tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/recording-industry-31197/articlesRecording industry – The Conversation2024-03-19T04:45:36Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260132024-03-19T04:45:36Z2024-03-19T04:45:36ZWhat’ll happen when Facebook stops paying for news? Here’s what happened when radio stopped paying for music<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582727/original/file-20240319-22-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1502%2C732%2C3364%2C1769&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Why are musicians so keen to get played on the radio?</p>
<p>It can’t be because of the money.</p>
<p>In Australia they are paid at rates so low they come close to making streaming services look generous. By law, no radio station can be made to pay more than <a href="https://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca1968133/s152.html">1%</a> of the station’s gross revenue for all of the music it plays, even if it is an all-music station. By the time the labels have had their cut, the artists get <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/3172/Sub28_CRA.pdf">a lot less</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22chamber%2Fhansards%2F27117%2F0048%22">Legislation</a> now before the Senate would remove the ceiling, allowing radio stations and the representatives of musical artists to negotiate freely, with a final decision made by a tribunal in cases where they can’t reach agreement.</p>
<p>It’s a bit like the legislation set up to arbitrate disputes between platforms such as Facebook and <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/by-industry/digital-platforms-and-services/news-media-bargaining-code/news-media-bargaining-code">news organisations</a> about the amount to pay for news.</p>
<p>The parallels tell us an awful lot about where the power lies in disputes between platforms and providers. Here’s a hint: it doesn’t lie with providers, whether they provide music, or news, or, for that matter, fruit to Coles and Woolworths.</p>
<h2>Radio pays little for music, and always has</h2>
<p>Here’s what happened with radio.</p>
<p>Legislation dating back to 1968 has given Australian radio stations a blanket right to play whatever music they want so long as they negotiate a payment rate with the relevant collecting society.</p>
<p>If the station and collecting society can’t agree on the rate, the decision is made by an <a href="https://www.copyrighttribunal.gov.au/">independent tribunal</a>, but, for commercial stations, the tribunal is limited to awarding no more than 1% of the station’s gross revenue, and for ABC stations, a mere <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582675/original/file-20240318-26-prqomy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1">half of one cent</a> per Australian resident per year.</p>
<p>The attorney-general introduced the ceilings to “<a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/agispt.20210216043919">allay the fears</a>” of radio stations and initially promised a review after five years, a provision he later <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/agispt.20210216043919">dropped</a> from the final draft of the legislation. A half a century of inflation has rendered the ABC’s ceiling of half a cent per person worth a fraction of what it was.</p>
<h2>The ABC pays half a cent per person</h2>
<p>The ceilings only apply to radio stations and only to the recordings. Television stations (including ABC stations) pay much more per track. </p>
<p>And composers, who are paid separately with no legislated limit, get much more. </p>
<p>This means the composers of <a href="https://youtu.be/PQCH1-ffP-g?si=RhF2m5hjQjJvPUVq">You’re the Voice</a> get paid quite well, but the performer, John Farnham, does not.</p>
<p>The record industry has tried time and time again to remove the ceiling. </p>
<p>In 2010 it even went to the High Court, arguing along the lines of the case depicted in the movie <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/mar/19/its-the-vibe-25-years-on-how-the-castle-became-an-australian-classic">The Castle</a> that the constitution prevented the Commonwealth from acquiring property other than “on just terms”. </p>
<p>The High Court said “<a href="https://eresources.hcourt.gov.au/showCase/2012/HCA/8">no</a>”, no property had been acquired. </p>
<p>Now, independent Senator David Pocock is trying again. </p>
<h2>‘Fair pay for radio play’</h2>
<p>Pocock’s <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=s1386">Fair Pay for Radio Play</a> bill would remove the ceilings, allowing the radio industry and the record industry to negotiate “<a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22chamber%2Fhansards%2F27117%2F0048%22">a fair rate</a>” subject to adjudication by the Copyright Tribunal.</p>
<p>The radio industry says, if that happens, it will play <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/committees/commsen/27539/toc_pdf/Legal%20and%20Constitutional%20Affairs%20Legislation%20Committee_2024_03_07.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf#search=%22committees/commsen/27539/0000%22">less Australian music</a>. It would also ask to be freed from the legislated requirement to play Australian music.</p>
<p>The recording industry talks as if the radio industry is bluffing. </p>
<p>Annabelle Herd, head of the Phonographic Performance Company of Australia, told the Senate hearing </p>
<blockquote>
<p>even if the radio networks stopped playing all Australian music, they would still have to pay to play UK music, Canadian music and music from pretty much every other country in the world. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>It’s a point she might not want to push too far.</p>
<p>In 1970 that’s exactly what happened. In response to what it felt was an over-large demand from the Phonographic Performance Company, the commercial radio industry said no, and refused to play any of its music.</p>
<p>Instead, it played records from independent Australian labels who didn’t charge and got their records pressed in <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/3160/1970_RECORD_BAN.pdf">Singapore</a>, and American music, lots of it.</p>
