tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/learning-difficulty-50674/articlesLearning difficulty – The Conversation2020-11-16T20:04:21Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1464382020-11-16T20:04:21Z2020-11-16T20:04:21ZIf your child has reading, school or social struggles, it may be DLD: Developmental language disorder<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369705/original/file-20201117-17-p7trlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C35%2C3814%2C2622&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Developmental language disorder may be missed as it often doesn’t appear foremost as a language impairment.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Developmental language disorder (DLD) is one of the most common disorders affecting children but is relatively unknown. </p>
<p>Affecting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4006.1245">more than seven per cent of children</a>, DLD is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.1.49">20 times more common than autism</a>. Ninety per cent of people surveyed across European countries said they had heard of autism, <a href="https://research.ncl.ac.uk/echo/outputs/survey/Public%20Survey%20on%20Awareness%20of%20DLD%20Sofia%20meeting%20%202019.pdf">but only 60 per cent had heard of DLD</a>, according to an upcoming study in <em>Journal of Communication Disorders</em> by the European Co-operation in Science and Technology Action IS1406, an <a href="https://research.ncl.ac.uk/echo/outputs/">international collaboration on children’s language learning difficulties</a>. </p>
<p>DLD is most often identified in late preschool-age children but can be identified in school-age children or later. DLD identification is based on significantly low scores on formal tests targeting various aspects of language as well as observation of marked difficulty using language in various settings such as home and school. </p>
<p>There is an urgent need for greater public awareness and knowledge of developmental language disorder because it affects so many children, because it has significant and long-lasting effects and because these effects can be lessened significantly through appropriate intervention. </p>
<p>Efforts to <a href="https://radld.org">increase public awareness of DLD</a> are underway in many countries. As researchers in speech language pathology, we study the signs of DLD, how to recognize it at various ages, in various languages and in bilingual and multilingual children. We also study its effects in the short and long term, to what extent DLD can be remedied through intervention and what it feels like to a child to have DLD. </p>
<h2>High prevalence, low awareness</h2>
<p>Until the recent adoption of the term DLD, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158753">language impairment in children went by many names</a>, causing confusion. The fact that DLD can occur either as part of a broader condition such as Down syndrome, or as a disorder primarily affecting language can make the particular DLD effects hard to tease out and sometimes causes them to be overlooked. </p>
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<img alt="Two girls sitting at a table in a classroom doing school work." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362248/original/file-20201007-14-14v22fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">DLD symptoms vary across children and within the same child over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Pragyan Bezbaruah)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>But the greatest reason may be that DLD often does not look like a language problem on the surface. Its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4205.1195">symptoms vary across children and within the same child over time</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2016.06.001">across languages</a>, even in the two languages of a bilingual child. </p>
<p>People tend to associate the idea of disorder with errors — faulty sentences and errors in forms like plurals or verb tenses. Much research has attempted to understand the nature of DLD by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/jshr.3906.1239">analyzing error patterns</a>. However, with age, even children with DLD <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2004/061)">stop making grammatical errors</a>, and in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/049)">many languages</a>, making grammatical errors <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2016.06.001">isn’t a prominent feature</a> of this disorder. </p>
<p>Children with DLD have smaller vocabularies than children of the same age who do not have the disorder, smaller repertoires of grammatical structures, more difficulty understanding and using complex language, the subtleties and nuances and the social rules of language. If your child struggles in school, in social interactions or in reading, <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0025323">their underlying problem may well be DLD</a>.</p>
<h2>Immediate and long-term effects</h2>
<p>In terms of the short- and long-term consequences of DLD, <a href="http://DOI.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198786825.013.3">language is central</a> to almost all human activity. It should come as no surprise that DLD has varied and far-reaching consequences. Apart from the immediate discomfort that it might bring to the child in their interactions with others, long-term consequences for the child and their family can be difficult to establish because this means <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1684">following children</a> from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-18-0061">early childhood through school</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00342.x">into adulthood</a>. </p>
