tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/mount-kosciuszko-27119/articlesMount Kosciuszko – The Conversation2020-08-06T04:33:40Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1416582020-08-06T04:33:40Z2020-08-06T04:33:40Z‘It is not easy’: how science and courage saved the stunning Australian Alps<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351450/original/file-20200806-20-1cg798x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C2527%2C1767&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">National Library of Australia</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most people probably associate the Australian Alps with skiing and snow. Others might think of the Man from Snowy River legend or the engineering feats of the Snowy Hydro-Electric Scheme.</p>
<p>But few people know the region’s history of exploitation and overuse, nor the courage of those who fought to save this precious wilderness area. A new book, <a href="https://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/news-events/events/online-book-launch-%22kosciuszko-great-national-park%22">Kosciuszko: A Great National Park</a>, tells that important story. The result, by authors Deirdre Slattery and Graeme L. Worboys, is a positive yet cautionary tale.</p>
<p>Today, the park is largely protected – yet threats such as ski tourism, feral horses and the Snowy 2.0 scheme still loom. And climate change has left the region highly vulnerable, as shown by declining snow depths and a massive bushfire that tore through the Snowy Mountains last summer.</p>
<p>The book shows how Kosciuszko National Park is the product of robust science and hard-fought battles by dedicated individuals – battles that continue to this day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A ranger-guided tour leaving for the Kosciuszko summit in 1964." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351454/original/file-20200806-24-vl3t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A ranger-guided tour leaving for the Kosciuszko summit in 1964.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gare collection in Kosciuszko: A Great National Park</span></span>
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<h2>A long history of occupation</h2>
<p>The Australian Alps in southeast New South Wales is the traditional home of three Aboriginal groups: the Ngarigo, Walgalu and Djilamatang people. It is home to Australia’s highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko. </p>
<p>The book describes how squatters with cattle occupied the region from the 1820s. By 1840, the Snowy region had been stocked with 200,000 sheep, 75,000 cattle and 3,000 horses which grazed in the mountains each summer.</p>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-our-alps-so-why-arent-we-looking-after-them-3831">We need our Alps, so why aren't we looking after them?</a>
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<p>The discovery of gold in 1860 brought another 10,000 people to the Snowy Mountains. By the turn of the 20th century, the mountains were also a playground for recreation. Hotel Kosciusko, with 93 bedrooms, a ballroom, museum, skating rink and tennis courts, catered for an upmarket clientele.</p>
<p>In 1949 the mountains became the site for the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme: 16 dams, 80 kilometres of aqueducts and more than 140 <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1707565">kilometres of tunnels</a>. </p>
<p>By then, the signs of overuse were evident. Soils were eroding, streams became silted and unique alpine flora was diminishing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cattle grazing at Club Lake believed to be during the Federation Drought (1897-1903)." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C942%2C711&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351449/original/file-20200806-20-1l4obkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cattle grazing at Club Lake believed to be during the Federation Drought (1897-1903).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerry Studio/Costin collection in Kosciuszko: A Great National Park.</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>The long conservation fight</h2>
<p>Tannat William Edgeworth David, a professor at the University of Sydney, was one of the first to document the unique values of the Snowy Mountains and call for their protection. </p>
<p>In the 1800s, the notion that an ice age once gripped Australia was considered preposterous. The book tells how David and colleagues put the matter “absolutely beyond dispute” when they mapped, on Kosciuszko’s main range, the undeniable signature left by glaciers.</p>
<p>In the early 1900s, David urged that the alpine area <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3419774">be preserved</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[I]t would be wise policy, in the interest of people and of science, to reserve from occupation and even from the depasturing of stock, all the highest points of our alpine plateau, so that this floral wonderland may be preserved intact for posterity…</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It took almost 50 years before this advice was heeded. Kosciuszko State Park — later Kosciuszko National Park – was proclaimed in 1944. A decade of further scientific research led to the end of summer grazing leases above 1,350 metres in 1958. </p>
