tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/language-test-38050/articleslanguage test – The Conversation2023-05-14T06:11:20Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2035972023-05-14T06:11:20Z2023-05-14T06:11:20ZGhana school students talk about their social media addiction, and how it affects their use of English<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521818/original/file-20230419-18-6zjdof.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Education stakeholders should pay attention to students' use of social media.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Social media networks such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, YouTube and Instagram <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343971547_THE_IMPACT_OF_SOCIAL_MEDIA_IN_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_LEARNING">have been shown to have</a> significantly transformed student behaviour. But the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343971547_THE_IMPACT_OF_SOCIAL_MEDIA_IN_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_LEARNING">focus</a> has been on students’ social behaviour. And on <a href="https://www.languageservicesdirect.co.uk/social-media-changing-english-language/">how</a> the English language is being spoken because of social media use.</p>
<p>The relationship between social media and students’ English language writing has been largely ignored.</p>
<p>Our team of four researchers who specialise in language studies set out to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2189388">study</a> the relationship between social media use and English language performance. We studied one English as a Second Language class at Fiaseman Senior High School in Tarkwa, western Ghana.</p>
<p>English is Ghana’s official language and is the medium of instruction for all levels of education. </p>
<p>We learnt from the students that they spend significantly long periods of time on various social media platforms. Some even described their use as an “addiction”. We also found that their social media use had resulted in their adoption of shortened forms of English words in their writing, including in their English examinations. </p>
<p>We concluded from our findings that the significantly long periods of time spent on social media platforms was worrying, considering that most of the sites they visited are not pro-learning. This means that they are sites where most activities are not academically oriented.</p>
<p>In our view as language and communication experts, this situation could culminate in poor performances in the English language, as the valuable time students need to study to improve their proficiency is channelled into unproductive exploits on social media.</p>
<p>Our findings are important because in the West African Senior School Certificate Examination, English language is a core subject that students need to pass before gaining entry into institutions of higher learning like universities and training colleges. </p>
<h2>What the students told us</h2>
<p>In Ghana, the West African Senior School Certificate Examination is taken by students after completing their high school coursework. It is primarily a written examination.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2189388">Our research</a> targeted a Form 2 class (students who are a year away from writing their final high school exams), made up of 47 students aged 17 and 18 on average. They were one of the largest classes in the school, which offers English as a general subject and Literature-in-English as an elective subject. </p>
<p>All the students in the class volunteered to take part in our study. </p>
<p>We divided the students into seven groups. Our rationale was to obtain diverse in-depth knowledge from them. </p>
<p>The study found that the students were exposed to most social media platforms, especially WhatsApp and Facebook. We also found that participants paid regular visits to social networking sites and spent significantly long periods of time there. One respondent said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I visit social media twice in a day. Sir, I visit there every day. I can’t count. I’m always there.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In addition, participants had been active on social media platforms for significant periods, even before their enrolment into the school. Most participants admitted that they were addicted to social media. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Please, yes. That is very true. I am hundred percent addicted. I can see that I’m very addicted because it is very difficult to control my presence there.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Consequences</h2>
<p>Based on this experience we argue that there are two critical consequences here: the participants are likely not to give their studies the needed time and attention, and their English language performances will be negatively affected, culminating in poor academic progression. </p>
<p>Exacerbating this is the finding that the students frequently use short forms in their academic writings. </p>
<p>Short forms are the unacceptable written forms of English – such as “4” in place of “for”, “u” in place of “you” and “d” in place of “the” – that students transfer from their informal social media interactions into their formal English language examination writing. </p>
<p>Our research indicates that it is a frequent student practice. Interestingly, we found that the participants know that such deviant practices affect their English language performances.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>For my side, I use short hands doing chats on social media, and I forget myself and use them in my compositions. I sometimes find myself using short hands in my notes and also in exams.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We concluded that the way in which English is being used in examinations by students is being undermined by their use of the English language on social media. This is a growing trend that will see students struggle to get ahead in the subject, as more formal English language writing is needed for examinations and for further studies.</p>
<h2>What should be done</h2>
