tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/procrastination-7917/articlesProcrastination – The Conversation2023-07-07T12:28:53Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2052842023-07-07T12:28:53Z2023-07-07T12:28:53ZWhy putting off college math can be a good idea<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536324/original/file-20230707-17-tn5432.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C63%2C4944%2C3944&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that at least 17% of the population experiences high levels of math anxiety.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/student-solving-math-problems-royalty-free-image/695513286?phrase=college+math&adppopup=true">Emilija Manevska/Moment via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Putting off college math could improve the likelihood that students remain in college. But that may only be true as long as students don’t procrastinate more than one year. This is what colleagues and I found in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025120973949">study published in 2023</a> of 1,119 students at a public university for whom no remedial coursework was required during their first year. </p>
<p>Enrolling in a math course during the first semester of college resulted in students being four times more likely to drop out. Although delayed enrollment in a math course had benefits in the first year, its advantages vanished by the end of the second year. In our study, almost 40% of students who postponed the course beyond a year did not attempt it at all and failed to obtain a degree within six years. </p>
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<img alt="A student working on math equations with their calculator." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533575/original/file-20230622-21-rc9pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Math anxiety and procrastination can affect students’ decisions on taking math during their first year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/person-solving-math-equations-on-paper-with-royalty-free-image/1434696653?phrase=math&adppopup=true">Alex Walker/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Nearly 1.7 million students who recently graduated from high school will <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cpa/immediate-college-enrollment-rate">immediately enroll in college</a>. Math is a requirement for most degrees, but students aren’t always ready to do college-level math. By putting off college math for a year, it gives students time to adjust to college and prepare for more challenging coursework. </p>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.7916/D8MD0BD8">40% of four-year college students</a> must first take a remedial math course. This can <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/opepd/education-strategies.pdf">extend the time it takes to graduate</a> and increase the likelihood of dropping out. Our study did not apply to students who need remedial math. </p>
<p>For students who do not require remedial courses, some delay can be beneficial, but students’ past experiences in math can lead to avoidance of math courses. Many students experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00537-2">math anxiety</a>. Procrastination can be an <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/90357248/procrastination-is-an-emotional-problem">avoidance strategy</a> for managing fears about math. The fear of math for students may be a more significant barrier than their performance. </p>
<p>It is estimated that <a href="https://www.usnews.com/education/k12/articles/tackling-math-anxiety">at least 17%</a> of the population will likely experience high levels of math anxiety. Math anxiety can lead to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282908330580">drop in math performance</a>. It can also lead to avoiding majors and career paths involving math. </p>
<p>Our study fills the void in research on the effects of how soon students take college-level math courses. It also supports prior evidence that students benefit from a <a href="https://sc.edu/about/offices_and_divisions/national_resource_center/publications/search/details.php?id=2408onnect.com">mix of coursework</a> that is challenging yet not overwhelming as they transition to college. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>We believe colleges need to better promote student confidence in math by examining how <a href="https://www.bestcolleges.com/blog/why-take-a-first-year-seminar/">student success courses</a> can reduce math anxiety. Student success courses provide students with study skills, note-taking skills, goal setting, time management and stress management, as well as career and financial decision making to support the transition to college. Although student success courses are a <a href="https://www.aacu.org/trending-topics/high-impact">proven practice</a> that help students stick with college, rarely do these courses address students’ fear of math. </p>
<p>Students are at the greatest risk of <a href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/11883667">dropping out</a> of college during their first year. <a href="https://blog.ed.gov/2022/08/the-importance-of-academic-advising-in-higher-education/">Advisors</a> play a crucial role in providing students with resources for success. This includes recommendations on what courses to take and when to take them. More research is also needed about how advisors can effectively communicate the impact of when math is taken by students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Forrest Lane has received funding from the Greater Texas Foundation. </span></em></p>College students can benefit from not taking math courses in their freshman year, new research shows.Forrest Lane, Associate Dean and Professor of Educational Research, Sam Houston State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973322023-01-16T11:52:43Z2023-01-16T11:52:43ZProcrastination is linked to poor health – new study<p>University students have a lot of freedom but not much structure. This can be bad for habitual procrastinators. Studies have shown that at least half of university students procrastinate to a level that is potentially harmful to their education. </p>
<p>But this may not be the only negative result of putting things off until a later date. Studies have found a link between procrastination and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886906004454?via%3Dihub">poor health</a>. It is associated with higher levels of stress, unhealthier lifestyles and delays in seeing a doctor about health problems.</p>
<p>However, these studies – by the nature of their design – cannot tell us the direction of the relationship. Does procrastination cause poor physical and mental health because people, say, put off starting a new exercise regime or seeing a doctor about a health problem? Or is it the other way around? Does poor physical health, say, lead people to procrastinate because they don’t have the energy to do the task now?</p>
<p>To try to solve this riddle, we conducted a longitudinal study – that is, a study that followed people for a period of time, taking measurements at various points in the study. We recruited 3,525 students from eight universities in and around Stockholm and asked them to complete questionnaires every three months for one year. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36598789/">study</a>, published in JAMA Network Open, aimed to investigate if students who procrastinate have a higher risk of poor mental and physical health. Of the 3,525 students we recruited, 2,587 answered the follow-up questionnaire nine months later, where several health outcomes were measured. </p>
<p>To understand how procrastination relates to later health outcomes, students with a greater tendency to procrastinate (as scored on a procrastination scale) at the start of the study were compared with students with a lower tendency. The results showed that higher levels of procrastination were associated with somewhat higher symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress nine months later. </p>
<p>Students with higher levels of procrastination were also more likely to report disabling pain in the shoulders or arms (or both), worse sleep quality, more loneliness and more financial difficulties. These associations remained even when we took other factors that could affect the association into consideration, such as age, gender, parents’ level of education, and previous physical and psychiatric diagnoses.</p>
<p>Although no specific health outcome was strongly associated with procrastination, the results suggest that procrastination may be of importance for a wide range of health outcomes, including mental health problems, disabling pain and an unhealthy lifestyle.</p>
<p>As mentioned above, in earlier studies, participants were only assessed at one point in time, making it hard to know which of the conditions came first: procrastination or poor health. By getting students to answer questionnaires at several time points, we could be sure that high procrastination levels were present before we measured their health.</p>
<p>But it is still possible that other factors not accounted for in our analysis could explain the associations between procrastination and subsequent poor health outcomes. Our results are not proof of cause and effect, but they suggest it more strongly than earlier “cross-sectional” studies. </p>
<h2>It can be treated</h2>
<p>There is good news for habitual procrastinators. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27682415/">Clinical trials</a> (the gold standard of medical research) have shown that cognitive behavioural therapy is effective at reducing procrastination. </p>
<p>The treatment helps the person overcome procrastination by breaking up long-term goals into short-term goals, managing distractions (such as turning off mobile phones), and staying focused on a task despite experiencing negative emotions. </p>
<p>This requires some effort, so it is not something a person can do while trying to meet a specific deadline. But even small changes can have a large effect. You can try it yourself. Why not start today by leaving your mobile phone in another room when you need to stay focused on a task.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197332/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Students who scored high on procrastination were found to have worse health nine months later.Eva Skillgate, Associate Professor, Epidemiology, Karolinska InstitutetAlexander Rozental, Adjunct Researcher, Karolinska InstitutetFred Johansson, PhD Candidate, Mental Health, Sophiahemmet UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1958452022-12-12T16:24:45Z2022-12-12T16:24:45ZProcrastination: the cognitive biases that enable it – and why it’s sometimes useful<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499784/original/file-20221208-6013-2h6e9w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=517%2C0%2C5070%2C3756&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/household-technology-concept-happy-african-american-1421569133">Ground Picture/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are you procrastinating? I am. I have been delaying writing this article for the last few days even though I knew I had a deadline. I have scrolled through social media, and I have gone down a rabbit hole looking up houses on Rightmove – even though I do not need a new house. </p>
<p>I have also re-watched the video Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator by Tim Urban, one of the best Ted Talks I have seen. I found it especially comforting to learn that even pigeons <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1901/jeab.1996.65-159">procrastinate</a>. </p>
<p>Procrastination is an interesting form of delay which is irrational in the sense that we do it despite <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1041608012001392">knowing it can have negative consequences</a>. These can range from penalties or fines for a late bill to a lower grade and even a dropout in the academic context. I know on some subconscious level that if I delay finishing the draft of my book, it will cause me stress when I have to complete it in a much shorter amount of time instead.</p>
<p>Given that procrastination causes stress and anxiety, why are most of us still prone to it? As research shows, it is related to a number of cognitive biases.</p>
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<h2>Present bias</h2>
<p>Researchers have <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/116981">defined procrastination</a> as the “present bias in preferences, on account of which agents delay doing unpleasant tasks that they themselves wish they would do sooner”. Present bias (or “hyperbolic discounting”) is the tendency, when considering a trade-off between two future moments, to give more importance to the one which happens sooner.</p>
<p>For example, we may disregard the future consequences of an action. This comes into play when I give in to temptation and eat yet another chocolate biscuit even though I know I need to cut down on sugar. My willpower does not hold up to this inherent bias where I focus on instant pleasure.</p>
<p>Psychologically, we perceive the impact of an event – or the value of a reward – as dampened if it is further away in the future. This means we perceive a desired result in the future as less valuable than one in the present. This can also cause a disconnect from our future selves where we may perceive the positive consequences of completing a task successfully as happening to someone else, rather than a future version of ourselves.</p>
<p>When we’re procrastinating, we are choosing a positive activity in the present (such as watching cat videos or socialising) over a positive consequence later on – such as the satisfaction of completing a task or getting a good grade on an assignment. This normally also involves thinking about the negative consequence of procrastinating at the same time. This is also the reason why people might delay saving for retirement. </p>
<p>In one study, when a group of students were offered two choices – US$150 (£122) now or US$200 in six months – <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1382186/">a significant majority</a> chose the US$150 being offered to them in the present. And when offered the choice between US$50 now and US$100 a year from now, many chose the immediate US$50. Our preference for things and our choices can be distorted by our relative temporal distance to these options. </p>
<p>We are hardwired to choose a smaller gain today than a larger gain tomorrow. That said, we all differ in our ability to fight this urge – some people are more biased towards the future or the past.</p>
<h2>Status quo bias</h2>
<p>As I have <a href="https://www.drpragyaagarwal.co.uk/sway-press">shown in my book Sway</a>, another cognitive bias that is likely to come into play is status quo bias. Our brains are lazy and we want to avoid cognitive load as much as possible. So we are hardwired to avoid tasks that cause us to change our mindset or that lead to cognitive burden – we’d rather just stick with the relaxed mind state we have at the minute than engage in something new and exhausting.</p>
<p>It essentially makes us resistant to change, as we fear <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-fear-of-regret-can-lock-us-into-bad-relationships-jobs-and-habits-heres-how-to-break-free-111115">we’ll regret actively making choices</a> (when doing nothing is also a “choice”). The status quo bias can, for example, lead to “loss aversion bias” – compelling us to focus on not losing. When in doubt, we essentially tell ourselves to do nothing.</p>
<p>Losses are be almost twice as <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24966506#metadata_info_tab_contents">psychologically harmful</a> as gains are beneficial. In other words, most people feel twice as much psychological pain from losing US$100 (£82) as pleasure from gaining US$100. This bias means that people are reluctant to take risks by giving away what they possess in favour of something that “might” be more profitable to them in the future. </p>
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<img alt="Image of a man looking at his empty wallet, unhappy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499807/original/file-20221208-12402-s12rbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">It hurts to lose money.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-poor-asian-guy-looks-his-2136706345">May Na Phatthalung/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Some personality traits could influence your propensity to stick with the status quo. If you are open and curious about new things, less averse to taking risks and have a strong sense of duty (conscientiousness) you may be slightly less affected by this bias. </p>
<h2>Pros and cons</h2>
<p>Procrastination is a universal experience, irrespective of cultural differences. In my view, it is not a sign of laziness as it is often labelled to be. It is not always bad to delay tasks. I believe sometimes it gives us an opportunity to mull over uncertainties. And research shows it can help us <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/089443930101900403">navigate difficult emotions</a> – potentially leading to better work in the end. </p>
<p>Saying this, sometimes procrastination can be a real barrier. This may be due to an underlying mental health problem that needs support and treatment. If procrastination is seriously interfering with your life, you may want to start chopping tasks into smaller pieces and set rewards after each step.</p>
<p>But perhaps more importantly, forgive yourself for procrastinating. The more we internalise the shame and guilt, the more we are likely to procrastinate in the future, and this can be an additional trigger that can compel us to procrastinate even more. </p>
<p>Ultimately, we all have different perceptions of time. Understanding individual differences may also help us better understand neurodiverse people. For example, some people have been found to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25078724/">parcel time differently, and more inconsistently</a> – time might not work linearly for them but rather in a cyclical manner, which I can relate to.</p>
