tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/messiah-62149/articlesMessiah – The Conversation2022-12-18T12:20:18Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1967842022-12-18T12:20:18Z2022-12-18T12:20:18ZHow to live up to the true spirit of Christmas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501649/original/file-20221217-22510-tt2p4m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People enjoying Christmas decorations in Johannesburg, South Africa. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luca Sola/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If the media, popular entertainment, and retail habits are taken as indicators then the celebration of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christmas">Christmas</a> is no longer just the reserve of Christians. This has some consequences for the religious and non-religious alike.</p>
<p>In popular culture and the media, Christmas is portrayed as a time of happiness, togetherness, generosity, and peace. In the “made for Christmas” movies, such as those on the popular <a href="https://www.hallmarkchannel.com/christmas">Hallmark Channel</a>, a “feel good” message is the order of the day.</p>
<p>Whether it be the rekindling of a <a href="https://www.hallmarkchannel.com/christmas-in-tahoe">long-lost love</a> or <a href="https://www.hallmarkchannel.com/christmas-at-the-golden-dragon">reconciling</a> between family members after a long and painful conflict, viewers are led to believe that there is a certain kind of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508419867205">“magic”</a> at work during what has become known in largely <a href="https://chrestomathy.cofc.edu/documents/vol11/davis.pdf">secular terms</a> as “the holiday season”. </p>
<p>Many people believe, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021516410457">either overtly or tacitly</a>, that Christmas and the celebrations surrounding it will bring them joy, peace, happiness and togetherness.</p>
<p>In my <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ids.v56i1.2849">research</a>, which is in a field called <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/ctpi/what/">public theology</a>, I study such “beliefs” to try to understand where they come from, why people hold them, and what implications they have for our social, political and economic life.</p>
<p>I call these <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_3PnDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT17&dq=dion+forster+secular&ots=R7LY9TV9Ea&sig=Qp3CMnur46BuSNxLb6TKRyLvxv0#v=onepage&q=dion%20forster%20secular&f=false">“secular beliefs”</a> to differentiate them from traditional “religious beliefs”. A secular belief is not formally attached to a religion, or has become detached from a particular religion over time. In this sense, Christmas has come to embody a kind of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09345-1_5">“secular spirituality”</a>. This has much more in common with the dominant symbols and aspirations of our age (such as leisure, pleasure, social control and consumption) than it does with its religious roots.</p>
<h2>Understanding Christmas</h2>
<p>Christmas, as the name suggests, is linked to the birth of Jesus the Christ. As a professor of theology, I have often jokingly said, “Christ is not Jesus’s surname”. The word “Christ” comes from the Greek word <em>Χρίστος</em> (Chrístos), which is the Greek translation for the Hebrew word “messiah” (<em>מָשִׁיחַ</em> or <em>māšīaḥ</em>). For Jewish people, and later for Christians (people who name themselves after their messiah, Jesus the Christ), the messiah was God’s <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=wJe_SIyxwEkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR12&dq=messiah+as+liberator&ots=HPiqhXM9jn&sig=LDQwEKNz2FV2dQZL7fv46_Xaydc#v=onepage&q=messiah%20as%20liberator&f=false">promised liberator</a> – a King who would come to liberate God’s people from their oppressors and lead them in peace and prosperity.</p>
<p>Christians believe that Jesus is the promised messiah (according to passages in the Bible, such as Isaiah 9:6-7, John 4:25 and Acts 2:38). He came preaching a message of love, peace and anti-materialism. </p>
<p>Early in Christian history, Christians began to celebrate the birth of Jesus the Christ (the promised liberator) in special services, what became known as the <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/mass">“mass”</a> after the Latin word <em>missa</em>. Hence, it was the combination of those two words that later became one word, Christmas, a feast that celebrates liberation, peace and joy through the messiah.</p>
<p>When presented in these terms, it would not be surprising to ask what the contemporary presentations of Christmas (particularly in the western world) have to do with the celebration of Jesus the Christ. Santa Claus, snowmen and reindeer seem to have replaced Jesus and his disciples. </p>
<p>Instead of focusing on messianic liberation and anti-materialism, Christmas is focused on parties, family gatherings, and gift-giving. In other words, like so much of western modernity, the focus has turned from the <a href="https://www.google.de/books/edition/A_Secular_Age/hWRXYY3HRFoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=charles+taylor+secular+age&printsec=frontcover">sacred to the secular</a> and from God to the human self.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021516410457">Research shows</a> that there are seven primary activities and experiences that are attached to the contemporary Christmas holiday:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Spending time with family </p></li>
<li><p>Participating in religious activities</p></li>
<li><p>Maintaining cultural, national, or family traditions (such as decorating a Christmas tree) </p></li>
<li><p>Spending money on others to buy gifts </p></li>
<li><p>Receiving gifts from others</p></li>
<li><p>Helping others (such as a local charity) and</p></li>
<li><p>Enjoying the sensual aspects of the holiday (such as good food and drink, rest, and relaxation).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>However, the same research shows that for many people, these “peaceful” and “joyous” expectations are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021516410457">not met</a>. Christmas is no longer a time of joy, generosity, family togetherness and rest. </p>
<p>Rather, the contemporary expectations of the festive “season” – such as the costs associated with gift giving, travel, celebrations (such as work functions, family gatherings, and community events) – can lead to dissatisfaction, stress, conflict and disappointment. Perhaps you can relate? </p>