<p>One of the first park managers was Neville Gare. As the book notes, Gare quickly learned that feelings over management of the mountains ran deep. Soon after rangers started impounding stock found illegally in the park, an effigy of a park ranger swinging from a hangman’s noose was installed on the veranda of the Jindabyne Hotel.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-almost-wiped-out-rare-species-in-the-australian-alps-feral-horses-are-finishing-the-job-130584">Fire almost wiped out rare species in the Australian Alps. Feral horses are finishing the job</a>
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</em>
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<p>In 1950, Gare resisted a plan by head of the Ski Tourers Association, Charles Anton, to build a network of ski lodges. The book recounts how the tensions culminated at a public function when Anton snipped Gare’s tie in half to “indicate his indifference to Gare’s authority”. Some lodges were <a href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/anton-charles-william-9372">later built</a>.</p>
<p>In his unpublished memoir, Gare wrote “it is not easy to conserve something and use it too”. In future years, this observation would prove all too true.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Stock illegally moved into the park after grazing leases ended in 1958." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351452/original/file-20200806-24-14u1rgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stock illegally moved into the park after grazing leases ended in 1958.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alec Costin in Kosciuszko: A Great National Park</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Ongoing battles</h2>
<p>Gare and the Kosciusko State Park Trust developed the first formal plan of management for the park in 1965. The park was divided into zones for different uses: wilderness, conservation of exceptional natural and historic features, development, hydro-electricity and tourism.</p>
<p>This zoning was radical thinking at the time but has since been widely adopted in park management across Australia.</p>
<p>The plan of management for Kosciuszko National Park has been frequently <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/research-and-publications/publications-search/kosciuszko-national-park-amendment-to-plan-of-management-visitor-experience-improvements">amended</a> to accommodate more tourism facilities, and the threat of further development is <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-08/the-price-of-turning-popular-perisher-village-into-a-town/8166176">ever-present</a>. As the authors note, <a href="https://theconversation.com/nsw-has-approved-snowy-2-0-here-are-six-reasons-why-thats-a-bad-move-139112">further pressure</a> is also coming via Snowy 2.0, a A$5 billion proposal to expand the current hydroelectric scheme.</p>
<p>Climate change is also a threat. Rising temperatures have triggered a <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Towards-the-development-of-long-term-winter-records-Davis/1c37a27142d5f6ebe470fd077bbf9168c419e2ee">15% decline in the annual maximum snow depth, relative to the 1961-90 average</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Skiers at Perisher Valley" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351453/original/file-20200806-18-1546i1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate change is reducing the snow depth in the region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Perisher/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Climate change is also making the threat of bushfires worse. In January, the massive Adaminaby Complex fire burned through <a href="https://esa.act.gov.au/fires-west-act">more than 93,000 hectares</a> in the Snowy region, affecting <a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-almost-wiped-out-rare-species-in-the-australian-alps-feral-horses-are-finishing-the-job-130584">swathes of bush</a>. It also devastated populations of several threatened species, including the <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-field-cameras-melted-in-the-bushfires-when-we-opened-them-the-results-were-startling-139922">corroboree frog</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/double-trouble-this-plucky-little-fish-survived-black-summer-but-theres-worse-to-come-139921">stocky galaxias</a> fish.</p>
<p>And the lethal <a href="https://theconversation.com/where-did-the-frog-pandemic-come-from-14259">chytrid fungus</a>, introduced to Australia, has pushed the park’s southern corroboree frog to the brink of extinction.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nsw-has-approved-snowy-2-0-here-are-six-reasons-why-thats-a-bad-move-139112">NSW has approved Snowy 2.0. Here are six reasons why that's a bad move</a>
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</p>
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<p>In 2018, the NSW government declared feral horses in the park a <a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">protected species</a>. The population has quickly grown to <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/pest-animals-and-weeds/pest-animals/wild-horses/kosciuszko-national-park-wild-horse-management">about 19,000</a>, representing a considerable threat to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/emr.12357">several species</a>.</p>
