tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/omicron-transmission-115639/articlesOmicron transmission – The Conversation2023-02-08T05:15:21Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1990962023-02-08T05:15:21Z2023-02-08T05:15:21ZHaven’t had COVID or a vaccine dose in the past six months? Consider getting a booster<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508562/original/file-20230207-391-6qrl7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C85%2C2977%2C1908&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/CV9QfjqXVy0">CDC/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australians aged 18 and over <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-07/australian-adults-able-to-get-fifth-dose-of-covid-19-vaccine/101943280">will be eligible</a> for a COVID booster from February 20 if they have not had a vaccine dose or infection in the past six months. </p>
<p>This means people aged 18–29 who have had all eligible doses will be able to get their fourth dose and those over 30 will be able to get their fifth dose. Children aged 5–17 will be eligible for a booster if they have an underlying health condition but boosters will not be rolled out to other children at this stage. </p>
<p>Across Australia <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/covid-19-vaccines/vaccination-numbers-and-statistics">72.4%</a> of the population over 16 years of age is fully vaccinated, meaning they have had least three doses of the original vaccine. But a <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/enthusiasm-for-covid-19-vaccine-slows-as-fifth-jab-nears-20230127-p5cg2d.html">recent poll</a> found fewer people were willing to get a booster dose. </p>
<p>So why get a booster?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/millions-of-australians-still-havent-had-their-covid-boosters-what-message-could-convince-them-now-190482">Millions of Australians still haven't had their COVID boosters. What message could convince them now?</a>
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<h2>COVID is still circulating in the community</h2>
<p>Over the last week, 18,590 cases of COVID were <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/health-alerts/covid-19/case-numbers-and-statistics">reported across Australia</a>, an average of 2,656 cases per day. However not everyone tests for COVID or reports positive results, so the true number of cases is likely <a href="https://www.ncirs.org.au/national-antibody-study-confirms-covid-19-cases-higher-reported#:%7E:text=06%2F2022%20%7C%20News-,National%20antibody%20study%20confirms%20COVID%2D19%20cases%20higher%20than%20reported,virus%20that%20causes%20COVID%2D19.">much higher</a>.</p>
<p>The number of COVID <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/health-alerts/covid-19/case-numbers-and-statistics">hospitalisations and ICU</a> cases has decreased compared to the previous week, to 1,838 and 53 cases respectively. Across <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/health-alerts/covid-19/case-numbers-and-statistics">aged care</a>, there are roughly 198 cases this week.</p>
<p>While these numbers seem low, Australia also reported <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-03/covid-19-case-numbers-from-around-the-states-and-territories/101926530">226 COVID deaths</a> in the last week of January 2023. </p>
<p>As winter approaches and we <a href="https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/the-reason-for-the-season-why-flu-strikes-in-winter/">head inside</a> into indoor spaces with poor circulation, we set up a perfect incubator for the virus and are likely to see case numbers rise.</p>
<h2>You need to keep topping up your COVID immunity</h2>
<p>Protection against COVID <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34614326/">wanes over time</a>. So, how many doses you have had seems to matter less than <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-01/australia-to-announce-guidance-fifth-covid-vaccine-dose/101905806">how long ago</a> your last shot was. </p>
<p>Booster doses help strengthen immunity against COVID. They lower the risk of infection, severe disease and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9527398/">hospitalisation</a>. However, immunity wanes at approximately <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36264830/">four to five months</a> after vaccination. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Antibodies after COVID-19 vaccination." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508769/original/file-20230208-13-fbqb55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Antibodies after COVID-19 vaccination.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">S.Dushyanthen, 2023</span></span>
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<p>In an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36264830/">observational study</a> from the United States, vaccine effectiveness against hospitalisation within five months of receiving the booster mRNA COVID vaccine dose was 79% during BA.1/BA.2 and 60% during the BA.4/BA.5 period. This decreased to 41% and 29% five months after vaccination. </p>
<p>It is still possible to contract and <a href="https://theconversation.com/even-bivalent-updated-covid-19-boosters-struggle-to-prevent-omicron-subvariant-transmission-an-immunologist-discusses-why-new-approaches-are-necessary-197878">spread</a> COVID after a booster dose, but <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-021-00662-4">breakthrough infections</a> are often less serious. </p>
<h2>I’ve already had COVID, so why get a booster?</h2>
<p>The majority of Australians have had COVID at least once. By the end of August 2022, <a href="https://kirby.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/COVID19-Blood-Donor-Report-Round3-Aug-Sep-2022.pdf">two-thirds</a> of adults had previously been infected. </p>
<p>New research shows <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36681084/">“hybrid” immunity</a>, resulting from vaccination and contracting COVID, can provide partial protection against reinfection for up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9815828/">eight months</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-does-protective-immunity-against-covid-19-last-after-infection-or-vaccination-two-immunologists-explain-177309">How long does protective immunity against COVID-19 last after infection or vaccination? Two immunologists explain</a>
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<p>Hybrid immunity provides <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00801-5/fulltext#%20">97.4% protection</a> against severe disease or hospitalisation for six to 12 months after an infection and vaccination. </p>
<p>However, immunity acquired by booster vaccination alone seems to fade somewhat <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00124-y">faster</a>.</p>
<h2>Does it matter what vaccine you get?</h2>
<p>Currently, there are a few vaccines available in <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/covid-19/about-the-vaccines">Australia</a>. These include: Pfizer, Moderna, Novavax and AstraZeneca. </p>
<p>Pfizer and Moderna both have bivalent vaccines against the original strain and BA.1. These are available for use as a booster, with four million doses currently available and another ten million arriving this month.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/news/media-releases/tga-grants-provisional-determination-modernas-covid-19-bivalent-original-plus-omicron-ba4ba5-booster-dose-vaccine">Pfizer and Moderna</a> have had their <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/news/media-releases/tga-grants-provisional-approval-pfizers-covid-19-bivalent-comirnaty-originalomicron-ba4-5-covid-19-vaccine-booster-dose-vaccine#:%7E:text=On%20Friday%2020%20January%202023,aged%2012%20years%20and%20older.">BA.4/BA.5</a> version provisionally approved, however, they’re <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/covid-19/about-the-vaccines">not yet available</a> in Australia. </p>
<p>All available vaccines are anticipated to provide some benefit. However, Omicron-specific mRNA booster vaccines are <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp2215780#:%7E:text=For%20people%20who%20had%20received,ranged%20from%2043%20to%2056%25.">preferred</a>, as it seems to provide slightly <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2215471">better protection</a> against severe disease than boosters using the original formulation. </p>
<p>Whichever vaccine you get, a booster will help protect you against severe disease symptoms, hospitalisations and reduce your chances of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-022-00846-2">long COVID</a>. It will also help to protect <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp2215780">others</a> around, especially if they are older, immunocompromised or from a vulnerable population.</p>
<h2>When should I get it?</h2>
<p>The date of your last COVID vaccine is on your COVID <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/initiatives-and-programs/covid-19-vaccines/certificates">digital certificate</a> accessed via <a href="https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/express-plus-medicare-mobile-app">Medicare</a> or <a href="https://www.digitalhealth.gov.au/initiatives-and-programs/my-health-record/whats-inside/getting-proof-of-your-vaccinations-from-my-health-record">My Health Record</a>.</p>
<p>If you decide to get a booster, it takes approximately 14 days for immunity to kick in. Antibody levels begin to drop after <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/covid-19-vaccines/advice-for-providers/clinical-guidance/clinical-recommendations">three months</a>, before declining more steeply after four to six months.</p>
<p>While COVID is different to the seasonal flu, rates of COVID have previously <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/current-covid-patients-hospital?country=AUS">increased over winter</a>. There have even been reports of double infection, “<a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/blog/the-flu-versus-covid-19">flurona</a>”. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/committees-and-groups/australian-technical-advisory-group-on-immunisation-atagi">Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation</a> (ATAGI) particularly <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/news/atagi-2023-booster-advice">recommends</a> anyone at risk of severe illness from COVID – people aged 65 years and above, or younger adults who have underlying medical conditions, disability or complex health needs – should get a 2023 booster dose.</p>
<h2>How will I feel afterwards?</h2>
<p>Vaccine <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2021/07/covid-19-vaccination-fact-sheet-side-effects-of-covid-19-vaccines-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples.pdf">side effects are common</a>, such as pain and swelling at the injection site, fatigue, headache, joint or muscle pain and fever or chills. These subside within one to two days. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-covid-boosters-cause-more-or-fewer-side-effects-how-quickly-does-protection-wane-your-questions-answered-176695">Do COVID boosters cause more or fewer side effects? How quickly does protection wane? Your questions answered</a>
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<p>A <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-common-are-severe-side-effects-from-covid-vaccines-and-how-are-they-detected-196937">few rare adverse side effects</a> have been reported, such as <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/covid-19-vaccines/advice-for-providers/clinical-guidance/tts">thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome</a> (blood clotting disorder), <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2022/11/covid-19-vaccination-guidance-on-myocarditis-and-pericarditis-after-covid-19-vaccines.pdf">myocarditis</a> (inflammation of the heart muscle), anaphylaxis (allergic reaction), Guillain-Barré syndrome (immune system attacks nerves) and immune thrombocytopenia (low clotting disorder). </p>
