tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/montserrat-11379/articlesMontserrat – The Conversation2021-04-12T12:27:47Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1578472021-04-12T12:27:47Z2021-04-12T12:27:47ZHow many states and provinces are in the world?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391534/original/file-20210324-17-1y77u3i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C13%2C997%2C611&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are so many different states – and provinces, districts, regions and lander!</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/state-welcome-signs?agreements=pa:91269&family=creative">Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<p><strong>How many states, or provinces or other divisions, are there in the world? – Noé, 8, Minneapolis</strong></p>
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<p>The exact answer is hard to come by – for now. Your question has actually sparked scholars to start talking about compiling an official, authoritative database.</p>
<p>Right now the best estimates land somewhere between 3,600 and 5,200, across the world’s roughly 200 nations. It depends on whether you collect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_administrative_divisions_by_country">data from specific nations’ own information</a>, the <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/administrative-divisions/">CIA World Factbook</a> or the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-2">International Standards Organization</a>.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership">195 national governments recognized by the United Nations</a>, but there are as many as <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/administrative-divisions/">nine other places</a> with nationlike governments, including Taiwan and Kosovo, though they are not recognized by the U.N.</p>
<p>Most of these countries are divided into smaller sections, the way the U.S. is broken up into 50 states along with territories, like Puerto Rico and Guam, and a federal district, Washington, D.C. </p>
<p>They are not all called “states,” though: Switzerland has cantons, Bangladesh has divisions, Cameroon has regions, Germany has lander, Jordan has governorates, Montserrat has parishes, Zambia has provinces, and Japan has prefectures – among many other names.</p>
<p><iframe id="lnmnT" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/lnmnT/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Most countries have some type of major subdivision – even tiny Andorra, tucked in the Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain, has seven parishes. <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/administrative-divisions/">Slovenia has the most, with 212</a>: 201 municipalities, called “obcine” in Slovenian, and 11 urban municipalities, called “mestne obcine.” </p>
<p>Singapore, Monaco and Vatican City, all small city-states, are the three nations that have what are called “unitary” governments that are not divided into smaller sections.</p>
<p>Dividing governing power between national and subnational levels is called “<a href="http://www.forumfed.org">federalism</a>.” It lets countries organize large areas of land and large numbers of people, handling different interests of diverse groups, often with different languages, religions and ethnic identities. </p>
<p>National governments still control international relations, military power and money and banking systems – things that affect everyone in a country equally. But states, provinces, cantons and the like let more local government groups have some amount of say over health care, education, policing and other issues where needs can vary substantially from one area to another.</p>
<p>Variations in laws and regulations benefit people in a couple of different ways. First, people can leave one area and move to another that has laws or policies that are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/257839">more to their liking</a>. In addition, different regions can <a href="https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/steven-callander-how-make-states-laboratories-democracy">try different approaches</a> to solving particular problems – like educating all children or providing health care in rural areas, perhaps identifying which methods are more effective.</p>
<p>Federal systems also make it easier for citizens to join government by running for office, including challenging the current officeholders. It is <a href="https://ftw.fraserinstitute.org/studies/the-new-federalist">much cheaper and less complicated</a> to seek support from voters in a smaller area. Smaller government agencies can also <a href="https://ftw.fraserinstitute.org/studies/the-new-federalist">make better use of local knowledge</a> about geography or historical traditions to govern people in ways that fit their needs.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People gathered in a village in India" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391537/original/file-20210324-17-8zekx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A village council meeting in India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Gramsabha_in_a_rural_village_of_Madhyapradesh.jpg">Shagil Kannur via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>There are some drawbacks, too: Some regions may have laws and rules that expand business opportunities or protect the environment – while other regions may have fewer business regulations or more damaged landscapes. Problems like that can mean people who live near one another – but in different states – have <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2669275">unequal qualities of life</a>.</p>