<p>That reminds me I should really do my tax returns now. No time like now. Or maybe after I’ve had another cup of coffee.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195845/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pragya Agarwal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Procrastination is linked to a preference for the status quo.Pragya Agarwal, Visiting Professor of Social Inequities and Injustice, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1902392022-09-13T20:03:58Z2022-09-13T20:03:58ZI think I have ADHD, how do I get a diagnosis? What might it mean for me?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484181/original/file-20220913-26-zusyqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">keenan constance nfmoJh n PM unsplash</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/health/2022-08-24/live-updates-em-rusciano-national-press-club-adhd-expert-panel/101362200">been in the spotlight</a> lately, with comedian Em Rusciano detailing, at the National Press Club, her journey to diagnosis and how she now reflects on her younger self.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1562330140788817922"}"></div></p>
<p>There has been a growing awareness of ADHD, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S089085672100366X">lifelong</a>, neurodevelopmental condition that affects attention, activity levels and impulsivity. Perhaps you’ve <a href="https://theconversation.com/adhd-looks-different-in-adults-here-are-4-signs-to-watch-for-178639">read</a> or watched something online about adult ADHD, or maybe another family member or friend has recently received a diagnosis. </p>
<p>If you think you have ADHD, getting a diagnosis can be a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-05-24/adhd-diagnosis-wait-times-blown-out-pandemic/101018152">long</a>, frustrating and often expensive process. So it’s important to decide what it might mean for you.</p>
<h2>What is ADHD? And how can it affect your life?</h2>
<p>People with ADHD have difficulties with flexibly focusing their attention. This means it may be hard to focus and sustain their attention on tasks that are a priority.</p>
<p>Instead, they may spend time getting lost scrolling on their phone or doing unimportant tasks. They may procrastinate: not starting activities or getting distracted so they don’t finish tasks. They may be forgetful, disorganised and run late. </p>
<p>Those with impulsive symptoms may overshare, be impatient and say yes to things without thinking it through, often with negative consequences in the long-term. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/adhd-looks-different-in-adults-here-are-4-signs-to-watch-for-178639">ADHD looks different in adults. Here are 4 signs to watch for</a>
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<p>Those with hyperactive symptoms will have a constantly busy mind, find it hard to sit still and relax, and may be a chatterbox. They may be constantly “on the go” seeking new and exciting stimulation, getting easily bored with hobbies, jobs and relationships. </p>
<p>Some people will have only inattentive symptoms, others only hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, and some will have both.</p>
<p>Inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive symptoms can impact achievement in studies and at work, negatively affect relationships, and result in feeling different to others and developing a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0263366">negative sense of self</a>. </p>
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<img alt="Messy office" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484188/original/file-20220913-18095-40e1kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">People with ADHD may struggle with organisation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/6jA6eVsRJ6Q">Wonderlane/Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>The symptoms are neurobiological, resulting in differences in brain development. For most people symptoms persist throughout their lives. </p>
<p>Importantly, ADHD is not caused by “bad behaviour” or “laziness” and it is not a “character flaw”. ADHD symptoms can’t be changed through “putting in more effort” or “applying yourself”.</p>
<h2>Sound familiar? So how do you get a diagnosis?</h2>
<p>In Australia, this is not as easy as it should be. There are no adult public mental health services that can diagnose ADHD without cost. </p>
<p>Accessing private clinics and clinicians is the usual way adults can be assessed for ADHD in Australia.</p>
<p>If you are interested in accessing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022395619314116">stimulant medication</a>, the most effective treatment for ADHD, then seeing a <a href="https://www.yourhealthinmind.org/find-a-psychiatrist/results?country=AU&seed=28482&onlineConsultations=false&radius=10&expertiseIn=%5B3%5D&servicesOffered=%5B%5D&experienceWith=%5B%5D&treatsAges=%5B%5D&languages=%5B%5D&page=1">psychiatrist who specialises in ADHD</a> is usually the most efficient path. </p>
<p>A psychologist with expertise in ADHD can also conduct a diagnostic assessment for ADHD, they just can’t exclude possible medical causes or prescribe medication should the diagnosis be confirmed. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/adult-adhd-what-it-is-how-to-treat-it-and-why-medicine-ignored-it-for-so-long-podcast-182534">Adult ADHD: What it is, how to treat it and why medicine ignored it for so long – podcast</a>
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<p>An adult ADHD assessment usually involves an ADHD-experienced psychiatrist or psychologist conducting a clinical interview with the person and often with a partner and parent(s). </p>
<p>This will include asking about your early development including developmental milestones, academic and social development, signs and symptoms of ADHD, and your mental health history. You will usually be asked to provide your school reports, so the clinician can look for any evidence of symptoms in childhood as reported by teachers.</p>
<p>As ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition, evidence of the symptoms in childhood before age 12 is needed. You and your family, and sometimes a partner or close friend, will be asked to complete rating scales for ADHD symptoms, in both childhood and current symptoms as an adult. </p>
<p>There should be a thorough examination of other possible diagnoses that may account for apparent ADHD symptoms; and other common co-occurring conditions should also be explored and diagnosed if present.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Indian-Australian man scrolls on his phone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484191/original/file-20220913-6373-y8p7bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Assessments look at current symptoms as well as those in childhood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/jZi0Ih47EDY">Siavash Ghanbari/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Australia’s National Health and Medical Research Council has just approved <a href="https://aadpa.com.au/guideline/">an evidence-based clinical practice guideline</a> for the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in Australia, ahead of its release in October. </p>
<p>The guideline explains the diagnostic process and the most helpful treatments so clinicians can provide consistent and evidence-based assessments and treatment for people with ADHD. It’s hoped this will lead to easier access to diagnosis and support.</p>
<h2>What might a diagnosis mean for you?</h2>
<p>Finally receiving an ADHD diagnosis for many is a <a href="https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-015-0410-4">positive</a>, life-changing experience. It can make sense of a lifetime of unexplained difficulties, often attributed incorrectly to being “lazy” or “incompetent”. </p>
<p>An awareness can result in a fuller understanding yourself and why your life may have taken a certain path. It can explain why certain things happened to you, why you experienced anxiety and depression but it didn’t go away with treatment, and why your trajectory has perhaps not been the norm. </p>
<p>It is not an easy process. Some experience a period of grief following a diagnosis when they reflect on how their life may have been different had they known and received support and understanding from an early age. </p>
<p>However, diagnosis can allow you to access medication which, for most people, is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2215036618302694">effective</a> in reducing the core symptoms of ADHD and can result in clarity and focus.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/adhd-in-adults-is-challenging-but-highly-treatable-a-clinical-psychologist-explains-177039">ADHD in adults is challenging but highly treatable – a clinical psychologist explains</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>You can also access psychological therapy, ADHD coaching and occupational therapy support to make changes in your life to minimise your symptoms and maximise your <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-15/living-day-to-day-with-late-diagnosed-adhd/13842460">strengths</a>. </p>
<p>An adult ADHD diagnosis can help you reject damaging self-beliefs. You may finally understand yourself as different, not defective, and see your strengths and value.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190239/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tamara May works in private practice as a psychologist providing diagnosis and support for people with ADHD. She is a member of the Australian ADHD Professionals Association and was a member of the Australian ADHD guideline development group. </span></em></p>If you think you have ADHD, getting a diagnosis can be a long, frustrating and often expensive process. But it can give you access to treatments and change how you see yourself.Tamara May, Psychologist and Research Associate in the Department of Paediatrics, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1883222022-08-16T16:41:40Z2022-08-16T16:41:40ZProcrastinating is linked to health and career problems – but there are things you can do to stop<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479349/original/file-20220816-25-vlxids.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C0%2C4459%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Procrastination is an all-too-common problem</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teenage-girl-listening-music-looking-her-1008197395">Yulia Grigoryeva/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you ever beat yourself up for procrastinating? You might be composing that message to a friend who you have to let down, or writing a big report for school or work, and doing your best to avoid it but deep down knowing you should just get on with it. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, telling yourself off won’t stop you procrastinating again. In fact, it’s one of the worst things you can do. This matters because, as my research shows, procrastination isn’t just a time-sapper but is actually linked to real problems. </p>
<p>Procrastination is not a result of laziness or poor time management. Scientific studies suggest procrastination is due to <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12011">poor mood management</a>. </p>
<p>This makes sense if we consider that people are more likely to put off starting or completing tasks that they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886999000914">feel aversion towards</a>. If just thinking about the task makes you anxious or threatens your sense of self-worth, you will be more likely to put it off.</p>
<p>Research has found that <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/psyp.13782">regions of the brain</a> linked to threat detection and emotion regulation are different in people who chronically procrastinate compared to those who don’t procrastinate frequently. </p>
<p>When we avoid the unpleasant task, we also avoid the negative emotions associated with it. This is <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.609874/full">rewarding</a> and conditions us to use procrastination to repair our mood. If we engage in more enjoyable tasks instead, we get another mood boost. </p>
<p>Tasks that are emotionally loaded or difficult, such as studying for an exam, or preparing for public speaking are prime candidates for procrastination. People with <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-021-02075-x">low self-esteem</a> are more likely to procrastinate as are those with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/per.2098">high levels of perfectionism</a> who worry their work will be judged harshly by others. If you don’t finish that report or complete those home repairs, then what you did can’t be evaluated. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-0227-6_7">guilt and shame</a> often linger when people try to distract themselves with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215004343">more pleasant activities</a>. </p>
<p>In the long run, procrastination isn’t an effective way of managing emotions. The mood repair you experience is temporary. Afterwards, people tend to engage in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-10572-023">self-critical ruminations</a> that not only increase their negative mood, but also reinforce their tendency to procrastinate. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women stares at laptop with her face in her hands" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We put off tasks because they feel overwhelming.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bored-young-african-american-girl-tired-1444225961">fizkes/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How is procrastination harmful?</h2>
<p>So why is this such a problem? When most people think of the costs of procrastination, they think of the toll on productivity. For example, studies have shown that academic procrastination <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/academic-procrastination-in-university-students-associated-factors-and-impact-on-academic-performance/D230B8D2D670DC7C2884294A274A08B5">negatively impacts student performance</a>. </p>
<p>But academic procrastination may affect other areas of students’ lives. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/03075079.2013.854765">In one study</a> of over 3,000 German students over a six month period, those who reported procrastinating on their academic work were also more likely to engage in academic misconduct, such as cheating and plagiarism. But the behaviour procrastination was most closely linked with was using fraudulent excuses to get deadline extensions. </p>
<p>Other research shows employees on average spend almost a <a href="https://www.humanresourcesonline.net/how-much-time-are-your-employees-spending-procrastinating">quarter of their workday procrastinating</a>, and again this is linked with worse outcomes. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijsa.12048">In one US survey of over 22,000 employees</a>, participants who said they regularly procrastinated had lower annual incomes and less job stability. For every one-point increase on a measure of chronic procrastination, salary decreased by US$15,000 (£12,450).</p>
<p>Procrastination also correlates with serious <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/books/procrastination-health-and-well-being/sirois/978-0-12-802862-9">health and wellbeing</a> problems. A tendency to procrastinate is linked to poor mental health, including higher <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10942-017-0271-5">levels of depression and anxiety</a>.</p>
<p>Across numerous studies, I’ve found people who regularly procrastinate report a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886902003264">greater number of health issues</a>, such as headaches, flu and colds, and digestive issues. They also experience <a href="https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/91791/1/Procrastination%20and%20self%20compassion%20rev2%20FINAL.pdf">higher levels of stress</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311908.2015.1074776#:%7E:text=Research%20to%20date%2C%20testing%20the%20procrastination%E2%80%93health%20model%20%28Sirois%2C,health%20problems%20and%20behaviors%20that%20included%20sleep-related%20outcomes">poor sleep quality</a>. </p>
<p>They were less likely to practice <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886906004454">healthy behaviours</a>, such as eating a healthy diet and regularly exercising, and use <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1002/per.1985?journalCode=erpa">destructive coping strategies</a> to manage their stress. In one study of over 700 people, I found people prone to procrastination had a 63% greater risk of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10865-015-9629-2">poor heart health</a> after accounting for other personality traits and demographics. </p>
<h2>How to stop procrastinating</h2>
<p>Learning not to procrastinate isn’t going to solve all your problems. But finding <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780675/full">better ways to regulate your emotions</a> could be a route to improving your mental health and wellbeing.</p>
<p>An important first step is to manage your environment and how you view the task. There are a number of <a href="https://www.waterstones.com/book/procrastination/fuschia-m-sirois/9781433838064">evidence-based strategies</a> that can help you quarantine <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjso.12243">distractions</a>, and set up your tasks so they <a href="https://theconversation.com/working-from-home-here-are-five-ways-to-reduce-procrastination-and-be-productive-133636">provoke less anxiety and feel more meaningful</a>. For example, reminding yourself why the task is important and valuable to you can increase your positive feelings towards it. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910000474">Forgiving yourself</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15298868.2013.763404?journalCode=psai20">showing yourself compassion</a> when you procrastinate can help break the procrastination cycle. Admit you feel bad without judging yourself. Remind yourself that you’re not the first person to procrastinate, and you won’t be the last.</p>