<p>The book reminds us that today, as throughout history, Kosciuszko National Park needs protecting. And key to that are courageous, committed individuals – and robust science.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A scenic view of the Snowy Mountains" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351451/original/file-20200806-18-17c5xgq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Snowy Mountains are protected, but threats remain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Schopier/Wikimedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141658/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Gibbons receives funding from the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, the New South Wales Natural Resources Commission, the ACT Parks and Conservation Service and the Australian Research Council and is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia.</span></em></p>From an effigy hanging from a noose to an angry opponent wielding scissors, those who’ve sought to protect the precious Australian Alps have always been up against it.Philip Gibbons, Professor, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1140082019-03-21T06:44:25Z2019-03-21T06:44:25ZNSW election: where do the parties stand on brumby culling?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265058/original/file-20190321-93063-1k3xosw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Feral horses have severely damaged the landscape in Kosciuszko National Park.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Travelstine</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The future management of New South Wales’s national parks is one of the issues on the line in Saturday’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/mark-latham-in-the-upper-house-a-coalition-minority-government-the-nsw-election-is-nearly-upon-us-and-its-going-to-be-a-wild-ride-113119">state election</a>. Other states will be watching the outcome closely.</p>
<p>Depending on who wins, the outcome for Kosciuszko National Park spans from restoration and recovery to ongoing environmental decay, with feral horses given priority over native species.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/low-key-nsw-election-likely-to-reveal-a-city-country-divide-112968">Low-key NSW election likely to reveal a city-country divide</a>
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</em>
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<p>All political parties have been well informed about the science behind feral horses in the Australian Alps. The <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/emr.12357">peer-reviewed literature</a> shows that:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>feral horse impacts put multiple species at greater risk of extinction</p></li>
<li><p>streams and bogs are degraded, threatening water quality, and will require restoration</p></li>
<li><p>even small numbers of horses lead to cumulative environmental degradation</p></li>
<li><p>a range of high and low elevation areas are severely degraded by feral horses; it is not clear whether any areas can withstand horse impacts</p></li>
<li><p>rehoming and fertility control are not effective control methods when horses number in the thousands and are hard to reach</p></li>
<li><p>aerial culling is humane, effective, and cheaper than other methods.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>But despite the clarity of recommendations emerging from research, political parties have taken a broad range of approaches.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265053/original/file-20190321-93036-pzxo8d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A feral horse exclusion fence. But which side of the fence are the major parties on?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Liberal/National Coalition</h2>
<p>The Liberal/National coalition has pledged to enact its <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/bills/Pages/bill-details.aspx?pk=3518">Kosciuszko Wild Horse Heritage Bill</a>, which was passed by the state parliament last year and aims to “recognise the heritage value of sustainable wild horse populations within parts of Kosciuszko National Park”. </p>
<p>This legislation would ensure several thousand feral horses remain in the park, potentially compromising the conservation goals of the park’s <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/research-and-publications/publications-search/kosciuszko-national-park-plan-of-management">management plan</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">Passing the brumby bill is a backward step for environmental protection in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>This month, Deputy Premier John Barilaro <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-05/brumby-backflip-claims-rejected-by-barilaro/10872306">said</a> the government would “immediately” reduce horse numbers by 50%, through trapping, rehoming, fertility control, and relocating horses to “less sensitive” areas. Although he appeared to endorse an ultimate population target of 600 feral horses in front of an audience that was receptive to that idea, under pressure from the pro-brumby lobby, he later clarified that the coalition would aim to keep 3,000-4,000 feral horses in Kosciuszko.</p>
<h2>Labor</h2>
<p>Labor, along with the Greens and the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers party, has pledged to repeal the Kosciuszko Wild Horse Heritage Bill if it wins the election, and has <a href="https://wp.me/a3KLMh-61">committed A$24 million</a> to restore the national park. </p>
<p>Its <a href="https://www.michaeldaley.com.au/labor_unveils_comprehensive_plan_to_rebuild_national_parks_in_nsw">six-point national parks restoration plan</a> bans aerial culling, instead proposing to control horses using rehoming, while expanding research on fertility control. </p>