<p>And sometimes provincial governments can <a href="https://repository.upenn.edu/wharton_research_scholars/50/">slow the progress of major national initiatives</a> meant to benefit everyone.</p>
<p>But most countries seem to have decided that the positives outweigh the negatives. And in fact, they’ve gone even deeper into federalism. Beyond states and provinces, there are many even smaller units of government. </p>
<p>In the U.S., states are made up of counties, which are in turn made up of towns, cities or other municipal governments. There are many more thousands of these – the <a href="https://gadm.org/data.html">Database of Global Administrative Areas tallies 386,735</a>. Brazil alone has <a href="https://www.paho.org/salud-en-las-americas-2017/?page_id=97">5,570 municipalities</a>. <a href="http://search.oecd.org/regional/regional-policy/profile-India.pdf">India has 250,671 village councils</a>, called “gram panchayats.” But even those are <a href="https://www.pria.org/panchayathub/panchayat_text_view.php">divided into smaller districts</a> called “wards,” each of which votes for its own council member. </p>
<p>If you want some more fun, try <a href="https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/">looking for the flags</a> of each of these subnational governments!</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vasabjit Banerjee does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The U.S. is broken up into 50 states, plus territories like Puerto Rico and Guam, and a federal district, Washington, D.C. Most other countries have smaller parts too.Vasabjit Banerjee, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/640332016-08-19T10:30:24Z2016-08-19T10:30:24ZHow we’re saving the mountain chicken frog from one of the world’s worst wildlife diseases<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134332/original/image-20160816-13025-hkvuzl.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mike Hudson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The mountain chicken frog managed the dubious honour of being at one time both the national dish and a top predator on the Caribbean island of Dominica. Down the centuries <a href="http://www.amphibians.org/froglog/fl032/">overhunting, volcanic eruptions and introduced predators</a> have taken their toll on this, one of the world’s largest frogs. But in recent years the species has been brought to the brink of extinction by a newer, more serious threat described as “<a href="http://www.amphibianark.org/pdf/ACAP_Summit_Declaration.pdf">the worst infectious disease ever recorded among vertebrates</a>”, chytridiomycosis (chytrid).</p>
<p>In susceptible species, the <a href="http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/">chytrid fungus</a> causes thickening of the skin on which many amphibians rely for gas, salt and water absorption. This eventually leads to heart attack and death. While this sounds particularly unpleasant, the most alarming thing about the disease is the speed with which it can drive entire species into decline. You might assume that we have years to prevent the decline of endangered animals as they slowly drift towards extinction. But <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep30772">our research into the mountain chicken frog’s tragic story</a> should serve as a warning about the need to act fast.</p>
<p>Mountain chickens were first observed dying of chytrid on Dominica in 2002. Within 18 months, the disease had driven a <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep30772">population decline of 85%</a>. Despite a number of local campaigns, no wild mountain chickens were seen on the island between 2006 and 2010. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134474/original/image-20160817-3583-1nq2im1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Does it taste like chicken too?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Nicholson / ZSL</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Fearing for the future of the species, conservationists’ attention then moved to the only other remaining population of mountain chickens in the world, on
the nearby Caribbean island of Montserrat. Tree frogs that carry the chytrid fungus are known to stow away in regular fruit shipments from Dominica to Montserrat, so it was only a matter of time before the disease arrived in the Montserrat population.</p>
<p>Sure enough, seven years after it was first observed on Dominica, chytrid was observed in Montserrat’s mountain chickens and the population was driven to <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep30772">near extinction within only 18 months</a>. This marks the mountain chicken decline as one of the fastest observed collapses of any species ever recorded.</p>