<p>While these are <a href="https://www.ncirs.org.au/covid-19/covid-19-vaccines-frequently-asked-questions">rare events</a>, it is important to <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/covid-19-vaccines/advice-for-providers/clinical-guidance/adverse-events">know</a> about them. </p>
<p>You can book your COVID booster now through the <a href="https://covid-vaccine.healthdirect.gov.au/booking/">Vaccines Clinic Finder</a> or SMS “<a href="https://www.health.gov.au/initiatives-and-programs/easy-vaccine-access">Hey EVA</a>” (Easy Vaccine Access) to 0481 611 382, a simple callback service to book COVID vaccines.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sathana Dushyanthen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From February 20, adults who haven’t had a COVID infection or COVID vaccine dose in the past six months are eligible for a booster, irrespective of how many previous doses they’ve had. So why get one?Sathana Dushyanthen, Academic Specialist & Lecturer in Cancer Sciences & Digital Health| Superstar of STEM| Science Communicator, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1871322022-07-26T12:00:15Z2022-07-26T12:00:15ZHow the omicron subvariant BA.5 became a master of disguise – and what it means for the current COVID-19 surge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475502/original/file-20220721-9531-a1zj6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2400%2C1591&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The new BA.5 subvariant has caused a sharp rise in cases and hospitalizations throughout much of the United States.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sustained-jumps-in-cases-and-hospitalizations-fueled-by-the-news-photo/1241906325?adppopup=true">Irfan Khan/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The omicron subvariant known as BA.5 was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01911-2">first detected in South Africa</a> in February 2022 and spread rapidly throughout the world. As of the second week of July 2022, BA.5 constituted <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#variant-proportions">nearly 80% of COVID-19 variants in the United States</a>.</p>
<p>Soon after researchers in South Africa reported the <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/26-11-2021-classification-of-omicron-(b.1.1.529)-sars-cov-2-variant-of-concern">original version of the omicron variant (B.1.1.529)</a> on Nov. 24, 2021, many scientists – including me – speculated that if omicron’s numerous mutations made it either more transmissible or better at immune evasion than the preceding delta variant, <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-omicron-the-new-coronavirus-variant-of-concern-be-more-contagious-than-delta-a-virus-evolution-expert-explains-what-researchers-know-and-what-they-dont-169020">omicron could become the dominant variant around the world</a>. </p>
<p>The omicron variant did indeed become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-01105-9">dominant early in 2022</a>, and several sublineages, or subvariants, of omicron have since emerged: BA.1, BA.2, BA.4 and BA.5, among others. With the continued appearance of such highly transmissible variants, it is evident that SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is effectively using classic techniques that viruses use to escape the immune system. These escape strategies range from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26597">changing the shape of key proteins</a> recognized by your immune system’s protective antibodies to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17496-8">camouflaging its genetic material</a> to fool human cells into considering it a part of themselves instead of an invader to attack. </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://vbs.psu.edu/directory/svk11">virologist</a> who studies emerging viruses and viruses that jumped from animals to humans, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dqahf8oAAAAJ&hl=en">such as SARS-CoV-2</a>. My research group has been tracking the transmission and evolution of SARS-CoV-2, evaluating changes in how well the omicron subvariants evade the immune system and the severity of disease they cause after infection.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The BA.5 subvariant is better able to evade the body’s immune system than previous subvariants.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How is virus transmissibility in a population measured?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/r0-how-scientists-quantify-the-intensity-of-an-outbreak-like-coronavirus-and-predict-the-pandemics-spread-130777">basic reproduction number, R0</a> – pronounced “R-naught” – <a href="https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10071-23649">measures the transmissibility of a virus</a> in a yet-uninfected population.</p>
<p>Once a proportion of individuals in a population become immune due to prior infection or vaccination, epidemiologists use the term <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008409">effective reproduction number</a>, called Re or Rt, to measure the transmissibility of the virus. The Re of the omicron variant has been estimated to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taac037">2.5 times higher</a> than the delta variant. This increased transmissibility most likely helped omicron out-compete delta to become the dominant variant. </p>
<p>The larger question, then, is what is driving the evolution of omicron sublineages? The answer to that is a well-known process called <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/common-ancestry-and-continuing-evolution/a/evolution-of-viruses">natural selection</a>. Natural selection is an evolutionary process where traits that give a species a reproductive advantage continue to be passed down to the next generation, while traits that don’t are phased out through competition. As SARS-CoV-2 continues to circulate, natural selection will favor mutations that give the virus the greatest survival advantage.</p>
<h2>What makes omicron and its offshoots so stealthy at spreading?</h2>
<p>Several mechanisms contribute to the increased transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 variants. One is the ability to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00262-0">bind more strongly to the ACE2 receptor</a>, a protein in the body that primarily helps regulate blood pressure but can also help SARS-CoV-2 enter cells. The more recent omicron sublineages have mutations that make them better at escaping antibody protection while retaining their ability to effectively bind to ACE2 receptors. The BA.5 sublineage can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2206576">evade antibodies</a> from both vaccination and prior infection. </p>
<p>Omicron sublineages BA.4 and BA.5 share several mutations with earlier omicron sublineages, but also have three unique mutations: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04980-y">L452R, F486V</a> and reversion (or the lack of mutation) of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05053-w">R493Q</a>. L452R and F486V in the spike protein help BA.5 escape antibodies. In addition, the L452R mutation helps the virus <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2021.06.006">bind more effectively</a> to the membrane of its host cell, a crucial feature associated with COVID-19 disease severity.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The BA.5 subvariant is responsible for two-thirds of all current COVID-19 cases in the United States.</span></figcaption>
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<p>While the other mutation in BA.5, F486V, may help the sublineage escape from certain types of antibodies, it could decrease its ability to bind to ACE2. Strikingly, BA.5 appears to compensate for decreased ACE2 binding strength through another mutation, R493Q reversion, that is thought to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05053-w">restore its lost affinity for ACE2</a>. The ability to successfully escape immunity while maintaining its ability to bind to ACE2 may have potentially contributed to the rapid global spread of BA.5. </p>
<p>In addition to these immune-evading mutations, SARS-CoV-2 has been evolving to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04352-y">suppress its hosts’ - in this case, humans’ – innate immunity</a>. Innate immunity is the body’s first line of defense against invading pathogens, comprised of antiviral proteins that help fight viruses. SARS-CoV-2 has the ability to suppress the activation of some of these key antiviral proteins, meaning it’s able to effectively get past many of the body’s defenses. This explains the spread of infections among vaccinated or previously infected people.</p>
<p>Innate immunity exerts a strong selective pressure on SARS-CoV-2. Delta and omicron, the two most recent and highly successful SARS-CoV-2 variants, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04352-y">share several mutations</a> that could be key in helping the virus breach innate immunity. However, scientists do not yet fully understand what changes in BA.5 might allow it to do so. </p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>BA.5 will not be the end game. As the virus continues to circulate, this evolutionary trend will likely lead to the emergence of more transmissible variants that are capable of immune escape. </p>
<p>While it is difficult to predict what variants will arrive next, we researchers cannot rule out the possibility that some of these variants could lead to increased disease severity and higher hospitalization rates. As the virus continues to evolve, most people will <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/16/health/covid-reinfection.html">get COVID-19 multiple times</a> despite vaccination status. This could be confusing and frustrating for some, and may contribute to vaccine hesitancy. Therefore, it is essential to recognize that vaccines <a href="https://www.uptodate.com/contents/covid-19-vaccines">protect you from severe disease and death</a>, not necessarily from getting infected.</p>
<p>Research over the past two and a half years has helped scientists like me learn a lot about this new virus. However, many unanswered questions remain because the virus constantly evolves, and we are left trying to target a constantly moving goal post. While <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-01771-3">updating vaccines</a> to match circulating variants is an option, it may not be practical in the short term because the virus evolves too quickly. Vaccines that <a href="https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.70330">generate antibodies against a broad range of SARS-CoV-2 variants</a> and a cocktail of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00562-0">broad-ranging treatments</a>, including monoclonal antibodies and antiviral drugs, will be critical in the fight against COVID-19.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187132/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suresh V. Kuchipudi receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation and USDA-National Institute of food and Agriculture. </span></em></p>Face masks are still an effective way to help stop the spread of the BA.5 subvariant.Suresh V. Kuchipudi, Professor and Chair of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1771312022-02-23T01:18:25Z2022-02-23T01:18:25ZAir hygiene: how re-thinking air quality will help protect us from this and the next pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447423/original/file-20220220-2552-1kxe1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C73%2C3472%2C2066&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Annette Shaff</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our complacency about indoor air contributed to our vulnerability to COVID-19, and we’ll continue to be vulnerable to COVID and other emerging threats until we re-think how we share our air.</p>
