</p>
<h2>2. Practice the morning routine</h2>
<p>A week before school begins, start practicing the morning routine. Are clothes and shoes chosen and ready to go? Are lunches and snacks packed? Are backpacks packed and easy to find?</p>
<p>Part of healthy child development is giving children a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0907568217743557">sense of control</a>. To further this goal, let children pick out and lay out their clothes for the next day. Provide some basic guidance on what’s appropriate to wear to school. Allow children to pack the lunch or snack, again providing guidelines of what’s appropriate and what’s not.</p>
<h2>3. Visit the school ahead of time</h2>
<p>If possible, especially for children going to a new school, visit the school and practice walking to their classrooms.</p>
<p>Many schools offer orientations for students and their caretakers.</p>
<p>If there is no orientation, call the school and ask when it might be possible to come to walk around with your children to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2156759X0701000303">help familiarize</a> them with their new classrooms. This will provide a level of comfort to your child on the first day of school.</p>
<h2>4. Sign up for after-school activities</h2>
<p>Encourage your child to participate in one or two after-school activities, whether school- or community-based. If the after-school activities are off-site from the school, ask school employees or after-school program providers about transportation.</p>
<p>Participation in extracurricular activities that interest your child can increase their <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED360373">motivation and ability to pay attention</a>, both in the activity as well as school in general. However, be careful not to overschedule your child. The benefits of extracurricular activities – which include a stronger sense of belonging to the school community, higher grades and improved academic engagement – are maximized when after-school activities are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9737-4">limited to two</a>.</p>
<p>Following these tips will hopefully help families make sure the school year gets off to a good start.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne McLeod does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A veteran school administrator offers insights on how children’s caretakers can better prepare them for a new school year.Suzanne McLeod, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1826482022-08-02T12:58:02Z2022-08-02T12:58:02Z5 of the biggest threats today’s K-12 students and educators face don’t involve guns<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476730/original/file-20220729-15-1i30jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C74%2C5562%2C3672&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Schools across the U.S. are dealing with many challenges.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/parents-carla-toro-elsa-sagastizado-and-michelle-posner-news-photo/1128587314">Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While many American students and their parents <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/18/a-majority-of-u-s-teens-fear-a-shooting-could-happen-at-their-school-and-most-parents-share-their-concern/">worry that the next mass shooting could happen at their school</a>, schools are also facing a number of other threats that do not involve guns. Many of these threats are related to the mental health of educators and students.</p>
<p>From 2018 to 2021, both before and during the pandemic, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxxQrU0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I</a> spent time studying a public middle school in the San Francisco Bay Area that serves a high-poverty community of color. The research involved spending more than 100 hours of observing classes and teacher and staff meetings. It also involved a series of interviews with 10 teachers and the principal. </p>
<p>Here are five of the biggest threats that I identified through my observations.</p>
<h2>1. Trauma among students</h2>
<p>Students often spoke and wrote about traumatic experiences. This included losing parents to murder, imprisonment or deportation.</p>
<p>Teachers and staff told me they were not prepared to handle students’ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2">emotional reactions to these traumatic experiences</a> and how the experiences <a href="https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/1/24/22899360/chicago-principal-our-schools-are-not-ok-mental-health-pandemic-seth-lavin-op-ed">affected student learning</a>.</p>
<p>Extensive research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2">trauma can result in poor academic performance and more anxiety or aggression</a> that can interfere with learning.</p>
<p>Racial minority and low-income students tend to <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/toxic-stress-and-childrens-outcomes-african-american-children-growing-up-poor-are-at-greater-risk-of-disrupted-physiological-functioning-and-depressed-academic-achievement/">experience significantly more trauma</a> than white students and students from higher-income families. </p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000861">created more trauma</a> for more students, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2007476117">especially for low-income students of color</a>, as disruption to the normal way of life and to the economy created high stress on families. Perversely, school <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09512-7">closures during the pandemic also made it more difficult</a> for students experiencing trauma to receive mental health care and treatment often provided by schools. </p>
