tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/panda-33078/articlesPanda – The Conversation2021-11-09T14:49:04Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1712702021-11-09T14:49:04Z2021-11-09T14:49:04ZWe discovered why giant pandas are black and white: here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430483/original/file-20211105-9897-18ahqx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/_9a-3NO5KJE"> Sid Balachandran / Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In contrast to the many flamboyant species of birds, most of the 5,000 species of mammals are drab browns or greys. But there are a small number of well known and intriguing exceptions, most notably zebras, skunks, and orcas. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most famous of all, however, is the giant panda. We already had a preliminary idea why they had their markings, but wanted to finally confirm the reason for its mysterious pattern.</p>
<p>Viewed up close in a zoo, the giant panda is a striking conspicuous mix of a white bear with black forelegs, shoulders and hind legs, and an extraordinary face with black fur around the eyes and ears. By comparing these different parts of the body with the coloration of other carnivores (pandas are officially classified as carnivores, contrary to popular belief) and also with bears, we already knew that carnivores with white backs are found in snowy environments, and those with dark legs and shoulders are found in shady habitats. This suggested that the fur was an adaptation to be camouflaged in different environments. </p>
<p>Nowadays, giant pandas are confined to isolated forests in western China, where there are relatively few predators. But we needed to confirm that the camouflage was effective against the giant pandas’ former predators – tigers, leopards, Asiatic black bears and dholes, a wild dog – from the days when they ranged right across China into Vietnam. </p>
<p>The breakthrough came when we linked up with colleagues in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yong-gang Nei and FuWen Wei. They work with giant pandas in the field and had rare photographs of wild giant pandas. Crucially, the photos of the bears in their natural habitat were taken at a distance from the camera.</p>
<p>We used state-of-the art image analysis techniques to demonstrate that the unique colourings do indeed work to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-00742-4">disguise the giant panda</a>. </p>
<p>By matching reflectance (the amount of light reflected) from the giant panda’s fur with natural objects in the background, we discovered that their black fur patches blend in with dark shades and with tree trunks, whereas their white patches match bright foliage and snow when present. Also, infrequent pale brown fur tones – muddy fur – match the colour of the ground. This provides an intermediate colour which bridges the gap between the very dark and very light visual elements in the natural habitat.</p>
<p>These results are consistent whether viewed by humans, feline or canine vision models. Domestic dog and cat visual systems are well known and are good surrogates for the visual systems of the giant panda’s natural predators such as tigers and wild dogs. </p>
<p>Next, we examined a second form of camouflage – something termed disruptive colouration – in which highly visible patches on an animal break up its outline by blending in with patches in the background. </p>
<p>We found that giant pandas show this form of defensive coloration, especially at longer viewing distances of at least 60 metres away. At these distances, the outline of the giant panda becomes difficult to recognise as the black fur patches blend into the background dark rocks and tree trunks. </p>
<p>Finally, we used a novel colour mapping technique to compare how well animals merge into their background across a variety of species, including the giant panda. This comparative analysis confirmed that the background resemblance of the giant panda fell solidly within the group of other species that are traditionally considered as very well camouflaged, right next to shore crabs and <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0094342">jerboas</a>, a desert rodent.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/red-pandas-may-be-two-different-species-this-raises-some-tough-questions-for-conservation-132547">Red pandas may be two different species - this raises some tough questions for conservation</a>
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<p>So although giant pandas in zoos or other captive settings are highly conspicuous to us, it is because we see them up close and surrounded by artificial backgrounds. But when in the wild and at a distance, our research shows that they are beautifully camouflaged, using two different mechanisms to avoid detection. </p>
<p>Giant pandas are a much loved species, and doing better now in the wild thanks to extraordinary <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/giant-panda-endangered-china-conservation-b1880979.html">conservation efforts</a> by the Chinese authorities. So the future of this species is cautiously optimistic. Hopefully more people will be able to see pandas in their natural habitat in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171270/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The scientists who discovered that a giant panda’s distinctive markings provide camouflage from predators tell us about their latest workTim Caro, Professor, School of Biological Sciences, University of BristolNick Scott-Samuel, Professor of Experimental Psychology, University of BristolOssi Nokelainen, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of JyväskyläLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1438492020-08-03T15:12:51Z2020-08-03T15:12:51ZGiant panda conservation is failing to revive the wider ecosystem – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350851/original/file-20200803-22-dfm95n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/panda-bear-sleeping-on-tree-branch-688280269">Clkraus/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a time when we crave good news, the giant panda is a beacon of environmental optimism. Since becoming an icon for the conservation movement in the 1980s, 67 panda reserves and countless wildlife corridors have been created in the bamboo forested mountain ranges of central China. <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/how_many_are_left_in_the_wild_population/">The most recent census</a> suggests all that effort has paid off. There are 1,864 pandas living in the wild today, up from 1,000 in the late 1970s. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1260-0">But in a new study</a>, researchers discovered that what’s good for the panda may not necessarily be good for the rest of the ecosystem. After studying images from camera traps over ten years, they found that large carnivores – the leopard, snow leopard, wolf and dhole (an Asian wild dog) – have retreated from where giant pandas have thrived. Their numbers appear to have fallen significantly in these panda reserves, and the researchers note that the wolf and dhole may be <a href="https://psmag.com/environment/what-happens-when-an-animal-is-declared-functionally-extinct">functionally extinct</a> within them, while the tiger has already been driven to extinction here. Panda conservation doesn’t appear to be benefiting other species, or the wider ecosystem.</p>
<p>These findings shake the foundations of one of conservation’s most enduring ideas – that investing time and money into protecting particular large, influential species can pay dividends for the other species and habitats they coexist with. In the aftermath of that revelation, what do we really know about how to protect ecosystems and save wildlife from extinction?</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four graphs showing where four large carnivores still exist in protected areas throughout the giant panda's range." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Protected areas (PAs) where the four large carnivore species still exist (black bars), and where they have died out (grey bars) throughout the giant panda’s range in China. Clockwise from top left: leopard, snow leopard, dhole and wolf.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1260-0">Li et. al (2020)/Nature Ecology & Evolution</a></span>
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<h2>How to think about ecosystems</h2>
<p>Single species conservation was the dominant idea during the latter half of the 20th century. Conservation groups and governments identified particular species in need of urgent help and used their images to raise public support to help save them from extinction.</p>
<p>The poster children of this approach were the <a href="https://wwf.gr/en/endangered-species/panda">giant panda</a> and the <a href="https://projecttiger.nic.in/content/107_1_Background.aspx">tiger</a>. Both of which have been success stories, for the target species at least.</p>
<p>But while lavishing these charismatic species with attention and resources, this approach tends to overlook less attractive species, such as worms, despite them <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/sep/23/panda-extinction-chris-packham">potentially having more ecological value</a>.</p>
<p>Today, conservationists place much greater emphasis on protecting ecosystems and entire landscapes. The logic being that you can more effectively maintain an area’s ecology if you treat it as a functional system.</p>
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<img alt="The right-hand profile of a tiger." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Tigers are one of the few large carnivores whose numbers are increasing in the wild.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.jasongilchrist.co.uk/index.html">Jason Gilchrist</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>A useful analogy is to compare an ecosystem with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/18/james-lovelock-the-biosphere-and-i-are-both-in-the-last-1-per-cent-of-our-lives">an organism</a>, such as the human body. Each is made up of many working systems, whose roles are maintained by species in the case of the former, and organs in the latter.</p>
<p>A respiratory system needs healthy lungs, but both depend on the rest of the body’s systems. The lungs need healthy arms and legs to find and collect nourishment. The digestive system needs to be able to process that food to unlock the nutrients for the rest of the body, while the circulatory system needs to transport them to the lungs so they can do their work to keep the organism alive.</p>
<p>Alternatively, replace our organism with an aeroplane. For the aeroplane to fly and land safely, all the components need to work. If an engineer only maintains one component, like the engine, and ignores the wings, wheels and navigation system, the flight is going to end badly.</p>
<p>The lesson from both analogies is that all components and the roles they perform are necessary for keeping the whole functional and healthy. An aeroplane may only tolerate the loss of so many rivets, before losing <a href="https://theconversation.com/canary-species-can-sing-songs-that-warn-of-ecosystem-collapse-64138">one that’s vital</a>, or losing enough to cause mechanical breakdown. Losing the function of one organ can cause multiple systems to fail within the body. </p>
<p>Focusing on a single species in conservation isn’t necessarily wrong, though. A focal species can act as a <a href="https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/flagship-species">flagship</a>, an ambassador that raises support (and money) for conservation of an entire area. Pandas are very good at this.</p>
<p>But there are also umbrella species. For example, beavers modify their habitats so extensively that they create numerous niches for other species to occupy. In that sense they’re like an umbrella, <a href="https://theconversation.com/beavers-are-set-to-recolonise-the-uk-heres-how-people-and-the-environment-could-benefit-132116">that if protected</a>, will provide shelter for other species.</p>
