tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/pedestrian-safety-31382/articles
Pedestrian safety – The Conversation
2023-07-26T14:56:09Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/209383
2023-07-26T14:56:09Z
2023-07-26T14:56:09Z
Pedestrians in Ghana are risking their lives – we studied what’s distracting them while walking
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537613/original/file-20230716-117608-g3zaz0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Walking is a popular mode of transportation in Ghana</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons/Linda Fletcher Dabo</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Walking has health and environmental benefits – but it’s not always a person’s choice for getting around. And it does come with hazards. <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/02-05-2013-more-than-270-000-pedestrians-killed-on-roads-each-year">One fifth</a> of the people killed on the roads globally are pedestrians. </p>
<p>In Ghana, like other developing countries, walking is the main mode of travel. A 2012 survey found that <a href="https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/publications/Second%20National%20Household%20Transport%20Survey%20Report%202012.pdf#page=iv">64.4%</a> of the workforce went to work on foot. </p>
<p>Ghana’s <a href="https://www.ghana.gov.gh/mdas/3c5160e416/">National Road Safety Authority</a> <a href="https://myjoyonline.com/road-accidents-claimed-2924-lives-in-2021/">reported</a> 2,930 pedestrians were knocked down in 2021 and 831 died. </p>
<p>Pedestrians are vulnerable for several reasons. The design of road infrastructure is one. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259715300_Urban_Infrastructure_Design_and_Pedestrian_Safety_in_the_Kumasi_Central_Business_District_Ghana">Research</a> has shown that the absence of sidewalks forces pedestrians into the road, exposing them to motorised transport that heightens the risk of traffic crashes and injuries. </p>
<p>Risky in-traffic pedestrian walking behaviour is also a factor. Consuming alcohol, chatting with others, and using a mobile phone all heighten the risk of injuries. </p>
<p>As transport geographers we set out to discover what distracts pedestrians in Accra’s main business district. Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21650020.2023.2220574">study</a> discovered that the use of mobile devices, poorly designed infrastructure and advanced age all played a role. We suggest the city needs pedestrian friendly infrastructure and local laws to regulate walking behaviour.</p>
<h2>Digital devices distract pedestrians</h2>
<p>We chose to study the central business district of the capital, Accra, since it <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21650020.2023.2220574">accounts</a> for 57.6% of pedestrian accidents within the <a href="https://www.ama.gov.gh/">Accra Metropolitan Assembly</a>. It also records high foot traffic, being a major economic hub in Ghana. </p>
<p>The study engaged 400 commuters. We asked respondents to rank various activities they commonly engaged in while walking. A five-point scale indicated the extent of their engagement in these activities. </p>
<p>The respondents’ top four distracting activities involved using digital devices like mobile phones. Listening to music on a mobile phone emerged as the major distraction: 79% of respondents ranked it as their most common distractive activity. Making or receiving phone calls and conversing with other people while walking (2nd and 3rd) followed. Browsing the internet on mobile phones ranked 4th, and was widespread among those aged 9-24 and 27-42. </p>
<h2>Who is distracted?</h2>
<p>The study also indicated that sex, age, level of education, occupation, reasons for walking and weekly time spent walking were significant predictors of distractions. </p>
<p>Male pedestrians were more than twice as likely to engage in distractive activities. This is consistent with the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ssqu.13079">expectations</a> of some behaviour experts. </p>
<p>On age, the data revealed a significant association between commuters aged 49-59 and distracted walking. A growing body of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/131608">literature</a> has identified older people as engaging in distracted walking since they are less likely to estimate their walking environment accurately. Even looking at signage or objects of interest, buying items, or conversing with other pedestrians may increase their risk of injury. </p>
<p>Respondents with senior high school education (nine years of basic education) were also more prone to distraction. Evidence shows that <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1243880.pdf*page=1">most</a> Ghanaians end their education at this level. Working in the informal economy as hawkers or in other businesses encroaching on sidewalks, people are likely to compete with pedestrians for space or run after moving cars to sell their wares. </p>
<p>Relative to respondents who walked only for short trips, respondents who walked as part of their job recorded a far higher likelihood of engaging in distractive behaviour. Most of their day is spent walking, engaged in activities like sales or marketing, providing a courier service, or hawking. </p>
<p>Finally, time allocated to walking made a difference to behaviour. Whether weekly or daily, respondents who dedicated more time to walking in the CBD were more likely to walk in a distracted way.</p>
<h2>Safety plans</h2>
<p>Accra already has a <a href="https://www.ama.gov.gh/documents/Pedestrian-Safety-Action-Plan-FOR-PRINT-INDIVIDUAL-PAGES.PDF.pdf">pedestrian safety action plan</a>, but it focuses on the built environment rather than on behaviour. This study suggested the plan should include a policy statement on pedestrian walking behaviour.</p>
<p>The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (the administrative authority) can enact laws restricting pedestrians from listening to music with headphones, making phone calls while crossing roads or engaging in unwarranted conversations. </p>
<p>Additionally, the National Road Safety Authority and Ghana Police Service should collaborate on educational outreach programmes on all media platforms. They should focus on the dangers and causes of distractive walking. </p>
<p>Interventions like these offer the chance to reduce pedestrian injuries in Accra.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209383/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The city of Accra has no plan to tackle pedestrians’ behaviour.
Prince Kwame Odame, Lecturer, Geography Education, University of Education, Winneba
Enoch F Sam, Head of Department , Department of Geography Education, University of Education, Winneba
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205575
2023-06-02T00:37:52Z
2023-06-02T00:37:52Z
Drivers and pedestrians are unsure who gives way at stop signs. A simple rule change can end this dangerous confusion
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527143/original/file-20230519-27-vbg0i1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4457%2C2967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When a driver and a pedestrian approach a T-intersection, who has to give way? </p>
<p>In <a href="https://protect-au.mimecast.com/s/SAJZCYWLOxh3N7NG7I9caLE?domain=authors.elsevier.com">newly published research</a> we tested over 1,000 road users’ knowledge of the Australian road rules. We presented them with the two scenarios shown below.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=164&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=164&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=164&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=206&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=206&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526027/original/file-20230514-80599-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=206&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When asked who should give way in these scenarios, many road users answered incorrectly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369847823000980">Browne & Flower 2023</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When asked who should give way, the green car or the pedestrian, in the first and second scenarios, 37% and 39% of road users respectively answered incorrectly. </p>
<p>So what do the <a href="https://www.ntc.gov.au/laws-and-regulations/australian-road-rules">Australian Road Rules</a> say? The answer may surprise you. The rules (specifically <a href="http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_reg/rsrr2017208/s353.html">rule 353</a>) state: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>(1) If a driver is turning from a road at an intersection –</p>
<p>(a) the driver is required to give way to a pedestrian who is crossing the road that the driver is entering […] and </p>
<p>(b) the driver is not required to give way to a pedestrian who is crossing the road the driver is leaving.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>An obvious source of people’s confusion is the inconsistency between parts (a) and (b) of rule 353. In effect, it gives pedestrians “right of way across only half an intersection”. </p>
<p>Part (b) is also quite counter-intuitive. After all, most people would expect that a stop or give way sign would mean drivers have to stop for pedestrians as well as cars.</p>
<p>Changing the rules to require drivers to give way to pedestrians who are crossing the road the driver is leaving would create a “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136984781830809X">generalised and unambiguous duty to give way on turning”</a>“. This change has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-road-rules-should-be-rewritten-to-put-walking-first-127789">proposed before</a>. But more recent developments have added to the case for such a rule change. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Approach to a stop sign in a suburban street" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527144/original/file-20230519-29-24y32n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A driver approaching this stop sign isn’t required to give way to pedestrians, but a driver turning into the same street must give way.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-road-rules-should-be-rewritten-to-put-walking-first-127789">Why Australian road rules should be rewritten to put walking first</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The UK’s new rule H2</h2>
<p>The UK recently made the same change to its road rules. In late 2021, the UK Highway Code introduced <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/the-highway-code/introduction">rule H2</a> which, at a junction, requires drivers to give way to pedestrians crossing or waiting to cross a road into which <em>or from which</em> the driver is turning. </p>
<p>The change eliminated inconsistencies and the counter-intuitiveness about who has to give way. </p>
<p>Giving pedestrians an unambiguous right of way also encourages walking. Examples of apparently minor "urban acupuncture” like this can have long-term benefits for liveability and for public health and wellbeing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cars-have-taken-over-our-neighbourhoods-kid-friendly-superblocks-are-a-way-for-residents-to-reclaim-their-streets-187276">Cars have taken over our neighbourhoods. Kid-friendly superblocks are a way for residents to reclaim their streets</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Zebra crossings have unintended consequences</h2>
<p>The second recent development is that local councils around Melbourne have been installing zebra crossings at prioritised locations – but not all locations – within activity centres and on routes designated as part of the so-called <a href="https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/network_planning/">Principal Pedestrian Network</a>. The purpose has been to encourage and enable walking for transport, particularly since 2020 when COVID-19 lockdowns meant people were seeking more opportunities to exercise in their local area. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Zebra crossing at a T-intersection in a residential neighbourhood" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526023/original/file-20230514-98978-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A zebra crossing improves safety where it has been installed, but can lead to confusion at intersections without such crossings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Geoffrey Browne</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Zebra crossings at T-intersections like the one pictured above are certainly well intentioned, and they over-ride rule 353(1)(b) to create pedestrian priority where it wouldn’t otherwise exist. The <a href="https://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/output/10592536">evidence</a> suggests such zebras crossings do improve safety <em>at the intersections where they are installed</em>. </p>
<p>At the same time, however, there is a very real risk that, without a rule change, the crossings unintentionally undermine walkability more widely. This is because when they are installed at some but not all intersections, they can lead people to believe that at sites where they are <em>not</em> installed, drivers do not have to give way to a pedestrian who is crossing the street into which the driver is turning. </p>
<p><a href="https://protect-au.mimecast.com/s/SAJZCYWLOxh3N7NG7I9caLE?domain=authors.elsevier.com">Our research</a>, which was the first to examine this issue, found the risk of this unintended consequence is very real. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-all-have-to-walk-across-roads-why-arent-pedestrians-a-focus-of-road-safety-161183">We all have to walk across roads — why aren't pedestrians a focus of road safety?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A rule change is the best answer</h2>
<p>We also interviewed traffic engineers, local government planners and walking experts. A clear majority agreed a rule change that requires drivers to give way to pedestrians at a stop or give way sign would improve road safety and promote walking. </p>
<p>It would taking some getting used to, but road rules have been changed before. </p>
<p>In 1993 the road rules in Victoria were changed for vehicles turning left at intersections to have the right of way before vehicles turning right. Previously, and somewhat counter-intuitively, it was the other way around. </p>
<p>From April 2021, motorists across Australia were required to give cyclists clearance of at least one metre when overtaking. </p>
<p>Both of these rule changes were accompanied by public awareness campaigns to ensure the community knew about them. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1385381499944329216"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/minimum-space-for-passing-cyclists-is-now-law-australia-wide-it-increases-safety-but-possibly-road-rage-too-159926">Minimum space for passing cyclists is now law Australia-wide. It increases safety – but possibly road rage too</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Encouraging walking has broader public benefits</h2>
<p>Requiring drivers approaching and turning at a T-intersection from any direction to give way to pedestrians would be an important simplification of the road rules. And the more the rules are biased toward the convenience of walkers, the more walkers there will be. </p>
<p>Importantly, changes like this can send subtle but powerful social signals that society values walking for transport because it reduces pollution and encourages incidental exercise. Such changes can play a small part in shifting communities from being car-dominated to enabling everyone, but particularly children, older people and people with disabilities, to feel safe to walk more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205575/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoffrey Browne receives funding from the Australian Research Council (DP200101378) and is affiliated with the Public Health Association of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Flower receives research funding from the Department for Transport (UK), the National Institute for Health and Care Research (UK) and Innovate UK. He has previously received funding from the Road Safety Trust and Sustrans. He is affiliated with the Transport Planning Society as a Board Member.</span></em></p>
Some councils have installed zebra crossings at selected T-intersections, where they do improve safety. The problem is they also add to the existing confusion at other intersections.
Geoffrey Browne, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Melbourne School of Design, The University of Melbourne
Jonathan Flower, Research Fellow, Centre for Transport and Society, University of the West of England
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/183780
2022-05-25T15:40:24Z
2022-05-25T15:40:24Z
Four reasons SUVs are less safe and worse for the environment than a regular car
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465292/original/file-20220525-22-ufebo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4288%2C2843&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">1000 Words / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The sport utility vehicle, or SUV, and its spin-off class known as the crossover or CUV, are now the most popular types of vehicles. In the UK, they account for <a href="https://www.smmt.co.uk/vehicle-data/car-registrations/">more than half</a> of all new cars sold, and the story is similar <a href="https://www.goodcarbadcar.net/2022-us-suv-sales-figures-by-model/">the world over</a>.</p>
<p>Yet SUVs are controversial and have recently been targeted by a sustained campaign by activists who have <a href="https://theconversation.com/tyre-extinguishers-activists-are-deflating-suv-tyres-in-the-latest-pop-up-climate-movement-178911">deflated their tyres overnight</a>, citing their carbon emissions, air pollution and danger to pedestrians. The group, called <a href="http://www.tyreextinguishers.com/why-are-you-doing-this">Tyre Exinguishers</a>, says: “We want to make it impossible to own a huge polluting 4x4 in the world’s urban areas.”</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1527572326853881856"}"></div></p>
<p>So while people keep buying these vehicles, are they really making the best choice for the environment or safety? Let’s look at the evidence.</p>
<h2>Wartime transport</h2>
<p>To truly understand SUVs, though, we first have to look at the reasons why these vehicles are so popular and how they came about. Most agree that the first true mass-produced four-wheel drive was the Willy’s Jeep – a vehicle created to <a href="https://www.jeep.co.uk/history/1940">transport US soldiers</a> over rough ground in the second world war. Britain’s answer to the Jeep was the Land Rover, which followed a similar design ethos but became slightly more liveable and more appropriate for everyday use, with proper doors and better weather proofing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="black and white photo of soldiers in small 4WD" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465299/original/file-20220525-24-ygtl1q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Testing a Willys Jeep in California, June 1942.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Willys-MA-3.jpg">U.S. Army Signal Corps / wiki</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Range Rover, a vehicle that was introduced in 1970 and remains popular today, was perhaps the true original SUV. It combined the features of a luxury saloon car with the ability to effectively drive on rough terrain off-road. The Range Rover spawned hundreds of vehicles in a similar style, and it wasn’t long before every manufacturer was making SUVs, even those known for sports cars, such as Porsche and <a href="https://www.lamborghini.com/en-en/history/lm002">Lamborghini</a>.</p>
<h2>So why do people love them?</h2>
<p>Within the same approximate footprint as a regular car, SUVs offer more space for passengers and luggage – useful since evolution means <a href="https://qz.com/1460582/humans-are-getting-bigger-which-makes-feeding-the-planet-even-harder/">humans are getting larger</a>. The flip side of this is that all cars – even minis – are <a href="https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/features/investigation-why-are-cars-becoming-so-wide">getting bigger too</a>, so you wouldn’t necessarily need an SUV if you want more space. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Family inside an SUV" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465311/original/file-20220525-20-7haxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some drivers like the extra space and higher views.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">North Monaco / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many drivers also report that they like the <a href="https://www.motortrend.com/features/what-is-perfect-driving-position/">higher driving position</a> and off-road ability. That said, many crossover vehicles do not have <a href="https://www.continental-tires.com/car/tires/vehicle-types/suv/off-road-tires-four-wheel-drive">four-wheel drive</a>, so they are no better than any other car in this respect.</p>
<h2>The problems</h2>
<p>We urgently need to reduce the greenhouse emissions from road transport. The good news is that key markets like Europe are actually doing well in setting targets to reduce tailpipe emissions, and in many cases, <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/transport-emissions/road-transport-reducing-co2-emissions-vehicles_en">hitting them early</a>. However, SUVs could start to reverse this trend. </p>
<p><strong>1. More material</strong>
First, since SUVs are larger, they use more materials in their production than the car they are based on. A Volkswagen Golf, for instance, weighs around 1,330kg, while the Tiguan, a Golf-based SUV, is <a href="https://www.parkers.co.uk/volkswagen/tiguan/estate-2016/20-tdi-active-5dr/specs/">1,534kg</a>. That extra 200kg of metal, plastic and rubber – the weight of several people – all uses more raw materials and more energy to be produced. </p>
<p><strong>2. Worse fuel economy</strong>
The extra weight also means they don’t achieve the same fuel economy as a normal car, because the engine has to work harder to get the car moving. SUVs also tend to be further off the ground (a higher “ride height”). That makes them less aerodynamic and means <a href="https://www.edmunds.com/fuel-economy/improving-aerodynamics-to-boost-fuel-economy.html">worse fuel economy</a> when travelling at speed.</p>
<p><strong>3. Risk of rolling</strong>
The fact the mass of the vehicle is higher off the ground also gives SUVs a higher centre of gravity, which increases the risk of a roll-over in an accident. A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4160669/">study in the US</a> showed that SUVs have an 11 times higher risk of rolling over in an accident and children in vehicles that roll-over have a two times higher risk of dying in that accident.</p>
<p><strong>4. Pedestrians in peril</strong>
Back to the weight. Many owners may assume that the larger SUV is safer, yet US vehicle safety agency <a href="https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/808569">NHTSA</a> observed that decreasing the weight of SUVs would reduce the seriousness of accidents by between 0.3% and 1.3%. This is a more difficult thing to quantify than the effect on fuel economy, and conversely crash safety equipment usually adds weight too, but drivers should not assume an SUV is safer by virtue of its increased weight. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1396939038456750089"}"></div></p>
<p>Blindspots and high bonnets make SUVs particularly dangerous for pedestrians. Indeed, a recent study in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212012221000241?dgcid=author">Economics of Transportation</a> concluded that replacing the US’s growth in SUVs with regular cars over the past two decades “would have averted 1,100 pedestrian deaths”. The author also found “no evidence that the shift towards larger vehicles improved aggregate motorist safety”. Another smaller study <a href="https://www.iihs.org/news/detail/new-study-suggests-todays-suvs-are-more-lethal-to-pedestrians-than-cars">in the US in 2020</a> showed that SUVs cause more serious injuries and deaths when they strike pedestrians, especially over 20mph.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183780/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Stacey receives funding from ERDF.</span></em></p>
The controversial cars are under attack.