<h2>2. Worse well-being for teachers and students</h2>
<p>Staff in the school I studied described their middle schoolers as increasingly “shut down,” “fragile,” “beaten down” and “hopeless” with every passing year. </p>
<p>Teachers also talked about their own struggles with “the stress of this place” and “negative emotions” from their daily challenges to support their students. During the pandemic, teachers described increasing “exhaustion” from the level of effort needed to keep students in school and engaged in learning. </p>
<p>Since the onset of the pandemic, lower overall well-being of students and teachers has become a nationwide concern. In the 2020-2021 school year, <a href="https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA168-4">80% of teachers nationwide reported feelings of burnout</a>. In the 2021-2022 school year, nearly half of students across the U.S. in grades 9 through 12 reported <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7103a3">persistent feelings of sadness or hopelessness</a>. Across the nation, district leaders in the 2021-2022 school year reported a general decline in <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-8.html">mental health and well-being</a> of all students and educators as their most pressing concern.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An adult stands in a classroom with several children sitting at desks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476731/original/file-20220729-13683-lebnro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers are in such short supply across the country that it can be hard to find substitutes, like Veronica Roman, right, seen subbing in a California classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/veronica-roman-a-long-term-substitute-teacher-works-with-news-photo/1235434192">Watchara Phomicinda/MediaNews Group/The Press-Enterprise via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Staff shortages and turnover</h2>
<p>Like <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/2021/9/23/22689774/teacher-vacancies-shortages-covid">other schools around the nation</a>, the school I studied was persistently short of teachers because of staff who quit due to stress or who were fired for unprofessional behavior. It was often difficult to find qualified teachers to fill open positions.</p>
<p>During the pandemic, <a href="https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA168-4">one-quarter of teachers reported that they were likely to leave</a> the profession. In early 2022, the share of teachers who reported being <a href="https://www.edweek.org/research-center/reports/teaching-profession-in-crisis-national-teacher-survey">“very satisfied” with their jobs dropped to an all-time low at 12%</a>. </p>
<p>Amid the staffing shortages, news reports from around the country tell of teachers having to <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-04-20/lausd-teacher-shortage-proposal">teach two classes at once</a>, <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/how-staff-shortages-are-crushing-schools/2021/10">sacrifice preparation time</a> and bring in <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/01/13/schools-parents-substitutes-omicron-shortage/">parents</a> or <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/11/us/teacher-shortages-parents-substitutes/index.html">highly paid district administrators</a> to cover classrooms. </p>
<p>Increasingly, <a href="https://www.news4jax.com/news/local/2022/05/02/duval-county-teachers-predict-very-very-bad-situation/">mounting stress</a> means <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/teachers-are-quitting-midyear-its-leaving-some-schools-in-the-lurch/2022/03">teachers quit</a> midyear or even <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/how-staff-shortages-are-crushing-schools/2021/10">in the middle of a school day</a>. </p>
<h2>4. Threat of closure</h2>
<p>At the school I studied, the principal described extensive time and effort that she and others spent to encourage students to enroll there. “It is disheartening,” the principal said, that sometimes parents chose other schools due to a negative reputation that became associated with a school serving the area’s poorest Black and Latino communities. Any declines in enrollment threatened the loss of teaching positions. Persistent declines meant the threat of being closed altogether. </p>
<p>Nationwide, threats of school closure have risen in response to widespread <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/whatsnew/press_releases/06_28_2021.asp">drops in annual enrollment in noncharter public schools</a>, especially in districts serving low-income communities of color. </p>
<p>School boards in <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/education/bs-md-school-board-vote-school-closure-20220126-tixq2fuicrhpdb7txzjvsf4tau-story.html">Baltimore</a> and the California cities of <a href="https://time.com/6146541/oakland-schools-closing-enrollment/">Oakland</a> and <a href="https://www.ktvu.com/news/hayward-unified-votes-to-close-fewer-schools-than-anticipated">Hayward</a> have recently decided to close multiple schools in the 2022-2023 school year due to declining enrollment. This has prompted public protest <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/parents-and-students-march-to-protest-oakland-school-closures/">from communities</a> who see the closures as targeted at poor Black and Latino neighborhoods.</p>