<p>Doing this can take the edge off the negative feelings we have about ourselves when we procrastinate. This can make it easier to get <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167212445599?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">back on track</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fuschia Sirois does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Understanding the why of procrastination is key to breaking the habit.Fuschia Sirois, Professor in Social & Health Psychology, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1542032021-02-09T18:05:25Z2021-02-09T18:05:25ZIs money for learning a good idea? The tricky neuroscience of money and memory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381710/original/file-20210201-15-1px5i8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C3304%2C2379&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tony Tran/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reward has many interesting functions, but knowing how to use it in learning and boosting memory is not as straightforward as one would think. From <a href="https://theconversation.com/video-comment-notre-cerveau-nous-pousse-a-faire-des-efforts-ou-pas-86417">gamification</a> to <a href="https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w15898/w15898.pdf">paying for good grades</a>, educators have been trying out different combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards to arrive at the ideal reinforcement schedule that would favor long-term motivation for learning.</p>
<p>From experience, we know that <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/f/difference-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.htm">extrinsic rewards</a> – points, money, treats – rarely motivate us for <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-telling-people-they-could-get-sick-in-the-future-wont-persuade-them-to-be-healthy-now-90456">long-haul projects with uncertain outcomes</a>. Still, they can get us to develop habits we may need a push for, such as exercising more, eating less sugar, or learning facts about which we are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25284006/">not particularly curious</a>.</p>
<p>Some rewards work better than others, and extrinsic rewards are the trickiest of them all. For instance, learning associations with the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627305000218?via%3Dihub">prospect of obtaining money</a> for remembering them results not only in better memory but also in better <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-26929-w">relearning</a> weeks later when the associations had already been forgotten. The neuroscience of reward can be particularly useful in elucidating what type of reward and how much of it to give to boost learning.</p>
<h2>Dopamine and memory</h2>
<p>Motivational drive, triggered extrinsically or intrinsically, manifests in the brain as phasic releases of <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130110094415.htm">dopamine</a>, the neurotransmitter that enables fast <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-power-of-rewards-and-why-we-seek-them-out-62691">reward learning</a> – a fundamental mechanism that enables most creatures with a brain to remember the important things in life: everything related to reward.</p>
<p>In brain language, reward is computed in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/10/4/467/1674402">“common currency”</a> that is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3756836/"><em>subjective</em> and <em>relative</em></a>. One way to measure how much of that currency something is worth is to examine the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level-dependent_imaging">fMRI BOLD</a> signal change in the <a href="https://youtu.be/3_zgB19TE-M">ventral striatum</a> – the central structure of the human reward system, a part of which is also responsible for the feeling of <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-athletes-way/201507/the-neuroscience-savoring-positive-emotions">hedonic pleasure</a>. </p>
<p>When the BOLD signal change is positive, it means that the brain is experiencing reward or is anticipating it. The signal is especially high for receiving a surprise reward (a.k.a., “positive prediction error”). Conversely, the signal is reduced – literally pausing dopaminergic transmission by an internal “teacher” – when the reward is less than expected. In other words, when you gambled and lost, got a lower grade than you believe you deserve, or experience something that used to be rewarding but for whatever reason no longer is, the reward system deactivates, going below baseline, to teach you that this is unrewarding (“negative prediction error”).</p>
<h2>Thinking fast</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381669/original/file-20210201-13-g4q9q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Encoding information associated with high reward leads to deactivation of the ventral striatum and the hippocampus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">E. Miendlarzewska, K.C. Aberg, D.Bavelier and S.Schwartz, _Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience_ 2021 33:3, 402-421.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, all of these adaptations of the ventral striatum happen pretty quickly – on an order of fractions of a second. Reward and memory processes (in the <a href="https://youtu.be/5EyaGR8GGhs">hippocampus</a>) interact very tightly in many learning situations, some of which cast a shadow on the use of quick rewards in the context of education (money for grades, anyone?) or nutrition (<a href="https://theconversation.com/bribing-kids-to-eat-vegetables-is-not-sustainable-heres-what-to-do-instead-71371">money for eating vegetables</a>?). It turns out that extrinsic reward is effective as an incentive for learning only in the short term and a <a href="https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn_a_01660">February 2021 study</a> shows that it can actually disturb future learning.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=812&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=812&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381670/original/file-20210201-17-hu630p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=812&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">24 hours later, recalling memories built on previously highly rewarded information leads to underactivation of the ventral striatum and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
<em>Source</em><em>: E.Miendlarzewska, K.C.Aberg, D.Bavelier, and S.Schwartz, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2021 33:3, 402-421</em></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In an fMRI experiment, participants were asked to associate pictures with one of six positions on the screen. Spatial learning relies on the hippocampus and that is why it was a good model for any declarative and semantic memory formation – the type we use to remember facts. The pictures had a history – for half of them the participants won 1 Swiss franc in an earlier easy task. For the other half, they’d won 10 cents.</p>
<p>When their memory was tested 24 hours later, almost all of the participants had poorer memory accuracy for locations of those previously highly rewarded images. And most notably, the BOLD signal in the ventral striatum was surprisingly reversed: higher for low reward than for high reward, suggesting a perceived disappointment (or reward devaluation; a negative prediction error). Because the ventral striatum is tightly coupled with the hippocampus, the signal in the hippocampus was also decreased, even 24 hours later, and that is what led to poorer memory recall.</p>
<h2>The second time around, rewards are devalued</h2>
<p>The lesson here is that if we once relied on extrinsic incentives such as money or grades to learn, it will be harder to learn new related information when that incentive is gone. Neuroscience demonstrates why due to this subconscious process of devaluation, not only will we be more likely to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hbm.24397">procrastinate</a> learning new things, but also the learning outcome may be poorer due to the absence of reward. The crux of the brain’s valuation system is that it is quite automatic and unconscious. This is why “points for memory” and “grades for learning” should be used sparingly to not let our motivation rely solely on this fragile, flipping and memorably sticky extrinsic trigger of reward signal.</p>
<p>So if you are someone who responds well to rewards, do not rely too much on points-based learning apps and don’t learn things for money – it may quickly turn your ventral striatum and the entire dopaminergic system against you. This will undermine not only your <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1971-22190-001">intrinsic motivation</a> but also your memory. </p>
<p>Instead, try to coax yourself to produce endogenous dopamine through intrinsic motivation for learning such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/curiosity-changes-the-brain-to-boost-memory-and-learning-32296">curiosity</a>, a thirst for novel information that can get you <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-drug-that-every-school-should-legalise-43150">high on learning</a>, feeling satisfied with progressing in the process independent of the outcome or rewarding yourself for effort. Learning under those circumstances is much more sustainable and will leave your mind ready to build upon that knowledge in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154203/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ewa Miendlarzewska a reçu des financements de Fonds National Suisse de la recherche scientifique. </span></em></p>New research demonstrates that it is more difficult to learn something new if the information had been rewarded in the past. In fact, the higher the reward, the worse the future learning.Ewa Lombard, Assistant Professor, Montpellier Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1481542020-11-19T19:28:46Z2020-11-19T19:28:46Z4 tips for college students to avoid procrastinating with their online work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369889/original/file-20201117-17-1y0yojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5455%2C3637&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Time management and supportive learning environments are keys to avoiding procrastination. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/bored-exhausted-african-american-woman-falling-royalty-free-image/1127950018?adppopup=true">fizkes/ iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you take classes online, chances are you probably procrastinate from time to time.</p>
<p>Research shows that <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-0663.99.1.12">more than 70%</a> of college students procrastinate, with about 20% consistently doing it all the time.</p>
<p>Procrastination is putting off starting or finishing a task despite knowing that it will seriously compromise the quality of your work – for instance, putting off a major class project until the last minute.</p>
<p>In fact, research has shown that procrastination can be a harmful behavior that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.038">lowers a student’s grades</a>.</p>
<p>Now that so many colleges and universities are <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/11/17/colleges-end-person-instruction-early-due-covid-19-spread">operating remotely because of the COVID-19</a> pandemic, we worry that students are more prone to procrastinate because they have less access to campus facilities and structured support from instructors. We raise these concerns as researchers who study students’ <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cBsh7i4AAAAJ&hl=en">motivation and engagement</a> and their <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=A_y6nEsAAAAJ&hl=en">procrastination in online learning</a>.</p>
<p>As professors, we’ve also heard our fair share of explanations and excuses for why students missed deadlines. Everything from “my computer doesn’t work” to “my Wi-Fi went dead.” We even had one student claim that “Grandma died” in one course and that “Grandpa died” in another course. We also have had students claim that their roommate deleted their homework.</p>
<p>Whether you see those reasons as valid or not, none of them really gets at why students procrastinate and end up in those kinds of situations in the first place. With that in mind, here are four tips that can help students deal better with the root causes of procrastination when it comes to online coursework.</p>
<h2>1. Manage motivation</h2>
<p>One of the main reasons students procrastinate is that they do not see their coursework as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.10.012">relevant</a> to what they’re doing now or expect to do later on. When students find that their academic tasks are interesting, important and useful, they are more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2190/7BAK-EGAH-3MH1-K7C6">try harder to get them done</a> and less likely to <a href="http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1565872460207536">put them off</a>.</p>
<p>Remote learning can make students feel <a href="https://doi.org/10.46627/silet.v1i2.38">bored and frustrated</a>. Therefore, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608016300905">finding ways to stay motivated</a> can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608017302248?casa_token=jRn5aLqwA_EAAAAA:Pl3xnbkG7llxOvII1vRTkr6OhZwdjB4KbxKyujIsL8BiPLHsSWLoDbOGK4uMWFogD4zgzJRhpw">prevent procrastination</a>.</p>
<p>Remind yourself of the practical value of your academic tasks. Figure out the reasons you’re studying something in the first place. </p>
<p>For instance, instead of viewing the completion of an assignment as a way to fulfill course requirements, you can think about how to turn your coursework into something related to your life or career goals. For a computer science student, a programming assignment could be made a part of your portfolio to help secure an internship or even a job – as some of our own students have done. A research report could be turned into an academic journal article to enhance your profile when applying for graduate school in the future.</p>
<h2>2. Manage goals, tasks and time</h2>
<p>College life can get hectic. Many college students must juggle coursework, social events and work commitments at the same time. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.133.1.65">Getting more organized</a> helps stave off procrastination. This means breaking long-term goals into smaller short-term, challenging and clear goals and tasks.</p>
<p>The reason this technique works is that procrastination is directly related to an individual’s <a href="https://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/AMR.2006.22527462?casa_token=z3rky_w4kkUAAAAA%3ASvKRFFdr7H-CACuzH0q7hnOibo2_J71L4t-iUJegIVyP1vxXLApXV_dqKFQHsaxCLOrbPpg2Flyw">preference and desire</a> for working on a task. When a goal is too large, it becomes not immediately achievable; therefore, you will see this task as less desirable and be more likely to put it off.</p>
<p>By breaking a large long-term goal into a series of smaller and more concrete subgoals, you will see the project as <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1990-97846-000?cid=SEM_DIR0016&con=13833&pkw=morningstar25252525252525252520direct&elqCampaignId=6282&prd=cloud&cap=research252525252525252520portal&gclid=EAIaIQobChMI9KfZioi33AIVyLTtCh07gw7KEAAYASAAEgLGF_D_BwE">easier to complete</a> and, more importantly, your perceived distance to the finishing line will shorten. This way, you are more likely to perceive the project as <a href="https://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/AMR.2006.22527462?casa_token=z3rky_w4kkUAAAAA%3ASvKRFFdr7H-CACuzH0q7hnOibo2_J71L4t-iUJegIVyP1vxXLApXV_dqKFQHsaxCLOrbPpg2Flyw">desirable</a>, and you will be less likely to procrastinate.</p>
<p>Second, you need to plan your time daily by listing tasks based on their importance and urgency, estimating how much time you need to complete each task, and identifying concrete steps to reach daily goals. That is, tell yourself that in the context of X, I will need to do Y to accomplish Z.</p>
<p>It is also important to plan your time according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980309600625">how and when you prefer to study</a>. For example, you may concentrate the most late at night, your memory may work the best in the early mornings, or you may collaborate better during the day.</p>
<p>In addition, you should use tech tools, such as calendar and task-management apps, to plan your time and monitor how much you’re getting done.</p>
<h2>3. Create a good learning space</h2>
<p>Another important way to avoid procrastination is to make sure that your <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-31043-001">learning environment</a> is supportive for learning.</p>
<p>During the coronavirus pandemic, students are usually learning from home, but sometimes they study wherever they happen to be, even at picnic tables in public parks. These places may not be best suited for academic activities.</p>
<p>These environments have many characteristics that may be more interesting and less emotionally draining than academic tasks. Therefore, students could <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.133.1.65">drift away</a> from academic tasks and wind up instead chatting with friends or watching sports. This is why <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101872">choosing or creating a good place to study</a> can help people stop procrastinating.</p>
<p>Try to set up your surroundings in a way that suits your learning habits, including where you put tables and chairs and how you use lighting and block out noises. For example, some students may enjoy learning in a quiet and dark space with a spotlight. Others may learn best when they use a standing desk next to a bright window and constantly play soft background music.</p>
<h2>4. Get a little help from friends</h2>