Tom Stacey, Senior Lecturer in Operations and Supply Chain Management, Anglia Ruskin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/161183
2021-06-07T20:06:10Z
2021-06-07T20:06:10Z
We all have to walk across roads — why aren’t pedestrians a focus of road safety?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404410/original/file-20210604-23-1p84hji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C405%2C5419%2C3607&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/over-twenty-pedestrians-crossing-street-australia-1708808719">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In May 2021 a B-double truck mounted a kerb when turning a corner in Melbourne, <a href="https://www.news.com.au/national/victoria/news/police-investigated-serious-crash-after-truck-ploughed-into-pedestrians-and-left-the-scene/news-story/ce7a0c58f02c9717cf10542cf1c0d11c">injuring five pedestrians</a>. In February 2020 a drunk driver drove onto a footpath in Sydney, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-09/drunk-driver-samuel-davidson-jailed-for-oatlands-crash/100057958">killing four children and injuring three others</a> as they walked to get ice-creams. These incidents are just two of many grim reminders that pedestrians are an especially vulnerable group of road users.</p>
<p>“Pedestrians” includes most of us as we walk along or across roads, even if it is just to get to our car. Children, young people, city residents, older people and people on low incomes are <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/books/slow-cities/tranter/978-0-12-815316-1">especially reliant on walking</a> rather than driving.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/slaves-to-speed-wed-all-benefit-from-slow-cities-152756">Slaves to speed, we'd all benefit from 'slow cities'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Pedestrians, along with cyclists and motorcyclists, are most at risk of injury and death when involved in a collision on the roads. In a crash, pedestrians are <a href="https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/Assets/Files/Final%20Victoria%20Walks%20submission%20on%20Aus%20Road%20Safety.pdf">four times more likely</a> to be injured than those in a vehicle.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/road_trauma_australia_2019_statistical_summary.pdf">road toll has decreased</a> over recent decades largely because fewer people in cars are dying. Pedestrian deaths have decreased much more slowly. In the decade to 2019, road deaths of car occupants fell <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/road_trauma_australia_2019_statistical_summary.pdf">three times as fast</a> as for vulnerable road users (pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists). </p>
<h2>What are governments doing to protect pedestrians?</h2>
<p>Australia has had many parliamentary inquiries and state and federal road safety strategies in recent years. A federal <a href="https://www.officeofroadsafety.gov.au/">Office of Road Safety</a> was created in 2019. However, the recommended road safety measures usually improve safety for people in vehicles or improve traffic flow. These measures do nothing for pedestrian safety.</p>
<p>Government reports and bodies have recently begun talking about the “<a href="https://www.roadsafety.gov.au/nrss/safe-system">safe system</a>” approach. This approach is supposed to take a holistic view, sharing the responsibility for reducing risk by improving the safety of roads, vehicles and road rules, as well as driver behaviour. While some versions of this approach consider the safety of all road users, including pedestrians, this has not filtered through to government policies.</p>
<p>Some states have adopted climate change plans or strategies that promote walking and cycling. The <a href="https://www.environment.sa.gov.au/topics/climate-change/climate-change-action-plan-2021-2025">South Australian Climate Change Action Plan 2021-2025</a>, for instance, promises the state government will work towards a low-emissions transport system, improve public transport and encourage “active travel” – walking and cycling. </p>
<p>However, since the launch of the plan the state government has <a href="https://www.premier.sa.gov.au/news/media-releases/news/better-train-services-right-on-schedule-as-drivers-sign-up">privatised trains</a> and <a href="https://www.premier.sa.gov.au/news/media-releases/news/new-works-to-start-on-north-south-corridor">announced new roadworks</a> to improve the flow of cars and freight vehicles. They are clearly paying little attention to the needs of pedestrians.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-and-walking-are-short-changed-when-it-comes-to-transport-funding-in-australia-92574">Cycling and walking are short-changed when it comes to transport funding in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Safety affects everyone’s right to mobility</h2>
<p>Australian governments neglect other perspectives such as the right to mobility for all. The <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>, signed by Australia, recognises the right to liberty of movement. The <a href="https://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a> recognises the rights to access to transport and to personal mobility. </p>
<p>Our approach to road safety should, as <a href="https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/about/">Victoria Walks</a> <a href="https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/Assets/Files/Final%20Victoria%20Walks%20submission%20on%20Aus%20Road%20Safety.pdf">argues</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[…] consider road safety as part of mobility for all people, whether they drive or not, and transport as part of the bigger liveability picture”. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another possible perspective is “<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-we-create-liveable-cities-first-we-must-work-out-the-key-ingredients-50898">liveable communities</a>”. The concept of liveability promotes the critical factors of access to public transport, and walking and cycling infrastructure. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-we-create-liveable-cities-first-we-must-work-out-the-key-ingredients-50898">How do we create liveable cities? First, we must work out the key ingredients</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>So, how are Australian state and territory governments recognising our right to mobility and helping to build liveable communities for all?</p>
<p>In 2020, the Commonwealth Parliament’s <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Former_Committees/Road_Safety">Joint Select Committee on Road Safety</a> received many submissions from organisations concerned with pedestrian safety. Its <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Former_Committees/Road_Safety/RoadSafety/Report">final report</a>, released in October 2020, contains 22 recommendations. Yet none of these focus specifically on pedestrian safety, although “pedestrian awareness” is mentioned in relation to driver training.</p>
<h2>How to make communities safer and more liveable</h2>
<p>Recommendations in the <a href="https://www.victoriawalks.org.au/Assets/Files/Final%20Victoria%20Walks%20submission%20on%20Aus%20Road%20Safety.pdf">Victoria Walks submission</a> to the select committee covered topics such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>the design of crossings and intersections</li>
<li>maintaining footpaths and walking routes</li>
<li>banning e-scooters from footpaths</li>
<li>reducing speed limits in residential areas</li>
<li>increasing investment in public transport</li>
<li>expanding the range of data collected on pedestrian injuries and fatalities. </li>
</ul>
<p>The committee’s final recommendations reflected none of these points.</p>
<p>The Office of Road Safety is yet to release its National Road Safety Strategy. It <a href="https://www.officeofroadsafety.gov.au/nrss/about/frequently-asked-questions">says</a> the strategy will consider “vulnerable road users” as a whole group. This approach fails to adequately consider the needs of pedestrians separately from motorcyclists and cyclists. </p>
<p>The previous <a href="https://www.roadsafety.gov.au/nrss">National Road Safety Strategy 2011–2020</a> did include reducing “the number of serious casualties among pedestrians and cyclists” as one of its “major strategic challenges”. This suggests pedestrians are receiving even less attention now than they were a decade ago.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-and-walking-can-help-drive-australias-recovery-but-not-with-less-than-2-of-transport-budgets-142176">Cycling and walking can help drive Australia's recovery – but not with less than 2% of transport budgets</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Some government publications recognise pedestrians as “<a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/road_trauma_australia_2019_statistical_summary.pdf">vulnerable road users</a>”. Yet almost no attention is paid to the most vulnerable pedestrians, namely older people, children and people with disability.</p>
<p>Governments are prioritising the flow of traffic, including of freight. They argue that’s good for jobs and economic growth. </p>
<p>There is little political will to discourage people from driving, to reduce speed limits, to prioritise walking (and cycling) infrastructure and to increase public transport funding. All of these measures contribute to mobility for all – including children, older people and people with disability. And that, in turn, will make our communities more liveable and sustainable.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>I would like to acknowledge the work of my research assistant Kate Leeson and former colleague Peter Lumb.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161183/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I am a frequent pedestrian, which involves crossing major roads without pedestrian safety infrastructure. </span></em></p>
While the road toll has come down over the decades, it’s largely a result of fewer car occupants dying. Pedestrian deaths have barely changed for a decade, but they remain a road safety blind spot.
Margaret Brown, Adjunct Research Fellow, UniSA Justice and Society, University of South Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/140127
2020-06-25T12:19:22Z
2020-06-25T12:19:22Z
New York opens traffic-clogged streets to people during pandemic, the city’s latest redesign in times of dramatic change
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343779/original/file-20200624-133008-1g07e86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C179%2C4640%2C3046&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Harvest Kitchen restaurant, on Manhattan's Upper West Side, making use of New York City's new policy of opening streets to walking, biking and dining.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/harvest-kitchen-restaurant-has-extended-its-outdoor-area-by-news-photo/1222125975?adppopup=true">Ron Adar/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On some normally congested New York City streets, cars are gone, replaced by diners tentatively returning to restaurants – though only outside – after months of lockdown. On June 22, the city <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/nyc-enters-phase-2-reopening-outdoor-dining-barbershops-n1231755">entered phase two</a> of reopening after its severe coronavirus outbreak, allowing many businesses to resume operations with restrictions.</p>
<p>Permitting restaurants to spread into streets is one of several pandemic-induced initiatives designed to enable social distancing in this densely packed city. In May, New York launched its “<a href="https://www1.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/pedestrians/openstreets.shtml#:%7E:text=Streets%20Opened%20for%20Social%20Distancing&text=Opening%20hours%20may%20vary%20by,Open%20Streets%20are%20in%20effect.&text=The%20Open%20Streets%20initiative%20is,BIDs%20and%20local%20community%20organizations.">Open Streets</a>” program, which will hand 100 miles of car-free streets to pedestrians and cyclists.</p>
<p>In a city often <a href="https://ny.curbed.com/2019/8/19/20812166/new-york-city-vision-zero-bike-street-safety">criticized</a> for letting <a href="https://gothamist.com/news/2019-was-extremely-deadly-year-nyc-cyclists-here-are-their-stories">cars dominate</a> – with <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/13/us/new-york-city-pedestrian-deaths/index.html">deadly consequences</a> – these are fairly dramatic changes. Past efforts to protect New York pedestrians and cyclists have included lowering <a href="https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/nyc-officials-to-announce-street-safety-reforms-after-deaths-of-2-kids/2305965/">speed limits</a>, adding crosswalks and creating bike lanes – approaches that “sort” street users into their own spaces but do not fundamentally question the basic organization of city streets. </p>
<p>The pandemic has quieted both pedestrian and vehicle traffic, stimulating a bolder reconsideration of how streets should be used – at least temporarily. As <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/visual-arts/faculty/amy_d_finstein">my research on transportation and urban history</a> shows, the city has a long history of considering audacious designs to tame urban chaos. </p>
<h2>Moving above ground</h2>
<p>Between the 1870s and the 1930s, the city repeatedly adjusted to new types of transportation: first the railroad, then the automobile.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=961&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=961&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343782/original/file-20200624-132951-dthdat.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=961&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bustling Broadway in the late 19th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/united-states-of-america-broadway-in-new-york-street-scene-news-photo/985679260?adppopup=true">Bildagentur-online/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trains, which reached <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674588271">widespread use in the U.S. in the 1850s</a>, allowed people and goods to move further and more quickly than ever before. But speeding through cities they tangled with other street users, resulting in gruesome accidents between horses, carts and pedestrians. </p>
<p>A freight railroad that ran along New York City’s Eleventh Avenue from 1846 to 1941 was so notorious for killing pedestrians that the street earned the nickname “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/25/realestate/the-railroad-tracks-that-turned-a-street-into-death-avenue.html">Death Avenue</a>.”</p>
<p>To combat the train hazard, city and business leaders sought to provide separate spaces for different types of street users. Railroad magnates argued for <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300098273/downtown">elevating railroads above existing streets</a>, which required no time-consuming excavation. This solution created new problems, including noise, falling embers and the dangers of aerial train accidents.</p>
<p>In 1866, a hat merchant named Genin the Hatter had another idea: elevate people, not trains. Troubled by the dangers of crossing Broadway, he successfully lobbied New York to construct a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/02/nyregion/02broadway.html">pedestrian bridge across the wide downtown avenue</a>. But the cast iron footbridge lasted only a year before complaints about aesthetics and shadows compelled its removal.</p>
<p>Such piecemeal solutions could not fully address the complexities of street activity in late 19th-century New York, which already had nearly 4 million residents. But they did pilot some concepts that would reappear in later years – especially when the <a href="http://cup.columbia.edu/book/down-the-asphalt-path/9780231083911">automobile soon arrived</a> to further complicate urban life. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343785/original/file-20200624-133002-bvi089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elevated train tracks and station at New York’s Greeley Square, now Herald Square, 1896.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/greeley-square-and-elevated-train-tracks-new-york-city-usa-news-photo/629456291?adppopup=true">Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Utopian ideas</h2>
<p>Cars joined streets already teeming with pedestrians, horses and carts, peddlers, streetcars and elevated railways, with deadly results. New York City documented <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1921/compendia/statab/43ed.html">354 motor vehicle-related fatalities in 1915</a> and more than <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1930/compendia/statab/52ed.html">triple that in 1929</a>. In 2019, by contrast, 220 drivers, pedestrians and cyclists died in traffic accidents, according to <a href="https://vzv.nyc/">city data</a>.</p>
<p>Newspapers frequently published editorials about the threat of automobiles. In 1924, The Washington Post called “death by motorcar” a “national menace” while The New York Times compared car congestion to a <a href="https://search-proquest-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/docview/103163814?accountid=11456.">giant cobra strangling its victim</a>.</p>
<p>City leaders responded to rising deaths by imposing <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/fighting-traffic">speed limits, restricting parking and creating one-way streets</a>. These changes, largely made in the late 1910s and 1920s, began to systematize the street chaos. </p>
<p>But throughout this period, creative architects, engineers and citizens were thinking bigger. In op-eds, books and journal articles, they proposed a wild assortment of designs questioning basic assumptions about how cities should work. </p>
<p>Some designs moved New York’s sidewalks to make more room for vehicles. These proposals included an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1908/11/29/archives/for-beauty-and-utility-in-new-york-city-charles-r-lamb-outlines.html">elevated promenade</a> along the Hudson River, sidewalks hung from the second stories of buildings and <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Kg1AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA537&ots=lvB5gKVJuS&dq=arthur%20tuttle%20arcaded%20sidewalks&pg=PA536#v=onepage&q=arthur%20tuttle%20arcaded%20sidewalks&f=false">sidewalks that ran through their ground floors</a> so that adjoining streets could be widened. More high-tech ideas envisioned building <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3611935&view=1up&seq=820">six-level streets</a> or creating futuristic <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/kings-views-of-new-york-1896-1915-brooklyn-1905-an-extraordinary-photographic-survey/oclc/609747002&referer=brief_results">blimp and airplane networks</a> accessed by elevator-served platforms. One proposal imagined adding highways and moving walkways <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3611935&view=1up&seq=818">to rooftops</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343789/original/file-20200624-132955-18lku90.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 1927 proposal for stacked avenues in Manhattan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3611935&view=1up&seq=820">The American City/Hathitrust</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>New York architects Hugh Ferriss and Harvey Wiley Corbett fused aspects of many of these ideas in a series of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/990128?seq=1">utopian writings</a> and exhibits during the 1920s. The cities of their dreams had regularly spaced modern skyscrapers topped by rooftop gardens, all connected by multilevel streets and aerial pedestrian walkways.</p>
<h2>From dream to reality</h2>
<p>While none of these proposals came to fruition, they eventually informed some real projects in New York. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://tupress.temple.edu/book/20000000010059">West Side Elevated Highway</a>, constructed between 1927 and 1937, combined the earlier idea for a riverside pedestrian promenade with the need to address congestion around Manhattan’s shipping piers. Its elevated path from Canal Street northward sped cars for four miles above the chaos of local streets, while its street-level Art Deco decoration provided a new sleek waterfront identity. It was torn down in the 1970s.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343792/original/file-20200624-132951-iw37iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rockefeller Center, March 26, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-walk-along-5th-avenue-in-the-empty-plaza-in-front-of-news-photo/1215379878?adppopup=true">Gary Hershorn/Corbis via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/987500">Rockefeller Center</a>, though, remains standing. Built in the 1930s, this development reordered 22 acres of midtown Manhattan, arranging skyscrapers, a performance venue, shops and restaurants around one central plaza. With multilevel pedestrian connections between spaces, it realized portions of Corbett and Ferriss’s ideas.</p>
<p>The still-popular <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24889363?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">High Line</a> unites two periods in New York’s transportation history. Built in 1934 as an elevated freight railroad, it closed in 1980 and was left to decay. In the early 2000s, the city revitalized the High Line as a garden-laden, aerial promenade that weaves between buildings and above streets, recalling the utopian plans from a century ago.</p>
<p>These are all precedents for New York’s current effort to transform its streets. Like banishing cars from some streets, many past ideas seemed exceedingly unlikely before they happened. The coronavirus pandemic has paused this bustling city long enough to again reframe what residents need to survive in a time of great change.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140127/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy D. Finstein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
First trains, then cars and, now, COVID-19 have all spurred New York to reimagine how its scarce space should be used – and what residents need to survive.