<p>Moreover, the burden on <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcr/article-abstract/17/3/333/1822554?login=false">women</a> is often much higher than it is on men. Women are often expected to arrange gatherings, buy gifts, prepare food, clean up the aftermath and keep the peace.</p>
<h2>Rekindling the true spirit of Christmas</h2>
<p>So, taking these realities into account, what might you do to rediscover the “true”, or at least the historical “spirit” of Christmas this year (whether you are religious or not)?</p>
<p>Here are a few suggestions, based on sociological research.</p>
<p>First, social and psychological research shows that in general, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021516410457">but also at Christmas</a>, people report far greater “well-being”</p>
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<p>when experiences of family closeness and helping others were particularly salient.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Second, that “diminished well-being” is reported where people’s experiences and expectations “focused on the materialistic aspects of the season (spending and receiving)”. Moreover, the research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021516410457">showed</a> that religious people who actively participated in religious gatherings tended to have a more positive experience of Christmas, with their expectations largely being fulfilled.</p>
<p>So, whether you are Christian, or have more of a secular spirituality, it may well be wise to recapture something of the historical “spirit” of the Christ-mass message by engaging in the responsible use of money and time, choosing positive consumption practices, while seeking to foster good relationships with family, friends and colleagues.</p>
<p>Moreover, pay careful attention to issues such as the gendered division of labour and responsibility by sharing the work and effort. In doing so, you just may have a happier Christmas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196784/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dion Forster currently receives funding from the South African National Research Foundation (NRF), the HB Thom fund, and the Humboldt University of Berlin. He is affiliated with the Methodist Church of Southern Africa where is and ordained minister of religion.</span></em></p>Research shows that religious people who actively participate in religious gatherings tend to have a more positive experience of Christmas, with expectations largely fulfilled.Dion Forster, Full Professor of Ethics and Head of Department, Systematic Theology and Ecclesiology, Director of the Beyers Naudé Centre for Public Theology, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1723772021-11-30T17:05:53Z2021-11-30T17:05:53ZThe Astroworld tragedy: A look into the messianic world of hip hop and rap<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433567/original/file-20211123-14-6m88ao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C14%2C2374%2C1356&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A crowd surge left 10 people dead at the Astroworld Festival, organized by rapper Travis Scott.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(YouTube)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The crowd gathered at <a href="https://www.cnn.com/videos/us/2021/11/07/travis-scott-response-astroworld-concert-texas-wxp-vpx.hln">Travis Scott</a>’s Astroworld Festival <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/astroworld-festival-victims.html">surged towards the front when he took to the stage</a>, in Houston, on Nov. 5. This led to the deaths of 10 people, including a nine-year-old child, and injured some 300 people. </p>
<p>Lawsuits are currently being filed against Scott and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/drake-astroworld-concert-houston-travis-scott-1.6247161">Toronto singer Drake</a>, who came on stage shortly after the tragedy. Both rappers ignored the drama unfolding in the crowd and did not stop their performances.</p>
<p>Academic studies of American hip-hop and rap culture offer some understanding of the symbolic issues of this tragic event. Intercultural communications scholar <a href="https://www.northpark.edu/faculty-staff-directory/daniel-white-hodge/">Daniel White Hodge’s</a> work is particularly relevant.</p>
<p>According to White Hodge there is a profound link between music and the economic, political and theological struggle of Black communities against racism in the United States, which have been going on since slavery. He proposes a <a href="https://whitehodge.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Hostile-Gospel-Chapter.pdf">“messianic” framework</a> to better understand hip-hop culture. This approach reveals an increasingly strong contemporary desire on the part of some American (and European) rappers to respond to a compelling <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2013/06/yeezus-everlasting-why-do-so-many-rappers-impersonate-christ/277000/">call from God</a>.</p>
<p>Other research also helps in understanding the events at Astroworld. Some shed light on the behaviour of young people who worship musical celebrity excessively.</p>
<p><a href="https://professeurs.uqam.ca/professeur/genest.sylvie/">As a professional musician, composer and anthropologist</a>, I draw on these studies to interpret the events at Astroworld using the metaphor of the “mission of Christ,” which avows it can change the world. Some youth now assign this mission to hip-hop and rap celebrities, benefiting from their <a href="https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=engl_176">positive influence</a>.</p>
<p>The metaphor highlights the fundamental paradox of the lucrative music entertainment industry, which is that the triumph of a provocative artist becomes the cause of their downfall. It also raises the question of whether the rise of messianic fervour in the hip-hop and rap world was a cause of the Astroworld tragedy.</p>
<h2>Divine missions</h2>
<p>The rise in popularity of hip-hop and rap music has contributed to the music industry’s success in the United States, especially thanks to <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/hip-hop-continued-to-dominate-the-music-business-in-2018-774422/">the expansion of streaming</a>. In Drake’s musical imagination, this success itself may well be part of “God’s Plan.” His success is seen in the cost of the production of the song’s video, which has over a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpVfcZ0ZcFM">billion YouTube views</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Spirituality is a big part of Drake’s life.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Whether through video or on stage, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_WjhsVs6RK4">Drake has clearly given himself a mission that goes beyond commercial ambition</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“One thing I make sure I do is always talk to the Big Guy upstairs every night, you know … I always let him know what my purpose is on that stage. It’s not to further my reputation … I want to make these people happy.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In his desire to serve his community, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=487VVLOnvdw">Travis Scott goes even further</a>. To him, his career represents a calling, or a priesthood:</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Travis Scott, self-proclaimed messiah.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<blockquote>