<p>We recommend that those involved in education should consider integrating teaching practices that take advantage of social media to engage students. This would allow students to learn during their time on social media platforms. Online dictionaries with pronunciation buttons and websites that offer free educational materials to students, for instance, could come in handy.</p>
<p>Also, teachers should assist students in selecting appropriate social media sites. The academic counselling units of high schools should engage students to sensitise them on social media sites, their importance, dangers and how best to use social media, especially for academic purposes.</p>
<p>All those involved in education should be taking students’ use of social media seriously. Until innovative approaches are implemented, Ghana risks recording mass failures in the English language component of the West African Senior School Certificate Examination.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203597/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ramos Asafo-Adjei does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Social media use has adversely affected students’ English language learning in Ghanaian schools.Ramos Asafo-Adjei, Associate Professor, English and Communication Skills, Takoradi Technical UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1311082020-02-04T14:47:28Z2020-02-04T14:47:28ZEnglish in England: we should celebrate different languages, not write hate mail about them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313366/original/file-20200203-41554-1gw5ics.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C806%2C806&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The offensive poster is now the subject of a police investigation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Unknown via Twitter</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the day that the UK left the European Union, a badly punctuated anonymous note was pinned to doors on the Winchester Tower block of flats in the city of Norwich, in the east of England. The message was directed at residents from abroad who had “infected this once great island”, informing them: “We do not tolerate people speaking other languages than English in the flats”, and that they should “obey the rule of the majority or leave”. </p>
<p>Police are treating the note as a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/feb/01/police-called-in-after-poster-tells-residents-of-flats-to-speak-english">racially aggravated hate crime</a> and there have been widespread <a href="https://www.theneweuropean.co.uk/top-stories/norwich-community-leaders-slam-happy-brexit-day-poster-1-6495730">expressions of solidarity</a> from local residents. </p>
<p>This strong response is somewhat surprising, since the demand that migrants should use the majority language – even in the privacy of their homes – has often been put forward by governments, and not just in the UK. As home secretary in the government of Tony Blair in 2002, David Blunkett told Asian citizens they should <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2002/sep/15/race.immigrationpolicy">use English at home</a>. </p>
<p>A similar <a href="https://theconversation.com/bid-to-force-immigrants-to-speak-german-in-their-homes-wont-help-integration-35212">demand was made</a> by one of the parties in the German coalition government in 2014 and, in the same year, one of the largest Dutch parties ran an election campaign with the poster: “<a href="http://heindehaas.blogspot.com/2014/03/in-rotterdam-we-speak-dutch.html">In Rotterdam we speak Dutch</a>.” </p>
<p>At the same time, accounts of people on the streets of Britain being <a href="https://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/news/plymouth-news/drunken-racist-abused-kebab-shop-3164027">verbally</a> or even <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/woman-punched-racist-attack-london-overground-speaking-spanish-tfl-police-a8604436.html">physically</a> attacked simply for speaking their native language in public have become depressingly frequent. A <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/survey-results/daily/2020/02/03/66818/3">YouGov poll</a> published a few days after the poster appeared found that 26% of people in the UK feel either “very bothered” or “fairly bothered” when they hear people from a non-English speaking country talking to each other in their own language.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313496/original/file-20200204-41481-v3xasp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Walthamstow resident Chris Walker was angry when he saw the message ‘We speak English’ in his neighbourhood. So he adapted it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Walker via Twitter</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ever since a Bulgarian colleague told me how someone had screamed “Fucking Polish” at her and her husband in the street, I’ve been trying to work out how I would respond in a similar situation. Ideally, what I am after is the perfect one-liner that will not only shut the other person up but make them reflect on their attitude, repent of their ways, and, in general, turn them into a much better and nicer person.</p>
<p>And then I came across what, at first glance, seemed to be the ultimate comeback in a story I’ve seen in so many versions that it is probably an urban legend. In this story someone – in one account it’s a young mother <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/36580448/welsh-woman-on-bus-shuts-down-racist-who-told-muslim-passenger-to-speak-english">wearing a Niqab</a>, in another, it’s someone in Arizona making a phone call – is accosted by an aggressive stranger with some version of “stop speaking foreign muck” or: “<a href="https://community.babycenter.com/post/a47616811/if_you_want_to_speak_english_go_back_to_england">if you want to speak Mexican, you should go back to Mexico</a>”. The deadpan response is some version of: “Actually, I was speaking Welsh/Navajo – if you want to speak English, go back to England.”</p>