<p>From the thousands that lived on both islands before the arrival of the disease, there are now thought to be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/apr/27/monserrats-last-two-mountain-chicken-frogs-to-be-reunited-to-save-species">only two mountain chickens on Montserrat</a> and about <a href="http://www.mountainchicken.org/conservation__trashed/">100 on Dominica</a>. This desperate situation required action.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134496/original/image-20160817-3602-7c5eey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Epidemic victims.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Recovery programme</h2>
<p>Thankfully for the mountain chicken, a group of British and European conservation scientists joined forces with the governments of Dominica and Montserrat to form the <a href="http://www.mountainchicken.org">Mountain Chicken Recovery Programme</a> (MCRP). An eleventh-hour <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2009/04/after-disease-engulfs-island-rare-mountain-chicken-frogs-airlifted-to-safety/">evacuation of 50 mountain chickens</a> from Montserrat by the MCRP was successful in establishing a captive population in European Zoos. Frogs in these zoos have since successfully bred, ensuring that the species will not go extinct. At least for now.</p>
<p>The MCRP aims to save the mountain chicken from extinction, restoring the species to its historic range and increasing its resilience to future threats. But this is no easy task. The chytrid fungus <a href="http://www.mountainchicken.org/conservation/research/">persists in other amphibian species</a> that appear unaffected and share the forests with the mountain chicken.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1197&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1197&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134499/original/image-20160817-3583-rnxbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1197&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Repopulating the island.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Cunningham / ZSL</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>In order to manage the risk posed by chytrid and conserve the mountain chicken, the MCRP is trialling multiple novel conservation tools. It hopes these measures can not only save the mountain chicken, but also contribute to the conservation of the hundreds of other species impacted by this disease. These measures include the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320715302202">world’s first reported use of an anti-fungal drug in the field</a>, following its successful use in captivity.</p>
<p>Several years after the decline, the MCRP also began <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2EckaNA8bU">reintroductions of the mountain chicken to Montserrat</a>, using individuals bred in the European Zoos. Four reintroductions have been carried out so far and analysis is ongoing to measure how successful they have been and how they can be modified to improve their chances of survival.</p>
<p>While these actions are important in preventing species already affected by the disease from going extinct, the most effective protection for other animals would be to stop chytrid spreading in the first place. But even when we are able to predict the arrival of the disease, as on Montserrat, we often have insufficient resources and capacity to stop it.</p>
<p>Without action, amphibian-rich countries such as Sri Lanka – where chytrid is yet to arrive – could suffer a similar fate with catastrophic levels of species loss. If we are to successfully prevent the extinction of further species, we must find ways of developing conservation capacity in those places where amphibians are most at risk.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Hudson receives funding from The Balcombe Trust and the Mountain Chicken Recovery Programme has recieved funding from the Darwin Initiative.</span></em></p>A nasty fungus killed 85% of Dominica’s mountain chicken frogs in just 18 months – but the species lives on.Michael Hudson, PhD candidate in biodiversity management, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/586812016-05-06T09:52:10Z2016-05-06T09:52:10ZHow the last two Montserrat ‘mountain chicken’ frogs could save their species<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121195/original/image-20160504-13603-k17o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This particular male, calling on a rock, may be the last hope for his species</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo Sarah-Louise Adams, Durrell</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The “mountain chicken” frogs on the Caribbean island of Montserrat are in a perilous and seemingly irredeemable situation. It’s worth questioning whether attempted recovery is even worth the effort. After all, this species, one of the world’s largest frogs, will have to recover from just two individuals. </p>
<p>Hunting, habitat destruction from the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/volcanoes_rev6.shtml">1995 volcanic eruption</a>, and the arrival of the recent fatal fungal infection, Chytridiomycosis (or “<a href="http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/">chytrid</a>”), has devastated these frogs.</p>