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<img alt="A girl with a bow in her hair sits at a school desk looking at a map." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362266/original/file-20201007-14-5dufiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">There is a clear link between early DLD and performance on school tests and in interaction with peers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Ian Panelo)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>A number of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12338">studies have now done this</a>. This goes through primary school and is identifiable in secondary school, but perhaps more importantly there is also evidence that children with DLD at school entry are more likely to be at risk of reading and writing difficulties, of mental health difficulties and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0142)">even of unemployment in their thirties</a>. Of course, this does not mean that everyone with DLD will have these persistent difficulties but there is a significant risk that they will.</p>
<p>There are various ways treatment can improve the language skills of children and adolescents with DLD. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000493125">Interventions may focus on stimulating general language skills or on a targeted area of language</a>, such as vocabulary or syntax, depending on age and individual needs. Individual or group sessions with a speech-language pathologist are the most common approach, but interventions may also involve other trained participants, such as parents. The intensity (frequency and length of sessions) and duration of treatment is an important factor in achieving results and maintaining them over time. </p>
<h2>Children with DLD and their families</h2>
<p>Qualitative research gives further insights into the hidden nature of this disorder. In focus groups and interviews, parents tell stories of their struggles to have their child’s difficulties recognized, their own difficulties understanding the problem and <a href="https://www.basw.co.uk/system/files/resources/basw_102721-9_0.pdf">their concerns</a> about their child’s <a href="https://www.bercow10yearson.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Bercow-Ten-Years-On-Summary-Report-.pdf">future social isolation</a>. Children with DLD tell of how people shout at them when they don’t understand or get them to repeat things over and over. </p>
<p>While a child’s odd ways of communicating may be the first thing that strikes a listener, children prefer to view and present themselves as competent and likeable; they do not like it when their differences are remarked upon or are the source of teasing. In interviews, children in grades 5 and 6 were asked to tell us about their family and friends, their school and leisure activities. They reported <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2016.1221455">difficulties with friendships and the isolation</a> that comes from their communication challenges. One 11-year old girl with a language disorder commented: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I don’t really have much friends. I get alone lots of time.… Well I don’t really have much to talk too much people to talk with.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This underscores the need for greater awareness and adequate support for children with developmental language disorder and their families — interventions and environments that allow children with DLD to succeed and participate and let their parents know where to turn for support.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146438/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elin Thordardottir has received funding from SSHRC, NSERC, CLLRNet, and RANNIS (Iceland) to conduct scientific studies on DLD</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Law is a member of the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists in the UK. He has received funding from The EU Cost Action Programme, DET Melbourne Australia, Growing up in Scotland, Horizon 2020, Education Endowment Foundation, Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal, Nuffield Foundation, The Communication Trust, Early Intervention Foundation, Newcastle Bid Preparation Fund, Home Start UK, New Opportunities for Research Funding Agency Co-operation in Europe (NORFACE), National Institute of Health Research and Public Health England.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Roulstone has received funding from the National Institute for Heath Research, Public Health England, Depertment for Children Schools and Families, the Underwood Tust and The BUPA Foundation.. </span></em></p>Developmental language disorder affects more than seven per cent of children, yet is not well known. If your child struggles in school, social interactions or reading, the underlying issue may be DLD.Elin Thordardottir, Professor, School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, McGill University, McGill UniversityJames Law, Professor of Speech & Language Sciences, Newcastle UniversitySusan Roulstone, Emeritus Professor, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1046552019-01-24T10:26:30Z2019-01-24T10:26:30ZDyscalculia: ‘maths dyslexia’ or why so many children struggle with numbers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253849/original/file-20190115-152974-btqp61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Signs of dyscalculia, also known as a math learning disability or math disorder, can be hard to spot. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ve probably heard of dyslexia, but have you heard of <a href="https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/dyslexic/maths-difficulties-dyscalculia">dyscalculia</a> before? Maybe not, given that children with dyscalculia – or mathematical learning difficulties – are less likely to be diagnosed. </p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://digest.bps.org.uk/2018/09/18/uk-study-finds-children-with-maths-difficulties-sldm-dyscalculia-are-100-times-less-likely-to-receive-an-official-diagnosis-than-peers-with-dyslexia/">research</a> shows that children with dyslexia are more than a hundred times more likely to receive a diagnosis and educational support than children with dyscalculia. This is despite the fact that dyslexia and dyscalculia are expected to be equally common. </p>