<p>Nothing kills off a joke like analysing why it works – but in this instance, I’m afraid I have to play the killjoy. The punchline of this story allows us to see the original remark as ignorant and offensive because the language in question is an indigenous one. This bestows on the speaker not only the right to use it but actually a kind of moral superiority. </p>
<p>But this also makes it problematic, because the logical next step is that my Bulgarian colleague must be in the wrong: at no period in time, to my knowledge, was there an indigenous Bulgarian-speaking population in Southampton. No perfect comeback for her – or me – then. </p>
<p>But what if the Navajo-speaker had made her phone call from Aberystwyth, not Arizona? And what if the Welsh mother was living in Wisconsin but still wanted her baby to grow up knowing its mother tongue and heritage language? Would that somehow put them in the wrong and the aggressive stranger in the right?</p>
<h2>How many languages do you speak?</h2>
<p>Many native speakers of English appear to assume that when someone chooses to speak a different language, it indicates that they are incapable of using English. The tepid response from the prime minister, Boris Johnson, to the Winchester Tower incident <a href="https://www.edp24.co.uk/news/crime/boris-johnson-on-winchester-tower-poster-1-6495996">suggests he shares this view</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313490/original/file-20200204-41495-keku31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Local residents in the Winchester Tower in Norwich have rushed to protest against the ‘Happy Brexit Day’ poster.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BBC News</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like most stereotypes, that assumption is statistically highly likely to be wrong: according to the 2011 census, <a href="http://www.research.lancs.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/english-a-foreign-tongue(c497c893-856f-49c5-b780-362d97153aa7)/export.html">more than 98% of the UK population</a> is able to use English well or very well. But many can and do use other languages in addition to English. They may find it more practical in certain situations or want to pass a language on to children. And that in no way takes away from their ability or willingness to use English. </p>
<p>In fact, far more people in the world <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160811-the-amazing-benefits-of-being-bilingual">know more than one language</a> than are monolingual – and this has been the case ever since <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10539-018-9609-3">humans were first able to speak</a>. Our brains and neural networks are <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/neuroimaging-of-language-control-in-bilinguals-neural-adaptation-and-reserve/DC529A7C60754F4AFF1CEC42B5330469">physically configured for this purpose</a>, and using this capacity <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2018/03/27/learn-foreign-language-benefits-bilingualism/">brings multiple benefits</a>. </p>
<p>It goes without saying that it is impolite – at least in situations where it can be avoided – to use a language that someone who is part of a conversation does not understand, because it excludes them. But these demands and attacks are not about feeling excluded, they are about regulating other people’s behaviour and objecting to anything that seems different. </p>
<h2>Speaking in tongues</h2>
<p>Which brings me back to the satisfaction we get from the Welsh/Navajo punchline. To me, this rather uncomfortably suggests a mindset which gives someone the moral right to proudly display their identity because “their people” have occupied the same patch of earth for many generations.</p>
<p>If, on the other hand, they themselves or their parents were the ones who brought their languages and identities with them from “foreign parts”, does that mean they should try to erase them as quickly as possible, renouncing the benefits that bilingualism and biculturalism would bring them?</p>
<p>I’m still searching for my perfect response, but a few weeks ago, I found one that will do in the meantime. It comes from a tweet from @AGlasgowGirl, whose mother was once confronted by a man demanding she speak English, not Punjabi.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"805109973835452417"}"></div></p>
<p>I take huge pleasure imagining the residents of Winchester Tower – regardless of their gender, origin, or native language – bringing the stairways and balconies to life with animated and graphic debates of the relative merits of different period products. Loudly. Often. And, of course, in the “Queen’s own English”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131108/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Monika Schmid receives funding from the Dutch National Science Foundation NWO, the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences, the ESRC and the AHRC. She joined the Conservative Party in 2018 for the sole purpose of voting against Boris Johnson in the Leadership contest.</span></em></p>The unpleasant ‘Happy Brexit Day’ poster misses the fact that the vast majority of people in the UK recognise the benefits of multilingualism.Monika Schmid, Professor of Linguistics, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1208142020-01-16T13:42:07Z2020-01-16T13:42:07ZWhy Ghana is struggling to get its language policy right in schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286931/original/file-20190805-36390-1k1rmyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children reading in school</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than 46 languages are spoken in Ghana. As with many other countries on the continent it is struggling to find an effective policy for language in education. At present Ghanaian children are taught for the first five years of school in their own language while they are gradually exposed to the the English language, before shifting to English as medium of instruction in the upper primary and beyond. </p>
<p>Using a bilingual (Ghanaian language and English) methodology, the country is implementing a policy to promote teaching pupils in kindergarten through primary grade three to read and write in their local language – one of 11 selected Ghanaian languages – while introducing them to spoken English, and by
grade two, to written English. </p>