<p>Rarely has any species naturally recovered once reduced to a few individuals, without some sort of human assistance. The <a href="http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3593">Seychelles kestrel</a> is one exception. Species declines are largely caused by human activity, whether that be through direct killing, destruction of natural habitats, or the introduction of species like cats, rats or the chytrid fungus. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121197/original/image-20160504-17469-x3nhs1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mountain chicken frogs are surprisingly large.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeff Dawson, Durrell</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sadly, even in recent times, extinctions occur in plain sight. China’s last <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/08/endangeredspecies.conservation">Yangtze River dolphins</a>, a male and a female, were separately held captive without being bred. Australia’s <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2012/05/island-bat-goes-extinct-after-australian-officials-hesitate/">Christmas Island pipistrelle bat</a> was confirmed extinct, frustratingly, during delayed attempts to rescue the last individuals. Similar late efforts failed to rescue the <a href="http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/speciesinfo/poo-uli.htm">Po’ouli</a>, a unique forest bird on Maui, Hawaii. </p>
<p>The lack of action in these cases was caused by bureaucracy, aversion to risk, politics, misplaced priorities, and professional bias; human rather than biological factors. Thankfully, other examples demonstrate a better way.</p>
<h2>Bringing a species back from near-extinction</h2>
<p>North America’s <a href="http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/black-footed-ferret">black-footed ferret</a> was thought lost in the 1980s until several were discovered in Wyoming, which inspired a recovery programme. The <a href="http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/california-condor/">California condor</a> was reduced to 27 individuals sparking a controversial, but successful, captive-breeding initiative. In New Zealand, the <a href="http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/black-robin/">Chatham Islands black robin</a> was rescued from a single breeding pair. </p>
<p>On Mauritius, once the island of extinction, the local <a href="https://www.durrell.org/animals/birds/mauritius-kestrel/">kestrel</a> was considered a lost cause until the arrival in 1979 of <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/may/04/welsh-biologist-carl-jones-wins-top-environmental-award-indianapolis-prize-conservation">Carl Jones</a>, a biologist who has just been awarded the Indianapolis Prize – the “Nobel Prize” of conservation – in recognition of his outstanding work.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121527/original/image-20160506-32044-1mthqx9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pioneering conservationist Carl Jones has helped save many species from extinction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.durrell.org/wildlife/carl-jones/">Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These cases required pioneering innovations, such as double-clutching (removing eggs to encourage pairs to breed again), using more common species as adoptive parents, and training captive-bred animals for wild release. Leaders such as <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/may/03/don-merton-obituary">Don Merton</a>, <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/15/science/once-near-death-a-comeback-bird-thrives-in-cities.html?pagewanted=all">Tom Cade</a>, <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-3240500230/snyder-noel-f-r.html">Noel Snyder</a> and <a href="https://www.durrell.org/wildlife/carl-jones/">Carl Jones</a> shared ideas with like-minded colleagues across continents, fuelling knowledge and experimentation. Actually getting on with the work is important. For Jones, too many people “<a href="https://vimeo.com/102764135">talk about conservation…but we’ve got to do it rather than talk about it</a>”.</p>
<p>Rare species are not just an interesting entry in the catalogue of life. They have a function in the natural world. Amphibians are important in controlling insects and other invertebrates. In Montserrat, for instance, some farmers have noticed increased levels of crop pests <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/apr/27/monserrats-last-two-mountain-chicken-frogs-to-be-reunited-to-save-species">since the frogs disappeared</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121188/original/image-20160504-9426-atnywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Chatham Islands black robin: rescued from a single pair.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/leonberard/10807700096/sizes/l">leonberard/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In practice, action first means setting short-term goals. For the mountain chicken frog, this involves moving the female into the male’s territory, building artificial nests, and protecting locations from threats. </p>
<p>The work must also pursue a long-term vision. A sustainable wild population of frogs means that captive-breeding, already undertaken in bio-secure facilities, is not the sole answer. Threats like chytrid need to be understood first to inspire possible solutions. The disease will not disappear just by increasing the numbers of frogs (though frog population is of course critical). </p>