<p>Humans are social; we need to be with each other. That’s what made us vulnerable. Our first defences against COVID-19 were social distancing and lockdowns – highly effective against the spread of the virus, but <a href="https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/covid-19-sees-record-12-2-percent-fall-in-new-zealands-economy">damaging to our economies</a> and punishing for our <a href="https://www.nzdoctor.co.nz/article/undoctored/significant-psychological-toll-covid-lockdown-people-histories-mental-illness">mental health</a>, social support networks, family relationships and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00027-4">child development</a>. </p>
<p>Now that Omicron is spreading and lockdowns are likely over, can we preserve the in-person experience without the risk? Science warns <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/qa-future-pandemics-are-inevitable-we-can-reduce-risk">more variants and pathogens</a> are surely coming, including those we have no vaccine for. Are masks enough? Can we do things better next time?</p>
<p>Can you recall those early, fearful days of the pandemic, not knowing when a vaccine would come, if ever? But all along there was a simple public health measure available for everyone: fresh air. </p>
<p>Right from the beginning I told people not to stay permanently indoors where we share our air, but to venture outside frequently (while maintaining distance) where the air is fresh. </p>
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<h2>Maintaining indoor air quality is not a new problem</h2>
<p>I’ve spent more than 20 years researching the way outdoor air rapidly dilutes and removes contaminants, and how we can bring this power indoors. Thousands of measurements show how the turbulence (random swirling) naturally present in moving air rapidly mixes any contaminants (like a virus in our breath) with fresh air, diluting them while also carrying them away. </p>
<p>Indoors, you can increase the dilution of your breath by ten times simply by opening some windows. Although we only rarely see this effect (vape, for instance), our senses of smell and touch can help confirm it’s true if we pay attention. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-covid-19-virus-can-spread-through-the-air-heres-what-itll-take-to-detect-the-airborne-particles-140149">The COVID-19 virus can spread through the air – here's what it'll take to detect the airborne particles</a>
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<p>Before COVID-19, poor indoor air quality consisted of a range of serious but seemingly disconnected problems. </p>
<p>Recognising the build-up of moulds and stale air in schools led to the development of <a href="https://www.education.govt.nz/school/property-and-transport/projects-and-design/design/design-standards/designing-quality-learning-spaces/">indoor air guidelines</a> for new classrooms. The release of by-product gases from <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/your-health/healthy-living/environmental-health/household-items-and-electronics/unflued-gas-heaters">indoor gas heaters</a> caused poisoning and serious illness. </p>
<p><a href="https://niwa.co.nz/atmosphere/research-projects/air-quality-issues-in-new-zealand-towns/arrowtown-2019-results">Smoke from woodburners on winter nights</a> and exhaust from road traffic penetrate into thousands of homes, contributing to stunted lung development in children, <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/our-air-2021/indicator-findings/#health-impacts-of-air-pollution">worsening of respiratory disease and early death</a>. </p>
<p>High levels of diesel fumes can accumulate in the <a href="https://ohsonline.com/articles/2020/01/15/yes-air-pollution-exists-inside-your-car-too.aspx">cabins of vehicles</a>. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/home/your-furnishings-could-be-causing-indoor-air-pollution/2017/12/18/626ad808-d91c-11e7-b1a8-62589434a581_story.html">Paints, solvents, furniture and building materials</a> fill many of our homes and workplaces with unsavoury chemicals. </p>
<p>Where we can, we should reduce these emissions at source. But by consciously ventilating the indoor spaces where we are most exposed, we can reduce all of these risks simultaneously. </p>
<h2>Towards air hygiene</h2>
<p>The fact COVID-19 is passed from person to person through shared air was <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/the-teeny-tiny-scientific-screwup-that-helped-covid-kill/">slow to be acknowledged</a> and translated into governmental advice. But it is now <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/system/files/documents/pages/csu_14_may_2021_aerosol_transmission.pdf">widely accepted</a>. </p>
<p>Omicron appears to be even more transmissible than previous variants. Consequently, agencies are increasingly talking about <a href="https://www.education.govt.nz/school/property-and-transport/health-and-safety-management/ventilation/">ventilation</a> as a crucial tool to be added to (and maybe outlast) distancing, masks and vaccines. </p>
<p>This is often taken to mean fitting expensive machinery to buildings, which is a major undertaking. The buildings posing the greater infection risk (homes, schools, places of worship, and healthcare settings) tend to be the ones without existing systems. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-in-schools-how-ventilation-can-help-to-combat-spread-of-virus-165434">COVID in schools – how ventilation can help to combat spread of virus</a>
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<p>Air conditioning already <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-cooling">consumes 10% of all global electricity</a> with the associated carbon emissions. High capital and running costs, as well as machine noise, can make some technologies impractical or unacceptable for many settings (think of schools), particularly where deprivation already renders a community more vulnerable to the virus. </p>
<p>But with enough effort, these challenges are solvable. The return on investment, through improved resilience to health risks, could be vast. </p>
<h2>A plan of action</h2>
<p>High rates of vaccination, compliance with lockdowns, masking and QR-code scanning, and the care we now take over distancing and physical contact, all suggest large-scale behavioural adaptations are possible. This matters because ventilation is not just about machines – it is also about developing new habits. </p>
<p>The more we are conscious of the air, the more purposeful we will be about protecting it. In a typical shared indoor space, 1–5% of the air you breathe has recently been exhaled by someone else. Imagine if every meal you ate included food previously chewed by someone else. </p>
<p>Air hygiene is a frame of mind. I’m reassured by the actions taken to ensure fresh breezes blow through open doors of cafes and shops across Auckland this summer, keeping them safe and open, often at zero extra cost. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A street cafe in Auckland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447908/original/file-20220222-25-1pg8bdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Fresh air helps to keep cafes safe and open.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Michele Ursi</span></span>
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<p>Teachers across New Zealand are increasingly using <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/pubhealthexpert/monitoring-co2-indoors-for-improving-ventilation-as-a-covid-19-control-tool/">carbon dioxide monitors</a> to identify exactly which classrooms will need additional measures as winter approaches.</p>
<p>Besides windows and machines, there are other immediately available options: more flexible use of indoor and outdoor spaces, reducing the number of people in a space or the duration of use, or regular air purges when rooms are vacated. </p>
<p>These behavioural solutions will need to be tuned to the setting, available infrastructure and culture. Finding the right, low-carbon, equitable solution for each space is an urgent challenge that lies before us. </p>
<p>We’ve taken clean and safe air for granted for too long. If we continue to do so we will get caught out again and again. We should be no more accepting of contaminated air than we are of contaminated water or food. </p>
<p>It will be as easy as knowing when to open a window and as hard as installing billions of dollars of complex machinery. The cost of failure will be having to live through more COVID-19-like experiences knowing we could have prepared ourselves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177131/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian David Longley works for NIWA Ltd and consults to the NZ Ministry of Education and Ministry for the Environment. He receives funding from the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. He is affiliated with the Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand and the (NZ) Indoor Air Quality Research Centre.</span></em></p>Imagine if every meal you ate included food previously chewed by someone else. That’s what’s happening to the air we breathe in shared indoor spaces.Ian David Longley, Principal Air Quality Scientist, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762502022-02-08T19:09:56Z2022-02-08T19:09:56ZReturn-to-school plans overlook chronic teacher shortages outside the big cities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444729/original/file-20220207-23-rdvvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C76%2C5706%2C3809&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As students across Australia return to onsite learning, the possibility of Omicron disrupting schools remains high. Commonwealth Chief Medical Officer Paul Kelly has warned <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/20/increased-covid-risk-a-trade-off-in-reopening-schools-australian-chief-medical-officer-says">transmission of the virus will increase</a> with schools reopening. This may lead to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-02/covid-cases-perth-schools-winterfod-harrisdale-corpus-christi/100797942">school closures</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/24/covid-outbreaks-among-students-unlikely-to-shut-nsw-schools-but-staff-shortages-could">staff shortages</a> across the country. </p>
<p>Education departments across Australia have developed plans to counter workforce disruptions. Schools can call on pools of <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/retired-teachers-urged-to-head-back-to-school-to-fill-covid-gaps-20220121-p59q6w.html">retired teachers</a> to help fill the gaps. The plans also include <a href="https://qed.qld.gov.au/covid-19/Documents/back-to-school-plan.pdf">adjusted timetables and collapsed classes</a> in response to staff shortages. </p>
<p>Although these measures may help to keep onsite learning going, they have been decided at a policymaker level through a metro-centric lens. The voices of rural and remote educators have largely been neglected. As a result, the plans fail to consider the existing challenges of staffing rural and remote schools.</p>
<p>The emphasis is on schools <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/coronavirus-update-national-cabinet-scott-morrison-close-contact-exemption-extended/ee459264-469a-4585-96a1-9e59243bf7ec">remaining open</a> across Australia this year. But it isn’t clear how the <a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/covid-19/resources/national-framework-managing-covid19">national framework</a> that guides the return-to-school plans of the states and territories will deal with the chronic teacher shortages outside the big cities. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/test-all-students-and-staff-twice-a-week-or-only-close-contacts-states-have-different-school-plans-heres-what-they-mean-175514">Test all students and staff twice a week, or only close contacts? States have different school plans – here's what they mean</a>