<p>“I am just seeing … a congregation … a group of, like, people … just seeing them be able to lose their fucking mind, man, to some music. That’s like the best feeling ever. It’s like better than any drug … It’s like saving somebody’s life for like 40 minutes, and then that can translate to like 10 years of saving somebody’s life.” </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Devotion of the faithful</h2>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31752607/">Researchers have developed</a> tests to measure different aspects of fan behaviour toward celebrities in music, sports or film. <a href="https://www.millisecond.com/download/library/CelebrityAttitudeScale/">The Celebrity Attitude Scale</a> assigns three levels of devotion fans may have towards their idol.</p>
<p>“Entertainment-social” describes the behaviour of fans who appreciate the “entertainment value of the celebrities that they admire” while finding “opportunities to discuss their performances with like-minded people.”</p>
<p>“Intense and personal” describes those who are completely “absorbed in the personal life of their favourite celebrity, have frequent thoughts about them and an obsession with the details of their life.”</p>
<p>Some fans reach the “borderline-pathological” level by becoming “completely addicted to a celebrity.” This can lead to stalking, or some say they would do something illegal if asked to do so by their favourite celebrity. Some fans exhibit risky behaviour that goes as far as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73Ve77XaI7g">jumping from balconies at concerts</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Some fans demonstrate an inordinate devotion to their idols.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These behaviours, however, are less “illegal” than “heroic,” if one considers that they are expressing a desire to engage with a musical resistance movement, an aspiration that requires fans to expose themselves to the judgment of their idol during the course of their ceremonial performance.</p>
<p>Seen from the perspective of this paradox of celebrity, the struggle of musicians who are engaged in an artistic resistance movement against racism appears to be a losing battle. This is what we can understand from the words of American rapper T-Pain <a href="https://pitchfork.com/news/t-pain-shares-video-for-new-song-get-up-watch/">whose song “Get up” was released in support of the Black Lives Matter movement</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I gave it my all and it still ain’t enough. Everybody gettin’ knocked down. The only thing that matters is what you gon’ do when you get up. … Get up !</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>A Christ-like model of resistance</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/36899329-homeland-insecurity"><em>Homeland Insecurity</em></a>, published in 2018, White Hodge presents hip-hop theology as a “framework for the radical engagement of emerging adult populations” in the struggle for civil rights. The author describes what he calls the “Hip Hop Jesus” as follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?id=A7SuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=%22the+hip+hop+jesus+has+the+following+characteristics%22&source=bl&ots=88IKTkumB2&sig=ACfU3U2PDibugLAf_8NcfHGjvH0ht9QmkQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjg8pLC0LT0AhUHQzABHSSACk0Q6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22the%20hip%20hop%20jesus%20has%20the%20following%20characteristics%22&f=false">Hip Hop Jesus has the following characteristics</a>: He has fundamental attitudes regarding church, God and Scripture. He supports male dominance and ‘man of the house’ ideologies. He ‘beats down’ those who are in his way. He instils fear as a form of control and power….” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>For this Christ who “does not tolerate weakness,” the devil also has a characteristic figure: “it is not only an entity, but also a system and an institution,” writes White Hodge.</p>
<p>In the case of the Astroworld tragedy, it is the promotion company <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/music/2021/11/06/astroworld-festival-promoter-live-nation-has-previous-safety-violations/6323854001/">Live Nation</a> that embodies this devilish figure. Lawsuits will target the failings of this organization which, despite its expertise, was unable to ensure the safety of participants.</p>
<h2>The paradoxical power of agitators</h2>
<p>In the messianic world of rappers, the Houston tragedy has set the symbolic stakes for judgment in the court of public opinion. From now on, whenever this missionary artist takes to the stage to be adored by his fans, he will face the ironic fate of the agitating Christ condemned for disturbing the established order.</p>
<p>But death is not a spectacle, and Scott should have known better than to stand on stage with his arms crossed, doing nothing and watching from above.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172377/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sylvie Genest ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>The crowd surge at the Astroworld festival that killed 10 people and injured hundreds highlights the messianic nature of rappers.Sylvie Genest, Professeure, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1510922020-12-14T19:04:35Z2020-12-14T19:04:35ZDecoding the music masterpieces: Handel’s Messiah oratorio, composed in just 24 days<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374546/original/file-20201211-21-1oxswyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Duccio di Buoninsegna The Nativity with the Prophets Isaiah and Ezekiel, 1308-1311</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The tradition of performing George Frideric Handel’s Messiah is as inseparable from festivities preceding Christmas as the oversweet carol arrangements oozing through loudspeakers at shopping centres.</p>