<p>This is worrying, given that <a href="https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/research-long-term-costs-numeracy-difficulties-2008">research</a> shows low numeracy might affect people’s life chances more negatively than low literacy. Indeed, there is a <a href="https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/why-numeracy-important">strong link</a> between numeracy and educational success, income, mental and physical health and even chances of arrest and incarceration.</p>
<h2>What is dyscalculia?</h2>
<p>Dyscalculia is <a href="http://www.ldonline.org/article/13709/">defined</a> as a condition that involves long-term, severe difficulties with mathematics – which cause significant problems with academic or occupational performance, or with daily activities.</p>
<p>Some typical signs of dyscalculia that parents might notice are using finger counting – even for simple arithmetic – struggling to retrieve number facts from memory (such as times tables), and struggling to learn new procedures. </p>
<p>Dyscalculic children might also have trouble using calendars and clocks, they might struggle with <a href="http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/Morsanyi%2042027%20-%20Main%20Public%20report_Final%20(Oct18).pdf">recalling the order</a> of past events, and with following sequential instructions.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253850/original/file-20190115-152992-snqyw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">How having dyscalculia can feel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p><a href="https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-31/august-2018/are-neurodevelopmental-disorders-discrete-conditions">Research</a> shows that developmental disorders very often occur together. So if your child has autism, ADHD or dyslexia, then they could also have dyscalculia. Our recent <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bjop.12322">research</a> investigated the links between dyscalculia and other developmental disorders in primary school children, and we found that among the children we identified as potentially dyscalculic, 81% already had another diagnosis. </p>
<p>We also found the number of boys and girls with dyscalculia to be the same. This differs from other conditions that are more common among boys. In our study, twice as many boys than girls had a diagnosis of dyslexia.</p>
<h2>Why is it so rarely diagnosed?</h2>
<p>Primary schools in the UK test pupils using standardised, curriculum-based tests every year, starting from grade three. When a child performs at or below a certain cut-off, and their performance does not substantially improve after receiving specialist support for six months, they should receive a diagnosis of dyscalculia. But despite this, dyscalculia is almost never diagnosed – it appears to be a very rare condition. </p>
<p>This could mean that because practitioners do not have experience of working with children with a diagnosis of dyscalculia, they might feel less confident in identifying a new case.</p>
<p>Former diagnostic criteria for dyscalculia included the requirement that mathematics skills should be well below the person’s level of intelligence. <a href="https://dyslexiaida.org/dsm-5-changes-in-diagnostic-criteria-for-specific-learning-disabilities-sld1-what-are-the-implications/">This requirement has been now dropped</a>, but practitioners might still expect an unexplained difficulty with mathematics, without any other issues.</p>
<p>There is also no official guidance on how dyscalculic learners can be best supported. And because a dyscalculia diagnosis is very rare, it is also difficult to recruit individuals with dyscalculia for research studies – which is essential for testing and developing intervention methods.</p>
<p>Another issue is that when children already have another diagnosis – such as ADHD – this might be considered the main target of intervention. This means that any learning difficulties might be seen as a consequence of the primary problems. And there can also be a general tendency to view mathematics as a difficult and burdensome subject that is “not for everybody”. </p>
<h2>Why diagnosis matters</h2>
<p>Early diagnosis is particularly important, because missing the basics of mathematics makes it difficult for learners to follow subsequent topics. This can lead to frustration and negative attitudes towards mathematics, as well as school subjects in general. </p>
<p>Officially diagnosing children might also lead to faster changes in government policies. Once dyscalculic learners appear in official statistics, it is more likely that support will be offered. It was only in 2009 that the <a href="http://www.thedyslexia-spldtrust.org.uk/media/downloads/inline/the-rose-report.1294933674.pdf">Rose report</a> on dyslexia was published, which called for the availability of special training for teachers to support children with dyslexia. This initiative has been a huge success, and it is likely that the same result would be possible for dyscalculia. </p>
<p>What all this shows is that when it comes to dyscalculia, more needs to be done to help children who are struggling. So if you’re a parent worried about your child, it is important to raise this with your child’s school and seek specialist educational psychology support. </p>
<p>Obtaining an official diagnosis might take a long time. But you can help your child by practising some basic concepts and procedures with them. This can be done by manipulating everyday objects, such as beads or tokens, or playing simple <a href="https://everychildcounts.edgehill.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/01-Numbers-Count-Children_x264.mp4">number games</a>. You can also play board games with a dice – which can help to demonstrate basic number concepts. </p>
<p>These activities might be especially helpful for younger children, but can also help to build confidence in the case of older pupils. Computer based maths programs can also be used for repeated practice of arithmetic. As with literacy, it is important that you don’t see your child’s maths learning as solely the responsibility of schools. </p>