Amy D. Finstein, Assistant Professor of Architectural History, College of the Holy Cross
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/127789
2019-12-18T18:56:08Z
2019-12-18T18:56:08Z
Why Australian road rules should be rewritten to put walking first
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307376/original/file-20191217-164441-6bz1c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C615%2C3126%2C2402&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If a vehicle was coming through this intersection would this pedestrian have right of way?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stephen Di Donato/Good Free Photos</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You are walking east on a footpath and come to an unmarked intersection without traffic signals. A vehicle is driving north, across your path. Who has right of way in Australia? </p>
<p>Should you step into the road expecting the vehicle to slow down or stop if necessary? Is the driver legally obliged to do so? </p>
<p>And does the driver see you? How fast is the vehicle going? Can it stop? </p>
<p>Now imagine you are the driver. What will the person on foot do next? </p>
<p>So the answer to the question of “giving way” is complicated. It depends on the speed of the car, how fast the person is walking, how quickly the driver reacts to apply the brakes, the vehicle itself, road conditions and how far the car and walker are from each other. Ideally, both the driver and walker can assess these things in a fraction of a second, but human perception and real-time calculation skills are imperfect. At higher speeds, both pedestrians and drivers <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185347">underestimate vehicle speed</a>.</p>
<p>Soon we will have to seriously consider autonomous vehicles, which can assess distance and speed almost perfectly, but there is still that ambiguity.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/driverless-vehicles-and-pedestrians-dont-mix-so-how-do-we-re-arrange-our-cities-126111">Driverless vehicles and pedestrians don't mix. So how do we re-arrange our cities?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What does the law say?</h2>
<p>Road rules legislate how drivers should behave. But it turns out most people <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457506002211">do not know right-of-way rules</a>.</p>
<p>In Australia, the National Transport Commission recommends <a href="https://www.ntc.gov.au/laws-and-regulations/australian-road-rules">model rules</a>, which each state adopts and lightly modifies. For instance, <a href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/regulation/2014/758">New South Wales Road Rules</a> 72, 73 and 353 cover pedestrians crossing a road. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/regulation/2014/758/part21/rule353">Rule 353</a> says:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If a driver who is turning from a road at an intersection is required to give way to a pedestrian who is crossing the road that the driver is entering, the driver is only required to give way to the pedestrian if the pedestrian’s line of travel in crossing the road is essentially perpendicular to the edges of the road the driver is entering - the driver is not required to give way to a pedestrian who is crossing the road the driver is leaving.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Because of the legal principle of duty of care, drivers must still try to avoid colliding with pedestrians. They have a <a href="http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/rta2013187/s117.html">legal obligation to not be negligent</a>. Thus, they must stop if they can for pedestrians who are already there, but not those on the side of the road wanting to cross.</p>
<p>However, this element of the NSW Road Transport Act is not made explicit in the NSW Road Rules. There is no statutory requirement in the road rules or elsewhere to give way to pedestrians other than as set out specifically in the road rules.</p>
<p>In contrast, NSW Road Rules <a href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/regulation/2014/758/part14/div1/rule230">230</a> and <a href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/regulation/2014/758/part14/div1/rule236">236</a> explicitly require pedestrians to avoid behaving dangerously around cars.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.rms.nsw.gov.au/roads/using-roads/visitors.html">published advice</a> in NSW is:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Drivers must always give way to pedestrians if there is danger of colliding with them, however pedestrians should <strong>not</strong> rely on this and should take great care when crossing any road.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=669&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=669&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=669&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307545/original/file-20191217-58326-1xajtvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Does a slow-moving person’s higher risk of being hit mean they can’t cross the road?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This statement is not supported by any road rule or other law.</p>
<p>Does the law as written mean a slow-moving person can never cross the street because of the risk of being hit? Only because duty-of-care logic indicates both the driver and pedestrian should yield to the other to avoid a collision is it possible for this person to cross without depending on the kindness of strangers. But the law gives the benefit of doubt to the driver of the multi-ton machine. Existing road rules permit drivers to voluntarily give way, or not. </p>
<p>Keep in mind the asymmetry of this situation. A person walking into the side of the car is silly. A car being driven into the side of a person, as happens <a href="https://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/stayingsafe/pedestrians/index.html">1,500 times a year in NSW</a>, is <a href="https://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/stayingsafe/pedestrians/speedandfatalities/index.html">life-threatening</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pedestrian-safety-needs-to-catch-up-to-technology-and-put-people-before-cars-65225">Pedestrian safety needs to catch up to technology and put people before cars</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What do we recommend?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/341513/pdfmanforstreets.pdf">UK Manual for Streets</a> presents a street user hierarchy that puts pedestrians at the top. That is, their needs and safety should be considered first. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307322/original/file-20191217-124016-1r6rz2m.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A recommended hierarchy of street users.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/341513/pdfmanforstreets.pdf">Manual for Streets/UK Department for Transport</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Walking has multiple benefits. More people on foot lowers infrastructure costs, improves health and reduces the number in cars, in turn reducing crashes, pollution and congestion. However, the road rules are not designed with this logic.</p>
<p>The putative aim of road rules is safety, but in practice the rules trade off between safety and convenience. The more rules are biased toward the convenience of drivers, the more drivers there will be. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-traffic-signals-favour-cars-and-discourage-walking-92675">How traffic signals favour cars and discourage walking</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Yet public policy aims to <a href="https://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/media/documents/2017/sydneys-walking-future-web.pdf">promote walking</a>. To do so, pedestrians should be given freer rein to walk: alert, but not afraid. </p>
<p>Like many things in this world, intersection interactions are negotiated, tacitly, by road users and their subtle and not-so-subtle cues. Pedestrians should have legal priority behind them in this negotiation.</p>
<p>The road rules need to be amended to require drivers to give way to pedestrians at all intersections. We favour a rule requiring drivers to look out for pedestrians and give way to them on any road or road-related area. In the case of collisions, the onus would be on drivers to show they could not in the circumstances give way to the pedestrian.</p>
<p>We believe all intersections without signals – whether marked, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/news/90496754/courtesy-crossing-confusion-heres-a-handy-guide-for-pedestrians-and-drivers">courtesy</a>, or unmarked – be legally treated as marked pedestrian crossings. (It might help to mark them to remind drivers of this.) We should think of these intersections as spaces where vehicles cross an implicit continuous footpath, rather than as places where people cross a vehicular lane. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306916/original/file-20191214-85397-14yreau.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At this intersection in Surry Hills, NSW, vehicles cross a continuous footpath.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by David Levinson.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This change in perspective will require significant road user re-education. Users will have to be reminded every intersection is a crosswalk and that pedestrians both in the road and showing intent to cross should be yielded to, whether the vehicle is entering or exiting the road. We believe this change will increase safety and willingness to walk, because of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2017.06.004">safety-in-numbers phenomenon</a>, and improve quality of life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307314/original/file-20191217-123983-a2jsaj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Minnesota, every corner is a crosswalk, marked or not, so stopping for pedestrians at intersections is mandatory, whatever direction the car is moving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Minnesota Department of Transportation.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Drivers should assume more responsibility for safety</h2>
<p>People should continue to behave in a way that does not harm themselves or others. People on foot should not jump out in front of cars, expecting drivers to slam on their brakes, because drivers cannot always stop in time. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nothing-to-fear-how-humans-and-other-intelligent-animals-might-ruin-the-autonomous-vehicle-utopia-114504">Nothing to fear? How humans (and other intelligent animals) might ruin the autonomous vehicle utopia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Similarly, drivers should be ready to slow or stop when a person crosses the street, at a crosswalk or not. But the law should be refactored to give priority to pedestrians at unmarked crossings. This will reduce ambiguity and make drivers more alert and ready to slow down. </p>
<p>In tomorrow’s world of driverless and passengerless vehicles, the convenience of drivers becomes even less essential. If someone is crossing the road, most of us probably believe a driverless vehicle should give way to ensure it doesn’t hit that person for two reasons: legally, to avoid being negligent; and morally, because hitting people is bad, as identified in many examples of the <a href="http://moralmachine.mit.edu">Trolley Problem</a>. </p>
<p>Further, we should think more like the Netherlands, where vehicle-pedestrian collisions are presumed to be the <a href="https://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2013/02/21/strict-liability-in-the-netherlands/">driver’s fault</a>, unless it can be clearly proven otherwise.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-everyday-ethical-challenges-of-self-driving-cars-92710">The everyday ethical challenges of self-driving cars</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This article examined a few of 353 distinct road rules. Many others affect pedestrians and should also be re-examined.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was extensively edited by Janet Wahlquist of <a href="https://walksydney.org/about/">WalkSydney</a> and extends some ideas developed as part of Betty Yang’s undergraduate thesis, but the text is the sole responsibility of the author.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127789/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Levinson is the President of WalkSydney (<a href="http://walksydney.org">http://walksydney.org</a>), a community group advocating for walking. </span></em></p>
Most people do not know the right-of-way rules, but a starting point should be that pedestrian needs and safety take priority. Current road rules are biased towards driver convenience
David Levinson, Professor of Transport, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/114504
2019-04-28T20:17:06Z
2019-04-28T20:17:06Z
Nothing to fear? How humans (and other intelligent animals) might ruin the autonomous vehicle utopia
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270621/original/file-20190424-19303-12vdfc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People expect drivers to stop for them at pedestrian crossings, but what if they know autonomous vehicles will stop any time someone chooses to step in front of them?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/few-pedestrians-on-pedestrian-crosswalk-front-1212458212?src=mWoeCI8JvNnoWZD2qbuxzQ-1-29">Varavin88/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Globally, road crashes <a href="https://www.un.org/press/en/2013/sgsm15005.doc.htm">kill 1.3 million people a year</a> and injure nearly 50 million more. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) have been identified as a potential solution to this issue if they can learn to identify and avoid situations leading to crashes. </p>
<p>Unlike human drivers, these vehicles won’t get tired, drive drunk, look at their phone, or speed. What’s more, AVs will reduce congestion and pollution, increase access to public transport, be cheaper, improve mobility for people with disabilities, and make transport fun again. Right?</p>
<p>Well, <a href="https://infrastructure.gov.au/transport/automatedvehicles/files/automated-vehicles-brochure.pdf">that’s what the brochure says</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/driverless-cars-really-do-have-health-and-safety-benefits-if-only-people-knew-99370">Driverless cars really do have health and safety benefits, if only people knew</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rightly or wrongly, <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-01/autonomous-car-tech-investment-skyrockets-on-softbank-deals">billions of dollars</a> are being poured into autonomous vehicle research and development to pursue this <em>autopia</em>. However, barely any resource or thought is being given to the question of how humans will ultimately respond to the AV fleet. In a city full of autonomous cars, how might our behaviour and use of city streets change?</p>
<p>In one scenario, people could act on the knowledge that these vehicles will stop any time someone chooses to step in front of them, bringing traffic to a halt.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270622/original/file-20190424-19286-uooet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People will freely use the streets if they feel it’s safe to do so, as on ‘Pedestrian Paradise Day’ in Tokyo when no cars are on the road.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tokyo-japan-may-5-2017-overhead-770958631?src=mWoeCI8JvNnoWZD2qbuxzQ-2-10">Ned Snowman/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Humans (and animals) will adapt</h2>
<p>One of humans' great strengths is our adaptability. We quickly learn to manipulate and exploit our environment. A future road environment saturated with autonomous vehicles will be no different.</p>
<p>For example, think about why you don’t walk out in front of traffic or drive through stop signs. Because other cars could injure or hurt you, right? </p>
<p>But autonomous vehicles promise something new. They are being designed to “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRIn4-5TmUM">act flawlessly</a>”. </p>
<p>There are two elements to this: the first is not making mistakes, and the second is compensating for the occasional errors and misjudgements that fallible humans make. Autonomous vehicles promise alignment with Asimov’s First Law of Robotics:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A robot may not injure a human.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/after-75-years-isaac-asimovs-three-laws-of-robotics-need-updating-74501">After 75 years, Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics need updating</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Now imagine crossing a road or highway in a city saturated by autonomous cars where the threat of being run over disappears. You <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24076-birds-are-aware-of-speed-limits-on-roads/">(or any other mildly intelligent animal)</a> might quickly learn that oncoming traffic <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjWi__RncXhAhXoiVQKHV8DCZIQwqsBMAF6BAgHEAc&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DpjQt2lEZIXg&usg=AOvVaw2Sfosz-BND_3X573Ne7IEM">poses no threat at all</a>. Replicated thousands of times across a dense inner city, this could produce gridlock among safety-conscious autonomous vehicles, but virtual freedom of movement for humans – maybe even heralding a return to pedestrian rights of yesteryear.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268560/original/file-20190410-2924-pg0xju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could an autonomous vehicle future return the streets to humans, as seen here in early 20th-century Melbourne outside Flinders Street Station?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Melbourne Architecture, Building & Planning Glass Slides Collection</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A simple example of how this might happen comes from game theory. Take two scenarios at an intersection where pedestrians and vehicles negotiate priority to cross first. Each receives known “pay-offs” for behaviour in the context of the other’s action. The higher the comparative pay-off for either party, the more likely the action.</p>
<p>In the left-hand scenario below, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_equilibrium">Nash equilibrium</a> (the optimum combined action of both parties) exists in the lower left quadrant where the pedestrian has a small incentive to “stay” to avoid being injured by the manually driven car, and the driver has a strong incentive to “go”. </p>
<p>However, in the scenario on the right, the autonomous vehicles has a desire to act flawlessly and pose no threat to the pedestrian at all. While this might be great for safety, the pedestrian can now adopt a strategy of “go” at all times, forcing the AV to stay put.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/268555/original/file-20190410-2931-gru7no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A simple ‘normal game’ comparison of pedestrians versus manually operated and autonomous cars negotiating intersections.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-autonomous-vehicles-wont-reduce-our-dependence-on-cars-in-cities-107608">Why autonomous vehicles won't reduce our dependence on cars in cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Can this potential problem be overcome?</h2>
<p>One solution might be to program algorithms into vehicles that make them occasionally, purposefully, run into people, animals or other <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2019/4/22/18511527/elon-musk-tesla-aggressive-autopilot-mode-fender-bender">vehicles</a>. Although this would maintain a level of fear and caution in the population, legally and morally it is hard to see how this would be acceptable.</p>
<p>Another option could be infrastructure separating autonomous vehicles from vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians and cyclists. But the cost and reduction in amenity this would create would be enormous. Further, this type of solution <a href="https://www.towardszero.vic.gov.au/news/articles/flexible-barriers-how-they-work-and-the-cheese-cutter-myth">could be applied now</a>, negating much of the need for AV software and technology development in the first place.</p>
<p>A final, duplicitous idea is to simply turn off the safety systems that cause so-called “erratic vehicle behaviour” (i.e., slowing down to avoid hitting people). This is reported to have occurred when a <a href="https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/HWY18MH010-prelim.pdf">self-driving Uber struck and killed a pedestrian in Arizona last year</a>. However, if this is the solution, you then have to ask, “What is the transport problem autonomous vehicles are actually trying to solve?”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-driverless-vehicles-should-not-be-given-unchecked-access-to-our-cities-102724">Why driverless vehicles should not be given unchecked access to our cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>It won’t happen overnight</h2>
<p>In the scenarios above most of the fleet are autonomous vehicles, and humans adapt to their consistently safe behaviour. However, the <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/future-of-transportation-self-driving-cars-reality-check/">complete transition</a> to autonomous vehicles <a href="http://www.infrastructurevictoria.com.au/AVadvice">will not occur overnight</a> and might create new crash situations that are, so far, poorly understood.</p>
<p>For example, we are developing simulations of interactions between vulnerable road users and a mixed fleet of autonomous vehicles and human-driven cars. These models show how inconsistencies between the behaviour of manual and autonomous vehicle types could even lead to <a href="https://twitter.com/Agent_Jase/status/1116179718967939072">more crashes during the transition</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1116179718967939072"}"></div></p>
<h2>The future for AVs under threat?</h2>
<p>As AV technology rolls on, and the marketing hype surrounding them continues to draw attention <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2019/03/12/ubers-self-driving-car-unit-was-burning-20-million-a-month/">and burn up investment dollars</a>, it should be remembered that humans and animals are still going to behave how we always have by continually adapting and exploiting weaknesses in our environment.</p>
<p>Part of the promise of autonomous vehicles is their proposed safety through deference to human life. But, if the point of transport systems is to enable efficient movement of people and goods for the benefit of society, this strength of AVs might prove to be their ultimate weakness as a viable mass transport mode.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Thompson receives funding from the Australian Research Council, throught a Discovery Early Career Research (DECRA) Fellowship #DE180101411.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gemma Read receives funding from the Australian Research Council, through a Discovery Early Career Research (DECRA) Fellowship #DE180101449.</span></em></p>
How will people respond once they realise they can rely on autonomous vehicles to stop whenever someone steps out in front of them? Human behaviour might stand in the way of the promised ‘autopia’.