<p>The approach is designed to be a transitional one in which local language literacy is used as a bridge to English literacy. The programme also serves to encourage and celebrate the use of local languages as a valuable aspect of Ghanaian culture.</p>
<p>However, many parents and education officials continue to agitate for English to be used as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073805931000026X">medium </a> of instruction from the start.</p>
<h2>The history</h2>
<p>There is plenty of <a href="http://www0.sun.ac.za/taalsentrum/assets/files/ML%20Afr%20Lang%20&%20Cost.pdf">research</a> to suggest that the language of <a href="http://www.adeanet.org/adea/downloadcenter/publications/rap%20bie%2003%20eng.pdf">communication</a> is very important in teaching and learning. Policy makers believe <a href="http://www.web.net/%7Eafc/download3/Education%20Research/NALAP%20Study/EQUALL%20NALAP%20Implementation%20Study%20Final%20Report.pdf">Ghana’s approach</a> will improve learning as young learners firmly grasp <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291013758_Multilingual_language_policy_and_mother_tongue_education_in_Timor-Leste_a_multiscalar_approach">concepts</a> at the early stages of their education and also foster cultural pride and patriotism. </p>
<p>A former minister for education, Professor Naana Opoku Agyeman, has <a href="https://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2015/October-16th/ghana-to-change-english-as-medium-of-instruction.php">attributed</a> Ghana’s underdevelopment issues – notably extreme poverty and income growth – to the use of English as the only medium of instruction in the lower primary schools. The argument is that this impedes learners’ active participation in the teaching and learning process which, in turn, has negative repercussions on their future learning. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out what ordinary Ghanaians thought about the debate. Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09575146.2019.1631759">study</a> found that many parents were not happy with a mother-tongue based bilingual policy where young learners began with a familiar local Ghanaian language and gradually introduced to the English language. </p>
<p>Respondents also identified practical difficulties in optimising the module. The difficulty is that Ghana has 11 languages that can be written and studied at this level. For the policy to fully work, teaching materials would have to be designed and published in each of these languages. Parents were not convinced that this had happened, or that the right teaching resources were in place.</p>
<p>Our findings also indicated that the hostile response from parents to the policy was borne out of poor communication. </p>
<h2>The Study</h2>
<p>Ghana introduced the National Literacy Acceleration <a href="http://www.web.net/%7Eafc/download3/Education%20Research/NALAP%20Study/EQUALL%20NALAP%20Implementation%20Study%20Final%20Report.pdf">Programme</a> in the 2009/2010 academic year. This was after it was <a href="http://www.web.net/%7Eafc/download3/Education%20Research/NALAP%20Study/EQUALL%20NALAP%20Implementation%20Study%20Final%20Report.pdf">discovered in a baseline study</a> that only 18% of third grade pupils could read text in their school’s Ghanaian language. This followed a 2007 assessment that showed that, at grade six, 26% of pupils had minimum competency in English. </p>
<p>Research has shown that <a href="https://cepa.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/The%20Challenges%20of%20Measuring%20School%20Quality.pdf">quality</a> education is best achieved when it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-it-makes-sense-for-children-to-learn-in-the-language-they-know-best-55346">transmitted</a> in a language familiar to the learners. Researchers suggest that the choice of language of instruction in schools, especially in the early years, is <a href="http://www0.sun.ac.za/taalsentrum/assets/files/ML%20Afr%20Lang%20&%20Cost.pdf">critical</a> for achieving educational outcomes. </p>
<p>Ghana’s programme specifies that a familiar local language - the most common Ghanaian language in the school’s community - is used for academic instruction during the first five years of schooling – from Kindergarten to Primary 3, and that teachers introduce children to English language as part of the curriculum. </p>
<p>From Primary 4 upwards, the medium of instruction transitions to English for the rest of the child’s education. Eleven major languages (Akuapem Twi, Asante Twi, Dagaare, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Fante, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, and Nzema) have been selected to be used alongside English. Schools can select any one of these languages in addition to English for its medium of instruction, depending on its location and learners’ proficiency in the language. </p>
<p>The goal of the <a href="http://www.web.net/%7Eafc/download3/Education%20Research/NALAP%20Study/EQUALL%20NALAP%20Implementation%20Study%20Final%20Report.pdf">policy</a> is to move children gradually to English as a medium of instruction and to recognise their rights as stipulated in the UN <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx">Convention</a> on the Rights of the Child. It is supposed to help them succeed academically and take pride in their heritage. </p>
<h2>What next</h2>
<p>We <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09575146.2019.1631759">found</a> that Ghanaians opposed the bi-lingual programme because they felt the country lacked the teaching and learning resources to make it work. A very large proportion of teachers are not equipped to teach reading in a mother tongue language. This is true even if they are fluent in a language. </p>
<p>Our findings clearly show a need for further training to make the current system work. Teachers on the module require follow up support and a consistent refresher programmes. </p>
<p>The support of parents and the general public is also essential if the policy is to work. More sensitisation needs to be done to help them understand the benefits of the policy. </p>