<p>So why did panda-targeted conservation fail to revive populations of large carnivores in central China? Well, a panda’s habitat requirements are small compared to a wolf’s or a leopard’s, and the threats facing them in the wild are very different. Pandas are also famous for their specialised diet – a carnivore turned herbivore – and so their needs differ greatly from your average large predator. Put simply, a habitat catered to sedate, bamboo-munching pandas isn’t likely to help a nomadic, meat-loving leopard.</p>
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<img alt="A dhole, or Asian wild dog, tearing at a deer carcass by a river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Carnivores like the dhole have very different habitat needs to pandas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhole#/media/File:Dhole_feeding_Khao_Yai_NP.jpg">Tontan Travel/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-conserving-natures-umbrella-species-could-benefit-whole-habitats-119122">How conserving nature's 'umbrella' species could benefit whole habitats</a>
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<h2>Conserving large carnivores</h2>
<p>Large carnivores don’t have it easy worldwide. They need large areas of suitable habitat and lots of prey. In most areas they once occupied, humans have destroyed habitat, removed native prey species and killed large carnivores by gun, trap or poison, either because they hunt livestock or because they are seen as a danger.</p>
<p>The tiger is one of the few large carnivores whose populations have increased in recent years. India has seen its tiger population grow by a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/29/india-wild-tiger-population-rises-conservation">third since 2014</a>. Considering the challenges of coexisting with these large predators – animals that occasionally kill humans – this success is impressive.</p>
<p>India’s approach to tiger conservation prizes tolerance, education and working closely with the communities that live alongside this species above all else. Part of that education is recognising the tiger as just one part of the ecosystem, all of which needs protection.</p>
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<img alt="A cartoon depicting squirrels sheltering from rain under a tiger, with one saying 'No, why would he mind? He's the umbrella species.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.greenhumour.com/">Rohan Chakravarty</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>What the panda study tells us is that we cannot assume a flagship species will also be an umbrella species. While individual species are important, some are more important than others for maintaining a healthy ecosystem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143849/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Gilchrist does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pandas have done more to raise awareness of biodiversity loss than any other species. But they may not be good at stopping it themselves.Jason Gilchrist, Ecologist, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/683952016-11-10T08:19:22Z2016-11-10T08:19:22ZCaptive panda cubs are drinking the wrong milk – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145246/original/image-20161109-19051-4qpii6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'No more milkshake for me.'</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-249906574/stock-photo-panda-triplets-half-birthday-the-triplets-which-reached-6-month-old-on-feb-1-were-the-fourth-set-of-giant-panda-triplets-born-with-the-help-of-artificial-insemination-procedures-in-chi.html?src=cp80o4WH7mhLDuFmY_7vTw-1-95">Plavevsky</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Forty years after giant panda numbers <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/how_many_are_left_in_the_wild_population/">reached</a> an all-time low, specialists around the world are still trying to develop a self-sustaining population in captivity that can be released into the wild to secure the animal’s future. </p>
<p>This has been <a href="http://www.cbsg.org/sites/cbsg.org/files/Traylor-Holzer_Ballou_2016.pdf">hampered</a> over the years by institutions failing to work together and follow the breeding recommendations of genetic scientists. In China in particular, the home of giant pandas, breeders have prioritised cub numbers over quality. The problem is that the competing ministries responsible for panda populations are paid for each cub they produce. </p>
<p>There have long <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521832953">been concerns</a> that breeding pandas in the wrong way produces cubs in captivity with health and behavioural problems. These problems exacerbate the difficulties of giant panda reproduction and make them less capable of coping in the wild. </p>
<p>We have <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep36141">just published</a> new research into panda milk that adds to the growing evidence of how human interference can be bad for these animals. It relates to the fact that in China it is standard practice in breeding centres to intensively supplement – or even entirely replace – the mother’s milk with an artificial substitute. In Chinese husbandry culture, the belief is that this is the best way of ensuring the cubs have the best chance of survival and grow as quickly as possible. </p>
<p>Practices vary in other countries, often depending on the nature of the panda loan agreement they have with the Chinese authorities. In many cases, they are required to have a Chinese zookeeper overseeing the pandas at all times, in which case they will follow Chinese practice. (One example of a zoo that doesn’t interfere with panda milk is <a href="https://www.zoovienna.at/en/zoo-and-visitors/visitor-information/">Vienna</a>). </p>
<h2>The colostrum conundrum</h2>
<p>Milk is particularly important for giant pandas because of the extreme immaturity of a newborn panda cub. All bears are born more developmentally immature than any other mammal apart from marsupials, and of the seven bear species, giant pandas are born most immature of all. </p>