<p>It’s a tradition worth noticing, as the Messiah was originally composed as an Easter offering, first performed in Dublin on April 13, 1742. With lines such as, “He was despised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief”, this is understandable.</p>
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<p>It is curious why this masterpiece, structured in three parts and performed for hundreds of years at Easter, gradually became a ubiquitous element of the Christmas traditions. After all, once Part I finishes, the narrative focuses on the life, suffering, death and eventual resurrection of Jesus. But over the past 70 or so years, it has become a Christmas staple, almost guaranteeing sell-out performances.</p>
<p>Messiah performances come in all sizes. The original one featured the voices of 16 men and 16 boys, accompanied by a small instrumental ensemble (most likely one player per part). </p>
<p>For many an amateur choir, this work is a recurring highlight of their repertoire. Before coronavirus destroyed so many plans, festive presentations of the oratorio included full orchestras and a large choir. </p>
<p>Though not for the purist, there have been even mightier performances in the past, where certain numbers (including the celebrated Hallelujah chorus) were sung by up to 600 non-professional, but enthusiastic singers, supported by a large orchestra and a grand organ.</p>
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<h2>A remarkable talent</h2>
<p>Handel was not an Englishman, notwithstanding the fact he spent a large part of his life in London: from 1710 until his death 49 years later. He was born in Halle, Germany, in 1685, the same year as his compatriot, Johann Sebastian Bach.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Portrait of George Frideric Handel composing next to a manual harpsichord, circa 1730.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, the two giants of Baroque music never met — what a conversation that could have been.</p>
<p>From his adolescence, the young Händel exhibited a remarkable talent composing, and playing organ and keyboard. He composed his first opera, Almira, at the age of 18. </p>
<p>He travelled extensively in Italy, mastering the local language and the traditions of writing opera before moving to London in 1712. He adapted to the English lifestyle well. </p>
<p>His reputation as an exceptional opera composer was such that, due to the constant demand, he composed 40 operas during the next three decades. He developed his own, idiomatic style of writing opera in Italian to such heights that he was able to write his brilliant Rinaldo in merely two weeks.</p>
<p>Some of Rinaldo’ s arias, such as <em>Lascia ch'io pianga</em>, became so famous they are regularly performed in concert performances on their own.</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/decoding-the-music-masterpieces-rossinis-opera-otello-104760">Decoding the music masterpieces: Rossini's opera, Otello</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>From operas to oratorios</h2>
<p>The much-celebrated composer was also known for his astute business acumen. His investments brought him an excellent return, and he was even active on the London share market. The same shrewd sense of recognising how his artistic investments would best work helped him to change his central interest gradually from operas in Italian to oratorios in English. </p>
<p>An oratorio is somewhat similar to an opera: it is performed by solo singers, a chorus and an orchestra. Unlike an opera, however, its narrative is always based on a religious topic and it is unstaged. </p>
<p>Due to the lack of scenery, costumes and visible interaction between the singers on stage, the action in an oratorio has to be described, rather than played out.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374548/original/file-20201211-15-huhqut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The chorus plays an important role in an oratorio.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The role of the chorus is also more important, reminiscent of the traditions of ancient Greek dramas. On the practical side, putting on an oratorio was less expensive, as its success did not depend on hiring foreign (mostly Italian) star singers.</p>
<h2>A lightening pace</h2>
<p>From the early 1730s, Handel recognised a change in the taste of his audience and turned more towards writing oratorios. Messiah is his sixth work in this genre, (he wrote 25 oratorios in total).</p>
<p>As if in a frenzy, he composed the complete work in 24 days, taking about a week for each of its three parts. To assist this pace, he did recycle some of his earlier composed music, a common practice at the time.</p>
<p>The text of the oratorio is the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Jennens">Charles Jennens</a>. It is based mostly on the Old Testament, as it celebrates the arrival of the Messiah, the saviour of mankind, also called Jesus Christ. Unusually, there is no dialogue in it.</p>
<p>The oratorio vaguely follows the events of the liturgical year, from the virgin birth prophesied at the beginning of Part I, through the life, suffering and death of Christ in Part II, to the promise of redemption in Part III.</p>
<p>Almost all movements are vocal, with only the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnTmWTvBLWw">Pifa</a> (the sound of bagpipes, representing the shepherds arriving to Bethlehem) and the opening movement being fully instrumental. The Ouverture sets the mood of the work with a slow and majestic beginning, continuing with a lively <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/fugue/">fugue</a>. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/decoding-the-music-masterpieces-bachs-the-art-of-fugue-73522">Decoding the music masterpieces: Bach's The Art of Fugue</a>
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<p>Most of the movements are either chorus or solo numbers, the solos being a combination of arias and recitativos. The arias usually express emotions, whereas the narrative is typically transmitted through the recitativos.</p>
<p>The latter are either accompanied by all the string players, a method called <em>recitativo accompagnato</em> (as in “Comfort ye, comfort ye my people”), or by a few bass instruments, in which case they are called <em>recitativo secco</em> (for example, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive”).</p>
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<p>There are an unusually high number of chorus movements in Messiah. No wonder it is such an eternal favourite for choirs, amateur or professional. Best loved among them is the Hallelujah chorus, ending Part II. </p>
<p>There is an endearing tradition of the audience rising from their seats as one upon hearing the opening sound. The reason for this is a mystery. The commonly cited explanation is that King George II stood up at this point at the 1743 London premiere of the work. </p>