<p>There are several benefits – social as well as cultural – inherent in the mastery of a local language for children. They associate and socialise better if they are able to converse in a shared language.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120814/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Inadequate public education on a new language policy has generated resistance from parents at the early childhood education level in Ghana.Joyce Esi Bronteng, Lecturer of Education, University of Cape CoastIlene Berson, Professor of Education, University of South FloridaMichael J Berson, Professor of Social Science Education, University of South FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/927452018-04-03T19:45:39Z2018-04-03T19:45:39ZThe time it takes to learn a new language depends on what you want to do with it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212342/original/file-20180328-109190-41huap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Knowing how to ask for directions in another language is vastly different from studying and working using the language. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/RUJYUXwj3s0">Photo by Sebastian Hietsch on Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you go by <a href="https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/speak-a-new-language-in-3-weeks-with-this-app">the ads for some language learning apps</a>, you can “have a conversation in a new language in three weeks”. </p>
<p>But the experience of most Australians when trying to learn a new language is more likely to resemble that of our <a href="https://www.malcolmturnbull.com.au/media/the-asian-century-and-learning-chinese-in-school">prime minister</a> who, a few years ago, wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Learning any language at school is…difficult because there simply aren’t enough hours in the school calendar for most students to achieve any real facility – as many Australians have discovered when they tried out their schoolboy or schoolgirl French on their first visit to Paris!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The time it takes to learn a language depends on what you mean by “learning a language”. If your definition is being able to order a “café au lait” or ask for directions to “les toilettes, s’il vous plait” on your next trip to Paris, three weeks is perfectly realistic. </p>
<p>But if you need to study using another language, perform your job with it and negotiate all your relationships through that language – the answer changes dramatically. You’ll be looking at <a href="http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199937240.001.0001/acprof-9780199937240-chapter-3">six years and more</a>, where <em>more</em> may well mean <em>never</em>. </p>
<h2>Doing things with words</h2>
<p>Language proficiency is therefore best thought of as the ability to do things with words. The things a tourist needs to do with words are vastly different from the things a migrant needs to do.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/linguistic-paranoia-why-is-australia-so-afraid-of-languages-43236">Linguistic paranoia – why is Australia so afraid of languages?</a>
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<p>Not only do different people need to do different things with language but their proficiency is usually assessed differently. A tourist will be considered highly fluent if they can have an everyday conversation. But the same level of proficiency would be considered too low if they wanted to take up university study where a more mentally challenging use of language is necessary to succeed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210228/original/file-20180314-131591-7l5wr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning another language requires a considerable investment of time, effort and commitment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The problem isn’t just that the goal of “knowing a language” is variable but also that the pathway towards that goal is different for everyone. How much time and effort a person will require to get to a similar point on the spectrum depends on a wide range of linguistic and non-linguistic factors. </p>
<h2>Similarities and differences</h2>
<p>An important language factor is similarity. Similar languages are easier to learn than vastly different languages. From the perspective of English, Afrikaans and Dutch are quite similar while Arabic and Chinese are very different. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-languages-should-children-be-learning-to-get-ahead-74305">What languages should children be learning to get ahead?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Does this mean we should all be learning Afrikaans instead of Chinese? </p>
<p>Obviously not. And this is where non-linguistic factors come in. Many Australians are likely to be more motivated to learn Chinese than Afrikaans. They may find there are better Chinese learning resources (classes, textbooks, qualified teachers) within reach. And they may have more opportunities to practise Chinese than Afrikaans. </p>
<p>All this may align in a way that makes Chinese easier to learn than Afrikaans, despite the obvious difficulties of contending with the tones and the script.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210230/original/file-20180314-131587-13l5jwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Similar languages have been shown to be a lot easier to learn than vastly different languages.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Individual learner differences also <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2016/07/challenge-of-adult-language-learning/">play a role</a> in making language learning more or less difficult, such as age. Adolescence and young adulthood are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00353.x">particularly good times</a> to learn a new language. At that age, the brain is still quite malleable as in the younger years. But adolescent and young adult learners have better strategies and problem-solving skills than younger learners.</p>
<p>Education, including good study skills and socioeconomic factors, also play a role. Being able to afford private tuition, for instance, will have an impact on learning a language.</p>
<h2>It’s an investment</h2>