<p>Friends and classmates can <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1220909">help one another stop procrastinating</a>. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-45259-006">Colleagues and other contacts</a> can hold one another accountable and help one another meet deadlines. This is particularly important for anyone who struggles <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.133.1.65">with self-control</a>. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-008-9367-7">Research</a> also has shown that having supportive friends and other peers can boost self-confidence and make tasks seem more valuable and interesting.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, students are physically isolated from most of their friends and classmates. The social support that students normally receive in face-to-face settings, such as after-class chats and study groups, has also been moved to virtual spaces. That is, it’s still available, but mainly through virtual means, such as instant-messaging apps, online collaboration tools or video conferencing software. Used wisely, these tools can help students work with friends to overcome procrastination and make the classwork more enjoyable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kui Xie receives funding from Institute for Educational Sciences, Spencer Foundation, Ohio Department of Education, Ohio Department of Higher Education, and Ohio Mayfield School District.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shonn Cheng does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More than 70% of college students engage in some form of procrastination, research shows.Kui Xie, Cyphert Distinguished Professor; Professor of Learning Technologies; Director of The Research Laboratory for Digital Learning, The Ohio State UniversityShonn Cheng, Assistant Professor of Instructional Systems Design and Technology, Sam Houston State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1336362020-03-20T14:27:15Z2020-03-20T14:27:15ZWorking from home? Here are five ways to reduce procrastination and be productive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321900/original/file-20200320-22602-9n9en5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Just going to check instagram'.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/attractive-young-woman-working-laptop-on-1062370478"> LightField Studios/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you have been asked to work from home during the coronavirus pandemic to help <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-coronavirus-measures-have-worked-around-the-world-133933">slow the spread of the virus</a>, you might be quite happy about it at first. Think of the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/130/1/165/2337855">benefits</a> such as saving on commuting time and expenses, and being in a comfortable environment.</p>
<p>But the home environment has numerous distractions that can make it easy to procrastinate and not get your work done. Whether you are new to working from home or are a long-time remote worker who struggles with staying on task some days, these evidence-based strategies can help you reduce procrastination and stay productive.</p>
<h2>1. Set up a clear work schedule</h2>
<p>The home environment lacks the structure of a work environment where there are timed breaks and clear start and finish times. Creating a schedule tailored to the work you want to get done can add that missing structure, <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/dont-delay/201604/strength-versus-structure">reducing the procrastination</a> that tends to take place otherwise. </p>
<p>So make a plan for your work that has clear and realistic goals that you can expect to achieve within a given time frame. If your goal is to write a ten-page report, break that task down into smaller and more manageable steps that are less overwhelming. For example, you may want to start with doing background research before writing and then prepare an outline, setting a goal to write a specific number of pages a day. </p>
<p>Organising your larger task into several smaller ones also provides opportunities to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01172969">experience small successes</a>, which can accumulate and help keep you motivated and productive. </p>
<p>Whichever way you organise your work-at-home schedule, try to include reasonable breaks. Plan in time for meals as well as short breaks to refresh your mind. But be careful: short breaks checking personal email or social media can turn into full-on procrastinating in the form of <a href="https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200206-cyberloafing-the-line-between-rejuvenating-and-wasting-time">cyberloafing</a> or <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/089443930101900403">cyberslacking</a> if you don’t limit your break time.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-you-a-cyberloafer-why-internet-procrastination-is-making-life-easier-for-hackers-88831">Are you a "cyberloafer"? Why internet procrastination is making life easier for hackers</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<hr>
<h2>2. Tackle task uncertainty</h2>
<p>If you find yourself struggling to start or finish a work task, it may be because you’re unsure about what needs to be done to complete your work. When you are working at home, it can be harder to get quick answers to reduce this uncertainty. People tend to procrastinate on tasks that are unclear or confusing and when they are not sure about what they are supposed to do.</p>
<p>This is because such tasks can create feelings of uncertainty that are <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/dont-delay/202003/negative-emotions-today-predict-procrastination-tomorrow">unpleasant</a>, and that arouse feelings of self-doubt and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15298868.2013.763404">self-criticism</a>. Procrastination is more likely to occur when people experience <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12011">unpleasant feelings related to a task</a> that they can’t tolerate or manage. </p>
<p>Before you start a new or unfamiliar work task, check to make sure you have clear guidance about what needs to be done. Because we don’t always know what we don’t know, it may take starting the task before you realise that you’re missing important information or are unclear about what’s needed to get the work done.</p>
<p>Becoming more aware of when you experience feelings of uncertainty is the first step towards harnessing this unpleasant feeling and taking action to get the information you need. Having a list of key people you can contact for quick support can also help in case you find yourself being <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211364916300057">paralysed by uncertainty</a>.</p>
<h2>3. Reduce distractions</h2>
<p>Working at home means having to deal with potential distractions that can take you off task. Setting yourself up to work in a quiet space that is likely to have little or no traffic from family members or flatmates is a good first step. But remote working can also involve being online and having access to a number of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2018.1476156">digital temptations</a>. </p>
<p>Some people are good at turning a blind eye to these distractions and can stay focused on their work, no matter where they are. But if you have work to do that is boring, stressful or causes you self-doubt then <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215004343">watching funny cat videos</a> can become an escape to help you feel better at the expense of getting your work done.</p>
<p>Controlling how and when you are allowed to go online for non-work purposes can help minimise exposure to distractions from your digital environment and the risk that you will procrastinate. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321907/original/file-20200320-22594-15whay3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rehearse how to deal with interruptions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">stockfour/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Plan for interruptions</h2>
<p>Even the best laid plans to set aside time to get your work done can fall apart when unexpected interruptions appear. If you’re not prepared, that call from your mum who just wants to chat can tempt you to procrastinate and throw your work schedule off track.</p>
<p>One approach that has been shown to be effective for closing the gap between intentions and actions – <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/dont-delay/201001/implementation-intentions-facilitate-action-control">reducing procrastination</a> and helping you <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bjso.12243">stay productive</a> – is to <a href="http://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/10101/99Goll_ImpInt.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">make specific if-then plans</a> for dealing with interruptions. </p>
<p>This involves first thinking about the possible interruptions you might encounter, and then rehearsing how you will respond. For example, when mum calls you might prepare to say: “Sorry, I’d love to chat but I’m actually working right now. Can I call you back after work?”</p>
<h2>5. See the meaning of work</h2>
<p>My research suggests a lack of positive feelings about a task can <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bjso.12243">also contribute to procrastination</a>. When you work at home you are surrounded by things that are personally meaningful to you. In comparison, your work can seem less meaningful. </p>
<p>This contrast may make it difficult at times to stay focused and productive. Reminding yourself why your work is important and valuable to you can help rebalance the scale <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/dont-delay/201906/volitional-resource-defeat-procrastination-meaning">to increase positive feelings</a> towards your work and reduce procrastination while working from home.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fuschia Sirois does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rehearse how you will respond to interruptions.Fuschia Sirois, Reader in Health Psychology, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1001452018-07-18T10:42:04Z2018-07-18T10:42:04ZWhy proactive leadership is important – or how Congress could have prevented Trump’s Helsinki fiasco<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228102/original/file-20180717-44073-1n60csy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Trump and Putin shake hands at the conclusion of their joint news conference.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Finland-Trump-Putin-Summit/c94bbfb389db483ebbecf058e3bda84f/41/0">AP Photo/Pablo Martinez Monsivais</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine you’re speeding along on a highway. Suddenly, the traffic ahead of you slows, forcing you to hit the breaks. Eventually you arrive at the source of the bottleneck: a mattress lying in the right lane. One by one, your fellow motorists simply crept around it. No one stopped to move it off the road to relieve the congestion. </p>
<p>Why would so many people fail to take action and (easily) fix the problem that slowed traffic to a crawl?</p>
<p>People – whether motorists, business leaders or lawmakers – are simply not very proactive. By that we mean humans have a tendency to keep doing what they’ve been doing, maintaining the status quo rather than breaking the flow and creating a better future. In the mattress example, it means driving around the obstruction rather than removing it, allowing the problem to continue indefinitely.</p>
<p>As researchers of organization behavior and leadership, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200002)21:1%3C63::AID-JOB8%3E3.0.CO;2-J/abstract">we have long studied</a> the nature of proactive behavior and how it helps people perform better at their jobs. Failing to behave proactively can be consequential as well, often negatively. </p>
<p>A perfect example is the U.S. Congress and its <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-04-20/trump-s-wars-congress-is-too-timid-to-rein-him-in">unwillingness</a> to rein in President Donald Trump over Russia. By failing to act sooner over <a href="http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2018/jul/16/russia-investigation-donald-trump-timeline-updated/">growing evidence</a> that Russia hacked the 2016 elections and related matters, Republican lawmakers have now witnessed what was once unthinkable: an American president standing next to a leader of a <a href="http://thehill.com/homenews/senate/397155-gop-lawmaker-calls-on-trump-to-declare-russia-the-enemy-of-america-ahead-of">hostile</a> power and <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/7/16/17576956/transcript-putin-trump-russia-helsinki-press-conference">criticizing</a> his own intelligence agencies. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203120/original/file-20180123-33538-1qi2ub8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At least someone was being proactive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dno1967b/5407276740/in/photolist-6kAc5M-6kA1jT-6kzY9g-6kE34b-6kEiko-6kEF2j-6kA5T8-6kEFws-6kEjVu-6kAwip-6kAttF-6kAbyc-RXQzK8-6kzYAe-6kzSe6-6kEf47-6kEwRh-6kzRGn-7Q5bDD-mRy3n-6kE7Tq-6kAuNe-bazY2e-6kE5xY-6kA6oB-6kA62K-6kAp2i-6kzWEi-6kzHon-6kA7ri-6kzHD8-6kzHQM-6kA9fX-6kA9Fz-6kA8Bc-6kDSSy-6kzZ7H-6kEqhf-6kAdWT-6kEeym-6kDRrU-whcKnm-6AQb7-9tV88J-2syfy-hbXL3-2syiB-9ePGZj-XRUUWu-4C1iHD">Daniel Oines</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What it really means to be proactive</h2>
<p>People commonly think being proactive means simply starting sooner rather than later, not procrastinating, or taking initiative to get work done. </p>
<p>But it is far more than that. Your behavior is proactive when:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>you choose it yourself rather than comply with external demands</p></li>
<li><p>you execute strategically more than mindlessly</p></li>
<li><p>you are future-focused rather than anchored in the present or past </p></li>
<li><p>your intention is to change something for the better, thus to create a better future.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Proactivity begins with recognizing that a current trajectory – your own, your team’s, your company’s, your country’s – is not good enough, or downright bad, and deciding to make a course correction. More concretely, proactivity means solving or preventing problems and identifying and capturing opportunities, en route to a future that is better than if you had not changed course.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that truly proactive leadership is a rare bird. In one study, for example, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-01068-012">we interviewed 75 chief executive officers</a> in several countries including the U.S. and asked them to tell us their work goals. Of the over 2,000 goals they mentioned, the vast majority were business-as-usual, maintenance goals such as “keeping customers,” “surviving” and “holding onto good employees.” Only a very few, such as “building a new factory,” “finding a new international partner” and “being a leader in changing how the marketplace works” were notably proactive in ways that could dramatically change their companies’ trajectories.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/228105/original/file-20180717-44082-8aefzi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Congress hasn’t been proactive where Trump and Russia are concerned.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/green-overhead-road-sign-start-being-393002476?src=FaOQINocIfRMg0HVjfnozw-1-41">northallertonman/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Proaction and success</h2>
<p>We conducted several studies to better understand the connection between being proactive and performing successfully.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229455940_The_Proactive_Component_of_Organizational_Behavior_A_Measure_and_Correlates">first one</a>, we asked 148 business grad students at a single school with significant full-time work experience to fill out a survey intended to measure their behavioral tendencies. The survey listed 17 different behaviors, such as “If I see something I don’t like, I fix it,” “I am always looking for better ways to do things,” “I love to challenge the status quo” and “If I believe in an idea, no obstacle will prevent me from making it happen,” and we asked the students to mark how strongly they agreed with each statement in terms of how they work, from 1 to 7. </p>
<p>We then compared scores with actual achievements based on participants’ application material, including resumes and essays. Those who scored higher on the proactivity scale had more impactful accomplishments in their work and personal lives. Moreover, we asked them to list four to eight peers among their classmates whom they predicted would become transformational leaders in their future careers. Proactivity rankings correlated with the number of peer nominations.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232488574_The_Proactive_Personality_Scale_and_Object_Job_Performance_Among_Real_Estate_Agents">Our second study</a> involved a sample of 131 real estate agents who completed our proactivity survey. Using archival records, we found that agents that scored higher on the scale sold more houses, earned greater commission income and brought in more listings than their peers.</p>
<p>In a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200002)21:1%3C63::AID-JOB8%3E3.0.CO;2-J/abstract">third study</a>, we asked 156 managers at a Puerto Rican financial services firm to fill out our survey. Their bosses then completed a separate survey rating those managers’ leadership behaviors, such as charisma and inspirational speaking. Those ranked most proactive received higher ratings from their bosses, while low-scorers were near the bottom. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318727100_Proactive_Personality_A_twenty-year_review">Other studies</a> have linked proaction to better job performance, a tendency to exceed expectations, effective stress management and more entrepreneurial behavior. </p>
<p>A caveat to all this is that being proactive – like starting a new business – can be risky and even backfire. But the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318727100_Proactive_Personality_A_twenty-year_review">evidence shows clearly</a> that the likely gains over time far outweigh the potential costs. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203157/original/file-20180124-72597-6hrupf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">President Barack Obama, seen speaking at COP21 in France in 2015, acted proactively on the threat of climate change, while his successor has not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Francois Mori</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Not behaving proactively has costs too</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/7/16/17576956/transcript-putin-trump-russia-helsinki-press-conference">president’s words</a> and actions in Helsinki – in which he stood next to Russian President Vladimir Putin and said he believed his “powerful” denials over accusations of election hacking rather than the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/07/16/us/elections/russian-interference-statements-comments.html">consensus</a> of his own government – may never have happened had the Republican leaders of Congress been more proactive. </p>