<p>Fieldwork requires painful attention to detail, literally sitting with the animals to prevent disturbances, then monitoring offspring survival, assessing and carefully improving habitats, and moving individuals to new, safe locations. Conservationists need patience and determination to overcome disappointments. They must seek to understand changing circumstances, keep open to ideas and be willing to develop new approaches if things do not go well. </p>
<p>Fortunately conservation interventions can achieve extraordinary success. Carl Jones has worked with the <a href="http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/">Mauritian Wildlife Foundation</a> and <a href="https://www.durrell.org/wildlife/carl-jones/">Durrell</a> (the wildlife charity founded by popular naturalist <a href="https://theconversation.com/two-decades-after-his-death-gerald-durrell-is-still-making-the-world-a-better-place-36989">Gerald Durrell</a>) for nearly 40 years. Jones’ work on Mauritius is responsible for saving five bird species, three reptiles and several plants, and restoring nine off-shore islands.</p>
<p>These achievements are not a mere drop in the ocean. His results represent 19% of avoided bird extinctions worldwide. Overall this is nearly 10% of all bird, mammal and amphibian species downlisted on the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List</a>. Jones’s international recognition is richly deserved.</p>
<p>Jones himself suggests that recovery requires about 20 breeding cycles. That means 20 years for species that breed just once a year. Improved understanding can however, accelerate recovery.</p>
<p>Recent efforts in the US with the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22781/0">California Channel Islands fox</a> restored a handful of surviving individuals to a thriving population in just a decade. The near-extinct Mauritius kestrel bounced back to a free-living population from just four birds. India’s unique <a href="https://www.durrell.org/animals/mammals/pygmy-hog/">pygmy hog</a> was reintroduced after successful breeding of a few animals taken from the wild. Conservation is getting smarter and more effective.</p>
<p>So on Montserrat, people must act fast while hope remains. A sustainable frog population must be a priority. If people carefully use their knowledge, this extraordinary giant, the mountain chicken frog might withstand threats of disease and habitat pressure on its tiny, volcanic island home.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58681/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon is a visiting lecturer for the Durrell Conservation Academy and has previously worked with conservation projects run by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation. </span></em></p>Scientists are working to bring this large, unique frog back from the brink of extinction.Simon Black, Researcher, Durrell Institute of Conservation & Ecology, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/288752014-07-08T12:56:19Z2014-07-08T12:56:19ZCaribbean island buried by eruption goes green with volcano power<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53213/original/4xvs25qw-1404766585.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plymouth, Montserrat's abandoned capital, buried under ash and mud.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mikeschinkel/288577635">mikeschinkel</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The eastern Caribbean island of Montserrat has suffered more than its fair share of natural disaster. </p>
<p>In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island, causing massive destruction with <a href="http://www.intrescue.info/hub/index.php/missions/montserrat-hurricane-sept-1989/">more than 90%</a> of the island’s structures damaged. In 1995, just as the island started to recover, the island’s <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/volcanoes/montserrat/home.html">Soufrière Hills volcano</a> burst into life, entering a cycle of eruptive activity that <a href="http://www.tboeckel.de/EFSF/efsf_wv/montserrat_10/Montserrat_2010_e.htm">continues to the present day</a>. The eruption had an enormous impact on the island, killing 19 people, leaving two-thirds of the island nation uninhabitable, and in 1997 completely burying the capital city, Plymouth, under metres of volcanic rock, ash and mud. More than half the island’s population of around 10,000 were compelled to emigrate.</p>
<p>Today, however, Montserrat is putting this violent geological heritage to good use. Known as the “Emerald Isle” of the Caribbean due to historical ties with the Irish, Montserrat (in fact a UK dependent territory) is poised to become one of the world’s few metaphorically “green” and sustainable islands. The same geological forces unleashed by the Soufrière Hills volcano are being harnessed to power the island’s electricity grid from a geothermal source. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jRRCysLUde8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Geothermal energy, the productive use of the vast quantity of thermal energy within the Earth’s crust, is one of the few renewable, low-carbon emission energy sources that can consistently generate power 24-hours a day, irrespective of the season. Its primary limitation is not weather but location, as it can only be exploited in places with specific geology, where some of the Earth’s intense inner heat <a href="https://theconversation.com/drilling-surprise-opens-door-to-volcano-powered-electricity-22515">reaches close enough to the surface</a> to be of use.