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<p>For schools in rural and remote Australia, the challenge of teacher shortages is already daunting. If increased COVID-19 transmission through school communities affects their staffing, this will have big impacts on teaching and learning. </p>
<p>A metro-centric response isn’t always going to work for rural and remote schools. </p>
<p>The nearest retired teacher might be 200km away. Rural schools with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257803727_How_do_school_resources_and_academic_performance_differ_across_Australia%27s_rural_regional_and_metropolitan_communities">limited resources</a> can only manipulate timetables so much. Collapsing classes may not always be a reasonable and safe option in rural and remote schools with limited space and capability to do so. </p>
<p>And, in contrast to metropolitan school principals, many <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261949187_Common_Challenges_Faced_By_Rural_Principals_A_Review_of_the_Literature">rural and remote principals</a> already have a teaching load on top of their leadership role. Any added workload can’t be shifted to them. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-radical-rethink-of-how-to-attract-more-teachers-to-rural-schools-83298">We need a radical rethink of how to attract more teachers to rural schools</a>
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<h2>Isolation magnifies staffing challenges</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/quality-schools-package/resources/school-quality-australia-exploring-drivers-student-outcomes-and-links-practice-and-schooling-quality">Research shows</a> the <a href="https://visible-learning.org/hattie-ranking-influences-effect-sizes-learning-achievement/">significant impact</a> teachers have on student learning outcomes. Continuing to deliver <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/practice/improve/Pages/hits.aspx">high-impact</a> teaching will be difficult if large numbers of teachers test positive for COVID-19. </p>
<p>The Australian Education Union believes recent <a href="https://www.pm.gov.au/media/national-cabinet-statement-63">changes to the isolation rules</a> for teachers will <a href="https://www.aeuvic.asn.au/coronavirus-advice-and-information-aeu-members">compromise the safety</a> of the entire school community. If transmission increases in schools, we can’t deny teachers – more than <a href="https://lmip.gov.au/default.aspx?LMIP/GainInsights/IndustryInformation/EducationandTraining">one in five</a> are in the more vulnerable age groups over 55 – the right to focus on their health. Especially when they are <a href="https://www.aitsl.edu.au/research/australian-teacher-workforce-data/atwdreports">overworked</a> and considering <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/jun/30/it-is-unsustainable-guardian-readers-on-the-crisis-of-australian-teacher-shortages">leaving the profession</a> in droves. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-and-schools-australia-is-about-to-feel-the-full-brunt-of-its-teacher-shortage-174885">COVID and schools: Australia is about to feel the full brunt of its teacher shortage</a>
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<p><a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/publications/researching-the-schoolhouse-rethinking-research-on-the-staffing-o">Personal</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300378940_Listening_to_Teachers_in_the_%27Bush%27">professional</a> isolation is an added challenge for teachers in rural and remote schools. This leads to even <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323964262_Educational_leadership_is_different_in_the_country_What_support_does_the_rural_school_principal_need">more staffing pressure</a> and <a href="https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/research-evidence/spotlight/attrition.pdf?sfvrsn=171aec3c_12">attrition</a> than in metropolitan schools. </p>
<p>What is needed is an approach that supports <em>all</em> schools in Australia to safely tackle COVID-related staff shortages. It must be done in a way that also ensures high-quality teaching and learning.</p>
<h2>City-rural gap threatens to widen</h2>
<p>The Australian government-commissioned <a href="https://icpa.com.au/sites/icpa.com.au/files/inline-files/irrre-final-report.pdf">Independent Review into Regional, Rural and Remote Education</a> (IRRRRE) highlighted the widening achievement gap between metropolitan students and rural and remote students in Australia. Rural and remote students score lower on <a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-dumb-tests-naplan-needs-to-value-regional-rural-and-remote-students-93356">NAPLAN</a> and <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pisa/key-findings-2018">PISA</a> tests, are <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia-data-portal/year-12-certification-rates#view1">less likely to finish secondary school</a> and are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2019.1685942">less likely to go on to higher education</a> than students in the major cities. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-solve-australias-rural-school-challenge-focus-on-research-and-communities-94979">How to solve Australia's 'rural school challenge': focus on research and communities</a>
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<p>The exodus of teachers from rural and remote schools restricts the ability of <a href="https://www.oecd.org/education/school/34990905.pdf">students</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2018.1556619">their communities</a> to succeed in a globalised and technological world. </p>
<p>Action is now needed to ensure the achievement gap doesn’t widen further.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cover of the 2018 Halsey Report" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1071&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1071&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444742/original/file-20220207-21-1fo30kw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1071&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Halsey Report: an Independent review into regional, rural and remote education.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://apo.org.au/node/141326">APO</a></span>
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<p>The <a href="https://icpa.com.au/sites/icpa.com.au/files/inline-files/irrre-final-report.pdf">IRRRRE report</a> calls for a national focus on improving teaching and learning in rural and remote schools. The goal is to ensure, regardless of location or circumstances, that <a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/alice-springs-mparntwe-education-declaration/resources/alice-springs-mparntwe-education-declaration">every young person in Australia</a> has access to high-quality schooling and employment opportunities. One recommendation is targeted support for recruiting <em>and</em> retaining high-quality teachers for rural and remote schools that are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-02/nt-schools-scramble-to-find-teachers-amid-national-shortage/100796796">struggling</a> to do this.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/educationstate/Pages/rural-and-regional-educational-reform.aspx">Victoria</a>, <a href="https://teach.qld.gov.au/teach-in-queensland-state-schools/pay-benefits-and-incentives/rural-and-remote-benefits">Queensland</a>, <a href="https://education.nsw.gov.au/teach-nsw/find-teaching-jobs/choose-rural">New South Wales</a>, <a href="https://www.education.sa.gov.au/working-us/careers-education/teaching-opportunities-country-south-australia">South Australia</a>, <a href="https://apps.det.wa.edu.au/aab/">Western Australia</a> and the <a href="https://www.teachintheterritory.nt.gov.au/teaching-territory/remote-incentives-and-benefits-calculator">Northern Territory</a> all provide funding and incentives to recruit and retain teachers in rural and remote schools. However, despite <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/publications/researching-the-schoolhouse-rethinking-research-on-the-staffing-o">20 years of research into staffing non-metropolitan schools</a>, Australia has not managed to achieve significant long-term improvements in this area.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-best-way-to-boost-the-economy-is-to-improve-the-lives-of-deprived-students-105522">The best way to boost the economy is to improve the lives of deprived students</a>
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<p>The first step towards achieving lasting change is for governments to include the voices of rural and remote school educators when deciding how best to keep their schools open this year. Ongoing dialogue and reflection can lead to innovative problem-solving that matches the context in which rural and remote schools operate. </p>
<p>Next, differentiated support needs to be offered to rural and remote schools as part of the nation’s return-to-school plans. Providing additional targeted assistance and resources to keep these schools open is more valuable than the one-size-fits-all metro-centric guidance provided to date.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176250/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Hudson receives funding from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship (Fee Offset)</span></em></p>The plans to keep schools open through the wave of Omicron infections fail to take into account the particular challenges of staffing rural and remote schools.Christopher Hudson, Sessional Instructor, Victoria University, and Doctor of Education candidate, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1764472022-02-07T19:09:26Z2022-02-07T19:09:26ZWhat’s the difference in protection against Omicron between 2 doses and 3 doses of vaccine?<p>Australian Health Minister Greg Hunt <a href="https://www.skynews.com.au/australia-news/coronavirus/health-minister-greg-hunt-expects-atagi-will-redefine-fully-vaccinated-to-include-three-covid19-jabs/news-story/a5750dae90a4b19c6335c6c3e31a92a9">said last week</a> he expects the Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation (ATAGI) to change the definition of “fully vaccinated” to three doses instead of two.</p>
<p>It comes as evidence emerges suggesting the highly infectious Omicron variant has the ability to escape the protection two vaccine doses offer.</p>
<p>So, how effective are two doses compared to three against Omicron?</p>
<p>Let’s break it down.</p>
<h2>Two doses don’t protect much against Omicron</h2>
<p>Vaccine protection against Omicron is reduced for two reasons.</p>
<p>First, antibodies generated by vaccination <a href="https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-02532-4/d41586-021-02532-4.pdf">gradually wane</a> over time. There are now many countries that are more than a year into their COVID vaccine rollout, so many people have received their second COVID jab over six months ago.</p>
<p>Without boosting, their antibody levels will have dropped significantly. Australia was a little slower off the mark – but now finds itself in a similar situation.</p>
<p>The second reason is Omicron can escape vaccine-induced immunity because of its constellation of mutations. Its spike protein (the bit that helps the virus access our cells) is significantly different to Delta’s, and to the original virus from which our vaccines are based. </p>
<p>The critical part of the spike protein is the “receptor binding domain”. It latches onto a protein on our cells called ACE-2 so the virus can gain entry. Delta had two mutations in the receptor binding domain, and Beta had three. Omicron has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00292-3">15 mutations</a> in its receptor binding domain. As a result, only some of the antibodies the vaccine induces will still bind to Omicron’s spike and inhibit it getting into your cells.</p>