Jason Thompson, Senior Research Fellow, Transport, Health and Urban Design (THUD) Research Hub, The University of Melbourne
Gemma Read, Senior Research Fellow in Human Factors & Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/105597
2018-11-14T18:40:47Z
2018-11-14T18:40:47Z
Car-free Paris? It was already a dream in 1790
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242032/original/file-20181024-48712-1ciwqq6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C1497%2C810&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">_Le Pont-Neuf et la Pompe de la Samaritaine, vue du quai de la Mégisserie_, painting by Nicolas Raguenet (circa 1750-1760). </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Musée Carnavalet</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The debate over the place of cars in cities may seem like a <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/paris-car-free-sundays-city-centre-france-pedestrian-a8566991.html">recent one</a>, but in fact was raging well before the first automobile even saw the light of day. </p>
<p>To better understand, let us take a look at the streets of Paris when the French Revolution was in full swing and when all the “cars” were still horse-drawn. Even then, speeding carriages in densely packed urban areas could be deadly, and they raised the same essential questions as cars do to today – in particular the relative importance of orderly behaviour, traffic management, freedom of access and the right of way.</p>
<h2>An anti-car pamphlet</h2>
<p>In 1790, an anonymous Parisian printed a pamphlet with a surprising modern title, <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k402292/f4.image">“A Citizen’s Petition, or A Motion against Coaches and Cabs”</a>. Passionately written, this 16-page text is simultaneously a moral treatise, a police memoir and a legislative motion, since it also contains propositions intended to be forwarded at the French National Assembly.</p>
<p>Little is known of its author except that he was probably a well-to-do citizen – perhaps a doctor – as he declares that he owns “a coach, a cab and four horses”. These, however, he is ready to “sacrifice on the altar of the country”, scandalised as he is by the brutality of drivers as they cross the city and disgusted by the “idleness and sloth of the rich”. Swayed by the ideas of the Enlightenment and praising the contributions of the Revolution, he asks: What is the worth of a free press, religious tolerance and the abolition of state prisons if “one cannot go on foot without being exposed to perpetual danger?” Indeed, at a time when universal human rights were being proclaimed, Parisians continued to be killed by cars, to the complete indifference of legislators. The pamphlet’s author therefore proposed to “fulfil” the work of the Revolution by prohibiting the use of coaches in Paris.</p>
<p>In 1790, a year after the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen”, the <a href="http://paris-atlas-historique.fr/10.html">political situation in Paris was in many ways unprecedented</a>. On the roads, however, the domination exercised by coach drivers over pedestrians remained unchanged.</p>
<h2>Congestion in Paris</h2>
<p>The wildly rushing vehicle is a literary <em>topos</em> that can be traced back to the congested streets of Paris of the 17th and 18th centuries. Featured in works by Paul Scarron and the Abbé Prévost, it can also be found in Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux’s famous satire on a collision between a cart and a coach. In his poem, a nightmarish “embarrassment” is depicted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A coach’s wheel strikes a cart at a corner,<br>
And, by accident, sends both into stale water.<br>
Too soon, a mad cab, trying desperately to rush past,<br>
In the same embarrassment embarrasses not the last,<br>
For promptly, twenty more coaches soon come into the long line<br>
Leading the first two, to quickly become over fourscore and nine.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>If such “embarrassments” or “strife” (as traffic jams used to be called) inspired the writers of fiction, it was also because they were a daily reality of the <a href="http://www.gallimard.fr/Catalogue/GALLIMARD/Folio/Folio-histoire/Vivre-dans-la-rue-a-Paris-au-XVIII-sup-e-sup-siecle">streets of the Ancien Regime</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236068/original/file-20180912-133871-1pinrz2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nicolas Guérard, <em>The Pont-Neuf seen from rue Dauphine</em>, engraving, 18th century. This engraving shows the many means of transportation used by Parisians during the Age of Enlightenment. In the foreground can be seen two carriages, a sedan chair, riders on horseback, a horse-drawn cart. It is significant that the artist chose to represent this congested scene on one of Paris’ most modern, sidewalk-equipped streets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b10537835w.item">Library of the Decorative Arts/BNF</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are hardly any urban chronicles, <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/12853">police memoirs</a> or travel stories that do not mention showers of mud, clouds of dust, the din of iron-rimmed wheels disturbing the peace of the sick, roads blocked by a coach or a cart manoeuvring a tight corner.</p>
<h2>The killer car</h2>
<p>What appears radically new in the writings of the late 18th century, however, is the theme of the killer car. This can be found in the work of Louis Sebastien Mercier and Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne, and also in another anonymous pamphlet, this from 1789, titled <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k40228q/f4.image.texteImage">“The Assassins, or A Denunciation of the Tyrannically Abusive Nature of Cars”</a>. In this pamphlet, the author virulently attacks the English-style phaetons, whiskies, devils and other cabs as these lighter vehicles were particularly adapted to city traffic and were therefore “as fast as eagles”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236069/original/file-20180912-133904-z2n00f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Engraving of a ‘devil’, illustrating the entry: Sellier-carrossier (</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>His argument goes that highwaymen, ready to kill a traveller for his money, are the assassins of the road. But in Paris, the assassin is “the one who, without passion and without need, suddenly flings open the doors of his household, rushes like a madman toward a thousand of his fellow men and presses them, with all his might, with a fast cab and two steeds.” It is therefore the social battle between pedestrians and car users that his texts exemplifies.</p>
<h2>Pedestrians and coach-riders in Paris</h2>
<p>In a palpable way, this second text confronts two opposing developments that ran throughout all of the 18th century.</p>
<p>One was the prodigious increase in the quantity of horse-drawn traffic within Paris, linked to the population’s ever-increasing need for food and merchandise. With its 700,000 inhabitants, it already had very hungry belly… As <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/rh19/5201">Daniel Roche</a> indicates, however, the increase in traffic can also be explained by the rise in passenger circulation. During the 17th century, the carriages in circulation were nearly exclusively the coaches used by royalty and nobility. Later, the emerging middle classes of merchants, officers, bankers but also master-artisans and priests, who all previously travelled on foot, by mule, and at best on horseback, began to use the lighter and faster cabs.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236070/original/file-20180912-133895-u7q75l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The coach was first and foremost a royal vehicle. Here, a ‘modern’ coach from the 1680s, with an ornately carved and gilded body, pulled by six horses. It was used by Louis XIV and Marie-Thérèse for their entry into the city of Douai in 1667. Painting by Adam François Van der Meulen, circa 1690.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Château de Versailles</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Owning a car, in 1789, in Paris, remained the privilege of the nobles and the richer burghers. It meant keeping a coachman or lackey, owning a stable for the horses and a shed to store hay, straw, water and oats. The development of hired coaches and cabs, the ancestors of today’s taxis, that could be rented by the day or by the hour, gradually broadened the usage of passenger cars.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/hes_0752-5702_1983_num_2_2_1324">plausible estimates</a>, in Paris the number of cars surged during the 18th and 19th centuries, rising from only 300 at the beginning of the 18th century to more than 20,000 by the French Revolution – an increase of 7,000 percent. Long before the <a href="http://carfree.fr/index.php/2008/02/02/lideologie-sociale-de-la-bagnole-1973/">mass production of the automobile</a>, the car had therefore already become a commonplace feature of Paris’ streets.</p>
<p>An opposing development within enlightened circles was to travel by foot, like the humbler Parisians. The idea was not so much to go from one place to another, but to promenade. Therefore, the elites gradually stepped out of their coaches, carriages and cabs to walk along the tree-lined boulevards and through the parks and gardens. For the philosophers of the Enlightenment, including <a href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01178705">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, walking was a virtue that stood in contrast to the sloth of those who travelled by coach. During the Revolution, the pedestrian even became a major political figure and was embodied in the <em>sans-culotte</em>.</p>
<h2>Cars: a primary source of insecurity for Parisians</h2>
<p>Let us now imagine a scene often depicted by the Parisians of the day. You are quietly walking along the <a href="https://www.projet-voltaire.fr/origines/expression-tenir-le-haut-du-pave/"><em>haut du pavé</em></a> (the higher part of the street) of a narrow and crowded road. On one side is a vendor’s stall, on the other, leftover rubble due to roadworks, a little further on is an open-air forge encroaching on the road, above is the shop-sign of a cabaret forcing passing coachmen to dangerously swerve their vehicles. Suddenly, powered by two spirited horses, a cabriolet, weighing nearly 700 kg and devoid of any effective braking system, engages into the street at full speed. The driver, pressed by the owner of the vehicle, cracks his whip while shouting “Aside! Aside!”. What then? How to escape the wheels of the car when there is neither curb nor sidewalk?</p>
<p>In his <em>Scenes of Paris</em>, Jean-Sebastien Mercier narrates how, on three occasions, he was the victim of such homicidal cars. The anonymous citizen in the “Motion against Coaches and Cabs” provides chilling statistics: every year, more than 300 people were either killed instantly or suffered fatal injuries because of cars. The author does not, however, count all the pedestrians who were crippled or lost a hand, arm or leg. Nor does he speak of the thousands of pedestrians permanently scarred by the whips from angry coachmen.</p>
<h2>Greater speed, more crashes</h2>
<p>Yet were the crashes more numerous at the end of the century than at its start when the Parisians, now all Citizens, felt freer to take to their pens and denounce the excesses of the drivers of horse-drawn cars? What is certain is that the <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0048-8003_1997_num_44_4_1893_t1_0720_0000_2">speed of the vehicles increased</a> dramatically during the Age of Enlightenment. This was first for technical reasons: the newly introduced cabs were lighter and more manoeuvrable than the heavy coaches and could reach speeds of up to 30 km/h on major roads. Second, the multiplication of driveways, the alignment of the facades and the creation of large boulevards and thoroughfares enabled new heights of speed hitherto impossible to reach in town, even when the driver ignored the limitations fixed by the police.</p>
<p>Thus, not only did cars mark the bodies of Parisians, they also durably transformed the face of the city itself. This process continued and accelerated, with pedestrians even being excluded entirely from excluded entirely from certain roads. In recent years the city has pushed back, and even banned cars where pedestrians were once banned, on the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/sep/26/paris-council-approves-ban-vehicles-right-bank-seine-road">right bank of the Seine</a>. </p>
<h2>The price of a life</h2>
<p>In the 18th century, the victims of car accidents in the capital were mostly the children playing in the street, the elderly or impaired, porters bearing heavy loads and, generally speaking, any inattentive or distracted pedestrian.</p>
<p>When an crash took place, witnesses and police commissioners had to determine responsibility. If the victim was crushed the carriage’s rear wheels, it was simply hard luck. If they were been caught by the small front wheels, however, compensation could be claimed – usually a small sum of money was given on the spot to settle the affair. What then was the price of a pauper’s crushed leg? Most of the time, neither the coachman nor the owner bothered to stop but simply continued on. It was this profound inhumanity that angered the authors of the pamphlets.</p>
<p>Today, fewer people are killed by cars in Paris annually than at the end of the 18th century – about 30 deaths in 2017. There are still many more injuries, including an increasing number of cyclists. In Paris, this is mostly seen as a problem of public health and security as air pollution – a significant portion of which are emitted by vehicles – cause up to <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/01/health/air-pollution-cities-who-study/index.html">7 million deaths per year</a>, according to World Health Organisation. But even if cars emitted no pollutants, they’d <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/06/new-law-combats-silent-menace-electric-cars">remain deadly for pedestrians</a>.</p>
<h2>Banning cars from the capital</h2>
<p>It is in the form of a potential decree, comprising 10 articles, that the first anonymous citizen formulates his proposal against coaches and cabs. For him, cars should be tolerated within city limits only if undertaken by a single rider on horseback, by a coach entering or exiting the city, or for those with medical emergencies. It is also proposed that coaches and cabs should be replaced by a sufficient number of sedans stationed at key junctions, with their fares clearly displayed.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=988&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=988&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=988&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1241&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1241&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236071/original/file-20180912-133886-1wci79t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1241&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The sedan chair recommended by the anonymous citizen was also a privilege of the nobility during the Ancien Regime. Here is an example of a finely decorated model (circa 1730), decorated with designs of sailors and sailboats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Château de Versailles</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The author of the pamphlet is fully aware of the implications of his pamphlet, “You will object that I will ruin a large number of Citizens.” Limiting the individual usage of horse-drawn cars would necessarily affect a whole section of the urban economy: the “wheelwrights, painters, leather-workers, saddlers, coachbuilders and farriers” but also “those renting out carriages, the coachmen […] and servants ”. He argues that by multiplying the number of sedan chairs, many new jobs would be created. More porters and craftsmen capable of manufacturing sedans would be needed. Savings would also be made by those having to pay for the food, care and stabling of horses. The stables themselves, occupying much of the habitable ground floor space of the capital, could be replaced by housing for “all our inhabitants living in mediocrity”. As to the courtyards, the pamphleteer suggests that their cobbles be removed and be replaced by lawn, vegetable gardens and orchards. Already, the car-free city pointed to another utopia, that of a <a href="http://www.champ-vallon.com/charles-francois-mathis-emilie-anne-pepy-la-ville-vegetale/">leafier, greener city</a>.</p>
<h2>The invention of the sidewalk</h2>
<p>The anonymous citizen – who was also an anglophile – further proposed to generalise the construction of sidewalks, as these existed in London. He called for each new street to include a “sidewalk not be less than four feet wide”, about 130cm. Because the proposal was perceived as difficult to implement economically and politically, and potentially socially explosive, it was never discussed in the National Assembly. </p>
<p>This idea fared better in history, however, and suggests that the choice to develop cities by separating the flows of cars and pedestrians, and by reserving for the latter a portion of the street, was favoured very early by urban governance policies.</p>
<p>Under the Romans, for example, sidewalks existed, but gradually disappeared during the Middle Ages, as their layout was considered too restrictive for medieval cities. London and the larger English cities were the first in Europe to replace the medieval road stones and ramparts with sidewalks during the end the 17th century. In Mexico City, about 10 km of sidewalk were built in the 1790s.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236072/original/file-20180912-133901-nlhhjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">View of a newly built street of Mexico City. Colour map drawn in 1794 and kept at the General Archives of the Nation (Mexico). The sidewalks are designated on the image as _banquetas_.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the time that the “Motion against Coaches and Cabs” came into print, <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/aru_0180-930x_1992_num_57_1_1696">sidewalks were almost totally absent from Paris</a>, and existed only along the Pont Neuf, the Pont Royal and the Odeon. During the 19th century, they became more numerous, especially in the city centre. The suburbs were serious under-equipped until the early 20th century, </p>
<p>Since their generalisation, sidewalks have saved the lives of millions of city dwellers throughout the world. However, the full history of the relationship between pedestrians and cars in the city remains to be written.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The text was translated from the original French by Stephan Kraitsowits.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105597/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arnaud Exbalin ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
The debate over the place of cars in cities may seem recent, but pamphlets published during the French Revolution show that the battle was raging before the first automobile even saw the light of day.
Arnaud Exbalin, Maître de conférence, histoire, Labex Tepsis – Mondes Américains (EHESS), Université Paris Nanterre – Université Paris Lumières
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/103583
2018-10-02T10:17:45Z
2018-10-02T10:17:45Z
Safe, efficient self-driving cars could block walkable, livable communities
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237812/original/file-20180924-85755-am5noe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3872%2C2590&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When cyclists take over road lanes, self-driving cars will operate less efficiently.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/environmentally-conscious-bikers-traffic-san-francisco-5841169">Can Balcioglu/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Almost exactly a decade ago, I was cycling in a bike lane when a car hit me from behind. Luckily, I suffered only a couple bruised ribs and some road rash. But ever since, I have felt my pulse rise when I hear a car coming up behind my bike. </p>
<p>As self-driving cars roll out, they’re already being billed as making me – and <a href="https://money.cnn.com/2018/03/21/technology/self-driving-car-safety/">millions of American cyclists</a>, pedestrians and vehicle passengers – safer.</p>
<p>As a driver and a cyclist, I initially welcomed the idea of self-driving cars that could detect nearby people and <a href="https://theconversation.com/finding-trust-and-understanding-in-autonomous-technologies-70245">be programmed not to hit them</a>, making the streets safer for everyone. Autonomous vehicles also seemed to provide attractive ways to use roads more efficiently and reduce the need for parking in our communities. People are certainly talking about how <a href="https://works.bepress.com/williamriggs/95/">self-driving cars could help build more sustainable</a>, livable, walkable and bikable communities.</p>
<p>But as an urban planner and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kNoHPjEAAAAJ&hl=en">transportation scholar</a> who, like most people in my field, has paid close attention to the discussion around driverless cars, I have come to understand that autonomous vehicles will not complement modern urban planning goals of building people-centered communities. In fact, I think they’re mutually exclusive: We can have a world of safe, efficient, driverless cars, or we can have a world where people can walk, bike and take transit in high-quality, human-scaled communities.</p>
<h2>Changing humans’ behavior</h2>
<p>These days, with human-driven cars all over the place, I choose my riding routes and behavior carefully: I much prefer to ride on low-speed traffic, low-traffic roads, <a href="https://nacto.org/publication/urban-bikeway-design-guide/bike-lanes/buffered-bike-lanes/">buffered bike lanes</a> or off-street bike paths whenever possible, even if it means going substantially out of my way. That’s because I’m scared of what a human driver – through error, ignorance, inattention or even malice – might do to me on tougher roads.</p>
<p>But in a hypothetical future in which all cars are autonomous, maybe I’ll make different choices? So long as I’m confident self-driving cars will at least try to avoid killing me on my bike, I’ll take the most direct route to my destination, on roads that I consider much too dangerous to ride on today. I won’t need to worry about drivers because the technology will protect me.</p>
<p><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transportation/self-driving/the-big-problem-with-selfdriving-cars-is-people">Driverless cars will level the playing field</a>: I’ll finally be able to ride where I am comfortable in a lane, rather than in the gutter – and pedal at a comfortable speed for myself rather than racing to keep up with, or get out of the way of, other riders or vehicles. I can even see riding with my kids on roads, instead of driving somewhere safe to ride like a park (of course, this is all still assuming driverless cars will eventually figure out <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/uber-driverless-fatality.html">how to avoid killing cyclists</a>). </p>
<p>To bikers and people interested in vibrant communities, this sounds great. I’m sure I won’t be the only cyclist who makes these choices. But that actually becomes a problem.</p>
<h2>The tragedy of the commons</h2>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/lincolncitynebraska">midsize midwestern college town</a> I call home, estimates suggest <a href="https://journalstar.com/news/local/taking-it-to-the-streets-city-wants-help-from-cyclists/article_920dab95-f555-5c13-9b63-3ef8f7689dd8.html">about 4,000 people commute by bike</a>. That might not sound like many, but consider the traffic backups that would result if even just a few hundred cyclists went out at rush hour and rode at leisurely speeds on the half-dozen arterial roads in my city. </p>
<p>Technology optimists might suggest that driverless cars will be able to pass cyclists more safely and efficiently. They might also be directed to use other roads that are less clogged, though <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/24/nyregion/traffic-apps-gps-neighborhoods.html">that carries its own risks</a>.</p>
<p>But what happens if it’s a lovely spring afternoon and all those 4,000 bike commuters are riding, in addition to a few thousand kids and teenagers running, riding or skating down my local roads? Some might even try to <a href="https://jalopnik.com/heres-how-to-prank-autonomous-cars-when-they-come-874123410">disrupt the flow of traffic</a> by walking back and forth in the road or even just standing and texting, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-pedestrians-will-defeat-autonomous-vehicles/">confident the cars will not hit them</a>. It’s easy to see how good driverless cars will enable people to <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2016/11/how-driverless-cars-could-empower-pedestrians/506132/">enjoy those previously terrifying streets</a>, but it also demonstrates that safety for people and efficiency for cars can’t happen at the same time.</p>
<h2>People versus cars</h2>
<p>It’s not hard to imagine a situation where driverless cars can’t get anywhere efficiently – except late at night or early in the morning. That’s the sort of problem policy scholars enjoy working on, trying to engineer ways for people and technology to get along better.</p>
<p>One proposed solution would <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/jun/14/street-wars-2035-cyclists-driverless-cars-autonomous-vehicles">put cars and bicycles on different areas of the streets</a>, or transform certain streets into “autonomous only” thoroughfares. But I question the logic of undertaking massive road-building projects when many cities today <a href="https://www.wired.com/2016/07/cash-strapped-towns-un-paving-roads-cant-afford-fix/">struggle to afford basic maintenance of their existing streets</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237813/original/file-20180924-85755-1gbq862.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Separated bike lanes are one possible way to prevent conflicts between cyclists and vehicles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/new-york-city-usa-may-19-213014269">T photography/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An alternative could be to simply make new rules governing how people should behave around autonomous vehicles. Similar rules exist already: <a href="https://bikeleague.org/StateBikeLaws">Bikes aren’t allowed on most freeways</a>, and <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/pedestrian-crossing-50-state-summary.aspx">jaywalking is illegal</a> across most of the U.S.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-16/to-get-ready-for-robot-driving-some-want-to-reprogram-pedestrians">Regulating people instead of cars</a> would be cheaper than designing and building new streets. It would also help work around some of the technical problems of teaching driverless cars to avoid every possible danger – or even just <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/cars-that-think/transportation/self-driving/the-selfdriving-cars-bicycle-problem">learning to recognize bicycles</a> in the first place.</p>
<p>However, telling people what they can and can’t do in the streets raises a key problem. In vibrant communities, roads are public property, which everyone can use for transportation, of course – but also for <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/20/us/california-today-street-vending-legal.html">commerce</a>, civil discourse and even <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/07/13/why-highways-have-become-the-center-of-civil-rights-protest/">civil disobedience</a>. Most of the U.S., however, appears to have implicitly decided that streets are primarily for moving cars quickly from one place to another. </p>
<p>There might be an argument for driverless cars in rural areas, or for <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2016/10/self-driving-cars-are-going-to-beat-up-on-trains-too/502430/">intercity travel</a>, but in cities, if driverless cars merely replace human-driven vehicles, then communities won’t change much, or they may become even more car-dependent. If people choose to prioritize road safety over all other factors, that will shift how people use roads, sidewalks and other public ways. But then autonomous vehicles will never be particularly efficient or convenient.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103583/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Piatkowski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Autonomous cars and people-centered communities are mutually exclusive, writes a cyclist and transportation scholar.