<p>Other districts around the country, including in <a href="https://www.startribune.com/minneapolis-public-schools-predicts-enrollment-decline-budget-shortfall/600149534/">Minneapolis</a> and <a href="https://denvergazette.com/news/education/enrollment-declines-could-lead-to-dps-schools-closing-consolidating/article_dbab4aee-7ae5-11ec-878d-9bc8624cbc6b.html">Denver</a>, have warned residents about likely enrollment-related closures in the 2022-2023 school year.</p>
<h2>5. Threats from the community</h2>
<p>There are also violent threats at schools unrelated to mass shootings. During my study, teachers and principals reported distressing incidents of threats from members of the community, including verbal threats from parents and neighbors and an incident of the principal being held at knifepoint. </p>
<p>From March 2020 to June 2021, one-third of teachers reported <a href="https://www.apa.org/education-career/k12/violence-educators.pdf">at least one incident of verbal or threatening violence from students</a>, and over 40% of school administrators have reported <a href="https://www.apa.org/education-career/k12/violence-educators.pdf">verbal or threatening violence from parents</a>. </p>
<p>Reports of <a href="https://northpennnow.com/police-called-after-tempers-flare-over-mask-policy-at-north-penn-school-boa-p4539-117.htm">violent conflicts over masking</a> at school board meetings, <a href="https://www.eanesisd.net/post/%7Eboard/news/post/creating-an-oasis-for-our-students?fbclid=IwAR3Qs94_E6Ck7GN7Qrp-6ylUrTutr8pQAScQ2Am26cl6Lb8Z0140MSDAvfg">parents ripping masks off teachers’ faces</a> and <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/parent-attacks-teacher-after-mask-dispute-first-day-school-california-n1276736">physical fights between parents and teachers</a> have emerged alongside reports of intensified hostility from resurgent culture wars, including <a href="https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-education-threats/">death threats</a> against school board members and their families. </p>
<p>In a February 2022 investigation, Reuters documented <a href="https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-education-threats/">220 incidents of violent intimidation</a> of school officials across 15 states. </p>
<p>K-12 educators and students are facing many simultaneous threats in addition to school shootings. This raises important questions about whether schools have the resources and support they need to ensure that students and educators can thrive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182648/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Zumpe's research has received funding from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.</span></em></p>Three years observing in a public school has given one scholar a close-up look at the sweeping challenges in public education.Elizabeth Zumpe, Visiting Assistant Professor in Educational Leadership, UMass LowellLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1819172022-08-01T12:35:55Z2022-08-01T12:35:55ZCity residents who support neighborhood schools are often divided by race and purpose<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473644/original/file-20220712-19-iupfn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=27%2C54%2C4485%2C2949&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Local school support is fragmented by race and class.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/lonely-woman-royalty-free-image/488975197?adppopup=true">digitalskillet / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>When community activists protest issues related to local schools, they do so through movements that are largely segregated by race and class. This is what I found through my <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/this-is-our-school-race-and-community-resistance-to-school-reform/oclc/1311404138&referer=brief_results">research on community activism and school reform in Denver</a> over a span of five years.</p>
<p>Both Black and white community activists had an interest in keeping local schools from being closed. They also wanted better quality schools and more of a voice in what happens at those schools. But they seldom joined each other in their efforts because their battles for neighborhood schools were rooted in different experiences of gentrification.</p>
<p>Gentrification is when more-affluent residents move into low-income neighborhoods, changing the character and makeup of those neighborhoods and forcing low-income residents to move elsewhere due to rising rents. Gentrification often involves <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/marketing-schools-marketing-cities-who-wins-and-who-loses-when-schools-become-urban-amenities/oclc/7391947585&referer=brief_results">turning around, reforming, closing and replacing neighborhood schools</a>.</p>
<p>Black community activists viewed gentrification as an elite-driven process of exclusion and displacement, while white community activists viewed gentrification as an inevitable and even beneficial process.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Community movements can help bring about educational reforms. These <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/986861637">reforms</a> include improvements like more college prep courses, school-based community centers and food programs.</p>