<p>For these reasons, emerging evidence suggests two doses of a COVID vaccine provide just <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1050721/Vaccine-surveillance-report-week-4.pdf">0-10% protection against infection with Omicron</a> five to six months after the second jab.</p>
<p>So, you really cannot claim you are “fully vaccinated” with just two doses now, particularly if it’s been months since your second dose.</p>
<p>Some protection against severe disease and hospitalisation remains. UK data suggests two doses of AstraZeneca or Pfizer offer <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1050721/Vaccine-surveillance-report-week-4.pdf">around 35% protection against hospitalisation</a> by six months after the second dose.</p>
<h2>What about three doses?</h2>
<p>Having a booster dose bumps up your antibodies – which is particularly important for Omicron because only some of those antibodies are protective. Emerging evidence suggests protection from symptomatic Omicron infection is <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1050721/Vaccine-surveillance-report-week-4.pdf">restored to 60-75%</a> two to four weeks after a Pfizer or Moderna booster dose.</p>
<p>However, third-dose protection also wanes, down to <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1050721/Vaccine-surveillance-report-week-4.pdf">30-40% against Omicron infection</a> after 15 weeks. </p>
<p>So, unfortunately breakthrough infections will still be common. Fortunately, protection against hospitalisation remains much higher, up around 90% after a Pfizer booster dose and only <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1050721/Vaccine-surveillance-report-week-4.pdf">dropping to 75% after 10-14 weeks</a>, and 90-95% up to nine weeks after a Moderna booster. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/01/10/covid-vaccine-pfizer-ceo-says-omicron-vaccine-will-be-ready-in-march.html">Pfizer</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/moderna-ceo-says-data-omicron-specific-shot-likely-available-march-2022-01-17/">Moderna</a> are currently developing vaccines matched to Omicron, which if approved, should induce better immunity against this variant.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-an-omicron-specific-vaccine-help-control-covid-theres-one-key-problem-175137">Will an Omicron-specific vaccine help control COVID? There's one key problem</a>
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<h2>Will we need a new dose every three months?</h2>
<p>Israel is currently rolling out <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanres/article/PIIS2213-2600(22)00010-8/fulltext">fourth Pfizer doses</a> to some high-risk groups. </p>
<p>Some people will be concerned this trend means we’ll need a new dose every few months. But I don’t think that will be the case.</p>
<p>We can’t keep boosting people every few months chasing waning immunity. It’s likely after each round of boosting, faith in the vaccines will diminish. It’s worth remembering we have never tried to vaccinate against a respiratory coronavirus so we are still learning about how to best generate protective immunity. </p>
<p>There’s also the ethical question of rolling out multiple rounds of booster doses in wealthy countries when many people in some parts of the world haven’t received their first two doses yet.</p>
<p>While there are high levels of infection in countries with low rates of vaccination, all countries remain at risk of outbreaks, particularly if new viral variants emerge – which is sure to happen while there’s so much transmission globally. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/israel-is-rolling-out-fourth-doses-of-covid-vaccines-should-australia-do-the-same-176145">Israel is rolling out fourth doses of COVID vaccines. Should Australia do the same?</a>
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<p>But better vaccines are coming. Universal COVID vaccines <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmp2118468">are in development</a>, which target areas of the virus that don’t easily mutate, meaning they’ll likely be effective across different variants.</p>
<p>In the future, we may get a yearly COVID vaccine combined with the flu vaccine. Treatments will improve, too, so you can minimise symptoms at home. </p>
<p>These developments will reduce the impact the virus has on us, so eventually COVID will stabilise to a predictable level of transmission that doesn’t cause disruption – that is, it becomes endemic.</p>
<p>Your existing immunity will be boosted with naturally acquired infections every year or so that will almost always be asymptomatic or very low (cold-like) symptoms. </p>
<p>However, for those more vulnerable, such as the elderly and those who are immune compromised or have chronic diseases, vaccines are less effective and the virus will still be able to cause severe illness and death, similar to the flu. So we need to continue to progress research into new treatment approaches that will better protect these individuals. </p>
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<h2>A silver lining</h2>
<p>One silver lining from COVID has been intensified research efforts towards vaccines and treatments. </p>
<p>We’re seeing multiple new anti-viral drugs being approved which will reduce disease and death.</p>
<p>Some of these treatments are likely to be effective across different viruses, not just COVID.</p>
<p>And mRNA vaccine technology can churn out new vaccines in a matter of months, which was completely inconceivable two years ago.</p>
<p>All this means we’re better prepared against COVID, but also future respiratory virus outbreaks and pandemics, whether that’s a new coronavirus, influenza virus or any of the multitude of other respiratory viruses out there.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Bartlett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Emerging evidence suggests the highly infectious Omicron variant has the ability to escape the protection two vaccine doses offer.Nathan Bartlett, Associate Professor, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1761562022-02-07T04:15:46Z2022-02-07T04:15:46ZFresh research says Omicron lasts much longer on surfaces than other variants – but disinfecting still works<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444539/original/file-20220204-21-x3r4pg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=54%2C27%2C5966%2C2770&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-cleaning-home-wood-table-sanitizing-1703913877">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the many challenges over the course of the past two years has been in understanding the importance of the different routes of transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID. Understanding the role of the different infection pathways plays a vital role in prioritising what we should be doing to prevent disease.</p>
<p>The World Health Organization <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/coronavirus-disease-covid-19-how-is-it-transmitted">advises</a> COVID transmission mainly occurs during close personal contact and via aerosols in poorly ventilated or crowded spaces. But the WHO also acknowledges people can become infected by touching their eyes, nose or mouth after coming into contact with contaminated objects or surfaces. </p>
<p>Over time we’ve seen a reduced emphasis on preventing surface transmission and a greater focus on preventing person-to-person and aerosol transmission. This focus reflects how our understanding of transmission pathways has improved but it is <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/more/science-and-research/surface-transmission.html">still important</a> to understand as much as we can about surface transmission.</p>
<p>New <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.01.18.476607v1.full">Japanese research</a> – published online and not yet reviewed by expert peers – examines how long the SARS-CoV-2 virus survives on skin and plastic. It investigates differences in survivability between the original Wuhan strain of the virus and subsequent variants – Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Omicron. The study claims to be the first to include Omicron in such side-by-side comparisons.</p>
<p>The researchers report SARS-COV-2 variants are able to survive on skin and plastic more than twice as long as the original Wuhan strain. Of particular interest, the Omicron variant was found to survive on plastic for 193.5 hours and on skin for 21.1 hours. What’s inferred is that this longer survival on these surfaces contributes to Omicron’s increased infectivity, because there’s more likelihood of picking up viable virus from surfaces. But is that really likely?</p>
<p>The study has yielded interesting results, but has limitations that mean understanding the significance of these findings to the real world is difficult. </p>
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<h2>How much virus?</h2>
<p>The most important limitation of the study, and one that is shared with similar <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721043047">survivability studies</a> published earlier in the pandemic, is generalising survival times in the laboratory to survival times in the real world. The main reason for this is the lack of a clear rationale for the decision on the amount of virus added to the surfaces tested. </p>
<p>This is important because the ability to detect viable virus on a surface over time is <a href="https://theconversation.com/catching-covid-from-surfaces-is-very-unlikely-so-perhaps-we-can-ease-up-on-the-disinfecting-155359">hugely influenced by the amount of virus</a> seeded on the surface in the first place. Theoretically – and not to suggest the researchers in this study did this – you could contrive any survival time in the laboratory if you deposit enough virus at the outset. </p>
<p>How the amount of virus used in this study relates to how much virus might be deposited on a real world surface by an infected person is not clear from the <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.01.18.476607v1.full">preprint article</a>.</p>
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<span class="caption">In the preprint study, Omicron survived over 20 hours on skin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-caucasian-man-washes-his-hands-1715970652">Shutterstock</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-will-soon-be-endemic-this-doesnt-mean-its-harmless-or-we-give-up-just-that-its-part-of-life-175622">COVID will soon be endemic. This doesn't mean it's harmless or we give up, just that it's part of life</a>
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<h2>The laboratory versus the real world</h2>
<p>It’s also worth noting the study was completed under highly controlled laboratory conditions. It is reasonable to speculate real world conditions would be harsher and more changeable – in terms of temperature and humidity – which may reduce virus survival times considerably.</p>
<p>On the plus side, researchers used the same set of conditions when assessing all variants so comparisons of survival times are likely to be a good indicator of relative environmental stability. Therefore the increased survival time of the Omicron variant compared to other variants is likely to indicate mutations that make it more resilient. This could contribute to its increased infectiousness – but the extent of any increase in the amount of surface transmission, the relative contribution of surface transmission to Omicron infections, and what causes this enhanced environmental stability are key questions that were beyond the scope of the study.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/catching-covid-from-surfaces-is-very-unlikely-so-perhaps-we-can-ease-up-on-the-disinfecting-155359">Catching COVID from surfaces is very unlikely. So perhaps we can ease up on the disinfecting</a>
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<p>A secondary finding of the study suggests that in vitro (in other words, in test tubes or culture dishes) the Omicron variant was slightly more resistant to the disinfectant properties of ethanol than the Wuhan strain. But an evaluation on human skin in the laboratory demonstrated that a 15 second exposure to 35% alcohol was equally effective at inactivating the virus, regardless of the strain.</p>