Daniel Piatkowski, Assistant Professor of Community and Regional Planning, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/99654
2018-07-18T10:40:36Z
2018-07-18T10:40:36Z
Electric scooters on collision course with pedestrians and lawmakers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228069/original/file-20180717-44076-7conxy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A man in downtown Atlanta with an electric scooter on June 26, 2018. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Georgia-Hands-Free-Driving/843216a037a2436dbeefc897da93a8ae/67/0">Brinley Hineman/ AP Photo</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Electric scooters are appearing in many major cities across the country, bringing fun to riders, profits to scooter makers – and lots of potential risks to walkers and riders. </p>
<p>San Diego, where I live, is at the forefront of the proliferation of electric rideables, and as a physical activity researcher I am an interested observer. Recently, I was enjoying a stroll on the boardwalk when a couple of electric scooters zoomed past. As I saw a young girl start walking across the boardwalk, another scooter zipped by, and I could tell it would not be able to stop in time. The young woman riding the scooter was able to act quickly. Instead of crashing into the girl at full speed, she fell down with the scooter and slid to a stop. There was a crash and minor injuries to the rider, but a tragedy was avoided. </p>
<p>I consider this event a warning about the dangers posed by the electric vehicles that have rapidly become commonplace on local boardwalks and sidewalks. An <a href="http://www.latimes.com/opinion/readersreact/la-ol-le-bird-scooters-dangerous-20180708-story.html">online search</a> will reveal <a href="https://www.tennessean.com/story/money/2018/05/15/scooter-accident-poses-reputational-risk-birds-nashville-presence/608913002/">many reports</a> of injuries. A Dallas woman went to the emergency room for head injuries the week of July 9, and officials in Nashville are considering legislation there that would require registration for scooters.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sPzsfuUljFE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A Dallas woman wrecked an electric scooter in the city’s Uptown district in July 2018.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several issues emerge from this new mode of transportation, including whether riders should be required to wear helmets and whether the vehicles should be allowed on sidewalks. And, should drivers be permitted to use them while under the influence? I want to warn local government leaders, electric-rideable companies, and users of sidewalks about the three ways that electric scooters can harm health. </p>
<h2>How electric rideables can harm health</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228061/original/file-20180717-44082-glr5px.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scooters and pedestrians share a path in San Diego.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jim Sallis</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Have the rideables come to your neighborhood yet? They will. A market research company predicted <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/electric-scooters-market">electric scooters</a> alone will grow from a US$14 billion global market in 2014 to $37 billion in 2024. Bird and Lime, the two biggest scooter makers and both based in California, have placed scooters in nearly 30 U.S. cities in recent months, leasing them to riders seeking a thrill – or an alternative to ride-sharing.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.chipin.com/best-rideables-review/">many variations</a> of one-, two-, three- and four-wheeled vehicles that share one major flaw. They all go too fast. <a href="https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/best-electric-scooters/">Scooters go 15 mph</a>, and electric skateboards, mini-motorcycles and one-wheeled devices can go faster. </p>
<p>The problem is that pedestrians walk 3-4 miles per hour, or slower. This means scooters are traveling four times as fast. If there is a clear path, the riders are going at full speed, because that is where the fun and thrills are. But considering the speed, weight of the devices and weight of the rider (sometimes two riders), the result is a dangerous force. </p>
<p>In a collision, the pedestrian will always be the loser. Putting these speeding motorized vehicles alongside pedestrians is a disaster waiting to happen. I could not find much data on injuries from electric rideables, but a study using the U.S. National Electronic Injury Surveillance System reported <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2018/03/22/peds.2017-1253">26,854 injuries</a> to children from <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/hoverboard-injuries-26000-children-hurt-in-first-2-years-of-sale/">hoverboards</a> alone in 2015 and 2016. </p>
<p>A second way that electric rideables can harm health is by reducing walking. Ads for the devices claim they reduce car trips and <a href="https://www.bird.co/">carry public transit riders the first and last mile</a> of trips. </p>
<p>But do they? I challenge the companies to provide evidence about this. Based on my observations, the devices mainly replace walking with riding. And it is well documented that low physical activity is one of the biggest health threats worldwide, being a major contributor to <a href="https://health.gov/paguidelines/second-edition/report.aspx">epidemics of obesity</a>, diabetes, heart disease, cancers, dementia, etc. </p>
<p>The third way electric rideables can harm health is by making sidewalks hostile territory for pedestrians. Though scooters and other rideables are not allowed on the sidewalks, almost all the rides I see are occurring on sidewalks. If speeding electric vehicles become common on sidewalks, then I predict pedestrians will stay away. Our research group based at University of California, San Diego has shown that the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140517301639">better sidewalks</a> and street crossings are designed for pedestrian safety and comfort, the more people of all ages walk for transportation. </p>
<p>Thus, I am concerned that competing with electric vehicles will make sidewalks less safe and comfortable for pedestrians. The U.S. already has among the <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/jpah.5.6.795">lowest rates of walking</a> and bicycling for transportation in the world. Will we now turn over the sidewalks to electric vehicles and further reduce our activity levels? </p>
<p>Walking is already too dangerous. About <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-pedestrian-deaths-near-6-000-for-second-straight-year-report-says-1519846278">6,000 pedestrians were killed</a> in 2017. The <a href="https://www.ghsa.org">Governors Highway Safety Association</a> reported that the number of pedestrian fatalities <a href="https://www.ghsa.org/sites/default/files/2018-02/pedestrians18.pdf">increased 27 percent</a> from 2007 to 2016, while at the same time, all other traffic deaths decreased by 14 percent. Clearly, the roads are not safe for pedestrians, so shouldn’t we protect sidewalks as a safe place for walking?</p>
<h2>A quick fix: Slow things down</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228063/original/file-20180717-44085-1vcphch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If it seems like scooters are everywhere, it’s because they are springing up in cities, such as seen here in Milwaukee on July 12, 2018, across the country.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Dockless-Scooter-Scuffle/c5c8c9ba9b5c4f379724c6e716d0a0a4/2/0">Carrie Antifinger/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-pedestrian-deaths-near-6-000-for-second-straight-year-report-says-1519846278">Local governments</a> are actively working on responses to this obvious new danger. The first step in San Diego has been to enforce requirements for helmets, speed and single riders on the boardwalk. I have seen no such enforcement on sidewalks just a couple of blocks away. This <a href="http://www.dailyinfographic.com/electric-rideables">infographic</a> with safety instructions for electric rideable use is a good start to education for riders. </p>
<p>I have some further recommendations that will support safe use of electric rideables while improving conditions for walking and bicycling. </p>
<p>Let’s start by declaring sidewalks the domain of pedestrians, with motorized devices limited to those used by people with disabilities (#sidewalks4pedestrians). At least on sidewalks, the rights of pedestrians should come before the rights of vehicle riders. </p>
<p>Electric rideables should be allowed wherever bicycles are legal, which are bike facilities, lanes, protected bike paths and on the streets, but not on sidewalks. But there’s a problem with bikes and rideables on the streets – riding on the streets is not as safe as it could be on bicycles or rideables.</p>
<p>I envision a win-win scenario in which electric vehicle companies and bicycle advocates join together to advocate for rapidly building networks of protected bicycle facilities that can also be used by rideables. Most U.S. cities are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856411000474;%20https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/livable-communities/documents-2016/2016-WalkingBicyclingBenchmarkingReport.pdf">unsafe for bicycling</a>, so improvements are needed. Some of the electric rideable companies have <a href="http://fortune.com/2018/05/30/bird-scooter-funding/">market values of more than $1 billion</a>, so they have the capacity to lobby cities for infrastructure that will safely accommodate their products. </p>
<p>I expect bicycle, pedestrian, health and environmental advocates would be happy to work with electric rideable companies to achieve long-sought goals for safe bicycling that are likely to produce more bicycling, less traffic congestion, fewer carbon emissions and healthier people. The electric rideable phenomenon is very new but growing rapidly, so the need for research on electric rideables is as urgent as the need for action. We need evidence to guide policies that will ensure electric rideables do not harm health and will possibly improve health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99654/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jim Sallis receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. He is an Advisor for America Walks and on the Board of Directors of Rails-to-Trails Conservancy. </span></em></p>
Electric rideables are making life less comfortable and more dangerous for pedestrians. Here’s how makers of rideables could help make cities safer for everybody.
James F Sallis, Professorial Fellow, Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University; Emeritus Professor, Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/98886
2018-06-26T14:03:29Z
2018-06-26T14:03:29Z
Does pushing the ‘walk’ button help you cross the street faster? A transport engineer weighs in
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224888/original/file-20180626-112644-1v8l4f6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=81%2C94%2C2866%2C1907&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-standing-zebra-crossing-traffic-light-1103999405?src=AMInDgJ_CuZ4v8ddSxzs2A-1-45">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>According to an <a href="http://cityobservatory.org/introducing-the-pedestrian-pain-index/">American study</a>, people spend around 1.6 billion hours each year standing idly at the roadside, at the cost of US$2.6 billion to the American economy. With all this waiting around, it’s only natural to question whether pushing the “walk” button will help us get to our destination sooner.</p>
<p>To answer this question, we need to understand how the traffic lights work. Strict rules are applied within traffic control hardware to decrease the risk of collisions. For example, minimum times are set between one green light and the next, to ensure that vehicles can clear the junction safely.</p>
<p>While these timings are very important, they can place constraints on the operational efficiency of the junction. If you have ever driven through a city in the early hours of the morning, you’ll know exactly what this means. Despite there being practically no traffic on the road, you will still find yourself frequently stopping at red lights and waiting what can seem like an age for the lights to go green again.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224916/original/file-20180626-112634-1vkvvpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sign of frustration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lanier67/6789997712/sizes/l">lanier67/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Transport authorities recognise that delay is bad for all users. Idling vehicles contribute to air pollution, and making pedestrians wait does nothing to help <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/press-releases/mayoral/strategy-for-the-future-of-londons-transport">government targets</a> to increase the number of trips made on foot. Some towns and cities, such as Drachten in the Netherlands, are even experimenting by <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cars/comment/traffic-lights-cause-more-harm-than-good/">removing traffic lights</a>, to improve traffic flow. But in most places, the approach is to ensure traffic lights respond to the demands of those present, within the shortest time possible.</p>
<h2>Meeting demand</h2>
<p>For a simple pedestrian crossing, located away from a junction, the approach for dealing with pedestrian and traffic demands is simple. Press the button, and the green man or light will appear in due course. How long you wait is a function of how long ago the crossing was last activated, the volume of approaching traffic and the policy of the transport authority. </p>
<p>Many authorities now prioritise pedestrians, meaning that provided a certain time has elapsed since the last demand for the crossing, the green man will appear almost immediately. If the button is not pressed, traffic will simply continue to flow indefinitely.</p>
<p>At an intersection, the situation depends on the design of the junction and the country you are in. In the UK and Ireland, most urban junctions with simple layouts operate on an “all stop” principle. In this case, traffic on all approaches to the junction is brought to a standstill to allow pedestrians to cross. Like the basic pedestrian crossing, someone must have pressed the button, otherwise the green man will be skipped to reduce delays. </p>
<p>But there is a second junction type, which includes what are known as “parallel” or “walk-with-traffic” pedestrian crossings. In the UK and Ireland, this is achieved on more complex junctions through clever separation of traffic lanes and turning movements, allowing pedestrians to cross while traffic continues to flow. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224936/original/file-20180626-112601-bj297i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crossing in harmony.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rthakrar/5921367906/sizes/l">rthakrar/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In continental Europe and cities such as <a href="http://safeny.ny.gov/peds-ndx.htm">New York</a>, and in other parts of the world, different traffic rules apply, meaning drivers must give way to pedestrians when turning. This makes it easy to implement parallel pedestrian crossings, on even the most basic junctions.</p>
<p>For these junction types, as the pedestrian demands are served at the same time as traffic, in most cases the green man will usually appear regardless of whether the button has been pressed. The only time the button may need to be pushed is during periods of very low traffic volumes, or where the pedestrian crossing – if unused – would inhibit the efficiency of the junction.</p>
<p>At all crossings though, the button only ever needs to be pushed once. Due to the operational rules, pressing it many times or holding it in will not make the green man appear any sooner - even if it may seem that way when you’re in a rush.</p>
<h2>To wait or not to wait?</h2>
<p>Faced with the prospect of a stand off with the dreaded red man, the impatient pedestrian has a couple of options. Due to the absence of jaywalking laws, many Britons choose simply to cross the road anyway (hopefully only when it is safe to do so). But in places such as Germany, it is the law and the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatlife/10599631/Why-the-green-man-is-king-in-Germany.html">cultural norm</a> to wait for the green man, regardless of traffic - or indeed the lack of it. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Oe3TsxVSnpg?wmode=transparent&start=23" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>With all this waiting around, it is perhaps unsurprising that the ever-pragmatic Germans have come up with a way of killing time, through the installation of push-buttons featuring miniature <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/german-traffic-lights-fitted-with-actual-pong-games-for-pedestrians-to-play-while-they-wait-9908950.html">video games</a> at certain locations.</p>
<p>So the next time you find yourself waiting at a crossing, perhaps rather than fuming at the delay, try to think of ways to make the most of it. But don’t forget to press the button – just in case.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Llewellyn receives funding from Transport Scotland in ongoing research work. He is affiliated with Chartered Institution of Highways and Transportation.</span></em></p>
A lecturer in transport engineering weighs in on one of the greatest debates of our time.