<p>Newborn pandas weigh only 100-150g, about 1/1,000th the weight of their mothers. They have no functioning immune system, cannot see or hear, and cannot regulate their own body temperature. They are naked and completely dependent on the mother for every aspect of survival and development. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145247/original/image-20161109-19097-1ktv5ey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Panda junior.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-211947010/stock-photo-guangzhou-china-august-12-2014a-newborn-giant-panda-cub-one-of-the-triplets-which-were-born-to-giant-panda-juxiao-not-pictured-is-seen-inside-an-incubator-at-the-chimelong-safari.html?src=cp80o4WH7mhLDuFmY_7vTw-1-92">Plavevsky</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As readers with children will be well aware, mothers produce a special milk in the first few days after giving birth which is unique in its composition of specific nutrients. Known as colostrum, this first milk contains specific types and concentrations of substances essential for the newborn’s immune system, as well as proteins, lipids and other molecules that are vital for development. </p>
<p><a href="http://jmammal.oxfordjournals.org/content/90/2/332">In species</a> that are born fairly mature, such as calves and foals, the colostrum phase of milk lasts only a few hours. In our <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep36141">new paper</a>, which is the third in a <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/2/10/150395">series</a> of <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0143417">papers</a> about giant panda milks, we hypothesised that the transition from colostrum to mature milk would be unusually long in bears in order to meet the requirements of a developmentally immature newborn. Sure enough, when we analysed milk samples from six giant pandas, the colostrum phase turned out to last 30 to 40 days. </p>
<p>We also found that the composition of the milk varied greatly over the period, with some ingredients starting off in large proportions and falling away while others started low and rose dramatically. Some of the most noticeable changes related to small molecules that are building blocks for the eye, brain and nervous system. </p>
<p>Other fluctuating ingredients are integral to cubs’ biosynthetic pathways, cell membranes, antibacterial defences and establishing microorganisms in their digestive system. These microorganisms <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26143242">may be</a> particularly important to giant pandas as they progress from a milk-based to a predominately vegetarian diet within the first year of life: giant pandas may depend on a unique gut microbiome to be able to digest the large quantities of bamboo that form the foundation of their diet.</p>
<p>We also analysed the artificial milk formulae that breeders commonly use to supplement giant panda cubs. We found that key compounds were at extremely inappropriate levels – some too low, others too high. They also stayed at these levels, not changing like the mother’s colostrum to meet the needs of the developing infant. </p>
<p>For example, we discovered that the artificial milk had a gross excess of lactose, which is abundant in cow and other milks but disappears from panda colostrum after the first day or two. This lactose <a href="http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9780470384787_sample_382126.pdf">causes</a> panda cubs severe stomach problems and disrupts the fragile balance of microorganisms in their gut, which can hamper their digestive processes for the rest of their lives. </p>
<p>At the same time, we found major deficiencies in other key compounds in the artificial milk that may be compromising the development of the cubs’ brains, eyes and other organs – a grave risk considering the ultimate intention is to release captive-bred individuals into the wild. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145248/original/image-20161109-19074-beqfh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">‘Who you calling idle?’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-137297054/stock-photo-panda-bear.html?src=cp80o4WH7mhLDuFmY_7vTw-1-18">Lee Yiu Tung</a></span>
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<h2>The wider problem</h2>
<p>In the wild, panda mothers invest extraordinary time and skill rearing their infants to be sufficiently adaptive and resilient to survive. We still have a great deal to understand about this process, and our research reveals what is probably one of a number of ways in which panda cubs suffer when breeders prevent panda mothers from raising their cubs undisturbed. </p>
<p>It is probably equally unhelpful, for example, that panda families are interfered with hourly and live in barren enclosures where mothers have no privacy or control over their environment. At three to five months of age, cubs bred in captivity are permanently removed from their mothers to maximise the chances of the mothers reproducing every year. This is very different from the wild, <a href="https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Last-Panda-Schaller-George-B-University/16569203262/bd">where</a> cubs stay with their mothers for at least two and a half years and females reproduce only every four to five years. </p>
<p>If we wish to build a captive panda population of bear cubs that are physically, cognitively and behaviourally healthy, breeders need to leave mothers to their work. Our research emphasises the evolutionary wisdom that no one else is better suited to that job.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68395/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Malcolm Kennedy has received funding over the years from The Wellcome Trust, the Medical Research Council (UK), The Royal Society, The Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the International Science and Technology Cooperation Program of China, and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research (UK). The project in this paper was funded only by the universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kati Loeffler does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows why the milk of panda mothers is far better than formula.Malcolm Kennedy, Professor of Natural History, University of GlasgowKati Loeffler, Adjunct Professor of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.