<p>These movements don’t always succeed. I found in my research that different experiences of gentrification produce segregated movements to preserve neighborhood schools. This split <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859221086508">ultimately keeps activism fragmented</a> and prevents it from turning into a stronger, larger, more unified multiracial movement.</p>
<p>Although white, middle-class activists told me they valued diversity, none of them saw gentrification as problematic. They also felt their presence was beneficial to the neighborhood. They wanted schools to which their children could walk and with which they felt connected.</p>
<p>They also felt <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916636656">entitled</a> to have more say in how neighborhood schools operate. This in turn alienated Black and Latino activists.</p>
<p>Black, low-income activists, on the other hand, saw school closures as a part of gentrification. For them, fighting against school closures was simply one piece of a larger fight against being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2016.1245069">displaced by gentrification</a>.</p>
<p>These divergent views on gentrification as beneficial or destructive ensures that white, middle-class activists and Black, low-income activists will be unable to join forces. Consequently, they are unlikely to use each other’s strengths to fight for their common cause – which, in this case, is to sustain and provide resources to local neighborhood schools instead of closing them in favor of charter schools or moving them out of the neighborhood.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>It remains to be seen how segregated school reform movements, produced through different experiences of gentrification, can work through their deep divides and unite for their shared interests. White, middle-class activists in particular would need to better recognize their own participation in gentrification and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2009.56.4.647">affirm the grievances</a> of the low-income Black and Latino activists who could be in their coalition.</p>
<p>Research suggests that money and political will are already <a href="https://theconversation.com/states-are-favoring-school-choice-at-a-steep-cost-to-public-education-95395">stacked against</a> the prospect of high-quality, public neighborhood schools in every community. If segregated school reform movements could find common ground, they might be better positioned to fight against these forces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181917/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hava Rachel Gordon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Different views of gentrification drive divisions that keep school activists separated by race.Hava Rachel Gordon, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of DenverLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1859462022-07-20T12:20:24Z2022-07-20T12:20:24ZSchools are the ‘hubs and hearts’ of neighborhoods – here’s how they can strengthen the communities around them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474980/original/file-20220719-10097-fbzwr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C8%2C2982%2C1953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New schools can spur neighborhood growth.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/exterior-view-of-a-typical-american-school-building-royalty-free-image/1317007945">littleny / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Food deserts. Poor housing conditions. Lack of community investment.</p>
<p>These challenges may not always come to mind when people think about how to improve America’s public schools.</p>
<p>But when my colleagues and I <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859221107615">studied</a> the 21st Century School Buildings Program, a <a href="https://mdstad.com/21st-century-schools">US$1.1 billion school building and renovation</a> initiative in Baltimore, these were the kinds of issues that staff from community-based organizations, schools, philanthropic organizations and city agencies hoped to address through improved school facilities. </p>
<p>Schools are the “hubs and hearts” of neighborhoods, as one community member told us during our research in the Southeast, Southwest and Cherry Hill sections of Baltimore. If, as one community school coordinator shared, schools want to achieve their goals to educate students, they should strengthen the communities that surround them.</p>
<p>Our research suggests four ways schools might play a more meaningful role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085914549366">supporting community development</a>:</p>
<h2>1. Open schools to the wider community</h2>
<p>Making schools accessible to residents can strengthen the connection between schools and neighborhoods.</p>
<p>In Southeast, one school included space to host programs for <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/newcomers-toolkit/chap1.pdf">newcomers</a> to the United States. Those programs provided English language classes for students, as well as academic and social supports to help students and their families understand U.S. schools’ culture. </p>