<p>Although the president now says <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/17/politics/white-house-mood-donald-trump-vladimir-putin-news-conference/index.html">he misspoke</a>, the damage has been done. And more Republicans seem to acknowledge this and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/16/politics/congress-reaction-trump-putin-comments/index.html">have been sharply criticizing</a> the president for <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/trump-s-putin-meeting-behavior-was-so-un-american-republican-ncna892036">how he behaved</a> in Helsinki.</p>
<p>What could Congress have done differently? </p>
<p>For a start, it could have taken the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/powerpost/house-intelligence-committee-gop-releases-final-russia-report/2018/04/27/cfea31e2-4a20-11e8-9072-f6d4bc32f223_story.html?utm_term=.fb6797fa6e03">investigation</a> of Russian meddling more seriously as early as 2016. Or, after the Justice Department appointed Robert Mueller as special prosecutor, it could have passed a law to ensure the president can’t fire him – as Trump <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/10/us/politics/trump-sought-to-fire-mueller-in-december.html">has threatened</a> to do. Or even as recently as last week, Republican members of Congress could have urged Trump not to go ahead with the meeting with Putin.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378016304307">Surveys of Americans</a> across the political spectrum have shown that they respect leaders who engage in proactive ways on the problems facing their country. Perhaps that could help convince lawmakers and presidents that it’s in their own self-interest to do so.</p>
<p>Sadly, neglecting the future is our default. Proactivity requires all-too-rare strategic forethought and sustained, constructive action to avoid the worst and create the best possible futures. </p>
<p>As Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw perhaps <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/28382-we-are-made-wise-not-by-the-recollection-of-our">put it best</a>, “We are made wise not by a recollection of our past but by a responsibility for our future.” Imagine the benefits if more of our leaders would think and act through such a forward-looking lens. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article originally published on Jan. 24, 2018.</em> </p>
<p>
<section class="inline-content">
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<div>
<header></header>
<p><a href="http://aom.org/">Thomas Bateman is a member of the Academy of Management</a></p>
<footer>The academy is a funding partner of The Conversation US.</footer>
</div>
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<section class="inline-content">
<img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275743/original/file-20190521-23817-1fnbziu.png?w=128&h=128">
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<p><a href="http://aom.org/">Mike Crant is a member of the Academy of Management</a></p>
<footer>The academy is a funding partner of The Conversation US.</footer>
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</section>
</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100145/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Bateman is an Academy of Management scholar.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Crant is an Academy of Management scholar.</span></em></p>Research on proactive behavior shows it can help people perform better at their jobs. A failure to do so can be even more consequential.Thomas S. Bateman, Emeritus professor, University of VirginiaMike Crant, Professor of Management and Organization, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/958462018-05-24T10:23:41Z2018-05-24T10:23:41ZHow ‘media snacks’ – from HQ Trivia to Candy Crush – are transforming the workplace<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219993/original/file-20180522-51121-5kz1wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A quick distraction is at our fingertips – and app developers know it. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/employee-using-his-smartphone-workplace-while-364632065?src=A48-4ZfObeWYcNiYXIYZow-1-0">JrCasas/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Snow White sang “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSnXNHUEodY">Whistle While You Work</a>,” she was participating in a long tradition of using entertainment to manage the stresses of labor.</p>
<p>That same year, factory owners in the United Kingdom became interested in exploring whether music <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649360500258229?src=recsys&">could improve productivity</a> and invested in research to determine the optimal tunes for doing so. Workers welcomed the change, viewing it as a reprieve from the mind-numbing monotony of the mechanical age.</p>
<p>Today, smartphones and the internet largely perform this role, giving workers an array of daily distractions. </p>
<p>Media companies have taken note and are increasingly investing in the development of what <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EoX5iqwAAAAJ&hl=en">I call</a> a “<a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9781479844234/">procrastination economy</a>,” which is centered on the development of products designed for those moments when we pull out our phones or surf the web for a few minutes of distraction.</p>
<p>It could be during your commute or while you’re hanging out in a waiting room. But the workplace is an especially fertile place for media designed to avert people’s attention from the task at hand. </p>
<p>However, that doesn’t necessarily mean we are compulsively checking our phones to the detriment of our ability to do our job well. As alluring as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy_Crush_Saga">Candy Crush</a> may be, it doesn’t compare to a steady pay check. No, instead, these new products can enhance camaraderie and add to the various ways workers have, for years, navigated the work day.</p>
<h2>Disengaging from the task at hand</h2>
<p>Whether it’s listening to the radio in the break room or sneaking a book into the bathroom, media have long played a role in the workday. </p>
<p>The digital age transformed labor; the assembly line gave way to the cubicle; and work required constant engagement with the computer. These same computers also brought with them a form of distraction: the internet. During the workday, employees could now easily access their favorite news sites or chat with their friends.</p>
<p>A particularly ingenuous development of the era is the “<a href="http://www.speedofcreativity.org/2007/04/02/the-boss-button/">boss button</a>,” a computer hack for transforming a chat window or video game into an anonymous spreadsheet. Employers combated this trend by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/22/business/on-the-office-pc-bosses-opt-for-all-work-and-no-play.html">installing nanny software</a> to prohibit surfing on certain websites. </p>
<p>With an assist from the tech industry, employees found a new outlet with their smartphones. A good example of how mobile companies positioned themselves as an ally of the worker is a <a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2fzxg0">2009 commercial</a> for the now-defunct Windows Phone that features a bored employee inviting anthropomorphic mobile apps into a meeting.</p>
<p>Now workers have distractions like the live mobile game show <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/05/arts/hq-trivia-app-appointment-viewing.html">HQ Trivia</a> at their disposal. This daily trivia contest attracts around a million players each weekday afternoon at 3 p.m. EST. The game takes about 15 minutes, as participants answer 12 questions for a chance to win cash prizes. </p>
<p>This game show app is a perfect example of the procrastination economy: It asks participants to plan their day around a short, scheduled distraction, with advertisers paying to sponsor it.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At 3 p.m. every day, millions of workers can take a trivia break.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://qz.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/hq-trivia-android-quiz-app-ios.jpg?quality=80&strip=all&w=1600">HQ</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Snacking’ on morsels of media</h2>
<p>An implicit assumption of these developments is that they kill productivity. But research on computer use at work <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08959285.2013.765878">has shown</a> that short web surfing breaks during the day have restorative benefits that improve productivity, offer stress relief, or <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jcc4.12085">fill downtime between projects</a>. Socializing online can also be <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3055231/the-internet-isnt-whats-distracting-us-the-most-at-work">less time-consuming</a> than chatting with a colleague. </p>
<p>Then there are those who say that the older forms of procrastination – hanging in the break room, chatting at the water cooler – were better because they built camaraderie. Critics of smartphones <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/opinion/sunday/the-flight-from-conversation.html">often point</a> to the ways that they isolate us from each other, drawing us into our own bubbles.</p>
<p>But it turns out that these newer products of the procrastination economy can help build camaraderie. Since a lot of digital media is available on demand, colleagues can watch clips and short episodes together that, in the past, they would have only been able to watch at home. In my ethnographic observations of modern workplaces, I’ve found that people often synchronize their break times with coworkers. Then they’ll use their tablets or smartphones to select a show that they all enjoy and can watch together during a break. </p>
<p>Even HQ trivia can bring people together. Its hosts often promote the game as a group activity, since the questions tend to be challenging enough that it’s exceedingly difficult for one person to answer them all correctly. <a href="https://twitter.com/ap_garrett/status/986320588259123201">Teachers have paused class</a> to play as a group, and <a href="https://twitter.com/DanAmira/status/984516119569616898">some workplaces</a> have made the game show a team-building exercise.</p>
<p>HQ is just one selection on the menu of what some have dubbed “<a href="https://www.wired.com/2007/03/snackminifesto/">media snacks</a>.” It includes games like Words with Friends that can be played in short bursts. It could also be subscription services like Netflix <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/22/arts/television/netflix-15-minute-comedy-specials.html">that are offering ever shorter</a> stand-up comedy specials to fit neatly into the rhythms of the day or late night talk shows that <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/late-nights-youtube-battlefront-whos-881254">divide up segments</a> into bite-size morsels for people to quickly consume on YouTube. </p>
<p>The procrastination economy has turned simple mobile games <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/mobile-games-more-money-than-console-pc-chart-2017-6">into lucrative products</a>. It can make a subscription service a vital source of content both at home and at the workplace. </p>
<p>And the best part? Smartphone screens are so small that a boss button isn’t even necessary.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95846/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ethan Tussey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Thanks to a burgeoning procrastination economy, developers are creating content that can be consumed in short spurts. What does it mean for productivity?Ethan Tussey, Associate Professor in the School of Film, Media & Theatre, Georgia State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888312017-12-22T12:06:02Z2017-12-22T12:06:02ZAre you a “cyberloafer”? Why internet procrastination is making life easier for hackers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200449/original/file-20171222-16489-1u3djh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mobbing-stress-work-scandal-concepts-angry-609063008?src=6NcNxYMMFKto4kBdbQ4Haw-1-89">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The biggest threat to an organisation’s cyber-security comes from within, according to a <a href="https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Gender+difference+and+employees%27+cybersecurity+behaviors&btnG=&httpsredir=1&article=1013&context=itds_facpubs">growing body of evidence</a>. Employees are frequently <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167404817300081">putting their companies at risk</a> of hacking by sharing their passwords, using public WiFi networks to send sensitive information, or not protecting the privacy of social media accounts.</p>
<p>But there’s another threat that at first seems innocuous and that we’re all probably guilty of, something that researchers have dubbed “<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563207000805">cyberloafing</a>”. My research group’s <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/cyber.2017.0239">new study</a> shows this practice of using work computers for personal internet browsing can become a serious security threat to a company when it goes too far.</p>
<p>Most companies accept that their employees will occasionally check social media or send personal emails from work computers. But in some cases things can get more serious, with people people spending significant amounts of time updating their own websites, watching videos or even pornography. <a href="http://www.systemsdynamics.net/aeprod/articles/05092.pdf">Early estimates</a> suggested that 45% of employees questioned cited surfing the internet at work for personal purposes as the number one distraction at work.</p>
<p>This can have a big impact on a company’s productivity, with research suggesting that employees each waste an average of 2.09 hours a day <a href="http://www.systemsdynamics.net/aeprod/articles/05092.pdf">while cyberloafing</a>. But our new study also shows that the more employees engage in serious cyberloafing, the less likely they are to follow the rules and protocols designed to protect the company’s IT systems, and the bigger threat they become to cyber-security.</p>
<p>We asked 338 part-time and full-time workers aged 26-65 about their cyberloafing habits, their knowledge of information security, and behaviour that could indicate internet addiction. Those who cyberloafed more often knew less about information security. And those who engaged in more serious cyberloafing (such as updating personal websites, visiting dating websites or downloading illegal files) had significantly poorer cyber-security awareness.</p>
<p>Typically, people undertaking more serious cyberloafing were less aware of how to stay safe online and how to protect sensitive information. One reason for this could be that they are so determined to get online they don’t want to pay attention to information about online safety and ignore the risks. On they other hand, they may believe their companies can protect themselves from anything that might happen as a result of risky behaviour. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200450/original/file-20171222-16480-r3iag7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Getting online at any cost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-businessman-working-his-computer-late-32462875">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Those in our survey who scored higher for internet addiction behaviour were also much more likely to have poorer awareness of and follow safety protocols. And those who were serious cyberloafers and potential internet addicts were the greatest risk of all.</p>
<p>As I explain in my recent book <a href="https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/cybercognition/book249906">Cybercognition</a>, internet addiction <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark_Griffiths2/publication/226370789_%27Internet_Addiction%27_A_Critical_Review/links/0912f50bba45bb5455000000/Internet-Addiction-A-Critical-Review.pdf">is a compulsion</a> to get online, sometimes with the aim of fuelling other addictions to digital activities such as online gambling or shopping. Critically, the drive to get online can be the same as any physical addiction, so the internet acts like a drug for some people.</p>
<p>This means people who show aspects of internet addiction may be more determined to get online at any costs and more likely to try to get around security protocols or ignore advice about online safety. They may think they know better because they spend so much time online. Or they may not fully understand the risks because they are so absorbed in the online world.</p>
<h2>How to tackle cyberloafing</h2>
<p>All of this doesn’t mean we should cut off all internet access for employees. Being able to surf the internet is an important part of some people’s work. But excessive use of internet services and work IT systems can put companies at risk, particularly when people are accessing risky websites or downloading programmes from unknown sources.</p>
<p>There are a number of things companies can do to help mitigate the risks from excessive cyberloafing. As we suggest in our study’s conclusion, some organisations may apply very strict penalties for serious rule breaking. But providing effective training that empowers employees to identify aspects of internet abuse and seek help could be a more effective management tool. Helping workers understand the risks of their actions might be more beneficial, particularly where these are communicated through <a href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1468954/1/Awareness%20CampaignsDraftWorkingPaper.pdf">focus groups and talks</a>.</p>