<p>While the industry couldn’t play music from the UK, Canada and a bunch of other countries that were signatories to the relevant copyright treaty, it could play music from the United States, which didn’t charge, and hadn’t signed the treaty.</p>
<h2>When radio called the labels’ bluff</h2>
<p>A disc jockey quoted at the time said he didn’t think the average listener would <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/110321578">notice</a>, and there’s nothing on record to suggest the average listener did.</p>
<p>The Beatles album <a href="https://www.allmusic.com/album/let-it-be-mw0000192939">Let it Be</a> was released on May 8. The <a href="https://www.nfsa.gov.au/latest/radio-100-1970-record-ban">record ban</a>, as it was called, came into force on May 16. <a href="https://www.nfsa.gov.au/latest/radio-100-1970-record-ban">The Long and Winding Road</a> cracked the top five just about everywhere it was released, apart from Australia.</p>
<p>Five months later, the record companies caved. The only thing the radio industry offered it was a <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/3160/1970_RECORD_BAN.pdf">guaranteed number of advertisements</a> per week. Which had been the radio industry’s point all along. The record companies needed radio play for exposure. Without it, people were unlikely to buy their discs.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/facebook-wont-keep-paying-australian-media-outlets-for-their-content-are-we-about-to-get-another-news-ban-224857">Facebook won't keep paying Australian media outlets for their content. Are we about to get another news ban?</a>
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<p>It’s possible to stretch parallels too far, but when Facebook temporarily stopped linking to pieces from Australian news sites in 2021, traffic to those sites slid <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-03-03/facebook-news-ban-australian-publisher-page-views-rebound/13206616">13%</a>.</p>
<p>The common theme is that – as unfair as it seems – platforms have an awful lot of power over providers. If Coles and Woolworths say no, fruit growers won’t be able to distribute their product; if radio stations say no, artists won’t be as widely disseminated; and if Facebook and its ilk say no, news sites will get fewer clicks.</p>
<p>Facebook has been paying millions of dollars to Australian news sites since the <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/news-media-bargaining-code">news media bargaining code</a> began in 2021. In February it said when the agreements expire, it will <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-02/facebook-google-news-media-deal-media-pay-meta/103534342">pay no more</a>.</p>
<p>The code allows the government to force Facebook to pay, but only if it continues to link to news, and it has given <a href="https://about.fb.com/news/2024/02/update-on-facebook-news-us-australia/">every indication</a> it won’t.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226013/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Martin is Economics Editor of The Conversation. </span></em></p>Put to the test in 1970, Australia’s radio industry abandoned the record labels that wanted them to pay more. The labels backed down.Peter Martin, Visiting Fellow, Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2020982023-04-25T19:40:55Z2023-04-25T19:40:55ZWillie Nelson at 90: Country music’s elder statesman still on the road again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522719/original/file-20230424-26-r6a7i1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5841%2C3987&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Willie Nelson's face is as iconic as his voice, his songs and his beat-up old guitar.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/willie-nelson-performs-in-concert-during-farm-aid-at-news-photo/1427451117">Gary Miller/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Willie Nelson’s unofficial theme song, “<a href="https://youtu.be/JYUMZ-r5GN0">On the Road Again</a>,” remains accurate as he turns 90 on April 29, 2023. The country music legend is <a href="https://willienelson.com/pages/tour">on tour</a>, with dates scheduled into October 2023.</p>
<p>Assessing Nelson’s legacy is challenging because there are so many Willies to assess. There is historical Willie Nelson, child of the Depression. There is iconic Willie Nelson, near embodiment of Texas myth. There is outlaw Willie Nelson, revolutionizing the country music industry. There is activist Willie Nelson, <a href="https://www.farmaid.org/">Farm Aid’s</a> co-founder and biofuel pioneer. There is Willie Nelson the songwriter of rare and poignant gifts, and more Willie Nelsons yet to be named.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.txst.edu/history/people/faculty-staff/mellard.html">Texas music historian</a>, I find that Nelson’s legacy also challenges appraisal because the concept assumes closure, a pastness, while the man at 90 still seems to be active everywhere. The LBJ School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas recently announced the <a href="https://lbj.utexas.edu/willie-nelson-endowment-uplifting-rural-communities#:%7E:text=The%20endowment%20leverages%20The%20University,and%20adapting%20to%20natural%20disasters.">Willie Nelson Endowment Uplifting Rural Communities</a>. Nelson is headlining a star-studded tribute concert weekend in honor of his 90th birthday at the <a href="https://variety.com/2023/music/news/willie-nelson-hollywood-bowl-tribute-kacey-musgraves-neil-young-chris-stapleton-1235500221/">Hollywood Bowl</a> on April 29 and 30, 2023. And the country outlaw is a current nominee for the <a href="https://www.rockhall.com/willie-nelson">Rock & Roll Hall of Fame</a>.</p>