<p>As a community school coordinator in Cherry Hill told us: “We can promote events and workshops and services to the entire community because they’re all happening here.” </p>
<p>However, although schools in our study were open in theory, they were not always easily accessible. Organizations sometimes encountered barriers, such as needing permits or having to pay fees to cover custodians or security, to host public events at schools. Our research suggests that collaboration between school districts and other city agencies can help make shared spaces more accessible by using a broader definition of community beyond just the school community, such as parents and teachers. They can also eliminate required permits and fees.</p>
<h2>2. Meet community needs</h2>
<p>Schools in our study partnered with community-based organizations and governmental agencies to provide services to meet their community’s needs. </p>
<p>In Southwest, a school partnered with local organizations to offer families a food pantry and adult education, including GED preparation.</p>
<p>In Cherry Hill, where <a href="https://planning.baltimorecity.gov/baltimore-food-policy-initiative/food-environment">access to full-service grocery stores is limited</a>, a community school coordinator reached out to a local organization to host a morning produce market at the school once per week. A representative from the city housing authority also visited the school to make it easier for families to file complaints about poor housing conditions, such as mold.</p>
<h2>3. Engage the community</h2>
<p>Across all three communities, officials sought input from students, families and residents about the renovation plans or designs for new schools. They also provided updates about the construction process.</p>
<p>Other projects included creating a walking school bus – where adult volunteers walked with children to school – in Southwest to help students travel to and from school safely.</p>
<p>In Southeast, parents’ advocacy to improve school facilities – such as heating and cooling systems – helped them become more involved in their neighborhoods. Families from the schools have participated in neighborhood beautification projects, community cleanups and other activities.</p>
<p>Strong family and community engagement, however, is not a given. Successful partnerships also require <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/trust-schools-0">trust</a> among schools, families and community members. In Southwest, one school’s construction resulted in another school’s closure. The students from the old school would be sent to the new school. Families from the closed school saw their school as a safe haven and fought to prevent its closure. According to one community advocate, the process of closing the school led some families to lose faith in community organizations, the school district and city agencies.</p>
<h2>4. Attract new residents and development</h2>
<p>Many stakeholders that we talked to saw the new and renovated schools as a way to bring new residents, businesses and development to their communities.</p>
<p>In Southwest, one stakeholder told us that the new school building has led to greater interest among residents to invest in the neighborhood. “There’s a lot of residents who are organized and involved in these neighborhoods. They’re saying, ‘Hey, we got a new school. Let’s build up this neighborhood.’” Similarly, families in Southeast have become more excited about the renovated schools. A nonprofit representative said, “We see it on Facebook feeds. Because we put the [school] designs out there as much as we can, they’re starting to think, ‘Maybe I’ll put my child there.’”</p>
<p>However, as schools attract more residents, people in Cherry Hill and Southeast wanted to be sure existing residents weren’t pushed out. In both neighborhoods, school and community partners are creating pathways to help existing residents to purchase homes in their neighborhoods. This includes home ownership counseling and loan programs for qualifying residents.</p>
<p>Education will always be the primary function of America’s public schools. But as our research suggests, schools need not only concern themselves with what takes place in the classroom – they can also play an important part in improving the conditions in the surrounding community.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185946/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was supported through funding from the Maryland Philanthropy Network.</span></em></p>Community members want their schools to address issues beyond academics, new research suggests.Alisha Butler, Provost's Equity Fellow, Wesleyan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1864372022-07-19T12:24:56Z2022-07-19T12:24:56Z6 ways to keep kids’ school skills sharp over the summer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474193/original/file-20220714-32176-obmnpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C33%2C7315%2C4869&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Family outings and journal-writing can help keep kids' academic skills sharp during the summer.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/daughter-study-with-the-brother-royalty-free-image/869921970?adppopup=true">franckreporter / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Worried your kids will forget what they learned in school over the summer? Scholars have been studying the problem for over a century.</p>