<p>But one thing companies should avoid (and all too often don’t) is simply sending out an email reminder. <a href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1468954/1/Awareness%20CampaignsDraftWorkingPaper.pdf">Research shows</a> that messages about the potential risks to information security sent via email are the least effective. And if you’re deep into a cyberloafing session, an email will be just another corporate message lost in an overloaded inbox.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88831/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Hadlington does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Wasting time on the internet at work could be putting your company’s cyber-security at risk.Lee Hadlington, Senior Lecturer in Cyberpsychology, De Montfort UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/674592016-10-27T19:11:52Z2016-10-27T19:11:52ZRevising for exams - why cramming the night before rarely works<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143369/original/image-20161027-11256-821cg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cramming does't help you retain information, so the effect of a long night on the books may not be for much.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our five-part series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/making-sense-of-exams-32567">Making Sense of Exams</a>, we’ll discuss the purpose of exams, whether they can be done online, overcoming exam anxiety, and effective revision techniques.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The date for an important exam is looming. You know you have to study for it. Suddenly, it’s the evening before the dreaded date, and you feel like you haven’t studied enough, if at all. It’s time to cram all the information you can into your brain. </p>
<p>We know that to do well in exams, you have to remember your material to then demonstrate your knowledge during the test. But is an intense night of study an effective way of learning? </p>
<p>Learning information that can then be recalled in an often stressful environment is taxing on the brain. </p>
<p>In the best situations we <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-mind-blanks-during-exams-67380">can forget things</a> like our colleague’s names when trying to introduce them to someone. </p>
<p>In a high pressure situation our brains can easily perform sub-optimally. </p>
<h2>How to remember information in the long term</h2>
<p>In cognitive psychology, a discrimination can be drawn between deep and shallow processing of information. This is known as the <a href="https://explorable.com/levels-of-processing">Levels of Processing theory</a> which was proposed by researchers in the 1970’s. They argued that “deep processing” led to better long-term memory than “shallow processing”.</p>
<p>Shallow processed information can be encoded by the brain based on the simple characteristics of the words, rather than the meaning. So the knowledge is only able to be stored in short-term memory stores, where it is only retained for a short period.</p>
<p>To process information deeply, the meaning and importance of the information is encoded. Relations between concepts are linked together in an elaborate manner, so more understanding of the information is able to be demonstrated. </p>
<p>Due to the more meaningful analysis of the material, stronger and more long lasting memories can be formed. </p>
<p>Taking the time to elaborate and assign meaning to information allows easier recall. However, this process takes time, and when an entire subject needs to be crammed into your memory in a short period of time, deep processing can’t be performed. </p>
<p>So cramming can work for a short-term recall of the information, but this information will rapidly be lost.</p>
<h2>Re-reading notes is not enough</h2>
<p>Re-reading through notes is often not enough to cement information into your memory. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spider diagrams (above) or mind maps have been found to be more effective then conventional note taking for the retention of memory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A way of encoding information more deeply is to write <a href="http://classroom.synonym.com/difference-between-linear-notetaking-mind-mapping-5559.html">diagrammatic notes</a>. Spider diagrams, mind maps and concept maps are visual stimuli and are more easily remembered than a list of points or blocks of text.</p>
<p>Condensing information down into single word cues can then efficiently trigger the recall of large amounts of information. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-learning-secret-don-t-take-notes-with-a-laptop/">Hand writing revision notes</a> can also help you learn information more deeply and helps you to get into the practice of writing rapidly in an exam setting. </p>
<p>Typing on a computer can also increase distraction, as the temptation to procrastinate can increase.</p>
<h2>A lack of sleep can affect your performance</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sleep is essential in forming enduring memories.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Last minute revision is synonymous with a poor night’s sleep, if any sleep at all. </p>
<p>The dilemma presented is that you can either stay up and study to commit as much information to memory as possible, or forfeit a night’s sleep. </p>
<p>Sleep, however, is essential in forming enduring memories – and a lack of sleep is shown to be self defeating in terms of memory recall. </p>
<p>Scientists still do not fully understand why sleep is so important for brain function, but it is known that sleep is important in the <a href="http://www.human-memory.net/processes_consolidation.html">consolidation</a> of memory. </p>
<p>This is the process of forming an enduring memory from short-term stores into long-term memory. </p>
<p>Your brain goes through different stages of sleep. The deepest stage of sleep is known as <a href="http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/glossary/n-p">Slow Wave Sleep</a> and this period is proposed to be vital in the consolidation of memories.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-What-is-the-Hippocampus.aspx">hippocampus</a> is essential in the consolidation of memories, in particular in forming episodic memories, which requires linking the features of a memory together. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824214/">Studies</a> have revealed in mice that the neurons in the hippocampus activated during learning a maze became active again during Slow Wave Sleep. The reactivation of neurons is proposed to strengthen the new connections. </p>
<p>So a good night’s sleep after learning new information is essential to forming memories. It’s beneficial to get sleep rather than staying awake and going into an exam without rest.</p>
<h2>Procrastination can pile on the pressure</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sometimes anything else can be more appealing than revising for exams.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the deadline of exams to study for, mundane tasks suddenly become more appealing, like rearranging a bookshelf, or cleaning your desk, instead of revising for an exam. </p>
<p>The tasks we can occupy ourselves with when procrastinating are typically immediately rewarding but only have a short-term value. </p>
<p>The more important task of studying can lead to a bigger reward - passing the exam, however this reward is not immediate. </p>
<p>Humans tend to be motivated for small, immediate rewards. The value of passing a test certainly outweighs smaller, immediate rewards like playing video games; when the deadline approaches, the importance shifts. This usually leads to a long night of study before the exam.</p>
<p>It has been suggested procrastinators may be a certain <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200804/is-procrastination-personality-problem-what-is-personality">personality type</a>, in particular people who are thrill seekers. </p>
<p>Leaving an important task until the last minute increases adrenalin and stress hormones, and you can get a rewarding “rush” once its complete. The reinforces the idea that such people work better under pressure.</p>
<h2>Familiar environment can prompt memory</h2>
<p>Even if you arrive at the exam the morning after a long night of study, feeling sleep deprived and as if you haven’t learnt enough, all may not be lost. </p>
<p>Being in the exam hall at school, college or university can help you recall information. The familiar environment can increase performance as the stimuli around you can prompt memory. </p>
<p>For example, a science exam being taken in a science classroom can cue memories, these cues aren’t present in a strange environment such as taking an exam in a race course hall.</p>
<p>This is known as the <a href="https://www.reference.com/world-view/definition-context-dependent-memory-f3ad275cf46d2df3">environmental reinstatement effect</a>, which occurs because the location you are in can act as a prompt for past memories. </p>
<p>Environmental cues can trigger memory recall, so something as simple as having your pencil case on your desk while studying and again during the exam could assist in prompting memories. </p>
<h2>Tips for remembering information</h2>
<ol>
<li>Hand write out your notes instead of typing</li>
<li>Get a good night’s sleep before an exam</li>
<li>Write a revision plan and start early</li>
</ol>
<p><em>• <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/making-sense-of-exams-32567">Read more</a> from the series.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Reichelt receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>An intense night of study won’t help you remember information in the long-term – and the stress of revising under pressure will likely impact on your sleep and thus your exam performance.Amy Reichelt, Lecturer, ARC DECRA, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/479052015-10-07T10:09:30Z2015-10-07T10:09:30ZThe psychological origins of procrastination – and how we can stop putting things off<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97486/original/image-20151006-7358-1xphm9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Now or later?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jcorduroy/3725077603/in/photolist-6FaZMV-tBrSVz-yJhUXG-7XxNc3-67rJYd-6pTk3y-72XsP1-6YDf3Q-ei9A2b-a7QPd1-6Bu7RX-65P3dX-2TJvjB-6TUEXu-8DAJL2-3kLzRi-7eHszp-5pHjo-6gRdYU-5XMqQf-bwjPdz-98k1bu-9RBhmJ-a5oFFn-9SJcuq-98z3z3-3772d-uzuwRr-5xU4vN-buEEBe-6YxXPb-8PtfXy-a5Nok2-9F5fRA-73CJDQ-anWZFe-ksGdTv-5yQFcL-7wSVZj-5y6Cqz-55qz5o-gD6AKL-5H1Lmg-3NQEoE-5Y5fgn-9XpLQh-cnnGo1-qX6JEH-5mFptN-9SFjQX">Jay Malone/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“I love deadlines,” English author Douglas Adams once wrote. “I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by.”</p>
<p>We’ve all had the experience of wanting to get a project done but putting it off for later. Sometimes we wait because we just don’t care enough about the project, but other times we care a lot – and still end up doing something else. I, for one, end up cleaning my house when I have a lot of papers to grade, even though I know I need to grade them. </p>
<p>So why do we procrastinate? Are we built to operate this way at some times? Or is there something wrong with the way we’re approaching work? </p>
<p>These questions are central to <a href="http://sanlab.uoregon.edu">my research on goal pursuit</a>, which could offer some clues from neuroscience about why we procrastinate – and how to overcome this tendency.</p>
<h2>To do, or not to do</h2>
<p>It all starts with a simple choice between working now on a given project and doing anything else: working on a different project, doing something fun or doing nothing at all.</p>
<p>The decision to work on something is driven by how much we value accomplishing the project in that moment – what psychologists call its subjective value. And procrastination, in psychological terms, is what happens when the value of doing something else outweighs the value of working now. </p>
<p>This way of thinking suggests a simple trick to defeat procrastination: find a way to boost the subjective value of working now, relative to the value of other things. You could increase the value of the project, decrease the value of the distraction, or some combination of the two. </p>
<p>For example, instead of cleaning my house, I might try to focus on why grading is personally important to me. Or I could think about how unpleasant cleaning can actually be – especially when sharing a house with a toddler.</p>
<p>It’s simple advice, but adhering to this strategy can be quite difficult, mainly because there are so many forces that diminish the value of working in the present.</p>
<h2>The distant deadline</h2>
<p>People are not entirely rational in the way they value things. For example, a dollar bill is worth exactly the same today as it is a week from now, but its subjective value – roughly how good it would feel to own a dollar – depends on other factors besides its face value, such as when we receive it. </p>
<p>The tendency for people to devalue money and other goods based on time is called <a href="https://faculty.chicagobooth.edu/richard.thaler/assets/files/intertemporal%20choice.pdf">delay discounting</a>. For example, <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03211314">one study</a> showed that, on average, receiving $100 three months from now is worth the same to people as receiving $83 right now. People would rather lose $17 than wait a few months to get a larger reward. </p>
<p>Other factors also influence subjective value, such as how <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/211/4481/453.short">much money someone has recently gained or lost</a>. The key point is that there is not a perfect match between objective value and subjective value. </p>
<p>Delay discounting is a factor in procrastination because the completion of the project happens in the future. Getting something done is a delayed reward, so its value in the present is reduced: the further away the deadline is, the less attractive it seems to work on the project right now. </p>
<p>Studies have <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2006-23058-004">repeatedly shown</a> that the tendency to procrastinate closely follows economic models of delay discounting. Furthermore, people who characterize themselves as procrastinators <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886906000055">show an exaggerated effect</a>. They discount the value of getting something done ahead of time even more than other people. </p>
<p>One way to increase the value of completing a task is to make the finish line <em>seem</em> closer. For example, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627310001972">vividly imagining a future reward reduces delay discounting</a>. </p>
<h2>No work is ‘effortless’</h2>
<p>Not only can completing a project be devalued because it happens in the future, but working on a project can also be unattractive due to the simple fact that work takes effort. </p>
<p>New research supports the idea that <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0072626">mental effort is intrinsically costly</a>; for this reason, people generally choose to work on an easier task rather than a harder task. Furthermore, there are <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2010-19536-001">greater subjective costs for work that feels harder</a> (though these costs can be offset by experience with the task at hand). </p>
<p>This leads to the interesting prediction that people would procrastinate more the harder they expect the work to be. That’s because the more effort a task requires, the more someone stands to gain by putting the same amount of effort into something else (a phenomenon economists call <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9098479&fileId=S0140525X12003196">opportunity costs</a>). Opportunity costs make working on something that seems hard feels like a loss.</p>
<p>Sure enough, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2006-23058-004">a group of studies</a> shows that people procrastinate more on unpleasant tasks. These results suggest that reducing the pain of working on a project, for example by <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103112000145">breaking it down</a> into more familiar and manageable pieces, would be an effective way to reduce procrastination.</p>
<h2>Your work, your identity</h2>
<p>When we write that procrastination is a side effect of the way we value things, it frames task completion as a product of motivation, rather than ability.</p>
<p>In other words, you can be really good at something, whether it’s cooking a gourmet meal or writing a story, but if you don’t possess the motivation, or sense of importance, to complete the task, it’ll likely be put off. </p>
<p>It was for this reason that the writer Robert Hanks, <a href="http://www.lrb.co.uk/v37/n17/robert-hanks/on-putting-things-off">in an essay</a> for the London Review of Books, described procrastination as “a failure of appetites.”</p>
<p>The source of this “appetite” can be a bit tricky. But one could argue that, like our (real) appetite for food, it’s something that’s closely intertwined with our daily lives, our culture and our sense of who we are. </p>
<p>So how does one increase the subjective value of a project? A powerful way – one that <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2621251">my graduate students and I have written about in detail</a> – is to connect the project to your self-concept. Our hypothesis is that projects seen as important to a person’s self-concept will hold more subjective value for that person. </p>
<p>It’s for this reason that Hanks also wrote that procrastination seems to stem from a failure to “identify sufficiently with your future self” – in other words, the self for whom the goal is most relevant.</p>
<p>Because people are <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1988-16903-001">motivated to maintain a positive self-concept</a>, goals connected closely to one’s sense of self or identity take on much more value.</p>