<p>However, this seems unlikely, as His Majesty could not possibly have known what glorious piece of music was about to begin. Could the explanation for such a magisterial gesture be simply a severe case of pins and needles or some other trivial cause? </p>
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<h2>Re-orchestrated by Mozart</h2>
<p>Messiah conquered in England and on the continent. In 1776, Baron Gottfried van Swieten, an Austrian diplomat, librarian, connoisseur of music and patron and friend of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, brought the newly published score of the Messiah from London to Vienna. He wanted to hear it in a full-scale performance and commissioned Mozart to re-orchestrate the oratorio to appeal to contemporary tastes.</p>
<p>Mozart decided to use a German text based on <a href="https://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/martin-luther-translator-of-the-bible/">Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible</a> and added new parts for woodwind and brass instruments. He also cut a few movements and rearranged the order of others. Undoubtedly, this version sounds more powerful with the enlarged orchestral powers; there are, for example, three trombones added to the opening of the oratorio.</p>
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<p>On the sixth day of April 1759, George Frideric Handel, in poor health, bedridden and almost completely blind, made an unusual request. He wanted to go to the Theatre Royal in London’s Covent Garden, to attend a Messiah performance. </p>
<p>Very possibly, this was the last music he ever heard; barely a week later, the 74-year-old composer was dead.</p>
<p><em>A COVID-safe performance of Handel’s Messiah was performed last week in Sydney and streamed via Melbourne Digital Concert Hall. You can <a href="https://the.song.company/clear-blue-sky-2020/c/0/i/48965704/messiah-part-i">listen to it here</a>. The Messiah will also be performed at <a href="https://www.perthconcerthall.com.au/events/event/Handels-Messiah-2020">Perth Concert Hall</a> on December 19.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151092/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zoltan Szabo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From ‘Comfort ye’ to the Hallelujah chorus, the music of the Messiah is a much-loved Christmas tradition. Yet it was originally written as an Easter offering.Zoltan Szabo, Cellist and musicologist, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1300952020-01-17T21:44:56Z2020-01-17T21:44:56ZHow a heritage of Black preaching shaped MLK’s voice in calling for justice<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310522/original/file-20200116-181625-cddubx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C95%2C1014%2C587&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers his famous 'I Have a Dream' speech in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the Freedom March on Washington in 1963.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dr-martin-luther-king-jr-delivers-his-famous-i-have-a-dream-news-photo/517357504?adppopup=true">Bettmann/Contributor via Getty images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The name Martin Luther King Jr. is iconic in the United States. President Barack Obama <a href="http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/convention2008/barackobama2008dnc.htm">mentioned King</a> in both his Democratic National Convention nomination acceptance and victory speeches in 2008, when he said, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[King] brought Americans from every corner of this land to stand together on a Mall in Washington, before Lincoln’s Memorial…to speak of his dream.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Indeed, much of King’s legacy lives on in such arresting oral performances. They made him a global figure. </p>
<p>King’s preaching used the power of language to interpret the gospel in the context of Black misery and Christian hope. He directed people to life-giving resources and spoke provocatively of a present and active divine interventionist who summons preachers to name reality in places where pain, oppression and neglect abound.
In other words, King used a prophetic voice in his preaching – the hopeful voice that begins in prayer and attends to human tragedy. </p>
<p>So what led to the rise of the Black preacher and shaped King’s prophetic voice?</p>
<p>In my book, <a href="http://fortresspress.com/search?query=The+Journey+and+Promise+of+African+American+Preaching">“The Journey and Promise of African American Preaching</a>,” I discuss the historical formation of the Black preacher. My work on <a href="https://www.baylorpress.com/9781481303996/a-pursued-justice/">African American prophetic preaching</a> <a href="https://www.abingdonpress.com/product/9781501832574/">shows</a> that King’s clarion calls for justice were offspring of earlier prophetic preaching that flowered as a consequence of the racism in the U.S.</p>
<h2>From slavery to the Great Migration</h2>
<p>First, let’s look at some of the social, cultural and political challenges that gave birth to the black religious leader, specifically those who assumed political roles with the community’s blessing and beyond the church proper. </p>
<p>In slave society, Black preachers <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Roll_Jordan_Roll.html?id=dyYaAQAAIAAJ">played an important role in the</a> community: they acted as seers interpreting the significance of events; as pastors calling for unity and solidarity; and as messianic figures provoking the first stirrings of resentment against oppressors. </p>
<p>The religious revivalism or the <a href="http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h620.html">Great Awakening</a> of the 18th century brought to America <a href="http://www.christianitytoday.com/pastors/2006/march-online-only/your-own-personal-jesus-is-language-of-personal.html">a Bible-centered brand of Christianity</a> – evangelicalism – that dominated the religious landscape by the early 19th century. Evangelicals emphasized a “personal relationship” with God through Jesus Christ.</p>
<p>This new movement made Christianity more accessible, livelier, without overtaxing educational demands. <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Black_Religion_and_Black_Radicalism.html?id=4KHYAAAAMAAJ">Africans converted to Christianity</a> in large numbers during the revivals and most became Baptists and Methodists. With fewer educational restrictions placed on them, Black preachers emerged in the period as preachers and teachers, despite their slave status. </p>