<p>English speakers can actually find it more difficult to learn another language precisely because they speak English. This is because the world has <a href="http://www.languageonthemove.com/the-language-cringe-of-the-the-native-speaker/">relatively low expectations</a> of English speakers when it comes to their talent for foreign language learning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wiradjuri-words-show-the-power-of-learning-australias-first-languages-38848">Wiradjuri words show the power of learning Australia's first languages</a>
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<p>At the same time, there is no shortage of enthusiastic English language learners keen to make good use of practising with native speakers. These dynamics are likely to make it harder for an English speaker to learn Korean than for a Korean speaker to learn English – although the linguistic challenge involved is theoretically the same in both directions.</p>
<p>Learning a language requires a considerable investment of time, effort and commitment. But it’s well worth it because another language <a href="http://www.languageonthemove.com/on-learning-languages-and-the-gaining-of-wisdom/">opens a door</a> to another life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92745/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ingrid Piller receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Humboldt Foundation. </span></em></p>Some learning apps promise to have you speaking a new language in two weeks. But truly learning a language requires considerable time, effort and commitment.Ingrid Piller, Professor of Applied Linguistics, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/876662017-11-30T19:04:52Z2017-11-30T19:04:52ZUsing university language tests for migration and professional registration is problematic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197093/original/file-20171130-30931-1hg05um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Purpose-built English language tests should be applied only to the proficiency they were built to test.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Using the International English Language Testing System (<a href="https://www.ielts.org/">IELTS</a>) to test things other than the <a href="http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/23135-research-notes-18.pdf">English readiness</a> of international students commencing study or training, which is what it was designed to do, is problematic. The same can be said of tests like <a href="https://www.ets.org/toefl/ibt/about">TOEFL iBT</a>, which were built for <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020748915000085">academic purposes</a>, and should only be used in that way. </p>
<p>When they are applied to other contexts, such as migration or professional registration, it reduces the validity of these tests. They may not target the right proficiency for those purposes.</p>
<p>Take driver’s licences for example. Compare a car, bus and motorcycle license: they all have the same road rules in common, but passing a car driver’s test doesn’t automatically qualify you to handle a motorcycle or drive a bus. Tests of English are similar. They often have basic commonalities, such as the road rules of grammar and basic vocabulary, but the test focus and purpose varies. </p>
<h2>IELTS scores</h2>
<p>The test was created in 1989 in response to Australia opening its tertiary sector to international students. It was first used in 1999 for skilled <a href="http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=332480460154352;res=IELAPA">migration</a>. In 2001, it was used for general Australian <a href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=065328178845270;res=IELHSS">migration</a>. Language testing to gain professional registration was already established by this time. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/english-test-for-international-students-isnt-new-just-more-standardised-85603">English test for international students isn't new, just more standardised</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.ielts.org/what-is-ielts/ielts-introduction">IELTS</a> is a standardised test. It has four sub-tests of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It scores between 0-9, rising in 0.5 increments. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/23132-research-notes-16.pdf">Improvement</a> on lower scores is usually much easier to achieve than at higher levels. The effort needed to improve in English from one to two is much easier to develop than that for six to seven. </p>
<p>Institutions use the overall average score and/or the sub-test scores. To get a score of seven in reading and listening sub-tests, a candidate can get about 25% of the questions <a href="https://www.ielts.org/ielts-for-organisations/ielts-scoring-in-detail">wrong</a>. You can hear big <a href="https://www.ielts.org/ielts-for-organisations/setting-ielts-entry-scores">differences</a> in speaking ability between a score of five:</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/m0UGhSufSJk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>A score of six:</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lBkffRImTwE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>And a score of seven:</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5T6zglM1Onc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>IELTS Academic and IELTS General Training <a href="https://www.ielts.org/about-the-test/test-format">differs</a> in the writing and reading sub-tests. The listening and speaking sub-tests are the same. The academic reading sub-test is based on three long complex texts and the writing sub-test involves writing a formal essay and writing about information in a chart/diagram. The general training reading sub-test is based on everyday written materials (such as newspapers, brochures, advertisements), and the writing sub-test involves writing a letter and writing an essay using a personal style.</p>
<h2>Misuse and misapplications</h2>
<p>Complaints about IELTS are many. Essentially, these arise from the misuse and misapplication of the test. </p>