<p>Labor’s plan also mentions active management of feral horses in sensitive ecosystems, and ensuring large horse populations do not starve to death. It plans to achieve these two goals by trapping and rehoming brumbies. Labor also plans to keep a “smaller population” of feral horses in areas within the national park “where degradation is less critical”.</p>
<h2>Greens</h2>
<p>The NSW Greens has arguably the most <a href="https://wp.me/a3KLMh-62">evidence-based policy</a>, aiming to reduce horse numbers by 90% in three years, with a longer-term goal of full eradication. </p>
<p>This means national parks would be managed for native Australian species. That is important in NSW, <a href="https://theconversation.com/nsws-no-cull-brumby-bill-will-consign-feral-horses-to-an-even-crueller-fate-96905">where only 10% of the state has been allocated to protected areas</a>, well below international standards of 17%. They would achieve this reduction using all humane methods currently available, including trapping, rehoming, mustering, and ground-based and aerial shooting. </p>
<p>The Greens would also fund rehabilitation of damaged habitat, and has flagged <a href="https://greens.org.au/vic/stopinvasives">substantial funding</a> for conservation initiatives. </p>
<h2>Shooters, Fishers and Farmers</h2>
<p>The Shooters, Fishers and Farmers party <a href="https://reclaimkosci.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/NSW-election-Shooters-Farmers-Fishers.pdf">supports</a> immediate action to reduce feral horse numbers using humane methods, including ground shooting, but not aerial culling. </p>
<p>The party, which holds one lower house seat and has two upper house members, has announced no plans for restoration of the national park.</p>
<h2>Animal Justice Party</h2>
<p>The Animal Justice Party, which has just one upper house member in the parliament, has <a href="https://animaljusticeparty.org/policieslist/animals/brumbies/">endorsed</a> “non-lethal control measures” in areas that are clearly being degraded by feral horses. It says this should be achieved entirely using fertility control and relocation. The party has also described brumby culling proposals as “horrific” and called for urgent national legislation to protect them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-brumbies-evoke-such-passion-its-all-down-to-the-high-countrys-cultural-myth-makers-97933">Why do brumbies evoke such passion? It's all down to the high country's cultural myth-makers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There is pressure from pro-brumby lobbyists to keep feral horse populations in Guy Fawkes, Barrington Tops, Oxley Wild Rivers, the Blue Mountains, and other NSW national parks. In Victoria, a pro-brumby pressure group will <a href="https://www.comcourts.gov.au/file/Federal/P/VID1569/2018/actions">take Parks Victoria to the Federal court later this year</a> to prevent removal of a small but damaging horse population on the Bogong High Plains in the Alpine National Park. </p>
<p>When NSW voters decide the fate of Kosciuszko National Park on Saturday, their verdict could have broader ramifications for protected areas throughout Australia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114008/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll receives funding from the Herman Slade Foundation, OEH NSW Environmental Grants program, DELWP Vic, and Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC. He is President of the Ecological Society of Australia, Director of the Centre of Integrative Ecology and Director of TechnEcology at Deakin University. Don is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and Society for Conservation Biology.</span></em></p>Feral horses are a clear point of division between parties in this weekend’s election. Labor has pledged to repeal the Coalition government’s bill to preserve large numbers of brumbies.Don Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/646022016-09-05T20:11:43Z2016-09-05T20:11:43ZThe ethical and cultural case for culling Australia’s mountain horses<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136385/original/image-20160902-20247-10gosfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wild horses are wreaking havoc in Australia's mountains</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/affers/14447882178/">Long Road Photography (formerly Aff)/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The fate of wild horses in Australia’s alps is once again stirring passions, particularly the idea of shooting them. The suggestion has prompted <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-02/protest-outside-nsw-parliament-against-kosciusko-brumbies-cull/7681444">street protests</a> against it, and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/19/culling-5000-brumbies-41-scientists-back-controversial-kosciuszko-proposal">public statements from academics (including myself)</a> endorsing the idea. </p>
<p>Victoria and New South Wales have not yet made decisions on what to do about the horses. In New South Wales, public comment has closed on the <a href="https://engage.environment.nsw.gov.au/wild-horse-management-plan">Kosciuszko National Park Draft Wild Horse Management Plan 2016</a>, and now public servants have to weigh up the comments, take heed of political fears and sensitivities, and come up with a way forward. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/victorian-high-country-horses-cull-plan-20160901-gr6pmo.html">Victoria’s Greater Alpine National Parks management plan </a> has been tabled in parliament, arguing for feral horse control but leaving options open. </p>