<p>Africans viewed the revivals as a way to reclaim some of the remnants of African culture in a strange new world. They incorporated and adopted religious symbols into a new cultural system with relative ease.</p>
<h2>Rise of the Black cleric-politician</h2>
<p>Despite the development of Black preachers and the significant social and religious advancements of Blacks during this period of revival, <a href="http://www.howard.edu/library/reference/guides/reconstructionera">Reconstruction</a> – the process of rebuilding the South soon after the Civil War – posed numerous challenges for white slaveholders who resented the political advancement of newly freed Africans. </p>
<p>As independent Black churches proliferated in Reconstruction America, Black ministers preached to their own. <a href="http://fortresspress.com/product/journey-and-promise-african-american-preaching">Some became bivocational</a>. It was not out of the norm to find pastors who led congregations on Sunday and held jobs as schoolteachers and administrators during the work week. </p>
<p>Others held important political positions. Altogether, 16 African Americans served in the U.S. Congress during Reconstruction. For example, South Carolina’s House of Representatives’ <a href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/cain-richard-h-1825-1887">Richard Harvey Cain</a>, who attended Wilberforce University, the first private Black American university, served in the 43rd and 45th Congresses and as pastor of a series of African Methodist churches. </p>
<p>Others, such as former slave and Methodist minister and educator <a href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/revels-hiram-rhoades-1827-1901">Hiram Rhoades Revels</a> and <a href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/turner-henry-mcneal-1834-1915">Henry McNeal Turner</a>, shared similar profiles. Revels was a preacher who became America’s first African American senator. Turner was appointed chaplain in the Union Army by President Abraham Lincoln. </p>
<p>To address the myriad problems and concerns of blacks in this era, Black preachers discovered that congregations expected them not only to guide worship but also to be the <a href="http://fortresspress.com/product/journey-and-promise-african-american-preaching">community’s lead informant</a> in the public square. </p>
<h2>The cradle of King’s spiritual heritage</h2>
<p>Many other events converged as well, impacting Black life that would later influence King’s prophetic vision: <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/woodrow-wilson">President Woodrow Wilson declared U.S.</a> entry into World War I in 1917; as “boll weevils” ravaged crops in 1916 there was widespread <a href="https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/sources/533/">agricultural depression</a>; and then there was the <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/issues/jim-crow-laws">rise of Jim Crow laws</a> that were to legally enforce racial segregation until 1965.</p>
<p>Such tide-swelling events, in multiplier effect, ushered in the largest internal movement of people on American soil, <a href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/great-migration-1915-1960">the Great “Black” Migration</a>. Between 1916 and 1918, an average of 500 Southern migrants a day departed the South. More than 1.5 million relocated to Northern communities between 1916 and 1940.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152731/original/image-20170114-11806-14r2yee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Records of immigration and passenger arrivals during the Great Migration stored at the National Archives in Washington.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/J. Scott Applewhite</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A watershed, the Great Migration brought about contrasting expectations concerning the mission and identity of the African American church. The infrastructure of Northern black churches <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/bound-for-the-promised-land">were unprepared to deal</a> with the migration’s distressing effects. Its suddenness and size overwhelmed preexisting operations. </p>
<p>The immense suffering brought on by the Great Migration and the racial hatred they had escaped drove many clergy to reflect more deeply on the meaning of freedom and oppression. <a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/R/bo3644391.html">Black preachers refused to believe</a> that the Christian gospel and discrimination were compatible. </p>
<p>However, Black preachers seldom modified their preaching strategies. Rather than establishing centers for Black self-improvement focused on job training, home economics classes and libraries, nearly all Southern preachers who came North continued to <a href="http://baylorpr.es/sGilbert">offer priestly sermons.</a> These sermons exalted the virtues of humility, good will and patience, as they had in the South. </p>
<h2>Setting the prophetic tradition</h2>
<p>Three clergy outliers – one a woman – initiated change. These three pastors were particularly inventive in the way they approached their preaching task. </p>
<p>Baptist pastor <a href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/powell-sr-adam-clayton-1865-1953">Adam C. Powell Sr.</a>, the <a href="http://www.amez.org">African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AMEZ)</a> pastor <a href="http://www.summithistoricalsociety.com/historian/2016/3/26/the-rev-florence-randolph-pastor-of-wallace-chapel-helped-spearhead-womens-suffrage">Florence S. Randolph</a> and the African Methodist Episcopal bishop <a href="http://www.blackpast.org/aah/ransom-reverdy-cassius-1861-1959">Reverdy C. Ransom</a> spoke to human tragedy, both in and out of the black church. They brought a distinctive form of prophetic preaching that united spiritual transformation with social reform and confronted black dehumanization. </p>
<p>Bishop Ransom’s discontentment arose while preaching to Chicago’s “silk-stocking church” Bethel A.M.E. – the elite church – which had no desire to welcome the poor and jobless masses that came to the North. He left and began the Institutional Church and Social Settlement, which <a href="https://dp.la/item/fc6383004b44d988c80c98bc1c3e3c0f">combined worship and social services</a>. </p>
<p>[ <em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>. ]</p>
<p>Randolph and Powell synthesized their roles as preachers and social reformers. Randolph brought into her prophetic vision her tasks as preacher, missionary, organizer, suffragist and pastor. Powell became pastor at the historic Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem. In that role, he led the congregation to establish a community house and nursing home to meet the political, religious and social needs of Blacks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152728/original/image-20170113-11800-ewt6gh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A March 9, 1965 file photo of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in Selma, Alabama. King learned from these progressive black preachers who came before him.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo, File</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Shaping of King’s vision</h2>