<p>For example, currently in the UK, overseas nursing recruitment has halted because native English-speaking nurses are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/23/nurses-language-tests-immigration-nhs">failing</a> IELTS. The first problem is that IELTS was not meant to test health care communication. It focuses on topics that have nothing to do with nursing, such as bee communication or pagoda construction. </p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, the more appropriate <a href="https://www.occupationalenglishtest.org/">Occupational English Test</a> is now being considered. It’s surprising the Occupational English Test hasn’t become the sole test used for healthcare registration, and other poor-fitting tests such as IELTS and TOEFL iBT haven’t already been removed as alternate accrediting options. The Occupational English Test is the only purpose-built test for the health care profession. </p>
<p>The second problem is IELTS was not meant for native English-speakers, who are expected to have much different linguistic skill sets to non-native speakers. This is because non-native speakers acquire English differently, more through reading and writing, and have different skills, like extensive English testing experience. On the other hand, native speakers have a lifetime of experience in English (acquired about five years of speaking and listening before learning to read and write), but less experience in being tested for their English. </p>
<p>IELTS doesn’t test for knowledge of the slang, idioms, and phrasal verbs a patient will <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020748915000619">use</a> regularly. Jargon and culturally-specific materials are <a href="http://search.informit.org/documentSummary;dn=700276679819961;res=IELHSS">edited out</a> before each IELTS test is released, yet a native speaker would easily ace a test that contained those elements. A non-native speaker would struggle. </p>
<p>Currently, the Australian government accepts the results of <a href="https://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/faqs/how-can-i-prove-i-have-functional-english">a number of different independent standardised English tests</a> to establish functional, vocational, proficient, and superior categories of English language skills for migrants.</p>
<p>Now the government is <a href="http://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/discussion-papers/citizenship-paper.pdf">proposing</a> to tighten the English language requirement to screen certain types of migrants, such as refugees, for citizenship. They would require an IELTS score of six, but it’s unclear whether they will be using IELTS Academic or IELTS General Training which is much easier to pass.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/english-language-bar-for-citizenship-likely-to-further-disadvantage-refugees-76520">English language bar for citizenship likely to further disadvantage refugees</a>
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</em>
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<p>The IELTS organisation has not officially disapproved of the use of the test beyond its original purpose. It comments on recommendation test <a href="https://www.ielts.org/ielts-for-organisations/setting-ielts-entry-scores">scores for study</a>, but is quiet on its use for migration or work purposes. But, at least one of the IELTS <a href="http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/190379/sub016-migrant-intake.pdf">original designers</a> has openly objected to it.</p>
<p>We should find alternatives which might better test proficiency for each specific purpose. This could include successfully completing an English course, looking at alternative tests which focus on general proficiency (no academic component), or building a new test.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87666/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Muller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Using purpose-built English language tests for purposes other than what they were created to test reduces the validity of these tests.Amanda Muller, Senior Lecturer (Nursing English), Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/765202017-04-24T21:55:04Z2017-04-24T21:55:04ZEnglish language bar for citizenship likely to further disadvantage refugees<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166396/original/file-20170424-24654-1oq9mss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull has proposed tougher language requirements for new citizenship applicants.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lukas Coch/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Citizenship applicants will need to demonstrate a higher level of English proficiency if the <a href="http://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/discussion-papers/citizenship-paper.pdf">government’s proposed changes</a> to the Australian citizenship test go ahead. </p>
<p>Applicants will be required to reach the equivalent of Band 6 proficiency of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS).</p>
<p>To achieve <a href="https://www.ielts.org/ielts-for-organisations/ielts-scoring-in-detail">Band 6</a>, applicants must correctly answer 30 out of 40 questions in the reading paper, 23 out of 40 in the listening paper, and <a href="https://www.ielts.org/about-the-test/test-format-in-detail">the writing paper</a> rewards language used “accurately and appropriately”. If a candidate’s writing has “frequent” inaccuracies in grammar and spelling, they <a href="https://www.ielts.org/-/media/pdfs/writing-band-descriptors-task-1.ashx?la=en">cannot achieve Band 6</a></p>
<p>Success in IELTS requires proficiency in both the English language, and also understanding how to take - and pass - a test. The proposed changes will then make it harder for people with fragmented educational backgrounds to become citizens, such as many refugees.</p>
<h2>How do the tests currently work?</h2>
<p>The current citizenship test consists of 20 multiple-choice questions in English concerning Australia’s political system, history, and citizen responsibilities. </p>
<p>While the test does not require demonstration of English proficiency per se, it acts as an indirect assessment of language. </p>
<p>For example, the question: “Which official symbol of Australia identifies Commonwealth property?” demonstrates the level of linguistic complexity required. </p>