Richard Llewellyn, Lecturer in Transportation Engineering, Edinburgh Napier University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/92178
2018-06-11T04:40:26Z
2018-06-11T04:40:26Z
We can design better intersections that are safer for all users
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/221300/original/file-20180601-69511-1r0hldw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When cars, trucks, bikes and pedestrians come together at an intersection, design makes the difference between collisions and safety.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pxhere.com/en/photo/919042">pxhere</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is the sixth article in our series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/moving-the-masses-54500">Moving the Masses</a>, about managing the flow of crowds of individuals, be they drivers or pedestrians, shoppers or commuters, birds or ants.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>A major issue for road safety is collisions at intersections between vehicles and vulnerable road users such as <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-25/every-road-death-in-australia-since-1989/9353794">cyclists, motorcyclists and pedestrians</a>. </p>
<p>In such collisions, often the driver is momentarily unaware of either the vulnerable road user or of their planned path through the intersection. While many factors can cause this lack of “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_awareness">situation awareness</a>”, the design of the intersection is critical. With numbers of vulnerable road users increasing, how intersections are designed requires urgent attention.</p>
<h2>The status quo</h2>
<p>If you look at the intersections in your local area, many appear to have been designed primarily with drivers and efficiency in mind. The designs show little consideration of the needs of vulnerable road users. Typically, we see high speed limits, no dedicated bicycle lanes through the intersection, no filtering lanes for motorcyclists, and short crossing times for pedestrians. </p>
<p>This can make it difficult for vulnerable road users to pass through safely. And critically, the lack of overt protection for these vulnerable users also reduces drivers’ expectation of encountering them. This can lead to something that we call a “looked-but-failed-to-see error”: drivers are not aware of vulnerable road users even though they may have looked at them (this phenomenon is explained <a href="http://acrs.org.au/files/arsrpe/RS060062.pdf">here</a>).</p>
<p>In response to these problems, we recently completed <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140139.2014.945491">research</a> using a series of on-road studies to understand:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>how different road users interact at intersections</p></li>
<li><p>what they need to know to support safe interactions. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Our next step involved using a sociotechnical systems-based design process to create new intersection design concepts. A sociotechnical system is any system in which humans and technology interact for a purposeful reason. Our aim was to develop a series of new intersection designs that better support the “situation awareness requirements” of all users. </p>
<h2>Understanding the diversity of users</h2>
<p>The most important finding from our on-road studies was that different road users experience the same intersection situations differently. Critically, these differences can create conflicts. </p>
<p>For example, drivers tend to be concerned with what is ahead of them, and specifically the status of the traffic lights. In contrast, cyclists and motorcyclists are concerned with working out a safe path and then filtering safely through the traffic. Thus, drivers who are not expecting them are often not aware of them or of what they might do next. </p>
<p>A key implication of our findings was that intersections should be designed to cater for the diverse situation awareness needs of all road users. The environment should facilitate safe interactions by ensuring that all road users are aware of each other and understand each others’ likely behaviours.</p>
<p>Based on this, we set about designing a series of new intersections using a sociotechnical systems design approach. Among other things this approach aims to create systems that have adaptive capacity and can cope with a diverse set of end user needs. </p>
<p>To achieve this, it proposes several core values, including that:</p>
<ul>
<li>humans should be treated as assets rather than unpredictable and error-prone</li>
<li>technology should be used as a tool to assist and not replace humans</li>
<li>design should consider the specific needs and preferences of different users. </li>
</ul>
<h2>Designs for better intersections</h2>
<p>We used these values as part of a participatory process to create three intersection design concepts. The design brief was to replace one of the intersections from the on-road studies (see below). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208829/original/file-20180304-65529-128eptt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1. Bird’s-eye view (above) and first-person view (below) of the intersection to be replaced with new design, Map data ©2012 Google.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208830/original/file-20180304-65507-1c8ysvm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we evaluated the designs with drivers, cyclists, motorcyclists and pedestrians, two of the designs performed best against key criteria: alignment with sociotechnical systems values, attainment of key intersection functions (such as to minimise collisions, maximise efficiency, maximise compliance, optimise flexibility), and user preferences. </p>
<p>The first design is known as the “turning team” design. It works on the premise that different road users could work effectively as a team when proceeding through the intersection. To do this the design aims to make drivers explicitly aware of other forms of road user (to connect the team) and provides each with a clear and dedicated path through the intersection. </p>
<p>Like all good teams whose members function based on different roles, the design aims to clear cyclists from the intersection before allowing motorised traffic to enter. Other features include a pedestrian crossing path wide enough to accommodate cyclists who are not comfortable with using the road, motorcyclist filtering lanes, and phasing of traffic lights based on road user type and direction of travel.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222295/original/file-20180608-137309-rgm9un.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The second design is the “circular” concept. It explicitly separates motorised and non-motorised traffic. A circular pathway around the intersection is provided for pedestrians and cyclists to use. This pathway links with cycle lanes running down the centre of the road, separated by a kerb from the roadway. </p>
<p>On the roadway, this design provides a separate bus lane and a motorcycle zone at the front of the intersection to encourage motorcyclists to filter to the front. Finally, the design incorporates signs warning motorists to be on the lookout for cyclists and for motorcyclists filtering through the traffic from behind.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1312&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222305/original/file-20180608-137315-1oxah81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1312&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The way forward for intersection design?</h2>
<p>The road transport systems of the future will be markedly different to those of today. Intersections will become intelligent, with the capacity to “talk” with vehicles, and driverless vehicles will negotiate intersections for us. </p>
<p>This is a long way off, however. In the shorter term, intersections will likely comprise a complex mix of standard vehicles, driverless vehicles and partially automated vehicles, as well as cyclists, motorcyclists, pedestrians, and perhaps new forms of vulnerable road user. Without change, intersections will continue to kill and injure at an unacceptable rate.</p>
<p>Our research provides important messages for how the intersections of the future should be designed. Designers should equally consider the needs of all users, rather than considering drivers first and the rest afterwards. Critically, this should extend to driverless vehicles and automated systems. What, for example, are the situation awareness needs of a fully driverless vehicle when negotiating an intersection? How can intersection design support these needs as well as those of human users?</p>
<p>Designers should not fall into the trap of assuming that all road users require the same information when negotiating intersections. While separating them physically, the intersection of the future should aim to connect its users cognitively.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>We would like to acknowledge our colleagues and collaborators who have contributed to this research, including Professor Mike Lenne, Associate Professor Guy Walker, Professor Neville Stanton, Dr Natassia Goode, Dr Nick Stevens and Dr Ashleigh Filtness.</em></p>
<p><em>You can find other articles in the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/moving-the-masses-54500">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92178/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Salmon receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gemma Read receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>
Collisions at intersections between motor vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians cause many deaths and injuries. Design that considers how each group approaches intersections improves everyone’s safety.
Paul Salmon, Professor of Human Factors, University of the Sunshine Coast
Gemma Read, Research Fellow in Human Factors & Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/92331
2018-03-27T10:41:23Z
2018-03-27T10:41:23Z
Self-driving cars can’t be perfectly safe – what’s good enough? 3 questions answered
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212038/original/file-20180326-188622-1f09cip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is it going to stop?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/futuristic-self-driving-car-waiting-when-489690373">marat marihal/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: On March 19, an Uber self-driving vehicle being tested in Arizona <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/uber-driverless-fatality.html">struck and killed Elaine Herzberg</a>, who was walking her bike across the street. This is the first time a self-driving vehicle has killed a pedestrian,
and it raises questions about the ethics of developing and testing
emerging technologies. Some answers will need to wait until the full investigation is complete. Even so, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=N_0jmg8AAAAJ&hl=en">Nicholas Evans</a>, a philosophy professor at the University of Massachusetts-Lowell who studies the ethics of autonomous vehicles’ decision-making processes, says some questions can be answered now.</em></p>
<h2>1. Could a human driver have avoided this crash?</h2>
<p>Probably so. It’s easy to think that most people would have trouble seeing a pedestrian crossing a road at night. But what’s already clear about this particular event is that the road <a href="https://arstechnica.com/cars/2018/03/police-chief-said-uber-victim-came-from-the-shadows-dont-believe-it/">was not as dark as the local police chief initially claimed</a>. </p>
<p>The chief also <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-20/video-shows-woman-stepped-suddenly-in-front-of-self-driving-uber">originally said</a> Herzberg suddenly stepped out into traffic in front of the car. However, the <a href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2018/03/video-uber-driver-looks-down-for-seconds-before-fatal-crash/">disturbing and alarming video footage</a> released by Uber and local authorities shows this isn’t true: Rather, Herzberg had already walked across one lane of the two-lane road, and was in the process of continuing the road-crossing when the Uber hit her. (The safety driver also didn’t notice the pedestrian, but video suggests <a href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2018/03/video-uber-driver-looks-down-for-seconds-before-fatal-crash/">the driver was looking down</a>, not through the windshield.)</p>
<p>A normal human driver, someone actively paying attention to the road, would likely have had little problem avoiding Herzberg: With headlights on while <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/uber-driverless-fatality.html">traveling 40 mph</a> on an actually dark road, it’s not difficult to avoid obstacles on a straightaway when they’re <a href="https://www.wsj.com/video/experts-break-down-the-self-driving-uber-crash/1E24A9B7-0B7B-4FA6-96BD-AD1889B921C5.html">100 or more</a> <a href="http://www.kylesconverter.com/speed-or-velocity/miles-per-hour-to-feet-per-second">feet ahead</a>, including people or wildlife trying to get across. This crash was avoidable.</p>
<p>One tragic implication of that fact is clear: A self-driving car killed a person. But there is a public significance too. At least this one Uber car drove itself on populated streets while unable to perform the crucial safety task of detecting a pedestrian, and braking or steering so as not to hit the person.</p>
<p>In the wake of Herzberg’s death, the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/23/technology/uber-self-driving-cars-arizona.html">safety and reliability of Uber’s self-driving cars</a> has come into question. It’s also worth examining the ethics: Just as Uber has been criticized for <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/uber-drivers-employment-tribunal-never-existed-a7385691.html">exploiting its drivers for profits</a>, the company may arguably be <a href="https://www.recode.net/2018/3/24/17159936/uber-self-driving-arizona-crash-report">exploiting the driving, riding and walking public</a> for its own research purposes.</p>
<h2>2. Even if this crash was avoidable, are self-driving cars still generally safer than human-driven cars?</h2>
<p>Not yet. The death toll on U.S. roads is indeed alarming: approximately <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/motor-vehicle-safety/index.html">32,000 deaths per year</a>. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/uber-driverless-fatality.html">federal estimate</a> is that 1.18 people die per 100 million road miles driven by humans. Uber’s cars only <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/23/technology/uber-self-driving-cars-arizona.html">drove 3 million miles</a>, however, before their first fatality. It’s not fair to do statistical analysis from a single point of data, but it’s not a great start: Companies should be aiming to make their robots at least as good as humans, if not yet fulfilling the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/04/25/elon-musk-teslas-autopilot-makes-accidents-50pc-less-likely/">promise of being significantly better</a>.</p>
<p>Even if Uber’s autonomous cars were better drivers, the numbers don’t tell the whole story. Of the 32,000 people who die on U.S. roads each year, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/motorvehiclesafety/pedestrian_safety/index.html">5,000 to 6,000 are pedestrians</a>. When aiming for safety improvements, should the goal be to reduce overall deaths – or to put special emphasis on protecting the most vulnerable victims? It’s certainly hypothetically possible to imagine a self-driving car system that cuts overall road deaths in half – to 16,000 – while doubling the pedestrian death rate – to 12,000. Overall, that might seem far better than human drivers – but not from the perspective of people walking along the nation’s roads!</p>
<p>My research group has been working to develop ethical decision frameworks for self-driving cars. One potential approach is called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-017-9419-3">maximin</a>.” Most fundamentally, that way of thinking suggests people designing autonomous vehicles – both physically and in terms of software that runs them – should identify the worst possible outcomes of any decision, even if rare, and work to minimize their effects. Anyone who has been unfortunate enough to be hit by a car both as a pedestrian and while in a vehicle knows that being on foot is far worse. Under maximin, people should design and test cars, among other things, to prioritize pedestrian safety.</p>
<p>Maximin probably isn’t the best possible – and certainly isn’t the only – moral decision theory to use. In some cases, the worst outcome could be avoided if a car never pulls out of its driveway! But maximin provides food for thought about how to integrate self-driving cars into daily life. Even if autonomous cars are always evaluated as safer than humans, what counts as “safer” matters very much.</p>
<h2>3. How much better should self-driving cars be than humans before the public accepts them?</h2>
<p>Even if people could agree on the ways in which self-driving cars should be safer than humans, it’s not clear that people should be okay with self-driving cars when they first become only barely better than humans. If anything, that’s when <a href="https://theconversation.com/before-hitting-the-road-self-driving-cars-should-have-to-pass-a-driving-test-90364">tests on city streets</a> should begin.</p>
<p>Consider a new drug developed by a pharmaceutical company. The company can’t market it as soon as it’s proven not to kill people who take it. Rather, the drug has to go through a <a href="https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/">series of tests proving it is effective</a> at treating the symptom or condition it’s intended to. Increasingly, drug tests seek to prove a medication is <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3345%2Fkjp.2012.55.11.403">significantly better</a> than what’s already on the market. People should expect the same with self-driving cars before companies put the public at risk.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/O1qw2pqkqR8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How should self-driving cars make decisions?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The crash in Arizona wasn’t just a tragedy. The failure to see a pedestrian in low light was an avoidable basic error for a self-driving car. Autonomous vehicles should be able to do much more than that before they’re allowed to be driven, even in tests, on the open road. Just like pharmaceutical companies, massive technology companies should be required to thoroughly – and ethically – test their systems before their self-driving cars serve or endanger the public.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92331/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas G. Evans receives funding from the National Science Foundation for Award 1734521, "Ethical Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles."</span></em></p>
In the wake of a self-driving Uber car killing a pedestrian in Arizona, an ethicist examines the state of autonomous vehicle development.
Nicholas G. Evans, Assistant Professor of Philosophy, UMass Lowell
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/87029
2017-11-10T12:06:56Z
2017-11-10T12:06:56Z
How to take the stress out of Europe’s busiest shopping street – rerouting traffic is just the first step
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193987/original/file-20171109-13296-vovmlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/giuliojiang/15888534216/sizes/l">Guilio Jiang/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every day, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com.au/london-ban-cars-oxford-street-mayor-sadiq-khan-2017-11">some 500,000 people</a> walk along Oxford Street in London – Europe’s <a href="http://content.tfl.gov.uk/londons-street-family-chapters-3-6-4.pdf">busiest shopping street</a>. Now, the city’s mayor, Sadiq Khan, has proposed a plan to divert buses and taxis on to other parallel roads and redesign Oxford Street specifically for pedestrian use. </p>
<p>The scheme is in the process of public consultation, but the idea is to have the western part of the street pedestrianised by December 2018, followed by the eastern section by 2019 and the remaining area around Marble Arch by 2020. So far, so good – but for me, simply making Oxford Street a thoroughfare for pedestrians does not go far enough. </p>
<p>If you take a stroll down Oxford Street today, pedestrians are generally trying to walk along it as fast as they can. Those who pause or dawdle are met with a huff of frustration from the person behind. And then, you see a pair of people standing and chatting. They are creating their own social space, to enjoy a conversation among the bustle of pedestrians. They are being human.</p>
<p>A street designated for pedestrians won’t have any vehicles on it, but it will still look and act like a street. If its design treats pedestrians like traffic, then they will behave like vehicles – rushing from A to B. Yet it is people, not pedestrians, who are the lifeblood of the city. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193990/original/file-20171109-13317-qtzv6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Human traffic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jepoirrier/6492719267/sizes/l">jepoirrier/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So, rather than becoming a street for pedestrians, Oxford Street should become a place for people – a place where people want to come and spend time, because it is a great space to pause, linger and simply be. </p>
<h2>Design places for people</h2>
<p>Renowned people-watchers, such as <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/science/05hall.html">anthropologist Edward T. Hall</a>, <a href="http://www.lincolninst.edu/publications/articles/holly-whyte">commentator Holly Whyte</a> and more recently <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/801431/jan-gehl-5-rules-for-designing-great-cities">architect Jan Gehl</a>, show that people define the spaces in which they feel they can socialise. </p>
<p>Human places also need soft edges: that is, boundaries defined not by walls, but by passable doors. Oxford Street is already full of doors on both sides, and the space between them is large enough to allow for lingering as well as movement. So there is potential to create a place which people can enjoy, rather than endure, as they make their way from one encounter to another. </p>
<p>In his <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/73818/the-hidden-dimension-by-edward-t-hall/9780385084765/">study of personal and social space</a>, Hall suggests that a comfortable distance for people chatting is between about <a href="https://laofutze.wordpress.com/2014/01/03/e-t-hall-proxemics-understanding-personal-space/">45cm to 120cm</a> – a theory which myself and other researchers are currently checking in <a href="https://www.cege.ucl.ac.uk/arg/pamela/Pages/PAMELA-home.aspx">our laboratory</a>. During our tests, we observed how a casual chat, evenly spread between three or four people, descended into a highly restricted, two-person encounter as background noise levels were increased. </p>
<p>So, for people to hear and see their companions in comfort, they need places of the right scale to stand, sit or lean, and a suitably low level of background noise. This requires street furniture and space to chat – as in Havana, where people come together to chat around 18th-century bronze cannons, which have been repurposed as bollards. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193996/original/file-20171109-13351-1f7a3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Room to play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mfmb_bentley/33315638131/sizes/l">mfmb_bentley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The bollards are a comfortable height for people to lean on and, as a result, the frontier between the pedestrianised city centre and the roads beyond is often full of people chatting and having coffee.</p>
<h2>Get rhythm</h2>
<p>Another way to make Oxford Street more people-friendly would be to unmask the rhythm of the street. Scholar Henri Lefevbre, in his book <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/rhythmanalysis-9781472507167/">Rhythmanalysis</a>, talked a lot about the rhythms of the city – some of these are audible, like the sound of footsteps, while others are visual, such as the vertical columns between shops. </p>
<p>The bustle of many people walking means that the rhythms of footsteps along Oxford Street are rather lost at the moment, making the space sound featureless. But they could be revealed <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ucl-press/browse-books/musical-cities">through design or even music</a>. People function at different speeds – from a lingering pause to a purposeful walk – but always with a distinct rhythm. Those rhythms can be captured in the way a place is designed – acoustically as well as visually – by offering people great spaces where they can choose to stop and chat, or simply walk on by. </p>
<p>Having this freedom can stimulate other spontaneous activities – taking a coffee, engaging in conversation, enjoying a performance, looking at art – which could help to generate the varied experience that a wide range of people would enjoy. Make the place work for people, rather than pedestrians, and it will do wonders for society. After all, unexpected encounters with strangers or acquaintances <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/26/opinion/sunday/hello-stranger.html?_r=0">have the power</a> to make people feel happier and more fulfilled. </p>
<p>Perhaps the mayor’s scheme should be to humanise Oxford Street, rather than pedestrianise it – to create a place for people, and not just a street for pedestrians.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87029/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Tyler receives funding from various Research Councils and the EU. </span></em></p>
It’s time to turn Oxford Street into a haven for walkers.