<p>The preaching tradition that these early clergy fashioned would have profound impact on King’s moral and ethical vision. They linked <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+4:16-21">the vision of Jesus Christ as stated in the Bible</a> of bringing good news to the poor, recovery of sight to the blind and proclaiming liberty to the captives, with the Hebrew prophet’s mandate of speaking truth to power. </p>
<p>Similar to how they responded to the complex challenges brought on by the Great Migration of the early 20th century, King brought prophetic interpretation to brutal racism, Jim Crow segregation and poverty in the 1950s and ‘60s.</p>
<p>Indeed, King’s prophetic vision ultimately invited his martyrdom. But through the prophetic preaching tradition already well established by his time, King brought people of every tribe, class and creed closer toward forming <a href="http://www.thekingcenter.org/king-philosophy#sub4">“God’s beloved community”</a> – an anchor of love and hope for humankind.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of a piece <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-shaped-kings-prophetic-vision-71252">first published</a> on Jan. 15, 2017.</em></p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This piece has been updated to fix the year the U.S. entered into World War I, and to reflect changes in our style for Black.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130095/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kenyatta R. Gilbert does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A long heritage of black preachers who played an important role for enslaved people shaped Martin Luther King Jr.’s moral and ethical vision.Kenyatta R. Gilbert, Professor of Homiletics, Howard UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1061432018-11-13T11:46:45Z2018-11-13T11:46:45ZWhy the history of messianic Judaism is so fraught and complicated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245366/original/file-20181113-194491-b248wy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>When Loren Jacobs, member of the Shma Yisrael Congregation, offered a prayer for the victims of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/29/podcasts/the-daily/pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting-robert-bowers-gab.html">Tree of Life congregation</a> at a campaign rally attended by Mike Pence, it <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/30/us/mike-pence-rabbi-jacobs.html">left many Jews feeling very upset</a>. The vice president’s office later <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/mike-pence-denies-inviting-christian-rabbi-speak-gop-rally-behalf-jewish-1192738">denied</a> inviting Jacobs to the event. </p>
<p>Jacobs is a messianic Jew and part of a group called Jews for Jesus. Here is why their relationship with Jews is so fraught.</p>
<h2>Messianic Jews</h2>
<p>Messianic Jews consider themselves <a href="https://jewsforjesus.org/publications/issues/issues-v10-n01/jewish-and-christian-can-it-be/">Jewish Christians</a>. Specifically <a href="https://jewsforjudaism.org/knowledge/articles/is-qjews-for-jesusq-jewish-or-christian/">they believe</a>, as do all Christians, that Jesus is the son of God, as well as the Messiah, and that he died in atonement for the sins of mankind. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.momentmag.com/sarah-posner-israels-best-friends-or-jews-mortal-enemies/">There are approximately</a> 175,000 to 250,000 messianic Jews in the U.S, and 350,000 worldwide. About 10,000 to 20,000 live in Israel. According to <a href="http://www.kkcj.org/people/info/dan-juster">Dan Juster</a>, a theologian who founded a major messianic Jewish congregation, there are <a href="http://www.stucom.nl/document/0122uk.pdf">currently about 300 congregations</a> in the United States, and about half of the attendants are Gentiles, or ethnically non-Jewish. </p>
<p>And most of these groups consider the conversion of ethnic Jews specifically – that is, people with at least one Jewish parent – to messianic Judaism a <a href="https://jewsforjesus.org/answers/does-jews-for-jesus-just-want-to-lure-jews-and-convert-them-to-christianity/">central part of their mission</a>.</p>
<h2>Messianic Jews and Jewish messianism</h2>
<p>Belief in a Messiah who will redeem the Jewish people and thereby usher in a new, more humane era <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-messianism/">is very much a Jewish concept</a>. However, there are deep theological differences between Jews and Christians regarding exactly who is a Messiah, what a Messiah should do and even how central a Messiah should be to their traditions. </p>
<p>According to both the Hebrew Bible and Jewish oral tradition, a Messiah is a king, a warrior, a political figure or a revolutionary whose mission is divine and specific to the Jews. But the leader is neither divine nor a savior concerned with the afterlife of humanity. Neither is a Messiah worshiped as a deity.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244418/original/file-20181107-74766-8mmn8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">According to the Hebrew Bible and Jewish oral tradition, a Messiah could be a king, a warrior, a political figure or a revolutionary.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/prayer-shawl-tallit-jewish-religious-symbol-687473068?src=4gMCrToJbcHSY2bG7oxkyQ-1-0">tomertu/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>This leader’s job is to facilitate the return of the Jews to the land of Israel, not in the afterlife but in the temporal world. Therefore, redemption does not entail atonement for sins, but is a liberation from exile and a return to self-rule in Israel. </p>
<p>One doesn’t need to be Jewish to be a Messiah. <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-messianism/">The Persian King Cyrus</a> is referred to as a “Messiah” in the Hebrew Bible because he allowed the Jews to return to the land of Israel, signaling the end of what is known as the Babylonian Exile in the sixth century B.C.</p>
<p>And Cyrus is not the only figure to be called a Messiah. <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-messianism/">Bar Kohkbah</a>, the warrior and revolutionary who led the Jewish revolt against Rome from A.D. 132 to 135, was also believed to be a possible Messiah because he sought to eject Roman rule from Israel and return the Jews to Jerusalem. The fact that Bar Kohkbah did not successfully defeat Rome ultimately meant he did not turn out to be a Messiah – but he certainly took on the job of a Jewish Messiah. </p>