<p>So the good news is that all of the variants seemed equally vulnerable to alcohol-based disinfectants when used on skin.</p>
<p>In terms of which findings from this study are of public health significance, confirmation of the effectiveness of disinfectants may be the most important. At times criticised as “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/07/scourge-hygiene-theater/614599/">hygiene theatre</a>”, disinfecting retains an important role in infection control practices.</p>
<p>Let’s be clear. These results don’t prove that we’re at increased risk of picking up the Omicron variant from surfaces. But what it does do is confirm that wiping down surfaces and hand sanitising with disinfectants are effective methods of killing any live virus that may be lurking there.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hassan Vally does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We can’t say whether longer Omicron survivability on surfaces relates to a greater risk of infection.Hassan Vally, Associate Professor, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1763562022-02-03T19:10:01Z2022-02-03T19:10:01ZIs it time to rethink vaccine mandates for dining, fitness and events? We asked 5 experts<p>The requirement to show proof of two doses of a COVID vaccine to do things such as eat out, go to the pub and visit sporting events is still in place across parts of the country including <a href="https://www.coronavirus.vic.gov.au/how-we-live">Victoria</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-12-17/qld-coronavirus-covid-vaccination-mandate-restrictions/100687298">Queensland</a> and <a href="https://www.watoday.com.au/national/western-australia/we-don-t-discriminate-perth-bar-closes-to-avoid-wa-s-covid-19-vaccination-mandate-20220131-p59spn.html">Western Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Part of the rationale for such mandates is to limit transmission of the virus, and therefore also protect vulnerable people who may be at risk of severe disease.</p>
<p>But the arrival of the Omicron variant has changed the COVID landscape in Australia. Emerging evidence suggests two doses of COVID vaccine provides <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/232698/omicron-largely-evades-immunity-from-past/">little protection against infection</a> against the highly-infectious Omicron variant – though they’re still effective against severe disease.</p>
<p>So we asked five experts, is it time to rethink vaccine mandates for dining, fitness and events?</p>
<p>Here’s what they said.</p>
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The arrival of the highly infectious Omicron variant has changed the COVID landscape in Australia. We asked 5 experts whether it’s time to rethink vaccine mandates for dining, fitness and events.Liam Petterson, Deputy Politics Editor, The Conversation AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762692022-02-03T11:38:02Z2022-02-03T11:38:02ZSouth African scientists on the inside story of discovering omicron – and what their experience offers the world about future variants. Podcast<p>What is it like to discover a new coronavirus variant? In this episode of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-conversation-weekly-98901">The Conversation Weekly podcast</a>, we hear the inside story from one of the South African scientists who first alerted the world to the omicron variant. And a South African vaccine expert explains what lessons the country’s experience can offer the rest of the world about future variants. We’re joined by Ozayr Patel, digital editor for The Conversation based in Johannesburg for this story.</p>
<p>Plus, new research finds a person’s emotional reaction to music has a lot to do with their cultural background – we speak to the musicologist behind it. </p>
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<p>It was nine o'clock on a Friday evening in late November 2021 when Jinal Bhiman and her colleagues at the National Institute for Communicable Diseases first saw the sequencing data for the omicron variant. “We hadn’t seen those many mutations before,” says Bhiman, a principal medical scientist at the institute. The sequencing data came from a small group of eight samples from South Africa’s Gauteng province where an unusual cluster of cases had been spotted. </p>
<p>Over the following week, scientists across South Africa’s network for genomics surveillance swung into action to sequence more samples, before Bhiman and her colleagues alerted the South African government to their discovery. “Things exploded from that week on,” says Bhiman. </p>
<p>The World Health Organization quickly classified the discovery as a variant of concern and <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/26-11-2021-classification-of-omicron-(b.1.1.529)-sars-cov-2-variant-of-concern">called it omicron</a>. As countries around the world began closing their borders to travellers from southern Africa, Bhiman and some of her colleagues received death threats. “That was really scary,” she remembers. Scientists were targeted because of the travel bans. “They felt that scientists shouldn’t be raising the alarm – that this is not benefiting us in any way,” she says. Bhiman believes that the travel bans were irrational, because of the speed at which the variant moved around the world. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-hunt-for-coronavirus-variants-how-the-new-one-was-found-and-what-we-know-so-far-172692">The hunt for coronavirus variants: how the new one was found and what we know so far</a>
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<p>Shabir Madhi, professor of vaccinology at the University of Witwatersrand, is a vaccine expert who’s worked on a couple of South Africa’s COVID-19 vaccine trials. He recalls that when he first saw the sequencing data on omicron, he was “fairly optimistic” that the immunity built up by vaccines and past waves of infections would protect against severe disease. And he was right. “We’ve seen a dramatic decoupling of infections, hospitalisations and death,” says Madhi.</p>
<p>But Madhi criticises the scepticism scientists in the northern hemisphere had about the early omicron data coming out of South Africa. “It’s a manifestation of cultural imperialism, where we will not believe anyone else unless we show the same first,” he says. He believes South Africa’s experience can offer lessons to scientists in other countries who may discover another coronavirus variant, particularly when it comes to travel bans. “I think the global community needs to make a stance that when countries start reporting data, they’re not going to be penalised for it,” he says. Madhi also thinks countries need to be careful about using “computer modelling about the potential effects of the mutations and extrapolating that this is what will happen from a clinical perspective”.</p>
<p>In our second story, we explore whether a person’s emotional response to music and harmony is innate or shaped by culture. George Athanasopoulos, COFUND/Marie Curie junior research fellow at Durham University in the UK, travelled to a remote region of northwestern Pakistan to spend time with the Kalash and Kho people who live there. His <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0244964">research</a> is revealing that music considered “happy” to western listeners, for example in a major key, isn’t necessarily perceived that way by others. “After hours and hours of experimenting with the two tribes in northwest Pakistan,” he explains. “We found that actually for them, it’s the minor chord which conveys happiness.” (Listen from 34m15s.)</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-culture-informs-the-emotions-you-feel-when-listening-to-music-171248">How your culture informs the emotions you feel when listening to music</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And Laura Hood, politics editor for The Conversation based in London, recommends some expert analysis on the political pressures facing the British prime minister, Boris Johnson, over parties held during the lockdowns. (Listen from 47m10s)</p>
<p>This episode of The Conversation Weekly was produced by Mend Mariwany and Gemma Ware, with sound design by Eloise Stevens. Our theme music is by Neeta Sarl. You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/?hl=en">theconversationdotcom</a> or <a href="mailto:podcast@theconversation.com">via email</a>. You can also sign up to The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter?utm_campaign=PodcastTCWeekly&utm_content=newsletter&utm_source=podcast">free daily email here</a>. </p>
<p>A transcript of this episode is <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-african-scientists-on-discovering-omicron-plus-how-culture-informs-peoples-emotional-reaction-to-music-the-conversation-weekly-podcast-transcript-176327">available here</a>. </p>
<p>Newsclips in this episode are from <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Km61NBmQM0w">CNBC Television</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4POmoKWnhxo">DW News</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RZAfCh_WgMs">WION</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DaYYDsur8YA">NBC News</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zGujpGHp7P0">SABC</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r22z_E-8168">News</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmQdD7s-6II">CBS News</a>. Vocal recordings in the musical harmony story from databases by <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1812.10411.pdf">Latif S et al</a> and <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.130.8506&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Burkhardt F et al</a>. Melodies harmonised in a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2vSJFXPOl8&t=5s">wholetone style</a>, and in the style of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aO7NgXq7_9s">a JS Bach chorale</a>, by George Athanasopoulos. Overture to Rossini’s The Barber of Seville, <a href="https://orangefreesounds.com/the-barber-of-seville/">Davis High School Symphony Orchestra</a>. </p>
<p><em>You can listen to The Conversation Weekly via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a>, or find out how else to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">listen here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jinal Bhiman receives funding from the South African National Department of Health as part of the emergency COVID-19 response; a cooperative agreement between the National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the African Society of Laboratory Medicine (ASLM) and Africa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through a sub-award from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office and Wellcome; the South African Medical Research Council and the South African Department of Science and Innovation; the UK Department of Health and Social Care, managed by the Fleming Fund and performed under the auspices of the SEQAFRICA project. She is affiliated with the University of the Witwatersrand; and serves as an observer of the World Health Organization Technical Advisory Group on Viral Evolution. Shabir A. Madhi's institution receives funding from SAMRC, BMGF, Novavax, Pfizer and JJ for research undertaken by the institution. He also receives advisory fees from BMGF. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>George Athanasopoulos is also affiliated with the Humboldt University of Berlin. The research field trip to Pakistan was funded by a scholarship in his name by COFUND/Marie Curie Foundation.</span></em></p>Plus, is the human emotional response to music innate or is it shaped by a person’s culture? Listen to The Conversation Weekly podcast.Gemma Ware, Editor and Co-Host, The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationDaniel Merino, Associate Science Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1758192022-02-01T17:58:39Z2022-02-01T17:58:39ZThe most challenging phase of the Omicron outbreak is yet to come, but New Zealand may be better prepared than other countries<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443602/original/file-20220201-26-1lpridi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C92%2C5073%2C3315&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Fiona Goodall/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Within a month of the first community exposure to Omicron in Aotearoa New Zealand, the variant has already become the <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/news-media/news-items/more-13000-boosters-given-yesterday-91-community-cases-10-hospital">dominant strain</a> of COVID-19.</p>