<p>Connecting the project to more immediate sources of value, such as life goals or core values, can fill the deficit in subjective value that underlies procrastination.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elliot Berkman receives funding from NIH. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordan Miller-Ziegler does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Don’t delay. Read about why we procrastinate, and some tricks to overcome it.Elliot Berkman, Associate Professor of Psychology, University of OregonJordan Miller-Ziegler, PhD Candidate in Psychology, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/447052015-07-23T20:51:51Z2015-07-23T20:51:51ZWhy you shouldn’t fear your finances (you’re probably richer than you think)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89568/original/image-20150723-22849-e5rptu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of us think we're poorer than we actually are.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Piggie bank via www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you procrastinate about taking care of financial matters in your life? Recently a <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/upshot/investing-in-the-dark-the-biggest-cost-of-fear-is-paralysis.html">fascinating article</a> about financial procrastination appeared online. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/sendhil">author</a> publicly admitted that “after years of procrastinating,” he finally logged on to his retirement account. It took him years to get around to dealing with it because the entire task made him <em>anxious</em>. </p>
<p>Moreover, he stated he didn’t remember his password, and his account choices were a mess. </p>
<p>For many of us there is nothing special about any of this. Most people dread and put off dealing with financial matters. </p>
<p>However, what was astonishing about this story is that the writer is an eminent economist who does research in personal financial matters such as <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/insufficient-funds-pb">savings</a>, <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/aer.98.2.304">annuities</a> and <a href="http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2008/09/mortgage-system-barr">mortgages</a>. If this man has trouble dealing with his retirement accounts, is there any hope for the rest of us?</p>
<h2>Do you have to be smart to be rich?</h2>
<p>There are many reasons people procrastinate on dealing with financial matters. There is even a new special <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/10/your-money/financial-therapy-for-people-stressed-by-money.html">field in psychiatry</a> that deals with the <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/learnvest/2013/10/01/what-its-like-to-be-a-financial-therapist/">issues people have surrounding money</a>, spending and saving. Unfortunately, while many of us have issues about money, the specialized help that is available is primarily useful for people with lots of wealth or income.</p>
<p>Some of my research can help people who procrastinate about dealing with their finances. One reason many people don’t want to deal with money issues is because they think they are not smart enough. However, when I looked into this, the results were very clear: there is <a href="http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/intlwlth.htm">no relationship</a> between intelligence, measured by IQ, and a person’s wealth. It’s generally true that the smarter you are, the more income you earn. However, earning more doesn’t give you any special advantage in saving or building wealth.</p>
<p>Sendhil Mullainathan, the economist who wrote the column on procrastinating, appears to be a poster child for the lack of a relationship between IQ and wealth. He is clearly very smart: he won a <a href="http://www.macfound.org/fellows/694/">MacArthur genius</a> award and is a full professor at <a href="http://economics.harvard.edu/news/scarcity-why-having-too-little-means-so-much-sendhil-mullainathans-new-book">Harvard</a>. </p>
<p>But he probably doesn’t have much wealth since he states in the article, “I want to reach my retirement with a nest egg that allows me to maintain my current lifestyle and to travel a bit.” Rich people don’t dream of retiring with just enough money to take a few trips. </p>
<p>If you are putting off dealing with money issues because you don’t think you are smart enough, don’t wait any longer. Being smart isn’t going to make you rich. Whether you are dumb or smart you can save. The secret is simple: just spend less than you earn.</p>
<h2>Are you richer than you think?</h2>
<p>Many people don’t want to deal with their financial issues because they expect the news to be depressing. Most of us are experts at avoiding bad news. However, another research paper I wrote shows that for most people, the financial news is actually <a href="https://afcpe.org/assets/pdf/vol1112.pdf">much better</a> than expected, which is perhaps another reason not to procrastinate.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nlsinfo.org/">National Longitudinal Surveys</a>, a long-running research project sponsored by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, asked people to estimate their net worth. Then the survey took them step by step through the value of all of their assets and the value of all their debts. From this information I was able to calculate their actual net worth. The result for most people was much better than they feared. For every dollar of wealth actually held, the typical individual believed they only had 62 cents. </p>
<p>In simple terms, the research showed that the typical person underestimates their financial position by more than a third. The financial unknown is scary but the actuality for most people is not as frightening as they fear. </p>
<p>I encourage all of you to sit down, close your eyes and ask yourself: are we in debt, break even or do we have money? Write down your best guess for how much you are in debt or how wealthy you are. Then add up all of your assets and subtract all of your debts (an easy online calculator is available <a href="http://finance.yahoo.com/calculator/retirement/bud07/">here</a>). The results will pleasantly surprise most of you.</p>
<h2>Why should you avoid procrastination?</h2>
<p>Research suggests people who avoid procrastinating do financially better. A recent working paper by two economists <a href="http://conference.nber.org/confer/2015/SI2015/HF/Brown_Previtero.pdf">Jeffrey Brown and Alessandro Previtero</a> shows that people who procrastinate are less likely to participate in savings plans, take longer to sign up when they do decide to participate, and contribute less money to their retirement plans than non procrastinators.</p>
<p>You will not become rich or suddenly have enough money to retire by reading just one article. However, know that lots of people procrastinate about financial matters. If you have been procrastinating because you don’t think you are smart enough or because you fear the results, research suggests you will find the news is not bad. </p>
<p>So make that first step and try to deal with that financial task you have been putting off. It is like jumping into a pool, lake or ocean; the water is really not as bad as you fear, and taking the jump will likely make you (feel) richer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44705/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<h4 class="border">Disclosure</h4><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L Zagorsky has been affiliated with the National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS) for 20 years.</span></em></p>Do you procrastinate about taking care of financial matters in your life? Recently a fascinating article about financial procrastination appeared online. The author publicly admitted that “after years…Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer, Questrom School of Business, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/420722015-05-28T05:33:09Z2015-05-28T05:33:09ZIs technology making your attention span shorter than a goldfish’s?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83151/original/image-20150527-4831-1yt5yko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Now then, where was I?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever found it hard to concentrate on one thing without stopping to check your emails or post to social media, you’re not alone. The average human attention span – how long we can concentrate effectively on a single task – was <a href="http://advertising.microsoft.com/en/cl/31966/how-does-digital-affect-canadian-attention-spans">recently reported</a> by Microsoft to have dropped below the level attributed to goldfish.</p>
<p>This certainly plays to our fears about what the daily flood of social media and emails is doing to us, and to younger generations in particular. However, these figures may be misleading. For one thing, the report contains no real detail for either the goldfish or human attention span beyond the numbers on the <a href="http://www.statisticbrain.com/attention-span-statistics/">web page</a> Microsoft pulled them from.</p>
<p>More importantly, our minds are adaptive systems, constantly reorganising and refocusing our mental faculties to suit the environment. So the idea that our ability to pay attention may be changing in response to the modern, online world is neither surprising nor anything to necessarily worry about. However, there is an argument that we must take care to keep control of our attention in a world increasingly filled with distractions. </p>
<p>Attention is a phenomenally awkward thing to study and the manner in which it is tested enormously impacts on the results. This is one of the reasons attention is one of the most enduring and active research areas in psychology: <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21549742">more than 1,200 papers</a> have been published on it just in the past 10 years.</p>
<p>But assuming the numbers in the report reflect some research – no matter what the method behind the data was – it’s still not reasonable to apply them to any situation other than the one in which they were generated. Applying them to all aspects of our lives, as the report implies we should do, is a huge stretch. </p>
<p>Published scientific research looking at the effect of modern technology on our cognitive abilities does show an effect on attention. But contrary to popular opinion, it shows attention spans have actually improved. For example, habitual video gamers have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12774121/">demonstrated better</a> attentional abilities than non-players – and non-players who started playing video-games began to show the same improvements.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83153/original/image-20150527-4812-17t0kny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There’s no reason why the modern world should necessarily diminish our mental faculties and no reason to fear them changing. Our cognitive abilities are constantly changing and even naturally vary across the day.</p>
<p>One of our projects at the Open University is currently collecting data on these daily cycles. We’ve developed a smartphone app that includes a measure of attention alongside four other cognitive tasks. By using <a href="http://www.openuniversity.co.uk/brainwave">the app</a> across the day, you can participate in this research and chart these natural changes in your own performance. This can enable you to better plan your day and finally understand if you actually are a morning or evening person.</p>
<p>However, as interesting as possible variations in cognitive abilities are, a more pertinent question may be what or who is driving the changes in our environment. Happily, this question is much easier to answer. The Microsoft study is aimed at advertisers, not the general public, and calls on companies to use “more creative, and increasingly immersive ways to market themselves”. </p>
<p>The increasing number of distractions in our world is partly due to the new and ever-evolving ways in which advertisers can put their message in front of us – and the “increasingly immersive” techniques they’ll use once the message is there. Realising this helps us understand that our attention is a resource being fought over by advertisers.</p>
<p>The online world is increasingly comprised of spaces where advertisers attempt to tempt us with their products. Similarly, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18959416">public spaces</a> are increasingly full of adverts that can play sound and video to further capture our attention. Escaping this advertising battleground is becoming one of the luxuries of the modern world. It’s why paid-for executive lounges at airports are free from noisy, garish adverts and why the removal of adverts is a key selling point for paid-for apps.</p>
<p>Our mental abilities are changing, as they always have done in order to best serve our success in changing environments. But now, more than ever, our environment is made by those who either want our attention or want to sell access to it. It will certainly be interesting to see how our cognitive abilities adapt to meet this new challenge. However, as individuals we too must start valuing our attention as much as the advertisers do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42072/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Thirkettle currently receives funding from the charitable arm of Reed, who partnered with the OU on the Brainwave app project. He has also received funding from Sheffield Children's Hospital Research Charity, the EU, and the EPSRC</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Pike has received funding from the EPSRC, Home Office, College of Policing, HEFCE, British Psychological Society and from the charitable arm of Reed, who partnered on the Brainwave app project.</span></em></p>Our minds have always adapted to their environment but advertisers are exploiting opportunities for distraction like never before.Martin Thirkettle, Lecturer in psychology, The Open UniversityGraham Pike, Professor of forensic cognition, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/397662015-04-13T09:55:42Z2015-04-13T09:55:42ZWhy most of us procrastinate in filing our taxes – and why it doesn’t make any sense<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77376/original/image-20150408-18063-1em035w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tick tock, tick tock.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tax day via www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>April 15th, a day most of us dread, is fast approaching. Have you filed your taxes yet? </p>
<p>Economists believe most people are rational calculating machines, but many of us don’t behave rationally about filing our taxes. </p>
<p>Instead, most of us wait until the very last minute. Figures from the <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/Newsroom/Filing-Season-Statistics-for-Week-Ending-March-27-2015">end of March</a> suggest roughly 50 million – or one-third of all this year’s individual tax returns in the US – will have been filed in the final two weeks before Tax Day. </p>
<p>This is NOT a good idea for most of us.</p>
<p>I experienced this procrastination during the past weekend when I was finally able to convince one of my sons to sit down and do his income taxes. He was very happy when the final tabulation showed a good-sized refund. Walking out the door, my son said if he had known it would be a refund, he would have done his taxes much earlier.</p>
<h2>Most of us owe nothing</h2>
<p>Waiting till the last minute is strange for a number of reasons. First, the majority of people in the US either get a refund or don’t owe the federal government any money. The graph below produced from <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Historical-Table-9">IRS data</a> shows the percentage of filed tax returns that are due a refund. Since the 1950s a rising number of people have overpaid. About eight out of every ten tax returns filed in 2013 got a refund.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/77379/original/image-20150408-18057-1230v8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The graph shows more and more tax filers are owed money.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author's Calculations From IRS Data</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The IRS also tracks the number of returns that owe no tax. Since 1950 on average 4% of all returns filed owed no tax. Combined this means only about 15% of all filed tax returns pay the government any extra money beyond what has already been taken out of paychecks or sent in throughout the year as estimated payments. </p>
<p>In other words, if you are procrastinating, there is an 85% chance you either owe nothing or will get money back, which gives you better odds that many <a href="http://www.masslottery.com/lib/downloads/about/June2014financialYTD.pdf">state lotteries</a>.</p>
<h2>Large refunds and unlikely audits</h2>
<p>Second, if you do get a refund, typically it will be quite large. The most <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Collections-and-Refunds,-by-Type-of-Tax-IRS-Data-Book-Table-1">recent data</a> for the 2012 tax year showed that among people who overpaid, the typical overpayment amount was about $3,000. Of this, the average person elected to receive $2,800 back and left $200 with the IRS to pay future taxes.</p>
<p>Third, many people procrastinate because they fear being audited. The percentage of individual returns audited in 2010 was about 1.1% and has since fallen to about 0.9%. However, these low numbers mask huge variations in the type of returns that are audited. Most of the audits happen either to millionaires or self-employed people with high income, not to the general public. </p>
<p>About 7.5% of people declaring income over a million dollars and 2.7% of self-employed people earning between $200,000 and a million dollars were audited. As for the rest of us – excluding those who declared self-employment or farm income – the chance of being audited is about 0.3%. </p>
<p>Roughly the same number of people <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Examination-Coverage:-Recommended-and-Average-Recommended-Additional-Tax-After-Examination-IRS-Data-Book-Table-9a">visit emergency rooms</a> each year after slipping or falling in a bathroom as are selected among the general public for IRS audits. Moreover, among this small group chosen for auditing, one out of every five has no changes made to their return after the IRS examination.</p>
<h2>Lightning-like odds</h2>
<p>Fourth, some people are concerned they could go to jail because of making a tax mistake. The odds of this happening are in the same range as being <a href="http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/odds.htm">hit by lightning</a>. In the US slightly more than 300 people are hit by lightning each year. Since 2000, fewer than 600 people a year on average <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Criminal-Investigation-Program-by-Status-or-Disposition-IRS-Data-Book-Table-18">go to jail</a> for tax crimes, meaning the chance of “doing time” for tax reasons is slim indeed.</p>