<p>Dyscalculia, similar to dyslexia, is a life-long condition, which continues to affect people beyond their school years. It cannot and should not be ignored. And a better awareness of the condition in parents, teachers and society generally could offer great improvements in the prospects of dyscalculic learners.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104655/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kinga Morsanyi received funding from the Nuffield Foundation to carry out research on dyscalculia. </span></em></p>Finger counting and struggling to tell the time or use a calendar are all typical signs of dyscalculia – sometimes called ‘maths dyslexia’.Kinga Morsanyi, Lecturer in the School of Psychology, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1073842018-12-12T13:41:58Z2018-12-12T13:41:58ZTeachers don’t understand the depth of dyslexia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250205/original/file-20181212-76962-18ak5j0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Helping - but is it enough?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teacher-male-elementary-school-pupil-problem-485303140?src=g471WUm5QTzAYEhHiD7B6A-1-9">SpeedKingz/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dyslexia is a common learning difficulty that most of us know for causing problems with writing, reading and spelling. But it is more than this, and can affect people in many different ways. </p>
<p>It is <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11881-003-0001-9.pdf">generally accepted</a> that underlying neurological aspects, such as slight differences in brain structure, can change the way that dyslexic people process information, and this affects the behaviour they might display. <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/symptoms/">In addition to literacy difficulties</a>, people with dyslexia may also have trouble expressing themselves, even though they are very knowledgeable about a topic. People with dyslexia also have <a href="http://madebydyslexia.org/">many strengths</a>, such as being able to visualise things differently, thinking outside of the box and being creative. </p>
<p>School is often the place where dyslexia is first discovered, however, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/dys.1593">my recent survey</a> found that the majority of teachers in England and Wales describe dyslexia as a problem with literacy – and don’t understand the biological and cognitive aspects.</p>
<p>For the study, I asked 2,600 primary and secondary school classroom teachers in England and Wales to provide a description of dyslexia. The majority of teachers (79.5%) described dyslexia at the behavioural level. They mentioned the outward symptoms of dyslexia, mainly issues with reading, writing, and spelling.</p>
<p>Only 39.3% of the teachers in the survey described the cognitive aspects associated with dyslexia. They talked of things like phonological processing differences – the cognitive ability to identify sounds in words, for example, breaking down “cat” to “c”, “a” and “t” – as well as issues with decoding, and memory problems. Finally, 9% described the condition’s biological aspects. These teachers described dyslexia in relation to the brain, as well as neurological differences, or genetics being the cause of the dyslexic symptoms. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250207/original/file-20181212-76989-12qxjyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning to write.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/learn-write-208531888?src=WGKlbxTBxa2Bb0hSKiU_gQ-1-9">Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Together these results reveal that most teachers have a stereotypical understanding of dyslexia, focusing more on the behaviour they see. But while teachers certainly need to update their own understanding of the condition, and play a better part in changing the way dyslexic children are taught, it is not down to them alone. My research also found that there is a problem with the way in which teachers themselves are taught about dyslexia. </p>
<p>During the survey, the teachers were asked, in their opinion, how well dyslexia was covered on their teacher training programme. A large majority (71.8%) said it was “not covered well at all”. This lack of training could help to explain why teachers tend to only understand dyslexia based on how it impacts students at the behavioural level. </p>
<p>Research suggests <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/340/6130/300">between 4% and 20% of the population have dyslexia</a>. As the average primary school class consists of 27 students, and the average secondary school class is <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/552342/SFR20_2016_Main_Text.pdf">20 students</a>, it can be estimated that teachers will have between one and five dyslexic students in each class. This is a significant proportion and in order for teachers to be able to properly help each dyslexic pupil, it is vital that they understand the condition at more than just a behavioural level. </p>
<p>Effective interventions have been found to help those showing dyslexic symptoms. A large body of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4538781/">research</a> links dyslexia with a phonological processing difficulty. A 2009 report commissioned by the UK government concluded that prioritising phonological skills <a href="http://www.thedyslexia-spldtrust.org.uk/media/downloads/inline/the-rose-report.1294933674.pdf">is an effective</a> way to teach children with dyslexia how to read. So it is now <a href="http://www.4d.org.nz/school/dyslexia_intervention_research.pdf">recommended</a> that teachers use phonic-based reading approaches with all students, to best help those who might struggle with literacy. And as the children grow older, teachers must provide work in different learning styles to help pupils that process information in different ways.</p>