<p>When William White, a New York state mathematics professor, set out in the early 1900s to study how much math students remembered over summer vacation, he checked to see how well they would do at the start of school on a test like the one they had taken at the end of the previous school year.</p>
<p>Whereas second graders on average got nine out of 70 questions wrong in June, after the summer break on average they got 25 out of 70 wrong on the same test. But after two weeks of drills, the number of answers the students got wrong dropped to 15.</p>
<p>White’s study – titled “<a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0001490416&view=1up&seq=163&skin=2021">Reviews Before and After Vacation</a>” and published in 1906 – concluded that “that which is least vital is first to be lost.”</p>
<p>White’s study is also one of the first to identify what educators today refer to as “<a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1134242.pdf">summer learning loss</a>” – which is the negative effect that a long summer break has on students’ ability to remember facts and skills they had learned the previous school year.</p>
<h2>Effects on student achievement</h2>
<p>Studies of summer loss <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066003227">increased</a> in the 1990s as Congress began to place a bigger emphasis on <a href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/103/hr1804">holding schools accountable</a> for the achievement of all students.</p>
<p>Over the summer, students typically lose the equivalent of about a month’s worth of learning, mostly in the areas of <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED475391.pdf">math facts and spelling</a>. Research has also found that summer learning loss is more severe among <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED475391.pdf">students with disabilities</a>, English language learners and students living in poverty.</p>
<p>But researchers’ understanding of summer loss is continually evolving. For instance, one study found that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0031721719871560">students who experienced the biggest losses</a> were the ones who had shown the biggest gains just before the test at the end of the school year. This raises questions about whether their gains were true gains or just the result of special preparation for the test.</p>
<h2>A longer school year?</h2>
<p>Some people have argued that summer loss wouldn’t occur if the U.S. had a <a href="https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/some-schools-consider-longer-school-years-for-students">longer school year or year-round school</a>. For instance, they point to countries like China, where the school year is <a href="https://theconversation.com/copying-the-long-chinese-school-day-could-have-unintended-consequences-23398">245 days</a>, as opposed to the traditional 180-day school year in the U.S. China is ranked first in the top 20 nations in terms of student scores in math, science and reading. The U.S. is ranked No. 25 out of 77 countries and is several points behind Australia, Switzerland, Norway and the Czech Republic, which are ranked 21 to 24, respectively.</p>
<p>But shorter school years don’t always result in lower test scores. For instance, students in Ireland outscore American students on math, science and reading <a href="https://factsmaps.com/pisa-2018-worldwide-ranking-average-score-of-mathematics-science-reading/">by an average of 10 points</a>, according to the Program for International Student Assessment, better known as PISA, yet attend school for only <a href="https://www.insider.com/school-days-how-does-the-us-compare-2018-8#in-russia-students-get-out-at-1-or-2-pm-1">167 days</a>, or 13 days fewer than in the U.S.</p>
<h2>How parents and caregivers can limit summer loss</h2>
<p>Some parents take advantage of school-based programs that can help students keep up their academic skills during the summer. But there are still ways that parents and other caregivers can stave off summer loss that do not involve school. Here are six:</p>
<p><strong>1. Model what you want to see:</strong> First and foremost, never forget that you are a role model. Children will do what they see the adults around them do. Summer is the perfect time for you to reduce screen time and increase time reading, writing, taking walks, playing games or having conversations. </p>
<p><strong>2. Visit the library:</strong> Children love independence. One of the best ways to allow children to demonstrate independence is to have them browse the shelves of the local library and select books that they can read independently or for you to read aloud to them. Participate in story hours if your local library offers the activity. Establish a habit of visiting the library on a weekly basis or at least several times a month. These library visits will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1627968">strengthen a child’s reading skills</a>. </p>
<p><strong>3. Play games during trips:</strong> When traveling by car, bus or train, there are games – both word and number – that you can engage in with your children. For instance, you can play “I Spy with My Little Eye,” estimate the number of fast-food restaurants you’ll pass or even look for all the words that begin with a certain letter. These activities not only keep children engaged but also incrementally <a href="https://www.moto-way.com/2019/09/let-the-kids-make-the-most-of-the-benefits-of-play-even-when-youre-travelling/">sharpen their skills</a> in a wide range of academic areas such as literacy, numeracy and communication.</p>