<p>The IELTS test is commonly taken for immigration purposes as a requirement for certain visa categories; however, <a href="http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/190379/sub016-migrant-intake.pdf">the designer of IELTS</a> argues that IELTS was never designed for this purpose. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01596306.2016.1199527?journalCode=cdis20">Researchers have argued</a> that the growing strength of English as the language of politics and economics has resulted in its widespread use for immigration purposes.</p>
<h2>Impact of proposed changes</h2>
<p>English is undoubtedly important for <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1473-4192.2008.00191.x/abstract">participation in society</a>, but deciding citizenship based on a high-stakes language test could further marginalise community members, such as people with refugee backgrounds <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/apr/21/refugees-will-be-hardest-hit-by-changes-to-australias-citizenship-test-experts-say">who have the greatest need for citizenship</a>, yet lack the formal educational background to navigate such tests. </p>
<p>The Refugee Council of Australia <a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/latest/older-refugees-have-most-to-lose-from-citizenship-changes/">argues</a> that adults with refugee backgrounds will be hardest hit by the proposed language test. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.border.gov.au/Citizenship/Documents/2014-15-snapshot-report.pdf">Data</a> shows that refugees are both more likely to apply for citizenship, and twice as likely as other migrant groups to have to <a href="http://apo.org.au/node/6194">retake the test</a>.</p>
<h2>Mismatched proficiency expectations</h2>
<p>The Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), where many adult refugees access English learning upon arrival, expects <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/adult-migrant-english-program">only a “functional” level of language proficiency</a>. </p>
<p>For many adult refugees – who have minimal first language literacy, fragmented educational experiences, and limited opportunities to gain feedback on their written English – “competency” may be prohibitive to gaining citizenship. This is also more likely to impact <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1440783314536792">refugee women</a>, who are less likely to have had formal schooling and more likely to assume caring duties. </p>
<h2>Bar too high?</h2>
<p>The challenges faced in re/settlement contexts, such as pressures of work and financial responsibilities to extended family, often combine to make <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000494411205600203">learning a language difficult</a>, and by extension,
<a href="https://eprints.usq.edu.au/27724/">prevent refugees from completing the citizenship test</a>. </p>
<p>Similar patterns are evident with IELTS. Nearly half of <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/10/global-refugee-crisis-by-the-numbers/">Arabic speakers</a> who took the IELTS in 2015 <a href="https://www.ielts.org/teaching-and-research/demographic-data">scored lower than Band 6</a>. </p>
<p>There are a number of questions to clarify regarding the proposed language proficiency test:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Will those dealing with trauma-related experiences gain exemption from a high-stakes, time-pressured examination? </p></li>
<li><p>What support mechanisms will be provided to assist applicants to study for the test? </p></li>
<li><p>Will financially-disadvantaged members of the community be expected to pay for classes/ materials in order to prepare for the citizenship test? </p></li>
<li><p>The IELTS test costs A$330, with no subsidies available. Will the IELTS-based citizenship/ language test attract similar fees? </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There are also <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780230576339">questions</a> about the fairness of requiring applicants to demonstrate a specific type and level of English under examination conditions that is not required of all citizens. Those born in Australia are not required to pass an academic test of language in order to retain their citizenship. </p>
<h2>Recognising diversity of experiences</h2>
<p>There are a few things the government should consider before introducing a language test:</p>
<p>1) Community consultation is essential. Input from community/ migrant groups, educators, and language assessment specialists will ensure the test functions as a valid evaluation of progression towards English language proficiency. The government is currently <a href="http://www.border.gov.au/about/reports-publications/discussion-papers-submissions">calling for submissions</a> related to the new citizenship test.</p>
<p>2) Design the test to value different forms and varieties of English that demonstrate progression in learning rather than adherence to prescriptive standards. </p>
<p>3) Provide educational opportunities that build on existing linguistic strengths that help people to prepare for the test.</p>
<p>Equating a particular type of language proficiency with a commitment to Australian citizenship is a complex and ideologically-loaded notion. The government must engage in careful consideration before potentially further disadvantaging those most in need of citizenship.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76520/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Baker has received funding from The Office for Learning and Teaching for a project entitled '(Re)claiming social capital: improving language and cultural pathways for refugee students into Australian Higher Education' (ID15-4758) with Macquarie University and Curtin University
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Refugees are both more likely to apply for citizenship, and twice as likely as other migrant groups to have to retake the test.Sally Baker, Research Associate, Centre of Excellence for Equity in Higher Education, University of NewcastleRachel Burke, Lecturer, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.