<p>The evidence that <a href="http://www.ecolsoc.org.au/hot-topics/feral-horses-australia">wild horses</a> need to be removed from Australia’s alps because of their <a href="https://theaustralianalps.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/2015-feral-horse-impacts-report.pdf">impact</a> on high country <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-wild-horse-plan-draft-160271.pdf">ecosystems and species</a> is very strong. The debate now revolves around the ethics of how to remove horses, and their role in Australian culture.</p>
<h2>Horse welfare</h2>
<p>This issue of horse welfare has recently been <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-sssessing-humaneness-wild-horse-management-methods-2804.pdf">substantially clarified in a report</a> as part of reviewing the Kosciuszko plan. The report, prepared by an <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/research/independent-technical-reference-group.htm">Independent Technical Reference Group</a>, scores the welfare outcomes of a full range of horse control, considering pursuing horses, capturing and transporting them, and their ultimate fate.</p>
<p>Although a common perspective is that it would be nice to round up the horses and move them out of the national park, it turns out that this would result in one of the worst animal welfare outcomes. </p>
<p>The vast majority of horses captured (82%) in Kosciuszko National Park are not re-homed, but killed in abattoirs. The long journey to abattoirs in South Australia and Queensland was ranked as having a severe impact on horse welfare, rated seven out of a maximum score of eight. </p>
<p>In contrast, aerial shooting, when properly implemented by well-trained pilots and marksmen, had a moderate effect on horse welfare during the short chase (rated four out of eight), and there were no concerns about suffering when the horse is shot, as it is quickly killed.</p>
<p>Even fertility management had an impact rated six out of eight (and <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-wild-horse-plan-draft-160271.pdf">cannot be implemented at the scale needed</a> to solve the Kosciuszko horse problem).</p>
<h2>Animal welfare in the environment</h2>
<p>There are around 10,000 wild horses in Australia’s alps, and 6,000 in Kosciuszko. By eating and trampling habitat, horses likely cause many individual native animals to suffer. These impacts are generally unseen, and are typically neglected when considering the ethics of culling horses. </p>
<p>Horses have a negative impact <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/wild-horse-plan-management-report-160221.pdf">on alpine ecosystems</a>, upon which native species depend, including the <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-wild-horse-plan-draft-160271.pdf">broad-toothed rat</a> and the <a href="http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/247004/Alpine_Water_Skink_Eulamprus_kosciuskoi.pdf">alpine water skink</a>(critically endangered in Victoria). </p>
<p>In all arguments about culling invasive animals <a href="https://www.ecolsoc.org.au/hot-topics/high-densities-kangaroo-grazing-can-reduce-biodiversity">(or over-abundant native animals)</a> it is a fundamental logical mistake
to ignore the impacts of pests on the welfare of other animals, on the viability of populations and on the risk of species’ extinction. </p>
<p>In his article <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806-011-9353-z">A “Practical” Ethic for Animals</a>, animal welfare expert <a href="http://www.landfood.ubc.ca/person/david-fraser/">David Fraser</a> proposes four principles that, if applied, would ensure full consideration of the ethics of culling horses. </p>
<p>There are:</p>
<p>(1) to provide good lives for the animals in our care</p>
<p>(2) to treat suffering with compassion</p>
<p>(3) to be mindful of unseen harm</p>
<p>(4) to protect the life-sustaining processes and balances of nature. </p>
<p>This set of principles gives weight to both humane control methods, as well as suffering of other species if the culling is not undertaken, impacts on populations and risks of extinction. </p>
<p>While it is nicer if you don’t have to kill horses, when you weigh up <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-grim-story-of-the-snowy-mountains-cannibal-horses-31691">the misery horses suffer if left in the wild</a>, the unseen impacts on native animals, the damage to ecosystems and the likely heightened risk of extinction of already threatened species, leaving horses in the Australian alps is not a choice with ethics on its side.</p>
<h2>Part of Australian culture</h2>
<p>A cultural affiliation with horses is widespread around the world, including in the <a href="http://www.indianhorse.com/?page_id=46">US</a>, <a href="https://prezi.com/kmxiobu7rwja/significance-of-the-andalusian-horse-in-spanish-culture-and-society-throughout-history/">Spain</a> and many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaucho">South American countries</a>. </p>
<p>Australia is no exception, epitomised by the poem “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_from_Snowy_River_(poem)">The Man from Snowy River</a>” by Banjo Paterson. This stock horse culture is widely celebrated in Australia. We saw it at the Sydney Olympics opening ceremony where <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aBbkxoU5D_8">stock horses were celebrated</a> alongside those other classic Australian icons of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xa8f8L0lH4A">lawnmowers</a> and clothes lines. </p>