Nick Tyler, Chadwick Professor of Civil Engineering, UCL
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/86088
2017-11-02T19:56:33Z
2017-11-02T19:56:33Z
On-board computers and sensors could stop the next car-based attack
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193099/original/file-20171102-26478-orh4qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=116%2C121%2C2622%2C1778&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Existing cars can stop when they detect pedestrians.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/minsk-belarus-august-27-2017-mercedesbenz-704494690">Yauhen_D/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of car- and truck-based attacks <a href="https://www.apnews.com/a647dc1091d845a09dd3f6d297d995ec">around the world</a>, most recently in <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/10/31/us/new-york-shots-fired/index.html">New York City</a>, cities are scrambling to <a href="http://www.wwltv.com/news/local/orleans/is-bourbon-street-vulnerable-to-a-vehicle-attack/465473608">protect</a> <a href="http://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/secure-marine-drive-to-prevent-barcelona-like-vehicle-attack-mumbai-police-tell-bmc-state/story-a5frl1YdIUfZ1p0LEBajON.html">busy</a> <a href="http://www.campussafetymagazine.com/public/preventing_vehicle_terror_attacks_on_school_college_campus_bollards/">pedestrian</a> <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/london-bridge-attack">areas</a> and popular events. It’s <a href="https://www.garda.com/crisis24/news-alerts/53261/israelpalestinian-territories-attempted-vehicle-attack-in-west-bank-july-10">extremely difficult</a> to prevent <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/terrorism-charges-edmonton-attacks-1.4316450">vehicles</a> from <a href="https://www.apnews.com/a647dc1091d845a09dd3f6d297d995ec">being</a> <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/03/22/world/vehicles-as-weapons/index.html">used</a> <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/08/12/ohio-man-faces-charges-fatal-charlottesville-vehicle-attack/562760001/">as</a> <a href="http://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/08/09/at-least-6-injured-after-vehicle-slams-into-group-soldiers-in-paris-suburb-police-say.html">weapons</a>, but technology can help. </p>
<p>Right now, cities are trying to determine where and how to place <a href="http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/antivehicle-terrorism-measure-statues-and-bollards-vital-for-atrocity-prevention/news-story/6504984834bc77145546499c7d4bd158">statues</a>, <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/talon-london-met-police-hope-technology-can-stop-vehicle-terror-attacks-2017-9">spike strip nets</a> and <a href="https://www.lawfareblog.com/can-we-stop-terrorist-vehicular-attacks">other barriers</a> to protect crowds. Police departments are trying to <a href="http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/low-tech-terrorism-threat-vehicles-vehicle-assisted-attacks/">gather better advance intelligence</a> about potential threats, and <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4944752/Anti-terror-police-train-vehicle-attack-exercise.html">training officers to respond</a> – while regular people are seeking <a href="http://www.activeresponsetraining.net/10-tips-for-surviving-a-terrorist-vehicle-attack">advice for surviving</a> vehicle attacks.</p>
<p>These solutions aren’t enough: It’s impractical to put up physical barriers everywhere, and all but impossible to prevent would-be attackers from getting a vehicle. As a researcher of technologies for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/SYSOSE.2017.7994957">self-driving vehicles</a>, I see that potential solutions already exist, and are built into many vehicles on the road today. There are, however, ethical questions to weigh about who should control the vehicle – the driver behind the wheel or the computer system that perceives potential danger in the human’s actions.</p>
<h2>A computerized solution</h2>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/cars-with-advanced-safety-systems/">three-fourths of cars and trucks</a> surveyed by Consumer Reports in 2017 have forward-collision detection as either a standard or an optional feature. These vehicles can detect obstacles – including <a href="http://ares.lids.mit.edu/fm/documents/Intention-aware%20pedestrian%20avoidance.pdf">pedestrians</a> – and stop or <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/1302391/">avoid hitting them</a>. By 2022, emergency braking <a href="https://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle-Shoppers/Safety-Technology/aeb%E2%80%931">will be required</a> in all vehicles sold in the U.S.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/cars-with-advanced-safety-systems/">Safety features in today’s cars</a> include <a href="https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/lane-departure-warning/">lane-departure warnings</a>, <a href="https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/adaptive-cruise-control/">adaptive cruise control</a> and various types of <a href="https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/#forward-collision-prevention">collision avoidance</a>. All of these systems involve multiple sensors, such as radars and cameras, <a href="https://www.google.com/patents/US6919880">tracking what’s going on</a> <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/845377/">around the car</a>. Most of the time, they run passively, not communicating with the driver nor taking control of the car. But when <a href="https://www.google.com/patents/US8660734">certain events occur</a> – such as <a href="http://papers.nips.cc/paper/4773-convolutional-recursive-deep-learning-for-3d-object-classification.pdf">approaching a pedestrian or an obstacle</a> – these systems spring to life.</p>
<p>Warning systems can make a sound, alerting a driver that the car is <a href="https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/lane-departure-warning/">straying out of its lane</a>, either into oncoming traffic or perhaps off the road itself. They can even control the car, <a href="https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/adaptive-cruise-control/">adjusting speed</a> to maintain a safe distance from the car ahead. And <a href="https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/#forward-collision-prevention">collision avoidance systems</a> have a variety of capabilities, including audible alerts that require driver response, automatic emergency braking and even steering the car out of harm’s way.</p>
<p>Existing systems can <a href="http://papers.nips.cc/paper/4773-convolutional-recursive-deep-learning-for-3d-object-classification.pdf">identify the danger</a> and whether it’s headed toward the car (or if the car’s headed toward it). Enhancing these systems could help prevent various driving behaviors that are commonly used during attacks, but not in safe operations of a vehicle. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/WOQS4IKDlfE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Sensors and systems already on current cars can detect obstacles and avoid collisions.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Preventing collisions</h2>
<p>A typical driver seeks to avoid obstacles and particularly pedestrians. A driver using a car as a weapon does the opposite, aiming for people. Typical automobile collision-avoidance systems tend to handle this by alerting the driver and then, only at the last minute, taking control and applying the brakes.</p>
<p>Someone planning a vehicle attack may try to disable the electronics associated with those systems. It’s hard to defend against physical alteration of a car’s safety equipment, but manufacturers could prevent cars from starting or limit the speed and distance they can travel, if the vehicle detects tampering.</p>
<p>However, right now it’s relatively easy for a malicious driver to override safety features: Many vehicles assume that if the driver is actively steering the car or using the brake and accelerator pedals, the car is being controlled properly. In those situations, the safety systems don’t step in to slam on the brakes at all.</p>
<p>These sensors and systems <a href="http://papers.nips.cc/paper/4773-convolutional-recursive-deep-learning-for-3d-object-classification.pdf">can identify what’s in front of them</a>, which would help inform better decisions. To protect pedestrians from vehicle attacks, the system could be programmed to override the driver when humans are in the way. The existing technology could do this, but isn’t currently used that way.</p>
<p>It’s still possible to imagine a situation where the car would struggle to impose safety rules. For instance, a malicious driver could accelerate toward a crowd or an individual person so fast that the car’s brakes couldn’t stop it in time. A system that is specifically designed to stop driver attacks could be programmed to restrict vehicle speed below its ability to brake and steer, particularly on regular city streets and when pedestrians are nearby.</p>
<h2>A question of control</h2>
<p>This poses a difficult question: When the car and the driver have different intentions, which should ultimately be in control? A system designed to prevent vehicle attacks on crowds could cause problems for drivers in parades, if it mistook bystanders or other marchers as in danger. It could also prevent a car being surrounded by protesters or attackers from escaping. And military, police and emergency-response vehicles often need to be able to operate in or near crowds.</p>
<p>Striking the balance between machine and human control includes more than public policy and corporate planning. Individual car buyers may <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/cars-that-think/transportation/self-driving/people-want-driverless-cars-with-utilitarian-ethics-unless-theyre-a-passenger">choose not to purchase vehicles</a> that can override their decisions. <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-an-artificial-intelligence-researcher-fears-about-ai-78655">Many developers of artificial intelligence</a> also worry about malfunctions, particularly in systems that operate in the real physical world and can override human instructions. </p>
<p>Putting any type of computer system in charge of human safety raises fears of putting humans under the control of so-called “<a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/will-wiped-machine-overlords-maybe-need-game-plan-now">machine overlords</a>.” Different scenarios – particularly those beyond the limited case of a system that can stop vehicle attacks – may have different benefits and detriments in the long term.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Straub has received funding related to AI and robotics from the North Dakota State University, the NDSU Foundation and Alumni Association, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the University of North Dakota and Sigma Xi. The views presented are his own and do not necessarily represent the views of NDSU or funding agencies.</span></em></p>
Driver aid systems and self-driving vehicle control systems could override a driver who is trying to attack people and prevent tragedy.
Jeremy Straub, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, North Dakota State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/84938
2017-10-27T10:07:47Z
2017-10-27T10:07:47Z
Vanishing act: why pedestrians and cyclists disappear when it starts getting dark
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191378/original/file-20171023-1695-1ubql06.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/fr/image-photo/westminster-bridge-sunset-london-uk-536514895?src=_-Dbf4IqnjRuWPhAwqSVjg-1-9">Iakov Kalinin/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Picture the scene: it is 5:30pm on a Tuesday at the end of October and the streets are full of people walking and cycling home from work. The following week, at the same time, the number of walkers and cyclists has dropped by almost half. The only difference is the clocks have moved back one hour to mark the beginning of Daylight Saving Time.</p>
<p>Naturally, the number of people walking or cycling varies greatly at different times during the day. But twice every year, when the clocks change, researchers like myself get a rare opportunity to compare numbers of pedestrians and cyclists in the same hour of the day, but under different lighting conditions. This enables us to measure the impact that darkness has on how people choose to get around, while other influential factors such as the reason for travelling or the temperature remain largely unchanged.</p>
<p>Using <a href="http://www.bikearlington.com/counter-data/">open-source data</a> from automated pedestrian and cyclist counters in a United States district, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494417300762">my colleagues and I analysed</a> the number of pedestrians and cyclists in the same hour of the day, over a two-week period, both before and after the clocks changed. </p>
<p>Darkness effectively reduced the volume of pedestrians by 38% and the volume of cyclists by 27%, after taking into account any changes unrelated to light conditions. </p>
<h2>Night and day</h2>
<p>There are a number of reasons why people might prefer not to walk or cycle after dark. It’s more difficult to see the path when it’s dark and harder to spot potential trip hazards. Pedestrians <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1477153514522472">have to spend</a> more time looking down and are also <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1477153515602954">less likely to be able to detect</a> obstacles.</p>
<p>Darkness also makes it more difficult for walkers and cyclists to be seen by other road users. As a result, pedestrians are <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457517303202">1.7 times more likely</a> to be hit by a vehicle while using a pedestrian crossing at night, compared with during the day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191057/original/file-20171019-1045-kwdh3p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Example pedestrian crossing in daylight (left) and after-dark (right)</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another reason people may not choose to walk or cycle when it is dark is because they feel less safe. <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0013916592241002">One theory</a> suggests that people assess the safety of an environment based on three things: the ability to see clearly for a distance, the presence of features which could conceal a threat and the potential to escape from the area. Therefore, most places are likely to feel less safe at night, because we cannot see as well in the dark.</p>
<h2>Fighting the darkness</h2>
<p>Ideally, people should be encouraged to walk or cycle, even when it turns dark, because of the huge potential <a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-to-work-major-new-study-suggests-health-benefits-are-staggering-76292">health</a> and <a href="http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/abs/10.3141/2531-15">environmental</a> benefits. Of course, networks of public street lights have been combating darkness in cities since the 19th century, following the discovery of coal-gas as an illuminant by Scottish engineer <a href="http://scienceonstreets.phys.strath.ac.uk/new/William_Murdoch.html">William Murdoch</a>. Smoking his pipe beside a fire one night, Murdoch decided to put coal dust in the pipe and put it in the fire. The bright flame that emerged from the mouthpiece prompted the revelation of using gas as a light source.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1059&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1059&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191287/original/file-20171022-13961-xg0jte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1059&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">William Murdoch, pioneer of street gas-lighting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But it’s increasingly important to use street lighting effectively to avoid wasting energy and creating needless light pollution, which can have <a href="https://theconversation.com/light-pollution-is-bad-for-humans-but-may-be-even-worse-for-animals-31144">negative effects on plants and animals</a>. To that end, lots of research has been carried out to pinpoint the perfect level of lighting, which still enables pedestrians and cyclists to see effectively without wasting any energy. </p>
<p>Current guidelines for street lighting recommend average light levels of two to 15 lux, depending on the type of street. The evidence supporting these guidelines may be <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1477153511432678">flawed</a> however. The 2.5 GWh of energy used by street lighting every year may therefore be misplaced.</p>
<p><a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1477153515602954">Laboratory research</a> has been conducted to measure the impact of light spectrum and intensity on a pedestrian’s ability to detect a trip hazard. The study found that people are able to perceive a hazard with just two lux of illuminance. When the light was brighter than this, people did not get any better at detecting hazards. </p>
<p>The research also found that white light can be used at lower intensities, without affecting pedestrians’ visual performance. Similar results were found for <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1477153515625103">cyclists’ ability to detect hazards</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191059/original/file-20171019-1045-toezen.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experimental apparatus to assess effect of lighting on cyclists’ detection of a hazard in the road (Fotios, Qasem, Cheal & Uttley, 2017).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Building on work carried out in the <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/096032710003200205">US at the end of the 1990s</a>, our team at Sheffield University is also trying to identify lighting conditions which help people feel safe on the streets at night. The US research, carried out in parking lots, found that people felt safer when lights were brighter but that the benefits did not increase correspondingly as brightness increased. We are now verifying these findings on residential streets.</p>
<p>The change of the clocks this weekend – and the earlier onset of darkness – serves as a reminder of how significant daylight is to people’s everyday behaviour, particularly the way they choose to travel. Lighting can help us continue our day-to-day lives even when the sun goes down – and in this new age of highly controllable and efficient LED lighting it is tempting to assume “the more light the better”. </p>
<p>Identifying lighting conditions that meet our requirements without being excessive can help us save energy, reduce carbon emissions, reduce the ecological impact of our lighting and even <a href="https://www.insidescience.org/news/astronomers-encourage-cities-shield-outdoor-lighting">make astronomers happier</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84938/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jim Uttley receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), grant number EP/M02900X/1. </span></em></p>
The clock change’s impact on commuter numbers highlights the need to use street lighting more effectively.
Jim Uttley, Postdoctoral Researcher in Lighting and Environmental Psychology, University of Sheffield
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/84178
2017-10-03T10:11:35Z
2017-10-03T10:11:35Z
Governments, car companies must resolve their competing goals for self-driving cars
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/186422/original/file-20170918-8300-eu875i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When will cars be able to talk to their surroundings?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/self-driving-electronic-computer-car-on-559597045">posteriori/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What self-driving cars want, and what people want from them, varies widely. And often these desires are at odds with each other. For instance, carmakers – and the designers of the software that will run autonomous vehicles – know that it’s safest if cars stay far away from each other. But traffic engineers know that if every car operated to ensure lots of surrounding space, local roads and highways alike would be clogged for miles, and nobody would get anywhere.</p>
<p>Another inherent conflict involves how cars handle crises. No consumer wants to buy a self-driving car that’s programmed, even in the most remote of circumstances, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf2654">to kill its driver</a> instead of someone else (even if it would <a href="http://moralmachine.mit.edu/">save a class of kindergarteners</a> or a group of Nobel Prize winners). However, if every car is programmed always to save its occupants at any cost, <a href="https://www.wired.com/2016/06/self-driving-cars-will-power-kill-wont-conscience/">pedestrians and cyclists</a> are at risk. </p>
<p>As federal regulations for self-driving cars advance in <a href="http://www.post-gazette.com/business/tech-news/2017/09/06/The-SELF-DRIVE-Act-just-passed-the-U-S-House-here-s-what-that-means-for-autonomous-vehicles/stories/201709060138">congressional votes</a> and the <a href="https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.dot.gov/files/documents/13069a-ads2.0_090617_v9a_tag.pdf">U.S. Department of Transportation issues guidelines</a>, an important part of real progress will be how everyone involved approaches those inherent conflicts. Research at the <a href="http://www.transportation.institute.ufl.edu/">University of Florida Transportation Institute</a>, where I serve as the director, shows that the key to resolving these competitions of goals is communication among all the elements of the transportation network – cars, pedestrians, bicycles, guardrails, traffic lights, stop signs, roadways themselves and everything else. And if they’re all going to talk to each other, the people who make all those things need to talk to each other too. </p>
<p>Our institute is providing opportunities to do that. Our efforts include working with the Florida Department of Transportation and the City of Gainesville to <a href="https://www.demandstar.com/supplier/bids/Bid_Detail.asp?_PU=%2Fsupplier%2Fbids%2Fagency_inc%2Fbid_list%2Easp%3F_RF%3D1%26f%3Dsearch%26mi%3D10071&LP=BB&BI=331953">set up an autonomous shuttle</a> between the UF campus and downtown Gainesville and partnering with industry to create a <a href="http://www.transportation.institute.ufl.edu/research-2/istreet/">testing area for autonomous cars and other advanced transportation technologies</a> on campus roads and surrounding highways. But with so little coordination in today’s transportation world, there’s a long way to go.</p>
<h2>Problems large and small</h2>
<p>The road system in the U.S. has serious problems. Americans spend <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-traffic-study/u-s-commuters-spend-about-42-hours-a-year-stuck-in-traffic-jams-idUSKCN0QV0A820150826">more than 40 hours per year</a> stuck in traffic; <a href="https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/812412">more than 30,000 people die</a> each year in crashes on U.S. roads, making cars <a href="http://www.worldlifeexpectancy.com/usa-cause-of-death-by-age-and-gender">one of the leading causes of death</a> for Americans under the age of 64. These are serious problems, and <a href="http://www.automatedvehiclessymposium.org/home">many hope</a> that autonomous cars can help solve them.</p>
<p>Nationwide statistics can mask smaller issues, though. The country’s transportation system is full of examples where coordination and collaboration would be extremely helpful., and even where the individual components may work but the system overall isn’t as streamlined as it could be.</p>
<p>Many communities have major roads where <a href="http://www.twincities.com/2017/09/09/minnesota-36-commuters-to-get-20-more-seconds-of-green-and-whos-using-new-st-croix-bridge/">drivers have to stop unnecessarily</a> because <a href="http://news.mit.edu/2014/traffic-lights-theres-a-better-way-0707">traffic lights aren’t coordinated</a> among the different towns drivers pass through. And because different government agencies operate highways and local roads, when emergencies happen, drivers aren’t always <a href="https://waldo.villagesoup.com/p/officials-debrief-aug-2-traffic-nightmare/1684341">rerouted smoothly</a> or efficiently.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/186421/original/file-20170918-8236-4rojqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The city of Atlanta is one of many communities – including Gainesville, Florida – exploring the technology and effects of self-driving cars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Self-Driving-Cars/22319764d6d64e0286906b6d4eef15f2/2/0">AP Photo/Johnny Clark</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making a place for testing</h2>
<p>With the Florida Department of Transportation and the city of Gainesville, our institute is building what we’re calling <a href="http://www.transportation.institute.ufl.edu/research-2/istreet/">I-STREET, a testing infrastructure</a>
for autonomous vehicles and related technologies. As new components such as sensors and other monitoring equipment are installed on roads and highways in and around the university’s campus, researchers will be able to evaluate a range of advanced technologies. For instance, we’ll use cars that can talk to the other elements of the system, including each other, and can drive themselves on roads equipped with sensors to monitor traffic conditions.</p>
<p>In preliminary simulations, we have found real savings in travel time with self-driving vehicles that can communicate with their surroundings and adjust their paths on the go. For example, when self-driving cars and traffic lights can talk to each other, they can adjust cars’ speeds and the timing of red and green lights to help every car move more smoothly. Depending on the level of traffic and the number of self-driving cars mixed into human-driven traffic, travel times can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2014.10.001">drop by 16 to 36 percent</a>, which may save nearly a minute of delay per car.</p>
<p>On highways, a <a href="https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop14020/sec1.htm">major bottleneck happens around on-ramps</a>, where entering vehicles may have trouble finding openings in fast-moving traffic. When frustrated drivers force their way onto the road, nearby cars must brake abruptly and <a href="http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/breaking/bs-md-co-accident-death-20111228-story.html">may even crash</a>. I helped <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2017.04.015">develop an algorithm</a> that uses information from self-driving vehicles to plan optimal paths for them. It can tell the cars already on the highway to move to the leftmost lane, making room for entering vehicles. Our simulations show that everyone’s collective travel time can be reduced by as much as 35 percent for the area around the on-ramp, or about 40 seconds per vehicle when traffic is heavy.</p>
<p>This type of intercar communication, coupled with the involvement of road sensors on the highway and in the on-ramp, can be built only if governments, contractors and international car manufacturers work together. That can ensure not only that individual vehicles are safe but also that the entire traffic system functions efficiently.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84178/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lily Elefteriadou receives funding from Florida Department of Transportation, US DOT, NSF, and the National Cooperative Highway Research Program. She is affiliated with the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE), the Transportation Research Board, ITS America, and the Women in Transportation Seminar (WTS). She works for the University of Florida. </span></em></p>
If all the elements in the transportation system are going to talk to each other, the people at the companies and government agencies that make those items need to talk to each other too.