Montserrat’s geology is ideal for geothermal use: hot molten magma rises to shallow depths, driven by the forces of <a href="http://www.caribbeanvolcanoes.com/index.htm">regional plate tectonics</a>. The heat from this magma warms the surrounding rocks, providing a heat source that can be tapped if it can be brought back to the surface. Rainwater and seawater are natural aids to this process as they penetrate through cracks and pores in the rocks to several kilometres beneath the island, absorbing heat from the magma heated rocks. Once heated, the hot fluid rises buoyantly to shallower levels where it can be tapped by drilling geothermal wells. As the ascending fluid boils it produces pressurised steam which rotates turbines to generate electricity.</p>
<p>The high cost of drilling wells (a single well can cost several million US dollars) coupled with the potential risk of drilling an unproductive well, are the principle reasons that geothermal potential has not been fully exploited. To increase the likelihood of drilling a productive well, the project to exploit geothermal power on Montserrat used an array of technologies, such as <a href="http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/afar/new-afar/what-doing/how-mag-works.html">magnetotellurics</a> and <a href="http://geo.web.ru/sbmg/sbor/tomography/Harvard/tomo.htm">seismic tomography</a> to more clearly understand the rocks beneath the surface.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=649&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=649&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=649&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Conceptual model based on survey data to home in on best site for drilling a well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ryan, Peacock, Shalev, Rugis (2013), Montserrat geothermal system: a 3D conceptual model, Geophys. Res. Lett. doi: 10.1002/grl.50489.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Magnetotellurics uses naturally occurring signals from lightning storms and charged particles ejected from the sun to penetrate below ground. Seismic tomography uses the responses of pressure waves created by carefully generated explosions to generate images of the rocks. Aided by researchers at the University of Auckland these techniques were used to create the subsurface maps that have successfully guided Montserrat’s geothermal drilling programme.</p>
<p>Between March and September of 2013 the <a href="http://www.jardboranir.is/">Iceland Drilling Company</a> drilled Montserrat’s first two geothermal wells, to depths of 2,300 and 2,900 metres, striking temperatures of over 260°C. While testing is still ongoing, the initial results suggest that the fluid flowing from the wells will be able to generate more power than needed by the island’s reduced population of around 5,000 inhabitants. Once completed, the geothermal power station will free the island from its current reliance on expensive diesel-powered generators for its electricity – currently among the most expensive electricity in the world.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.google.com/maps/embed?pb=!1m18!1m12!1m3!1d7884294.378639129!2d-67.67320977696463!3d15.226671392356723!2m3!1f0!2f0!3f0!3m2!1i1024!2i768!4f13.1!3m3!1m2!1s0x8c13ab53e1c7369d%3A0x1e0fea838805b1a2!2sMontserrat!5e0!3m2!1sen!2suk!4v1404824291757" width="100%" height="450" frameborder="0" style="border:0"></iframe>
<p>Montserrat is not the only nation in the region with geothermal aspirations. All of the islands of the Lesser Antilles have similar geological settings and therefore geothermal potential. The French island of Guadeloupe, with 15MW of installed capacity, is the only Caribbean island that currently uses geothermal energy for electricity, but recently private investment in <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2014/01/caribbean-islands-fight-high-electricity-costs-with-geothermal-energy">St Kitts and Nevis</a> and a European Union funded project in <a href="http://thinkgeoenergy.com/archives/15004">Dominica</a> have also resulted in several promising exploratory wells, with discussions underway on other islands keen to harness their geothermal potential. </p>
<p>Geoscientists have recognised the geothermal potential of the region for many decades. But it is only in the past few years that the promise of a cheap, local energy source that can free the region from volatile oil prices has caught the imagination of regional governments and agencies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Ryan provides geothermal consulting work, including on Montserrat, through the University of Auckland's Institute of Earth Science and Engineering, and received funding from the UK Department for International Development.</span></em></p>The eastern Caribbean island of Montserrat has suffered more than its fair share of natural disaster. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island, causing massive destruction with more than 90% of the island’s…Graham Alexander Ryan, Research Fellow, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.