<p>Culture can be celebrated in a range of ways. We don’t celebrate the Gallipoli landing using actual violence, we don’t celebrate anniversaries of the moon landing by sending astronauts there. </p>
<p>We don’t need to celebrate Australia’s stock-horse culture by having horses in fragile alpine ecosystems where they cause environmental damage. There are other ways to celebrate culture, including through the network of mountain huts, many originally built for men rounding up cattle or horses. Indeed, there is already extensive signage highlighting this cultural history at huts around Victoria.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136396/original/image-20160902-20213-8zo5l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The mountains’ cultural history can be preserved in other ways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Don Driscoll</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There may also be ways to maintain small wild-horse populations through collaborations across private properties around the mountains of NSW and Victoria. These would open up opportunities for tourism by providing “man-from-snowy-river” cultural experiences in places more appropriate than our national parks.</p>
<p>Australia has one of the <a href="http://www.ecolsoc.org.au/hot-topics/feral-horses-australia">largest feral horse populations on the planet</a>, with <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/b32a088c-cd31-4b24-8a7c-70e1880508b5/files/feral-horse.pdf">400,000 horses roaming the country</a>. Areas set aside for nature cover less than 10% of New South Wales and 17% of Victoria. There is plenty of space outside reserves for horses, but conversely, very little area set aside for our natural heritage.</p>
<p>Considering the ethics of balance, one that takes into account humane treatment of horses, native wildlife, species and ecosystems, horses should be rapidly and humanely removed from alpine parks in Victoria and New South Wales.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64602/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll is affiliated with the Ecological Society of Australia and the Society for Conservation Biology.</span></em></p>Horses need to be removed from Australia’s mountains. The debate now is around ethics and their role in Australian culture.Don Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/569972016-04-29T03:21:13Z2016-04-29T03:21:13ZEcoCheck: Australia’s Alps are cool, but the heat is on<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120643/original/image-20160429-28053-1jl2iz2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Alpine meadows are a pretty rare sight in Australia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Colin Totterdell</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Our <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/ecocheck">EcoCheck</a> series takes the pulse of some of Australia’s most important ecosystems to find out if they’re in good health or on the wane.</em></p>
<p>Think of an Australian landscape and you’re unlikely to picture snow-capped mountains or alpine meadows. But that’s what you’ll find atop the peaks of the country’s southeastern corner.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120642/original/image-20160429-28040-tgemc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The distribution of alpine and subalpine landscapes in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although relatively small – covering about 11,000 square kilometres or 0.15% of the continent – these alpine and subalpine ecosystems have outstanding natural value and provide billions of dollars’ worth of benefits to the nation each year. </p>
<p>They are in comparatively good health but are facing numerous threats. However, their health in decades and centuries to come will depend largely on how we deal with these threats now.</p>
<p>Australia’s main alpine and subalpine areas are the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales, the Bogong High Plains in Victoria, and central and southwestern Tasmania. They occur above about 1,400-1,500m on the mainland, and 700-1,000m in Tasmania.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120472/original/image-20160428-30973-1brp5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Main Range, Kosciuszko National Park, NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Colin Totterdell</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although Australia’s mountains are relatively low by global standards (Mt Kosciuszko, the continent’s highest peak, rises only 2,228m above sea level), there is true treeless, alpine vegetation above the climatic treeline. </p>
<p>Treeless patches may also occur in the high subalpine zone, just below the treeline, typically on rolling high plains where accumulations of cold air or water prevent trees from establishing and growing.</p>
<p>The alpine climate is cold, wet, snowy and windy, with a short growing season. The soils are highly organic and can hold tremendous amounts of water. Alpine plants are short: mostly tussock-forming snow grasses, rosette-forming herbs such as snow daisies, and ground-hugging shrubs. </p>
<p>The dominant plant communities are grasslands, herbfields, heathlands and wetland complexes rich in peat moss (<em>Sphagnum</em>). The animals are mostly invertebrates such as moths, grasshoppers and ants.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120461/original/image-20160428-30976-1qw35xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Alpine wetland, rich in Sphagnum and other peat-forming plants, Bogong High Plains, Alpine National Park, Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Camac</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Australian Alps are hugely important for conservation, water production and recreation. Most alpine areas are within national parks and are home to many unique plants and animals. </p>