<p>Fifth, those who fill out their returns on their own often find the task daunting. The language is convoluted, the rules are Byzantine, and tax filing requires collecting many papers and forms that don’t all arrive at the same time. The process makes many people feel <a href="http://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/article9534044.html">confused</a>, stupid or inadequate. </p>
<p>Lastly, a <a href="http://www.gallup.com/poll/151910/tornadoes-taxes-coincide-stressful-days-2011.aspx">Gallup Poll</a> has found Tax Day to be one of the most stressful days of the year, which is not surprising given that many people put off doing their taxes until the last moment. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0092656686901273">Research</a> suggests procrastination is related to stress and that procrastinators often do not finish tasks that are highly stressful.</p>
<h2>Trouble is, no one knows the truth</h2>
<p>The question remains, why do so many people procrastinate when the odds are greatly in their favor? One reason is that almost no one knows the <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Business-Information-Zagorsky-McGraw-Hill-Paperback/dp/B00DU7GT1E/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1428342038&sr=8-2&keywords=zagorsky+information">above statistics</a>. </p>
<p>While the IRS is quick to take your money, it is slow to release data. There are a number of reasons why. Tax returns are due months after the fiscal year is over. The IRS does not get most individual tax returns for 2014 until the beginning of 2015. Then, many people and businesses ask for extensions. </p>
<p>This means it takes a long time before the IRS gets all the tax returns for a particular year. Additionally, the <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Purpose-and-Function-of-Statistics-of-Income-%28SOI%29-Program">Statistics of Income</a>, which is the IRS office that produces the data, has a small budget. Most of its money and time is spent producing information for the Treasury Department’s Office of Tax Analysis and the Congressional Joint Committee on Taxation, so that the impact of congressional and presidential proposals to change the tax system can be evaluated.</p>
<p>Another reason is that the tax people owe is uncertain since Congress is constantly changing the rules, and as life’s circumstances change, different tax rules apply. </p>
<p>After each year’s returns are collected, the IRS publishes a <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Individual-Income-Tax-Returns-Publication-1304-%28Complete-Report%29">large book</a> that summarizes the information found in individual tax returns. The first chapter of each book is a lengthy summary of all the recent tax law changes. Constant changes to the tax code reduce people’s ability to accurately forecast their tax liability, which makes people put off dealing with computing and filing their taxes.</p>
<h2>Facing the scary unknowns</h2>
<p>Sometimes it is rational to delay. Although most people get refunds or owe no money, about 15% of people must pay the Federal government on April 15. The typical person in this category <a href="http://www.irs.gov/uac/SOI-Tax-Stats-Historical-Table-1">owes about</a> $6,000, which is twice as large as the average refund. </p>
<p>It is rational for people who owe the IRS money to delay filing since it gives them a longer time to gather the funds and a longer time to receive interest on their money before incurring a late payment penalty</p>
<p>In general, many people procrastinate when faced with the unknown because the unknown is scary. It is very rational to anticipate the worst when facing the mysteries of the US tax code. </p>
<p>However, for many people, Tax Day is a time of needless worry because the majority of us get back a sizable refund. While gathering together the time and papers needed to complete your tax return is a pain, four out of five of all taxpayers will find a silver lining.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39766/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The vast majority of us will get a refund from the federal government, while the odds of an audit or worse are akin to getting struck by lightning.Jay L. Zagorsky, Economist and Research Scientist, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/330882014-10-16T12:32:48Z2014-10-16T12:32:48ZWhy do we find it so hard to write about ourselves?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61976/original/pdkyz6vn-1413455157.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Pretend I'm not here'.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever applied for a job, you know how hard it is to write the perfect cover letter that will make you stand out above all the other applicants. It’s a <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/06/usa-studentloans-jobs-idUSL2N0KG1SW20140106">competitive job market</a>, and more often than not, career seekers find themselves face-to-face with blank computer screens in an attempt to pen that one short masterpiece. </p>
<p>Students also face this overwhelming task to land a spot in college, doling out, on average, <a href="http://www.thecollegesolution.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/NACAC-report.pdf">nine applications each</a>. And in order to afford the inevitable financial burdens, many also toil over scholarship and funding applications at the same time. With competition for college admissions at an <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/09/us/led-by-stanfords-5-top-colleges-acceptance-rates-hit-new-lows.html">all-time high</a>, surely the perfect personal statement will make someone stand out among their straight-A counterparts with glowing teacher recommendations. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61975/original/53s83x5z-1413454199.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Take ten.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hach3/2606380637/sizes/o/">Lenixx</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We’re the experts on ourselves, right? So why do we find it so difficult to convey who we are in text?</p>
<p>Of course, we’re not writing an autobiography here — we’re writing to seek the approval of others. Perhaps the worst part is that we don’t know who’s reading our words or who our competitors are. A rather <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/35/9/656/">clever experiment</a> conducted by psychologist Mark Snyder and colleagues in the late 1970s perfectly illustrates the extent to which we tend to play up to the expectations others have of us, whether good or bad.</p>
<p>In the study, 51 men interacted with women blindly via a microphone and headset. Before the conversation, however, the men were given a photograph of an “attractive” female (previously ranked by others with a score of eight out of ten for attractiveness) or an “unattractive” one (ranked two out of ten). During the conversation, the men believed that they were talking to the woman they saw in the photo. </p>
<p>The researchers weren’t interested in what the men were doing, though. Observers who studied the recordings weren’t told which photograph the men had seen, and instead focused on the behaviours of the women. It turned out that the women who tended to come across as more sociable, likeable and friendly were the ones who had spoken to men who had seen the “attractive” photograph. In other words, not only were the men subconsciously communicating their judgements, but the women picked up on these subtleties and changed their behaviours accordingly.</p>
<h2>A dirty business</h2>
<p>Describing ourselves on paper, while blindly attempting to live up to the expectations of others, makes it all feel like a giant lie, doesn’t it? Of course, personal statements and cover letters add a particularly thorny dimension – we have to brag about ourselves. An <a href="http://asq.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/10/06/0001839214554990.full">amusing study</a> in an upcoming issue of Administrative Science Quarterly suggests that putting ourselves out there professionally actually makes us feel dirty. Literally.</p>
<p>In the study, 306 adults were asked to imagine one of two scenarios. One group recalled a time when they needed to create a relationship with someone who would benefit them professionally. The other group thought about an instance where they socialised casually, like at a party. The participants then filled in the blanks to word fragments such as W _ _ H, S H _ _ E R, and S _ _ P. </p>
<p>Those who had relived situations of professional networking were roughly twice as likely to fill in the blanks with words related to physical cleanliness, such as “wash”, “shower,” and “soap,” while the other group tended to come up with more neutral words, such as “wish,” “shaker,” and “step.” The <a href="http://asq.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/10/06/0001839214554990.full">conclusion drawn by the study’s authors</a> was that “networking in pursuit of professional goals can impinge on an individual’s moral purity.”</p>
<h2>Three tips to unblock</h2>
<p>For many of us, though, the main reason we find it so hard to write about ourselves is because it’s so, so easy to procrastinate. After all, we’re not quite sure how to portray ourselves to strangers, we feel disgusting when we have to talk ourselves up, and there’s a YouTube filled to the brim with thousands of cat videos. Which would you choose?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cbP2N1BQdYc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>We tend to procrastinate on things that bring us discomfort due to, <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/margiewarrell/2013/03/25/why-you-procrastinate-and-how-to-stop-it-now/">at its core, fear</a>. And although it may seem like a silly thing to admit, the situations in which we’re forced to write about ourselves can indeed be scary. Getting into college or landing your dream career is a big deal. That said, here are three pieces of advice to help overcome autobiographer’s block:</p>
<p><strong>1. Forget the pressure you’re under and just start writing.</strong> It may not be pretty, but if you let yourself go on autopilot for a while, the words you jot down will be very telling as to which points you find most important to share about yourself.</p>
<p><strong>2. Let someone take a red pen to it.</strong> This part may be just as uncomfortable as the writing process, but allow someone to sit down with your personal statement. It’ll help to not only get an objective opinion on your writing style and organisation, but to also get an idea of how a friend would portray you on paper.</p>
<p><strong>3. Remember that you’re not alone.</strong> Literally everyone who has ever had a job or gone on to post-secondary education has had to self-promote in some way. For many of us, it’s not fun or easy, but it’s necessary. The reward is certainly delayed, but receiving that acceptance letter in the mail weeks or months down the road will make the brief torture worthwhile.</p>
<p>So whether you’re tackling a personal statement, cover letter or college essay, science agrees that we’re right to feel stumped. (Just wait until you get to the fun part – the interview!)</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
If you’ve ever applied for a job, you know how hard it is to write the perfect cover letter that will make you stand out above all the other applicants. It’s a competitive job market, and more often than…Jordan Gaines Lewis, Neuroscience Doctoral Candidate, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/193742013-11-13T04:35:14Z2013-11-13T04:35:14ZPutting it off: some ideas about why we procrastinate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34980/original/qqs8hx53-1384225877.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mundane tasks suddenly become more appealing when a deadline looms.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jess McCulloch</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Everyone procrastinates. I became somewhat distracted by completely irrelevant websites, for instance, while preparing to write this article. </p>
<p>Procrastination, as you may have figured out by now, is the practice of carrying out less urgent tasks in preference to urgent ones. Or, doing pleasurable tasks in place of less pleasurable ones, and thus delaying performing impending jobs. </p>
<p>We know we have important work deadlines, exams to study for, and even more tedious tasks such as sorting out bills and taking the dog to the vet for yearly vaccinations.</p>
<p>But when deadlines loom, mundane tasks suddenly become more appealing – tidying your office area as opposed to writing a report, or cleaning the car instead of revising for an exam.</p>
<p>Chronic procrastinating stems productivity and affects our state of mind by generating worry and stress. As deadlines approach, they cause feelings of frustration and guilt for not working on a task when we were meant to. </p>
<p>So why do we choose to mess around when we need to knuckle down and do what we know to be important?</p>
<h2>The value of mundane tasks</h2>
<p>In order to procrastinate, we need to have an appreciation of the value of our behaviours. That’s to say we know that we’re undertaking a short-term, less important task, instead of doing something essential.</p>
<p>The part of the brain that acts as the control centre for deciding whether to perform certain behaviours is the <a href="http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-the-prefrontal-cortex.htm">prefrontal cortex</a>. </p>
<p>It plays an important role in <a href="http://therapytoronto.ca/news/2013/07/study-identifies-brain-region-that-determines-emotional-value-assigned-to-something/">assigning positive (or negative) values</a> to outcomes, and encoding what actions were performed. This process means you are more likely to do something if it previously resulted in a good feeling. </p>
<p>This area of the brain is therefore important for making value-based judgements as well as for decision making in general; we undertake certain behaviours because we’ve learnt that they make us feel good. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.neurogistics.com/thescience/whatareneurotransmi09ce.asp">Neurotransmitters</a> in the brain process rewards and generate pleasurable sensations. Rewarding behaviours result in the release of the neurotransmitter <a href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/dopamine">dopamine</a> in the brain. </p>
<p>And, dopamine <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/reinforcement.htm">reinforces</a> such behaviours in turn, making us feel good and increasing the chances that we will perform them again. </p>
<h2>Putting tasks into perspective</h2>
<p>The tasks we tend to occupy ourselves with when procrastinating are those with a small, immediate, and short-term value, instead of the important, more valued task where the reward is delayed. </p>
<p>This is an example of <a href="http://scienceblogs.com/purepedantry/2008/07/16/i-want-it-now-temporal-discoun/">temporal discounting</a>; basically, we overestimate the value of an outcome when it can be gained immediately. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34984/original/rxzt369d-1384226118.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The internet is a procrastinator’s paradise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rishi Bandopadhay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Human motivation is highly influenced by how imminent a reward is perceived to be. In other words, we discount the value of large rewards the further away they are in time. This is called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting">present bias</a>. </p>
<p>And it explains why we’re more likely to partake in low-value behaviours (checking Facebook, for instance, or playing computer games) – because getting a good score on a test next week is further away in time, so it’s less valued than it should be.</p>
<p>As time passes, the temporal proximity of your deadline increases. The value of doing well in your assessment, or getting work in before a deadline is still just the same as before, but greater immediacy means it becomes more important that you complete the task. </p>
<p>Another more personality-based theory of procrastination is the <a href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200808/in-search-the-arousal-procrastinator">“arousal seeking”</a> idea. This suggests procrastinators may be a certain personality type, in particular people who are thrill seekers. </p>
<p>Leaving an important deadline until the last minute increase levels of stress. And carrying out the task in the last minute leads to a rewarding “rush” once its complete. This reinforces the idea that such people work better under pressure.</p>
<p>Procrastination may be a facet of personality. Or it could be that exposure to so many immediately rewarding activities makes it difficult to perform certain less pleasurable, but important tasks.</p>
<h2>Overcoming procrastination</h2>
<p>There are a variety of techniques to help people work effectively and minimise distractions and procrastination. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://pomodorotechnique.com/get-started/">Pomodoro technique</a>, for instance, breaks work sessions into manageable 25-minute slots, allowing a small reward at the end, such as five minutes access to Facebook or a short coffee break.</p>
<p>Then you have to return to another 25 minutes of work; the technique can aid productivity across the whole day.</p>
<p>A similar approach is self-imposing shorter-term deadlines for a large project, breaking it up into manageable tasks with immediate outcomes. </p>
<p>This increases the proximity of the deadline and decreases the chances of having to carry out the task at the last minute. This technique can work as simply as making a timetable or list of smaller tasks, and then rewarding yourself once each task is complete.</p>
<p>With so many daily distractions, we seem to live in a procrastinator’s paradise. Accepting that we’re prone to procrastinate allows us to manage our behaviour and be more productive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/19374/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Reichelt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Everyone procrastinates. I became somewhat distracted by completely irrelevant websites, for instance, while preparing to write this article. Procrastination, as you may have figured out by now, is the…Amy Reichelt, Research Fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.