<p>To ensure school children with dyslexia are getting the help they need, teacher training needs an overhaul. Educators need to know about all the different aspects of the condition, and have access to good quality, evidence‐based training too. Only with up-to-date knowledge of how to best help their students with dyslexia can they help them reach their full potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107384/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cathryn Knight receives funding from ESRC.</span></em></p>Teachers’ understanding of dyslexia is mostly limited to behaviour, new survey finds.Cathryn Knight, Lecturer in Education, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/979372018-06-17T18:53:44Z2018-06-17T18:53:44ZThree issues language proficiency can hide for students from non-English speaking backgrounds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223294/original/file-20180615-32316-1sa1ppe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Learning difficulties or challenges such as dyslexia or Autism Spectrum Disorder may be masked by language ability for students from non-English speaking backgrounds.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Universities have increasingly diverse student bodies, bringing together varying forms of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1361332052000341006?journalCode=cree20">social and cultural knowledge</a>. But universities generally don’t recognise diverse forms of knowledge. This is particularly so with language and cultural practices, and the way these may affect learning. </p>
<p>Universities require specific forms of English language knowledge in order to complete degrees. This includes advanced understandings of discipline-specific language. </p>
<p>And yet, narrow views of what counts as academic language — and the idea that language and literacy are neutral, transferable “skills” — create <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03075079812331380364">challenges for students and staff</a>. It also perpetuates the idea that students lack the capacity to communicate. This is particularly true for culturally and linguistically diverse students if language proficiency is seen as representative of <a href="https://srhe.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13562510902898866?needAccess=true">academic ability</a>. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-international-students-should-mean-more-support-for-communication-and-interaction-39914">More international students should mean more support for communication and interaction</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Language (mis)use can disguise other issues for students from non-English speaking backgrounds. In particular, learning difficulties or challenges such as dyslexia or Autism Spectrum Disorder may be masked by language ability. This presents several challenges for universities, including the extent to which students require specialised English language support, as distinct from social, emotional or mental health support.</p>
<h2>1. Language leading to disengagement</h2>
<p>Not participating in tutorials, presentations or group work can be seen as lack of commitment in universities and other higher education institutions. But this <a href="https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/IEJ/article/view/6766/7411">silence</a> is more likely due to the anxieties caused by having to perform and articulate learning and understanding through unfamiliar and high-stakes forms of language. This includes oral presentations or participation requirements in tutorials.</p>
<p>For example, students’ pronunciation can often cause embarrassment and inhibit participation in class. Additionally, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-13602-002">research</a> has found students who struggle with English also typically see themselves as inferior to their peers. </p>
<p><a href="https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/93463/3/hdl_93463.pdf">Research</a> in primary and secondary schools indicates a narrow focus solely on language acquisition can lead to disengagement at school: for example, through reduced attendance or decreased commitment to learning. In the school setting, learning activities that don’t rely on English language knowledge (such as music, arts and sport) have been shown to increase school engagement and participation at school. </p>
<p>In the university setting, bringing diverse cultural knowledge of theories or practical issues (for example in psychology, of cultural understandings of mental health) to learning activities may help engage culturally and linguistically diverse students. Such activities will benefit all students by offering nuanced learning activities that assist them to think outside specific cultural reference points.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Universities need to do more to support students with difficulties relating to English ability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>2. Language impacting relationships with staff and students</h2>
<p>Communication between non-English speaking background students and educators or other students can be interpreted as students either not knowing the “rules of the game”. Or — worse — it can be interpreted as being deliberately rude. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/wjer/article/view/1173/1319">excessive formality</a> (or informality) and the misappropriation of titles (such as “Dear Professor”) or using only surnames. Students are not typically taught how to deal with the power dynamics and structures of higher education. They wouldn’t know why all lecturers aren’t called “professor”, or why it’s the norm to use titles in the first place. </p>
<p>Also, language is a key inhibitor to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07294360.2013.806447">forming relationships</a> with students from Australian-born backgrounds. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-13602-002">Research</a> has found these relationships are important for wellbeing. This means language plays a central role in the broader wellbeing of culturally and linguistically diverse students in higher education. </p>