<p>There are multiple forms of <a href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/108400/jewish/The-End-of-Days.htm">Jewish messianism</a>, but none of them believe that a messianic figure – if such a person exists – will be divine. </p>
<p>Contemporary Judaism’s many branches do not agree on <a href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Messianism">when or if a Messiah will appear at all</a>, especially since the creation of the Israeli state in 1948. This is in large part because the traditional job of a Messiah – the restoration of the Jewish state – has already been accomplished. Some Jews do believe that a Messiah will come, but the signs that would foretell have not appeared yet. </p>
<p>Also, many Jews have rejected the idea of an individual Messiah in favor of the idea that humans themselves, through acts of social justice or <a href="https://www.tikkun.org/nextgen/how-the-ari-created-a-myth-and-transformed-judaism">tikkun olam</a>, will mend the world and bring about a “messianic age” wherein life for Jews and in fact humanity improves for the better. </p>
<p>Christianity’s redefinition of the nature and role of a Messiah is its most important point of departure from Judaism, and has accounted for much of the tension between Jews and Christians historically. </p>
<p>Jews do not share the Christian belief that Jesus was divine. This difference in belief is grounded in the Jewish assertion that there is only one God, who can never be human, even though God may reveal himself in multiple ways. Historically, this created <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/article/1205/early-christianity/">an insurmountable theological barrier between Jews and Christians</a>.</p>
<h2>Conversion of Jews</h2>
<p>Although Jewish Christians have technically been around since the death of Jesus, the more modern form of the movement has its roots in late 19th-century Europe, <a href="http://www.stucom.nl/document/0122uk.pdf">when anti-Semitic persecution was on the rise in Russia</a> and large numbers of Jews immigrated to the United States. </p>
<p>The sole focus of some missions based in England and the U.S. was the conversion of the Jews to Christianity. One such mission, the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, writes <a href="https://shprs.asu.edu/content/patricia-powers">scholar</a> <a href="http://asu.academia.edu/PatPower">Patricia A. Power</a>, <a href="https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/163971/content/Power_asu_0010E_15472.pdf">met in Boston in 1816</a>.
Its objective, as she says, “was to encourage Gentiles to take the task of Jewish evangelism seriously.” </p>
<p>Jews for Jesus is an inheritor of this objective. It began, as Power explains, as a small group with dedicated followers and <a href="https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/163971/content/Power_asu_0010E_15472.pdf">became</a> “a multimillion dollar evangelistic machine that aggressively, and with savvy, marketed Jesus as the Jewish Messiah to an astonished and often hostile Jewish community.” </p>
<p>Jews for Jesus’s controversial founder, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moishe-Rosen">Moishe Rosen</a>, who died in 2010, adopted some of the practices of the “Jesus People” movement – a religious movement of the 1960s that sought to return to the original life of early Christians – for the conversion of Jews. While appearing to reject anti-Semitism, he portrayed Judaism as an incomplete tradition practiced by people who <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/jewish-leaders-outraged-by-jews-for-jesus-prayer-at-pence-rally?via=desktop&social=Linkedin">misunderstand their own scriptures and needed to be saved</a> through conversion to Christianity. </p>
<h2>Misinterpreting scriptures?</h2>
<p>According to <a href="https://jewsforjudaism.org">Jews for Judaism</a>, an organization that provides support and education for Jews who have been targeted for conversion, missionaries like <a href="https://jewsforjudaism.org/programs-and-services/counseling-referrals/">Jews for Jesus</a> are often aggressive and manipulative in their pursuit of Jewish conversions to Christianity.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244428/original/file-20181107-74769-zfzlwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Jews for Judaism alerts Jews to misinformation that might take scriptures out of context.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/jewish-man-dressed-ritual-clothing-5-538618252?src=qn-jGrl9LLiUn1IEe0KEKQ-1-49">ungvar/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://jewsforjudaism.org/programs-and-services/counseling-referrals/">On its website</a>, Jews for Judaism alerts Jews to the most common form of misinformation that involves taking the Jewish scriptures out of context – tactics that have been denounced by <a href="https://www.hidabroot.com/article/117679/10-Facts-Messianic-Jews-for-Jesus-Dont-Want-Jews-to-Know">Jews</a> and <a href="https://sojo.net/articles/german-protestants-officially-renounce-converting-jews-christianity">Christians</a> <a href="https://sojo.net/articles/how-some-christians-mistake-honoring-jewish-culture-appropriating-it">alike</a>. Loren Jacobs <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/messianic-rabbi-who-prayed-for-jewish-victims-had-been-defrocked-by-own-order/">was defrocked by</a> the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations for accusations of libel 15 years ago “after becoming involved in a bitter theological debate with other members of the group.”</p>
<p>What makes the targeting of Jews for conversion to Christianity particularly painful and damaging is that for over a thousand years, Jews were persecuted, first at the hands of a Christian Roman Empire and then the Church, because Christians did not believe that Jewish scriptures contained truths claimed by another religion. </p>
<p>Prayers like the one said by Loren Jacobs are a powerful reminder of that long and violent history.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106143/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ingrid Anderson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Loren Jacobs’s prayer for victims of the Tree of Life congregation offended many Jews. Jacobs is part of a group called Jews for Jesus – a messianic Jewish organization with a complicated history.Ingrid Anderson, Associate Director of Jewish Studies, Lecturer, Arts & Sciences Writing Program, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.