<p><strong>4. Encourage your children to keep a summer journal:</strong> To get them started, suggest one journal entry of “10 Things I Want to Do Before Summer is Over.” The list can include activities like watching the sunrise, going an entire day without wearing shoes or seeing how far they can spit a watermelon seed. To make the journal more interesting, encourage children to <a href="https://www.scholastic.com/parents/books-and-reading/raise-a-reader-blog/how-journaling-benefits-your-child.html">fill it with both writing and drawing</a>.</p>
<p><strong>5. Visit landmarks:</strong> Plan visits to acquaint you and your children with local landmarks. Document the visit with a journal entry, drawings or photographs and some research on the history of the site. The excursions can become even more meaningful if you have children do a little research into the landmarks you visit.</p>
<p><strong>6. Plan weekly family picnics:</strong> <a href="https://www.actionforhealthykids.org/the-benefits-of-eating-meals-as-a-family/#:%7E:text=Kids%20and%20teens%20who%20eat,develop%20language%20and%20social%20skills">Vary the meals</a> to include breakfast, lunch, dinner or even dessert. Let your children plan the menu and cook with you, as well as select the site for the picnics. Research has found that involving children in the preparation of meals by doing things such as making grocery lists can help <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-getting-kids-to-make-grocery-lists-and-set-the-table-can-improve-their-vocabulary-and-willingness-to-learn-170851">improve their reading, writing and math skills</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186437/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne McLeod does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research has shown for more than a century that students fall behind during the summer break. An expert offers six tips on ways to help children keep up their academic skills during the summer.Suzanne McLeod, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1849132022-07-01T13:01:45Z2022-07-01T13:01:45ZDecades after Brown v. Board, US schools still struggle with segregation – 4 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469081/original/file-20220615-10596-ka8yii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C3402%2C1925&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Millicent Brown, left, was one of the first two Black students to integrate a South Carolina public school, in September 1963.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/USAMillicentBrown/deb2f7f4e4f1406aa001d2be2b246af6/photo">AP Photo</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision, handed down in 1954, was supposed to end racial segregation in the nation’s public schools. But that work remains undone, as evidenced by a U.S. Department of Justice collection showing <a href="https://www.justice.gov/crt/educational-opportunities-cases#race">dozens of active school-desegregation cases</a> even in 2022.</p>
<p>To take a more in-depth look at the prevalence and nature of contemporary school segregation in the U.S., The Conversation sought scholars who could discuss the topic from various standpoints – from its legal history to its current status and modern-day efforts to make schools inclusive beyond racial identity. Here are four selections from our past coverage.</p>
<h2>1. The Brown case wasn’t the beginning</h2>
<p>The fight for full equity in schools first went to the courts in 1947, when a group of Black parents in South Carolina wanted their kids to be allowed to ride the bus to school, as the white students could. When the case finally went to federal court in 1951, writes equity scholar <a href="https://news.clemson.edu/our-experts/roy-jones/">Roy Jones</a> at Clemson University, a federal judge suggested more – a suit against school segregation itself.</p>
<p>“A month later, [civil rights lawyer Thurgood] Marshall brought a new case, Briggs v. Elliott, … arguing that school segregation in South Carolina was unconstitutional. This was the first lawsuit in the country to challenge school segregation as a violation of the U.S. Constitution,” Jones writes. “<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-fight-against-school-segregation-began-in-south-carolina-long-before-it-ended-with-brown-v-board-177418">The Brown v. Board case</a> eventually grew out of that South Carolina case.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-fight-against-school-segregation-began-in-south-carolina-long-before-it-ended-with-brown-v-board-177418">The fight against school segregation began in South Carolina, long before it ended with Brown v. Board</a>
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<h2>2. Still segregated</h2>
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<img alt="A group of young adults with varying skin tones socialize outside" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=68%2C43%2C4091%2C3224&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461338/original/file-20220504-16-rl3u6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Court-ordered desegregation has happened in the U.S. as recently as 2015, when a federal judge issued a desegregation order to the Cleveland, Miss., school district.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/DesegregationAfterBusing/8b893af637dc4f649c093e983c0d005f/photo">AP Photo/Rogelio V. Solis</a></span>