<p>Universities could help by offering student activities (assessed or otherwise) that take into account the diversity of strengths brought by culturally and linguistically diverse students. Providing opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse students to demonstrate their own knowledge may assist them to form relationships with staff and students and increase self esteem.</p>
<h2>3. Masking dyslexia or other learning difficulties</h2>
<p>Errors in spelling, grammar and punctuation can be read as the student not having the “right kind” of English. But these kinds of mistakes can be the result of (potentially undiagnosed) learning <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781317482963">difficulties like dyslexia</a>, or underdeveloped literacy which requires specialist support. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/universities-need-to-do-more-to-support-refugee-students-97185">Universities need to do more to support refugee students</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p><a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0004944115587365">Research</a> at the primary and secondary school level suggests understanding whether language misuse or lack of engagement is related to the student’s non-English background or a language disorder is complex and challenging. More work is required in this area.</p>
<h2>What can be done to address this?</h2>
<p>These challenges show us universities and other higher education institutions need to invest more time and money on language and cultural development for students and staff. This would be done by trying to level the playing field in communication. </p>
<p>More <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-017-0127-z">holistic educational practices</a> that take into account varying cultural forms of knowledge or approaches to learning will <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253321/">benefit the entire student body</a>by asking academic teachers to clarify the kinds of language-related assumptions that many take for granted.</p>
<p>For example, educators could consider any hidden causes of silence within classes, reconsider responses to students who do not fully understand communication norms (such as the use of titles), and design courses to include space for students to discuss understandings of course content from their own cultural perspective.</p>
<p>There is much we can learn from the experiences of culturally and linguistically diverse students and their language-related challenges at university.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clemence Due has received funding from the Australian Research Council to explore the educational and wellbeing experiences of refugee and migrant background young people, as well as from the Office of Learning and Teaching to look at online learning in undergraduate degrees.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Baker has received funding from the Office for Learning & Teaching (OLT) for a project titled (Re)claiming social capital: improving language and cultural pathways for refugee students into Australian higher education (ID15-4758). Sally has also received funding from the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE) for a project titled ‘People Seeking Asylum: Access and support in higher education’. Sally is also the co-chair of the national Refugee Education Special Interest Group (<a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/educationsig/">https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/educationsig/</a>)</span></em></p>Difficulty with English language can mask other difficulties culturally and linguistically diverse students may have, such as Austism or dyslexia.Clemence Due, Lecturer in the School of Psychology, University of AdelaideSally Baker, Lecturer, School of Social Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890552018-03-06T15:08:38Z2018-03-06T15:08:38ZA brief history of dyslexia and the role women played in getting it recognised<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208897/original/file-20180305-65541-whsbo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success">shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dyslexia affects up to <a href="http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about">10% of the population</a> and is widely accepted as a learning difficulty that can cause problems with (among other things) reading, writing and spelling. But it hasn’t always been this way.</p>
<p>In fact, it wasn’t until quite recently – in 1987 – that the UK government announced that they were dispelling “a myth” – the myth that they did not believe in dyslexia. <a href="http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1987/jul/13/dyslexia">The government said that it:</a> </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Recognises dyslexia and the importance to the education progress of dyslexic children … that they should have their needs identified at an early stage. Once the assessment has been made, the appropriate treatment should be forthcoming.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The story of how dyslexia came to be recognised in the UK is a story in which women were at the forefront – as advocates, teachers and researchers. And it’s also one that’s largely yet to be told.</p>
<h2>Word blindness</h2>
<p>The earliest references to (what we would now call) dyslexia came in the late Victorian period, when several doctors first identified “<a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/2/1871/1378">word blindness</a>”. Otherwise able children were showing pronounced reading difficulties. </p>
<p>Today, reading and spelling difficulties are <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121004075623/https:/www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/00659-2009DOM-EN.pdf">still considered</a> central to dyslexia, but other skills are believed to be affected, too. These includes motor coordination, concentration and personal organisation. The “link” to intelligence has also been lost. It’s now recognised that dyslexia can occur across the spectrum of intellectual abilities.</p>