<p>We are yet to see the rapid and steep rise in new Omicron cases that has been predicted. This could be because of asymptomatic transmission, but it is equally likely because public health measures included in the first phase of the “<a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/460282/health-experts-warn-of-risks-in-phased-approach-to-tackle-omicron-outbreak">stamp it out strategy</a>” have been effective.</p>
<p>For now, managed isolation and quarantine (MIQ) at the border is successfully <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/127547536/covid19-border-restrictions-shouldnt-lift-until-omicron-wave-passes--experts">stopping hundreds of cases</a> from entering the community. While MIQ may <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/460616/cabinet-ministers-to-finalise-dates-for-reopening-borders">soon change in purpose</a>, border restrictions may not lift <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/127547536/covid19-border-restrictions-shouldnt-lift-until-omicron-wave-passes--experts">until the Omicron wave passes</a>.</p>
<p>The country-wide return to red settings under the <a href="https://covid19.govt.nz/traffic-lights/covid-19-protection-framework/">COVID-19 protection framework</a> has <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/127472694/theres-no-time-to-waste-if-were-to-keep-omicron-out-of-nz">bought New Zealand time</a> to learn from <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/460436/what-new-zealand-can-learn-from-omicron-outbreak-in-australia">experiences abroad</a>. The most challenging phase is yet to come but New Zealand could be <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/460436/what-new-zealand-can-learn-from-omicron-outbreak-in-australia">well placed</a> to tackle it. </p>
<p>The best way forward is to limit widespread transmission for as long as possible. This reduces opportunities for the virus to replicate, which is when <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982221008782">mutations occur</a>, potentially extending the pandemic. </p>
<h2>What we know about Omicron</h2>
<p>Omicron is <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/232698/omicron-largely-evades-immunity-from-past/">more transmissible</a> than earlier variants. New Zealand can expect a <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/explained/300496473/covid19-inside-an-omicron-wave--understanding-the-rise-and-fall">rapid and steep rise</a> in infections, especially as we’ve already had several potential <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/covid-19-omicron-outbreak-soundsplash-festival-in-waikato-likely-a-superspreader-event/JGDPFVFXLVDJON4YN7ZIPWWSEY/">superspreading events</a>. </p>
<p>As shown below, Omicron quickly <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/covid-19-omicron-outbreak-91-new-community-cases-revealed-variant-now-the-dominant-virus-strain-in-nz/C7LR75BNRW73D556LTKCF65SQM/">replaces</a> earlier variants. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graph showing the rise of Omicron (red) and its displacement of earlier COVID-19 variants in the UK." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443332/original/file-20220131-15248-pgi9bn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The graph shows the rise of Omicron (red) in the UK, displacing earlier COVID-19 variants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Our World in Data, GISAID</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Omicron’s transmission advantage <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---25-january-2022">is thought to be</a> due to its ability to evade immunity (acquired through infection or vaccination) and quickly infect the <a href="https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/2022-01-07-global-technical-brief-and-priority-action-on-omicron---corr2.pdf?sfvrsn=918b09d_20">upper respiratory tract</a>.</p>
<p>The risk of reinfection also appears higher than for Delta, particularly in the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/medicine/mrc-gida/2021-12-16-COVID19-%20Report-49.pdf">unvaccinated</a> and those with lower <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/coronaviruscovid19infectio%20nsurveycharacteristicsofpeopletestingpositiveforcovid19uk/latest#reinfections-with-covid-19-uk">viral</a> loads during previous infections.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-we-know-now-about-covid-immunity-after-infection-including-omicron-and-delta-variants-175653">What we know now about COVID immunity after infection – including Omicron and Delta variants</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Symptoms to watch out for</h2>
<p>Omicron symptoms <a href="https://joinzoe.com/learn/omicron-symptoms">include</a> a runny nose, headache, fatigue, sneezing and a <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.01.18.22269082v1.full-text">sore throat</a>.</p>
<p>However, New Zealand’s high vaccination rates mean some people may not have <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19-novel-coronavirus/covid-19-health-advice-public/about-covid-19/covid-19-about-omicron-variant">any symptoms at all</a>. The danger here is that they will still be able to pass on the virus to others, unaware they have Omicron. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1487949803825025027"}"></div></p>
<p>It is best to assume that any symptoms, especially a sore throat, are COVID-19 until proven otherwise through a test. For Omicron, this may require saliva swab tests as <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.12.22.21268246v1">recent evidence</a> suggests they are more sensitive than nasal swabs because the viral load peaks earlier in saliva than nasal mucus.</p>
<p>By <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19-novel-coronavirus/covid-19-health-advice-public/advice-people-covid-19">testing and isolating</a>, we can avoid spreading it to others who may be at <a href="https://covid19.govt.nz/prepare-and-stay-safe/about-covid-19/people-at-higher-risk-of-severe-illness-from-covid-19/">higher risk of severe illness</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_ATKrLHfoyU?wmode=transparent&start=61" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Compared to Delta, Omicron has caused lower hospitalisation and death rates in <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1045619/Technical-Briefing-31-Dec-2021-Omicron_severity_update.pdf">many countries</a>. This may be because it reproduces in the upper <a href="https://www.med.hku.hk/en/news/press/20211215-omicron-sars-cov-2-infection">respiratory tract</a> instead of the lungs. </p>
<p>Omicron is also meeting populations with immunity acquired through previous infection or vaccination. </p>
<p>In New Zealand, <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/news-media/news-items/more-13000-boosters-given-yesterday-91-community-cases-10-hospital">67% of eligible people</a> have now received their booster, which offers <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/boosters-provide-high-level-of-protection-against-death-with-omicron">high levels of protection</a> from hospitalisation and death. Boosted individuals are up to <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1050236/technical-briefing-34-14-january-2022.pdf">92% less likely</a> to be hospitalised with Omicron, compared with unvaccinated people. </p>
<p>Vaccination is especially important in New Zealand as we have had minimal <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/articles/coronaviruscovid19latestinsights/antibodies">prior exposure</a> to COVID-19 in the community. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="This graph shows the geographical and ethnic difference in the uptake of booster vaccinations." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443347/original/file-20220131-14047-14cs77z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This graph shows the geographical and ethnic difference in the uptake of booster vaccinations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where to from here</h2>
<p>Omicron is a “<a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/460112/covid-19-more-than-1m-booster-doses-given-experts-push-for-urgency-amid-omicron">double-edged sword</a>”. It is vastly more transmissible but less severe. However, it is not a <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/pubhealthexpert/preparing-for-omicron-a-proactive-government-response-is-urgently-needed-to-minimise-harms/">mild infection</a> and there is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/11/will-covid-19-become-less-dangerous-as-it-evolves">no guarantee</a> the next variant will be less severe. </p>
<p>In a poorly controlled outbreak, a small percentage of a large number of cases risks <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/300493592/covid19-omicron-will-overwhelm-an-already-overwhelmed-system-doctor-fears">overwhelming healthcare systems</a>, increasing <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/covid-19-omicron-outbreak-inequity-emerging-early-in-aucklands-5-11-year-old-vaccine-rollout/QCMSD6DKQZUWC7DMJFDSAQFT4M/">inequities</a> and disrupting <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/coronavirus/127577309/workers-split-up-to-keep-the-water-flowing-and-power-on-as-omicron-nears">essential services</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1481184126653054981"}"></div></p>
<p>Healthcare workers are already over-burdened and exhausted from previous outbreaks, which have <a href="https://www.hqsc.govt.nz/our-programmes/health-quality-evaluation/publications-and-resources/publication/4403/">distracted</a> from other services and exacerbated <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(19)30044-3/fulltext">entrenched inequities</a>. </p>
<p>There are several things each of us can do:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Anybody eligible should prioritise getting <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/news-media/media-releases/booster-rollout-accelerated-protect-against-covid-19-variants">boosted</a> </p></li>
<li><p>we should all continue using the COVID-19 tracer app</p></li>
<li><p>we should keep indoor spaces <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/pubhealthexpert/preparing-for-omicron-a-proactive-government-response-is-urgently-needed-to-minimise-harms/">well ventilated</a> by opening windows and doors</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/what-you-need-to-know/460348/covid-19-face-masks-what-you-need-to-know">mask wearing</a> remains important, especially where physical distancing is difficult.</p></li>
<li><p>and anybody who feels unwell, should get tested and isolate.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Vaccinating children</h2>
<p>As children return to school, we need <a href="https://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal-articles/the-urgent-need-for-an-equitable-covid-19-paediatric-vaccine-roll-out-to-avoid-harm-to-tamariki-maori">equitable vaccinations</a> and <a href="https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/auckland/news-and-opinion/2022/01/Russell%20et%20al%20%202022%20Schools%20and%20COVID-19%20Keeping%20schools%20open%20(002).pdf">ventilation</a>. </p>