<p>There are about 700 native alpine plant <a href="https://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/RoyalBotanicGarden/media/RBG/Science/Cunninghamia/Volume%2010%20-%202007/Cun101001McD.pdf">species</a> on the mainland, while some animal species are extremely rare – there are only about <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-mountain-pygmy-possum-13149">2,000 mountain pygmy possums in the wild</a>.</p>
<p>Major rivers – such as the Murray, the Murrumbidgee and the Snowy – begin in the Alps. Water from alpine catchments is worth <a href="http://aciucn.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/18-Worboys.pdf">A$9.6 billion a year</a> to the Australian economy. </p>
<p>Millions of people visit every year to camp, walk, ski, ride and take in the scenery. The Alps are one of Tourism Australia’s “<a href="http://www.tourism.australia.com/documents/corporate/AustralianAlps-ANLPositioningGuidebook.pdf">National Landscapes</a>” and the local tourism industry is worth <a href="http://www.nerplandscapes.edu.au/system/files/LaP%20-%20Aust%20Alps%20Socio-Economic%20Profile.pdf">hundreds of millions of dollars annually</a>.</p>
<h2>Highly studied</h2>
<p>The alps also have a rich history of scientific study, dating back to celebrated botanist <a href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mueller-sir-ferdinand-jakob-heinrich-von-4266">Sir Ferdinand von Mueller</a> in the 1850s. Pioneers of Australian alpine ecology, <a href="https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/history/interviews-australian-scientists/dr-alec-costin-alpine-ecologist">Alec Costin</a> and <a href="https://www.anbg.gov.au/biography/carr-maisie.html">Maisie Carr</a>, established some of the earliest study sites. Research continues to this day and now includes international climate science projects such as the <a href="http://ibis.geog.ubc.ca/itex/">International Tundra Experiment</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Observation_Research_Initiative_in_Alpine_Environments">Global Research Initiative in Alpine Environments</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=203&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=203&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=203&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120457/original/image-20160428-30960-1gz39a6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experimental plots established by Maisie Carr and John Turner in 1947 (photos taken in 1999). Aerial and close-up images both show the striking difference in the vegetation of the ungrazed plot compared with the grazed plot. Grazing ceased on the Bogong High Plains in 2003, and in Kosciuszko National Park in 1967.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Henrik Wahren</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XXjAAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=info:YhXkVyDxAb8J:scholar.google.com&ots=-Gbt-0NRfP&sig=ukwmlungkhD0j-LiO77l9Qxo2Dw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">scientific discoveries</a> about alpine flora and fauna, and the factors that affect them, have directly informed land management practices. </p>
<p>We now know that <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=IOLKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA221&lpg=PA221&dq=costin+1959+csiro+technical&source=bl&ots=lWZX08IPA8&sig=oCo3_t1s1P4R-49cSOQHd0jF4dY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixgrvV4bLMAhVmhYMKHbYXBoAQ6AEILjAD#v=onepage&q=costin%201959%20csiro%20technical&f=false">high levels of vegetation cover</a> are needed to protect alpine catchments; that livestock grazing damages <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3673932?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">alpine ecosystems</a>; how to better implement <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01323.x/full">cost-effective weed control</a>; how to better manage <a href="https://theconversation.com/genetics-to-the-rescue-hybrid-mountain-pygmy-possums-born-on-mt-buller-6134">small Mountain Pygmy Possum populations</a>; and <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WF07154.htm">that large, infrequent fires do not necessarily cause “ecological disaster”</a>.</p>
<h2>Existing and emerging threats</h2>
<p>Alas, the alps face multiple threats, including global warming, invasive species, disturbances such as fire, increasing pressure from human recreation, and unsound ideas about how to manage the high country. </p>
<p>The climate has already changed. Since 1979, average temperatures during the growing season on the Bogong High Plains have <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/view/journals/dsp_journal_fulltext.cfm?nid=65&f=BT12234">risen by 0.4°C</a>, while precipitation has <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/view/journals/dsp_journal_fulltext.cfm?nid=65&f=BT12234">decreased by 6%</a>. Since 1954, the depth and duration of the snowpack in the Kosciuszko region have <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1657/1938-4246-45.1.107">declined</a>. </p>
<p>Rising temperatures are a serious problem because the Australian Alps are relatively low mountains and the alpine species, already at their distributional limits, have nowhere else to go. Woody vegetation may increase – the treeline may rise and shrubs are likely to expand into grasslands and herb fields, which may make the landscape more <a href="http://biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2016/03/16/043919.full.pdf">prone to fire</a>. </p>