Lily Elefteriadou, Professor of Civil Engineering; Director of University of Florida Transportation Institute, University of Florida
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/72186
2017-03-08T01:24:11Z
2017-03-08T01:24:11Z
Contested spaces: a user’s guide to shared paths
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157056/original/image-20170216-27409-14zsyxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What can we do to avoid clashes between users of shared paths?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is the fourth article in our <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/contested-spaces-36316">Contested Spaces</a> series. These pieces look at the conflicting uses, expectations and norms that people bring to public spaces, the clashes that result and how we can resolve these.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Evidence suggests that transport modes (walking, cycling, public transport, private motor vehicles) <a href="http://www.victoriawalks.org.au/Assets/Files/FINAL-Shared-Paths-position-paper.pdf">should be separated</a> wherever possible. However, this isn’t always the case. </p>
<p>In all Australian states – <a href="https://www.bykbikes.com/riding-bikes-on-the-footpath-the-laws-for-kids-and-adults-in-australia/">except Victoria and New South Wales</a> (unless the rider is under 12 years of age, or accompanying someone who is) – cyclists are allowed on footpaths. This effectively makes every footpath a shared path. </p>
<p>The mix of pedestrians using shared paths varies greatly. So how is it that we don’t always run into each other? And what can we do to prevent clashes?</p>
<h2>Urban etiquette 101</h2>
<p>The golden rule of shared paths is that the person in the less vulnerable position should be mindful of the more vulnerable user.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=701&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=701&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=701&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159255/original/image-20170303-31706-1tbsynv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=881&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some path users, such as small children, are much more vulnerable than others.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-little-sisters-sitting-on-forest-567491263?src=1IdUsEELSrzOitTen4U3ww-1-15">KackaBlecha from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Think of it as a hierarchy: from cyclists, to adult pedestrians, to children and the elderly. </p>
<p>Not surprisingly, a lot of the basics stem from road rules. In general, try to stick to the left and overtake on the right. Check your blind spot before overtaking, keeping an eye out for faster-moving joggers or bicycle riders. Be courteous and respectful to others. </p>
<h2>Walkers</h2>
<p>The number of pedestrians walking on a path can vary dramatically, especially around high-traffic areas like shopping malls, parks or inner-city neighbourhoods. When it comes to etiquette, there are a number of considerations to keep in mind.</p>
<p>Walking two-abreast while chatting to a friend is only natural; nobody should expect pedestrians to walk single-file down a shared path. </p>
<p>If a busy shared path (especially in dense, inner-city neighbourhoods) isn’t wide enough for two people to walk side by side, it might be a good idea to write to your local council asking for some more space. </p>
<p>Cities around the world – <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/madrid-spain-is-banning-cars-from-its-crowded-city-center-a7514971.html">Madrid</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/sep/22/paris-ban-traffic-london-world-car-free-day">Paris</a>, <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com.au/oslo-bans-cars-from-its-city-center-2015-10?r=US&IR=T">Oslo</a> and <a href="http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/summerstreets/html/about/about.shtml">New York</a>, <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/cities-going-car-free-2016-8/?r=AU&IR=T/#mexico-city-hopes-to-ban-about-two-million-cars-from-the-city-center-9">among others</a> – have trialled replacing on-street parking and car lanes with spaces for walking, cycling and public transport.</p>
<p>Some cities, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/sep/15/china-mobile-phone-lane-distracted-walking-pedestrians">such as Chongqing, China</a>, have recently installed “mobile phone lanes” on shared paths. Using your phone while playing Pokemon Go is fine, so long as you remain mindful and considerate of those around you. Try to keep to the left, be aware of your surroundings, use your peripheral vision and look up regularly. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"510606611895705600"}"></div></p>
<h2>Dog walkers</h2>
<p>Try to keep your dog on a shorter leash while on a shared path. Cyclists and joggers can tend to sneak up on your dog and give them a fright.</p>
<p>Bring a poo bag (or two). There’s nothing worse than stepping in poo. </p>
<p>If your dog can be nervous or anxious around people, think about using a special lead or harness to warn others.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"816547901719580672"}"></div></p>
<h2>Parents with prams and kids</h2>
<p>Instilling the next generation with the common sense and confidence to actively use shared spaces will pave the way for their best possible use in the future. </p>
<p>Reinforce the importance of being courteous and respectful to others using the path. </p>
<p>Teach children to ask permission before patting a dog. Some dogs can be nervous, easily frightened, or can become aggressive.</p>
<p>Bikes, trikes and scooters are a great way for kids to enjoy an afternoon walk. </p>
<p>Don’t listen to the <a href="http://insight.racv.com.au/safety/wheels-mistake/">fear-mongering of some motoring organisations</a>. Using wheels is a great opportunity to teach kids how to be the active transport users of the future. </p>
<h2>Older users</h2>
<p>As we age, and in some cases become unable to drive, the use of shared paths (whether walking, using a wheelchair, or driving a mobility scooter) becomes increasingly important for independence. </p>
<p>Elderly pedestrians are <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-older-people-get-osteoporosis-and-have-falls-68145">susceptible to falls</a>. Be mindful of cracks and uneven paths. </p>
<p>Elderly pedestrians often walk more slowly and can take <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ageing/article/41/5/690/47318/Most-older-pedestrians-are-unable-to-cross-the">longer to cross roads</a>. They should use refuge islands if needed. </p>
<p>If a set of traffic lights in your local area doesn’t allow you <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140516302250?dgcid=raven_sd_aip_email">enough time to cross safely</a>, don’t be afraid to write to your local MP asking for the lights to be adjusted. </p>
<h2>Cyclists</h2>
<p>At the top of the hierarchy, cyclists need to be mindful of all other users of the path. </p>
<p>Cyclists should slow down, keep their fingers on the brake lever and remember they are in a less vulnerable position than pedestrians. They should afford the same courtesies to pedestrians that they expect of drivers while sharing the road.</p>
<p>Pedestrians are unpredictable and can change direction at any moment; children are even more unpredictable. When overtaking, cyclists should slow down and give a wide berth. If there’s not enough room to overtake, wait until it’s safe to do so.</p>
<p>Cyclists should watch out for people walking dogs. Approach as if the dog has enough slack to walk into your path; again, slow down and give a wide berth.</p>
<p>And if you’re in training for Le Tour de France, trying to beat your personal best time, the shared path probably isn’t for you.</p>
<h2>Contentious issues</h2>
<p>There are several signs reminding bicycle riders to use their bell when approaching pedestrians. The intention behind this message is one of courtesy. </p>
<p>However, a bell is often perceived (or used) as an act of aggression in the same way as a car horn might be – or the pedestrian might think they’re in the way, and try to get out of the way, but instead move into the cyclist’s path. This creates a hazard when there was previously none. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.news.com.au/technology/innovation/motoring/sydney-really-needs-to-learn-from-japans-cycling-culture/news-story/9498770e43c53156504211e500560c68">In Tokyo</a>, cyclists routinely ride along footpaths, weaving through pedestrians without using a bell. Don’t be afraid to use your voice. A smile and a gentle “Coming through” or “On your right” can be a pleasant way to interact with others.</p>
<p>Motorists are required to give way to pedestrians when crossing a footpath. When designed properly, small features can give each user cues about who is required to give way. </p>
<p>A poorly designed shared path – like the one in the first image below – suggests the pedestrian is crossing the path of the motorist. The footpath in the second image suggests the correct right of way, where the motorist is crossing the pedestrian’s path.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156539/original/image-20170213-23350-1cp9xc3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Charlotte Street in the Brisbane CBD offers cues to who has right of way on the footpath.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google Street View</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although some government authorities suggest you should <a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/safety-and-road-rules/pedestrian-safety/using-shared-paths">“make sure you can still hear others”</a>, there’s no difference between a deaf person using a shared path and someone listening to blaringly loud music. If it’s safe enough for the hearing-impaired, it’s safe enough for noise-cancelling headphones. </p>
<p>Be safe and have fun.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>You can read other pieces in the series as they are published <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/contested-spaces-36316">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72186/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jerome N Rachele receives funding from National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Centre of Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities (#1061404), and The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre (#9100001)</span></em></p>
The golden rule of shared paths is that the person in the less vulnerable position should be mindful of the more vulnerable user.
Jerome N Rachele, Research Fellow in Social Epidemiology, Institute for Health and Ageing, Australian Catholic University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/65225
2016-09-26T00:32:49Z
2016-09-26T00:32:49Z
Pedestrian safety needs to catch up to technology and put people before cars
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138372/original/image-20160920-16646-1n17b3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most road-safety initiatives prioritise a rapid clearing of the road so cars can pass.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thales/4384459855/in/photolist-7Frvar-nxi2Cv-apPzZy-7n93yC-6onEQ3-tXmjF-7nbjTX-7DoqaH-5YCE6X-HKEtVy-dwwwhN-HrtDH-pnPsSQ-7TgfzH-5E2ohh-47yipf-7xJqww-dhPMPb-7NUSRs-d9edjY-7eLzvb-nf4ioW-hXDE1y-nE8wtB-dCYiD7-t7Ztc-qFWesJ-nGcHNx-53GqGz-bH1tT8-4EXe5p-57UnTv-73ucwY-7vepYj-6Av1y7-cirDKY-5YHjxQ-47yiJ3-3Xnysz-u4WYS-6WUpy4-47yit3-rkDdxt-9nWxms-a6Edr-73FH1M-73q6NZ-pQBsfe-avJR4M-9rT19d">Thales/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One pedestrian is <a href="https://www.onlinepublications.austroads.com.au/items/AP-R510-16">killed every two days</a> on Australia’s roads, the majority in metropolitan areas. While advances in safety systems and technology over past decades have greatly improved driver and passenger safety, there has been relatively little new technology to ensure the safety of pedestrians. Even current innovations to improve pedestrian safety are still designed from a car-centric approach.</p>
<p>In many places walking is significantly <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457509000876">more dangerous than travelling by car</a>, despite mostly separated facilities and slower speeds than any other mode of travel. Worldwide, more than 270,000 pedestrians lose their lives on roads each year – 22% of all road traffic deaths.</p>
<p>Improvements in pedestrian safety are mainly byproducts of driver-focused policies such as random breath-testing and speed cameras. No doubt these reduce pedestrian fatalities, but are we relying too much on driver behaviour when a significant proportion of drivers are <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457514003972">unwilling to change</a>? </p>
<p>Despite 34 years of random breath testing in New South Wales, 12% of crashes in the state’s cities <a href="http://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/statistics/interactivecrashstats/nsw.html?tabnsw=2">involve alcohol</a>. Speed cameras have been in use in NSW for 25 years, but 33% of crashes in cities <a href="http://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/statistics/interactivecrashstats/nsw.html?tabnsw=2">still involve speeding</a>.</p>
<h2>Technology design focus is still on cars</h2>
<p>In spite of efforts to increase walking, Australian cities continue to be built with cars, rather than pedestrians, in mind. Australia is attempting to update traffic lights, which have shown little innovation since first introduced in the US in 1912. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/media-releases/counting-down-new-signal-trial-high-risk-pedestrian-intersections">Trials of countdown timers</a> are underway at major Sydney CBD crossings, such as Elizabeth Street in Sydney, and throughout Brisbane. But this technology is only exacerbating the problem. By encouraging people to make a “run for it” across an intersection, they put themselves at greater risk of an accident. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138373/original/image-20160920-11117-s551q1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Countdown timer at a pedestrian crossing in the Brisbane CBD.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Martin Tomitsch</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Neither the technology nor pedestrians are to blame for this. The issue is that these initiatives still take a car-centric perspective: they prioritise a rapid clearing of the road so cars can pass.</p>
<p>What matters to pedestrians is <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856403000612">how long they have to wait</a> until they can cross the road, but their needs are <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856403000612">often treated as an afterthought</a>. As urban populations continue to grow and age, it is critical to put people before cars. </p>
<p>Understanding people’s behaviour and needs is <a href="http://au.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470229101.html">at the heart of designing technology</a>. It’s what has led to new products and services that are disrupting industries and transforming our lives – whether it’s <a href="https://www.airbnb.com.au/">booking a hotel</a>, <a href="https://www.uber.com">catching a taxi</a> or <a href="https://www.netflix.com">watching TV</a>. But the roll-out of costly road safety systems seems to be lagging and ignoring this important principle. </p>
<p>Instead, we blame people for <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/life/smombies--zombies-on-smartphones--are-walking-into-accidents/news-story/8836ae43fbc574ea8a2053567b599561">texting while crossing roads</a> as the cause of pedestrian fatalities, despite a lack of crash data to support this. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.03.021">Evidence from hospitals</a> suggests talking on a mobile or listening to music is more dangerous for pedestrians.</p>
<p>Even then, it must be recognised that pedestrians die due to collisions with vehicles, not each other. Any safety solution must consider the way all road users interact with each other and infrastructure.</p>
<h2>New sensors aimed at pedestrian safety</h2>
<p>The car industry is slowly taking on this challenge by trialling new sensors that automatically stop the vehicle when approaching a pedestrian. </p>
<p>Safety systems that focus on the people around the car will become even more important as we move closer to a future of autonomous vehicles. Audi’s driverless concept car achieves this by using a display behind the windscreen that lets onlookers know that the car sees them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138375/original/image-20160920-16646-r4mzva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Audi’s driverless concept car has a display to show pedestrians that the car has seen them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fastcodesign.com/3054330/innovation-by-design/the-secret-ux-issues-that-will-make-or-break-autonomous-cars">Audi/www.fastcodesign.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>New sensors collect data about conditions and the movement of people and vehicles in cities. In 2014, Chicago announced it was installing 40 sensors, with plans for 1,000 over the next few years. In Australia, Melbourne has been installing and testing pedestrian-counting sensors since 2012. </p>
<p>At the same time algorithms are being developed to make sense of the massive amounts of data being collected and to assist cities in their decision-making and planning processes. </p>
<p>However, these systems are mostly designed for city and government authorities, instead of making data available to those using the city infrastructure. The technology exists to extract information from these data sources and transmit them in real time to whomever and wherever it is needed, but has yet to be utilised. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/183234813" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Pedestrian and car sensor data.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/it/innovation-hub/sydney-hack.shtml">A recent hackathon</a> at the University of Sydney, held in collaboration with the NSW government’s Data Analytics Centre, demonstrated the growing interest in finding solutions to pedestrian safety. </p>
<p>The data is there, but we need to identify and test solutions that bring a direct benefit to pedestrians. For example, it may be possible to warn drivers and/or pedestrians of an impending collision, recognising that all people make mistakes. </p>
<p>We require a more detailed study of which digital solutions will make our roads and cities safer. It’s important to understand people’s needs before rolling out these technologies on a large scale – whether it’s countdown timers or <a href="http://www.dezeen.com/2016/07/28/movie-buro-north-ground-level-traffic-lights-prevent-pedestrian-accidents-video/">traffic lights embedded in the road</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YEauBD7gaWs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An Australian proposal for ground-level traffic lights to prevent pedestrian accidents.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
In contrast to increases in vehicle safety over the decades, we have seen little new technology to ensure the safety of pedestrians – and current innovations are still based on a car-centric approach.
Martin Tomitsch, Associate Professor and Head of Design, University of Sydney
Adrian B. Ellison, Research Fellow, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.