<p>Data out of <a href="https://www.ncirs.org.au/covid-19-vaccine-well-tolerated-children-ausvaxsafety-data-show">Australia</a> indicate children aged five to 11 tolerated the vaccine well, with fewer side effects than adults. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, our analysis, along with <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/covid-19-omicron-outbreak-inequity-emerging-early-in-aucklands-5-11-year-old-vaccine-rollout/QCMSD6DKQZUWC7DMJFDSAQFT4M/">other evidence</a>, documents a concerning trend with lower childhood vaccination rates for Māori and Pasifika, as well as large variation between regions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="ALT" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443346/original/file-20220131-118117-1ejtbmq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This graph shows the geographical and ethnic difference in the uptake of childgood (five-11-year-olds) vaccinations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is concerning as some countries, including the <a href="https://gis.cdc.gov/grasp/covidnet/covid19_5.html">US</a>, have seen increases in childhood hospitalisation rates for COVID-19. In the UK, one in eight pupils have missed school as COVID-related <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/education-60126783">absences rise</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/despite-omicron-arriving-keeping-schools-open-as-safely-as-possible-should-be-the-goal-175512">Despite Omicron arriving, keeping schools open as safely as possible should be the goal</a>
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<h2>The success story of the Delta outbreak</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, there’s been little time to celebrate the rather remarkable demise of Delta. Even as Auckland opened up, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/explained/127471544/covid19-could-new-zealand-actually-eliminate-delta">hospitalisations and case numbers dropped</a>.</p>
<p>Summer will have helped as people spent more time outdoors. However, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/explained/127471544/covid19-could-new-zealand-actually-eliminate-delta">public health measures</a> such as border closures, managed isolation and quarantine and contact tracing have no doubt helped stamp out much of Delta, allowing a <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/300476579/how-to-decide-if-travelling-for-a-summer-holiday-is-the-right-thing-to-do">relatively normal</a> summer holiday period for many. </p>
<p>Continuing to keep Delta low also means we should not have to deal with a “<a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/460070/new-zealand-needs-to-keep-delta-levels-low-to-prevent-double-epidemic-with-omicron-epidemiologist">double epidemic</a>”. </p>
<p>This success may also fill us with some hope that, just perhaps, we might be able to avoid the worst of Omicron during this next phase of the <a href="https://www.health.govt.nz/system/files/documents/publications/influenza-pandemic-plan-framework-action-2nd-edn-aug17.pdf">pandemic response</a>, with <a href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/pubhealthexpert/preparing-for-omicron-a-proactive-government-response-is-urgently-needed-to-minimise-harms/">robust and continually refined</a> public health measures in place.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Matthew Hobbs receives funding from New Zealand Health Research Council, Cure Kids, A Better Start National Science Challenge and IStar. He was previously funded as a postdoctoral researcher by the New Zealand Ministry of Health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Anna Howe receives funding from the Health Research Council. While not the principal investigator she has been involved in research projects funded by GSK and was the first KPS Research Fellow. She is affiliated with the Immunisation Advisory Centre. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Lukas Marek has previously received funding from the Ministry of Health, New Zealand Health Research Council, Cure Kids and National Science Challenges.</span></em></p>New Zealand has managed to stamp out onward transmission of the Delta variant, which means it’s not dealing with a “double epidemic” and has a better chance to tackle Omicron’s spread.Matthew Hobbs, Senior Lecturer in Public Health and Co-Director of the GeoHealth Laboratory, University of CanterburyAnna Howe, Research fellow, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLukas Marek, Researcher and lecturer in Spatial Data Science, University of CanterburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1754972022-01-28T13:27:30Z2022-01-28T13:27:30ZOmicron makes booster shots more critical for medically vulnerable seniors<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442781/original/file-20220126-23-bjda9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=74%2C0%2C8256%2C5388&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">With a COVID-19 booster shot, vaccine effectiveness against hospitalization goes up to 90%. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-gets-a-booster-vaccine-royalty-free-image/1362422474?adppopup=true">FatCamera/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People are understandably worn out, tired of thinking about COVID-19 and wanting to get back to a true normal. </p>
<p>This so-called “<a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-we-can-deal-with-pandemic-fatigue/">pandemic fatigue</a>” is real. But it’s also <a href="https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/what-doctors-wish-patients-knew-about-pandemic-fatigue">contributing to lapses in COVID-19</a> precautions and to more people getting infected with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/alpha-then-delta-and-now-omicron-6-questions-answered-as-covid-19-cases-once-again-surge-across-the-globe-174703">omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2</a>. </p>
<p>It is become starkly clear that this pandemic is not behind us yet. Since late December 2021, COVID-19 infections have been surging, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/12/30/1069027394/omicron-causes-record-breaking-covid-cases-in-the-u-s-and-globally#">exceeding the rates seen</a> at any other point in the pandemic. The people who are becoming most sick – needing hospitalization or even dying from infection – <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/12/14/1064011230/as-unvaccinated-covid-19-patients-pack-colorado-hospitals-anger-grows">are the unvaccinated</a>. </p>
<p>But new data suggests that older adults who have received two shots of the COVID-19 vaccine but who have not yet received a booster shot are also getting sick and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7104e2.htm?s_cid=mm7104e2_w">having poor outcomes</a>. The omicron variant, which spreads very easily, is putting a spotlight on how critical it is for <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7104e3.htm?s_cid=mm7104e3_w">these seniors to get a booster shot</a> – especially older adults living in close quarters with others.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://uvahealth.com/findadoctor/profile/laurie-r-archbald-pannone">a geriatrician</a> at the University of Virginia, I see patients who are over 65 years old. Many of them have experienced someone close to them becoming ill or even dying from COVID-19 infection in the past two years. </p>
<p>Having witnessed this directly, most of my patients continue to practice safety measures to minimize risk of infection, like wearing masks, limiting their exposure to large crowds and practicing social distancing. They want to be able to safely visit with their families and friends. A booster shot has now become an important part of protecting them against infection and poor outcomes. </p>
<h2>The case for boosters</h2>
<p>In September 2021, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention <a href="https://theconversation.com/tense-decision-making-as-cdc-joins-fda-in-recommending-pfizer-booster-shot-for-65-and-up-people-at-high-risk-and-those-with-occupational-exposure-to-covid-19-168703">endorsed booster shots</a> for people 65 years old and up, as well as some other high-risk groups. But since that time, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02388-6">the need for booster shots</a> for all vaccine-eligible people has become more clear. </p>
<p>The CDC recently reported that vaccine effectiveness against hospitalizations from COVID-19 goes <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7104e3.htm?s_cid=mm7104e3_w">from 38% up to 90%</a> with a third booster dose. The CDC is now calling having received a booster shot as being <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/stay-up-to-date.html">“up to date”</a> on COVID-19 vaccination.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Big questions about the COVID-19 booster shot, answered.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>A need for renewed focus on boosters</h2>
<p>Some of my patients live independently and have full access to schedule an appointment for their booster and drive themselves to a pharmacy to receive it. Others are not as mobile. Some are homebound or live in a long-term care facility, assisted-living facility or memory care unit. In these cases, my patients can only get vaccinated if the vaccine comes to them. </p>
<p>In December 2020 and January 2021, when the first COVID-19 vaccines were becoming available, there was a massive push to get vulnerable elderly people living in long-term care vaccinated. They were considered “<a href="https://www.kff.org/other/state-indicator/state-covid-19-vaccine-priority-populations/">Phase 1 priority</a>.” Teams of public health officials and pharmacy staff came to vaccinate these residents as quickly as possible. And the efforts were successful. Nearly 90% of the people <a href="https://data.cms.gov/covid-19/covid-19-nursing-home-data">living in these types of congregate settings</a> received a COVID-19 vaccine.</p>
<p>But the recent numbers show that those herculean efforts may need to be replicated in order to <a href="https://acl.gov/covid19/covid-19-vaccine-access-long-term-care-settings">reach these community members</a> for booster shots. As of late January 2022, nearly 90% of people ages 65 and up have received two COVID-19 shots – but <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccinations_vacc-total-admin-rate-total">about a third of those</a>, or more than 15 million older adults, haven’t received their COVID-19 booster. </p>
<p>In many cases, booster shots will need to be taken to those who are unable to access them. The CDC’s website emphasizes the need for continuing to protect people who are “disproportionately affected by COVID-19,” particularly those living in long-term care, or LTC, settings. “All LTC settings that request assistance accessing COVID-19 vaccines for their residents and staff will receive the support they need.”</p>
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<p>If you or someone you care for is living in a care facility, you can <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/retail-pharmacy-program/pharmacies-contact.html">find out how to request</a> on-site vaccination or access to a pharmacy location. Local health departments, pharmacies and hospitals may have teams established to vaccinate facility residents and staff on-site. </p>
<p>If health care providers can get the vast majority of vulnerable people up to date on vaccinations, perhaps it can help turn a corner in the pandemic so that we don’t have to do it all over again in 2023.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175497/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Archbald-Pannone does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Studies suggest seniors without the booster shot run a higher risk of infection and hospitalization from the omicron variant.Laurie Archbald-Pannone, Associate Professor of Medicine and Geriatrics, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.