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<p>The Brown decision declared that public schools could not be segregated by race anymore, but the process took years and is still incomplete, writes <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8z4YFq0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Pedro Noguera</a>, an educational sociologist at the University of Southern California.</p>
<p>“American society continues to grow more racially and ethnically diverse. But <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-schools-are-not-racially-integrated-despite-decades-of-effort-177849">many of the nation’s public K-12 schools</a> are not well integrated and are instead predominantly attended by students of one race or another,” he writes. </p>
<p>In fact, Noguera explains, “in 2018-2019, the most recent school year for which data is available, 42% of Black students attended majority-Black schools, and 56% of Hispanic students attended majority-Hispanic schools. Even more striking, 79% of white students in America went to majority-white schools during the same period.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/us-schools-are-not-racially-integrated-despite-decades-of-effort-177849">US schools are not racially integrated, despite decades of effort</a>
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<h2>3. Economic segregation</h2>
<p>Racial differences aren’t the only way U.S. schools are segregated. Education policy scholar <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NOT4bMEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Kari Dalane</a> at the American University School of Public Affairs and a collaborator looked at how students are split up into classrooms within schools.</p>
<p>“<a href="https://theconversation.com/students-are-often-segregated-within-the-same-schools-not-just-by-being-sent-to-different-ones-179266">We found that … economically disadvantaged students</a> were increasingly likely to be concentrated in a subset of classrooms rather than spread out relatively evenly throughout the school,” Dalane writes.</p>
<p>That’s a problem because, as she explains, “more experienced teachers raise student test scores more than novice teachers, on average. However, novice teachers are frequently assigned to classrooms with more low-income students. Therefore, the more students are separated along lines of household income, the more likely poorer students are to fall behind academically.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/students-are-often-segregated-within-the-same-schools-not-just-by-being-sent-to-different-ones-179266">Students are often segregated within the same schools, not just by being sent to different ones</a>
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<h2>4. Children with disabilities</h2>
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<img alt="A teacher speaks with students who are raising their hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C0%2C5207%2C3257&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468082/original/file-20220609-18-6twc2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Learning support teachers such as Sabrina Werley in Pennsylvania are common, but schools’ services can vary widely.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sabrina-werley-works-with-her-4th-grade-students-in-a-math-news-photo/1312861050">Ben Hasty/MediaNews Group/Reading Eagle via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>In the wake of the Brown decision came another effort – to include children with disabilities in the nation’s classrooms, rather than sending them to specialized schools focused on addressing their weaknesses.</p>
<p>A 1979 lawsuit ultimately asked the Supreme Court to interpret a 1975 law that said “children have the right to a ‘free appropriate public education’ in the ‘least restrictive environment’ possible in which their needs can be met,” explains education law scholar <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=T3b-g5YAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Charles Russo</a> at the University of Dayton.</p>
<p>The lawsuit didn’t go well. In 1982, the Supreme Court ruled that a deaf student didn’t qualify for a sign-language interpreter because the student was doing well enough, even though an interpreter could have helped the student learn more and do better.</p>
<p>It took 35 years – until 2017 – for the Supreme Court to rule that schools owed students with disabilities an actually equal chance to make the most of their talents and promise. “<a href="https://theconversation.com/decades-after-special-education-law-and-key-ruling-updates-still-languish-181560">Progress – and potential – were the new standards, not merely getting by</a>,” Russo writes.</p>
<p>But it’s not clear how long it will take before every child has those opportunities.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/decades-after-special-education-law-and-key-ruling-updates-still-languish-181560">Decades after special education law and key ruling, updates still languish</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184913/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The effort to give every student equal access to an education has lasted decades and may need even more time before the goal is reached.Jeff Inglis, Politics + Society Editor, The Conversation USLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.