<p>Interest in dyslexia waned between the world wars, but emerged again in the early 1960s, with the creation of the <a href="https://www.barnardhealth.us/bangor-dyslexia/the-wordblind-centre.html">Word Blind Centre</a> in 1962. The centre brought together several researchers, including the neurologist Macdonald Critchley and the psychologist Tim Miles, who had encountered dyslexic children in their work. </p>
<p>The centre closed after a decade, but its principal director, Sandhya Naidoo, published one of the first major studies into the condition, Specific Dyslexia in 1972. Her book, along with Critchley’s The Dyslexic Child (1970), were landmarks in <a href="https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-31/march-2018/brief-history-dyslexia">early research</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201521/original/file-20180110-46733-1q8mu7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1025&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beve Hornsby was one of the great pioneers of the dyslexia movement.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>During the same period, larger organisations were being founded to help dyslexic children. In 1972, the British Dyslexia Association was formed, principally by the efforts of Marion Welchman. This brought together several smaller regional associations, leading to Marion being dubbed the “needle and thread of the dyslexia world”. </p>
<p>In the same year, the Dyslexia Institute was created by Kathleen Hickey and Wendy Fisher. And in 1971, the <a href="https://www.helenarkell.org.uk/about-us.php">Helen Arkell Centre</a> also opened. Bevé Hornsby, the “grande dame” of dyslexia, became head of the Word Blind (later Dyslexia) Clinic at Barts Hospital the same year. Dyslexia was now on the map.</p>
<h2>A mother’s motivation</h2>
<p>The motivation for these pioneers was often personal. Marion Welchman had observed the lack of provision (and sympathy) at school for her dyslexic son, Howard. For Wendy Fisher, it was the similar experience of her dyslexic daughter, Sophy. Helen Arkell grew up with dyslexia, and was first diagnosed by the Danish dyslexia pioneer, Edith Norrie. </p>
<p>After moving to the UK, Helen was asked to help the child of a friend with similar difficulties, and from there it continued. As <a href="https://dyslexiahistory.web.ox.ac.uk/uk-dyslexia-archive">she explained</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>More and more people came, and before I knew it I was teaching quite a lot of people.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This somewhat ad-hoc, but also highly effective approach was shared in schooling and research. In the late 1970s, for example, Daphne Hamilton-Fairley, a speech therapist, was increasingly encountering dyslexic children. As numbers grew, the children’s parents offered to support Daphne in founding a specialist school. <a href="http://www.fairleyhouse.org.uk/">Fairley House</a> became (and remains) one of Britain’s few specialist dyslexia schools.</p>
<p>Daphne <a href="https://dyslexiahistory.web.ox.ac.uk/uk-dyslexia-archive">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It was magic from the point of view of parent power, and how they’ll fight for their children.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Growing evidence base</h2>
<p>The 1970s also saw research on the condition expand. The Language Development Unit at Aston University opened in 1973, under Margaret Newton. And the Bangor Dyslexia Unit at Bangor University was officially opened in 1977, by Tim Miles and his wife, Elaine.</p>
<p>Again, achievements were predicated on improvisation. Ann Cooke, later director of teaching at Bangor, recalls that part time workers, mostly women, “were all paid on pinkies” – claim forms that you put in either every month, or every half term. Together with others, they built an evidence base for the existence and diagnosis of dyslexia.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209073/original/file-20180306-146671-n3ylk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Children with dyslexia can often struggle with their handwriting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=PMwyxll_kVmYUSSe09Jlmg-1-6">Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Driven by parents and those with direct personal experience of the condition, the history of dyslexia mirrors that of other conditions, like <a href="https://senmagazine.co.uk/articles/articles/senarticles/a-brief-history-of-autism-the-big-ideas-that-have-shaped-our-understanding-of-autism">autism</a>. Against an often antagonistic political atmosphere, these women, together with male counterparts, drove progress. They did so through a unique intersection of care and emotional engagement, alongside formal research, advocacy and study. </p>
<p>At the University of Oxford, a team is <a href="https://dyslexiahistory.web.ox.ac.uk/">charting</a> a comprehensive history of the condition, uncovering the stories of these women, who helped to get dyslexia recognised. And in the current climate, where there are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/sep/05/crisis-in-support-for-sen-children-ehc-plans">challenges to funding</a> for special educational needs, the story of dyslexia’s pioneers serves as a warning against the gains that could be lost. </p>
<p>It also shows how women – during a period when they were largely excluded from formal political spheres – found other ways to achieve support and recognition for children with dyslexia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89055/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>philip Kirby receives funding from the Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p>Dyslexia affects up to 10% of the population, but until recently it was thought to be a pseudo-medical diagnosis used by parents to explain their children’s poor performance in reading.Philip Kirby, Research Associate in the Faculty of History, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.