<p>Mainland alpine ecosystems can <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/James_Camac/publication/255978288_Post-fire_regeneration_in_alpine_heathland_Does_fire_severity_matter/links/0c960521339fd2f406000000.pdf">regenerate</a> after large fires. But Tasmania’s alpine vegetation is <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=BT10138.pdf">extremely fire-sensitive</a>, and more frequent fire is likely to be detrimental to all alpine ecosystems.</p>
<p>The threat of livestock grazing to alpine ecosystems has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-alpine-grazing-debate-was-never-about-science-40219">all but ceased</a>. However, feral animals and plants are a clear threat and will become more difficult to manage in the future without concerted action now. </p>
<p>Horse and deer numbers are <a href="http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/574146/Background-Paper-1-Wild-horse-ecology-and-environmental-impacts.pdf">increasing with alarming speed</a>. These animals are occupying habitats well above the treeline. Many alien plant species have <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00082.1">invaded</a> the alps over the past half-century, a trend likely to be exacerbated by climate warming.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120329/original/image-20160427-30960-lab1xq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feral horses in Pretty Valley, Bogong High Plains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Camac</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also need to be wary of maladaptive ideas and practices, particularly those concerning the putative benefits to the alps of large non-native grazing animals. We have variously been told that “alpine grazing reduces blazing” (<a href="http://www.ecolsoc.org.au/hot-topics/alpine-grazing-does-it-reduce-blazing">it doesn’t</a>); that grazing combined with burning has “<a href="http://www.connorcourt.com/catalog1/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=7&products_id=343">actually prevented soil erosion</a>” (<a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XXjAAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=info:YhXkVyDxAb8J:scholar.google.com&ots=-Gbt-0NRfP&sig=ukwmlungkhD0j-LiO77l9Qxo2Dw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">it didn’t</a>); and that a “sustainable, viable” feral horse population can “<a href="http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/609075/Submissions_61-70.pdf">co-exist</a>” with the alpine environment (surely an oxymoron). There may be strong cultural imperatives behind these propositions, but they have no basis in science.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120260/original/image-20160427-1341-112c824.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cattle grazing on the Bogong High Plains, days after the extensive 2003 fires. Australian alpine vegetation did not evolve with large, hard-hooved animals such as sheep and cattle. The combination of burning and grazing is known to damage alpine soils and vegetation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Henrik Wahren</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is cause for hope, however. The Australian Alps are on the <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/alpineresorts/refpd/appendixenationalheritagelistassessment.pdf">National Heritage List</a>, which is protected by federal law. </p>
<p>There is also still time. The world is <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-paris-climate-agreement-at-a-glance-50465">acting on climate change</a>. Some species may adapt <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00248.x">genetically</a>, while some likely changes to vegetation may happen <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/?paper/BT12234">slowly</a>. Scientists and land managers are working together to anticipate and manage change in the alps. </p>
<p>Change is <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/917bb661-b626-44bb-bd52-325645ae7c49/files/nrs-report.pdf">inevitable</a>, but with enough research, imagination and action, our high country will provide Australians with high-value environmental benefits for generations to come.</p>
<p><em>Are you a researcher who studies an iconic Australian ecosystem and would like to give it an EcoCheck? <a href="mailto:michael.hopkin@theconversation.edu.au">Get in touch</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56997/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dick Williams has received funding from the Australian Research Council, The National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, and the Terrestrial Ecosystems Research Network</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Camac has received funding from the Australian Research Council, The Terrestrial Ecosystems Research Network, Parks Victoria, The National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility and the Holsworth Wildlife Endowment fund.</span></em></p>The alpine landscapes of Australia’s southeast and Tasmania are home to hundreds of rare plants and animals. They’re healthy for now, but need careful looking after.Dick Williams, Adjunct Professorial Fellow, Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin UniversityJames Camac, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.