<p>While Nelson’s story is vast, it can be distilled down to this: He sprang from the Texas cotton fields and earned his spurs in the state’s dance halls before becoming one of Nashville’s signature songwriters in the 1960s. He then returned to Texas a prodigal son, fostering Austin’s musical ascent and, as the story goes, brokering a peace between the warring rednecks and hippies. He redefined country music’s image and industry through the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/outlaw-music">outlaw revolt</a> of the 1970s. He catapulted to pop stardom in the 1980s but always went out on the road making music with his friends, night after night.</p>
<h2>From Texas to Nashville and back</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Large letters handwritten on a piece of brown paper held together by yellowing strips of cellophane tape" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522698/original/file-20230424-18-s22du1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cover of the songbook Willie Nelson wrote at age 12.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of The Wittliff Collections.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Born on April 29, 1933, in a small town between Waco and Dallas, Nelson and his sister <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/03/11/1086000679/bobbie-nelson-a-country-music-pioneer-and-willie-nelsons-sister-dies-at-age-91">Bobbie</a> took to music at a young age. Nelson joined his first band at 10 and was a songwriter by 12. We know this in part from a curious artifact in the <a href="https://www.thewittliffcollections.txst.edu/research/a-z/nelson.html">Wittliff Collections</a> at Texas State University. Nelson’s first songbook has all the doodles of a child’s arts and crafts project. The songs inside, though – “Hangover Blues,” “Faded Love and Wasted Dream,” “I Guess I Was Born to Be Blue” – speak to honky-tonk themes far beyond Nelson’s years.</p>
<p>He spent the next years chasing the life in those songs, hitting the road as an itinerant performer. Like most aspiring country artists, Nelson ended up in Nashville. In 1961, he joined <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/ray-price">Ray Price</a>’s band, the <a href="https://www.savingcountrymusic.com/the-ray-price-cherokee-cowboys-proving-ground/">Cherokee Cowboys</a>. Price had been a roommate of Hank Williams Sr.’s, and the Cherokee Cowboys built on Williams’ legacy, at various times including not just Nelson but also his pals <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/johnny-bush-whiskey-river-dead-obit-1077077/">Johnny Bush</a>, <a href="https://thejohnnypaycheck.com/">Johnny Paycheck</a> and <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/roger-miller">Roger Miller</a>. </p>
<p>Nelson moved from success to success as a songwriter, with Ray Price singing “Night Life,” <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/faron-young">Faron Young</a> singing “Hello Walls” and <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/patsy-cline">Patsy Cline</a> singing “Crazy.” He likely would have made it to the Country Music Hall of Fame with this early songwriting alone. He did record, but Nelson’s flamenco guitar, jazzy phrasing and eccentric lyricism did not fit the mold of 1960s Nashville. Facing personal and professional challenges that culminated in his house’s burning down, Nelson left Tennessee for Texas by decade’s end.</p>
<iframe style="border-radius:12px" src="https://open.spotify.com/embed/playlist/5CoWDYGBMxnAmKZvVcQZJh?utm_source=generator" width="100%" height="352" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" allow="autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; fullscreen; picture-in-picture" loading="lazy"></iframe>
<p>There had already been inklings of the countercultural turn that came next. Willie had a soulful cover of the Beatles’ “Yesterday” on a 1966 live album. In 1971, his resonant voice opened “Yesterday’s Wine,” before any music began, with a New Age declaration: </p>
<p>“There is great confusion on Earth,” Nelson mused, “and the power that is has concluded the following: Perfect man has visited Earth already, and his voice was heard; the voice of imperfect man must now be made manifest. And I have been selected as the most likely candidate.” </p>
<p>This was not <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/chet-atkins">Chet Atkins’ country music</a>. The qualities that made this imperfect man a Nashville outsider transformed him into the most prominent symbol for a new cosmic cowboy style that was coming together in Austin venues like the <a href="https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/armadillo-world-headquarters">Armadillo World Headquarters</a> and events like Nelson’s own annual <a href="https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/music/2019/04/04/timeline-definitive-history-of-willie-nelsons-fourth-of-july-picnic/5539958007/">Fourth of July Picnic</a>, which is scheduled for its <a href="https://news.pollstar.com/2023/04/21/willie-nelson-announces-50th-anniversary-4th-of-july-picnic/">50th anniversary</a> on July 4, 2023.</p>
<p>Willie Nelson’s classic band came into shape while gigging in Texas with sister Bobbie on piano, <a href="https://www.mickeyraphael.com/pages/about.html">Mickey Raphael</a> on harmonica, <a href="https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/willie-nelson-bassist-dan-bee-spears-dies-at-62-464776/">Bee Spears</a> on bass, <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/jody-payne-willie-nelson-guitarist-dead-at-77-178982/">Jody Payne</a> on guitar and <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/paul-english-willie-nelson-band-outlaw-country-952745/">Paul English</a> on drums. They were a family band – in the country sense like <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/carter-family">the Carter Family</a> – but also in the hippie sense, a roving carnival akin to <a href="https://explore.lib.virginia.edu/exhibits/show/sixties/walkthrough/kenkesey">Ken Kesey’s Merry Pranksters</a>. The group’s sound mixed traditional country with the improvisations of psychedelia and jazz. You can hear the crackling combination in <a href="https://youtu.be/Qn8A72wnOZM">live performances from the period</a>, including the pilot episode of the long-running PBS television program “<a href="https://acltv.com/history-of-acl/">Austin City Limits</a>.”</p>
<h2>Rise of the outlaws</h2>
<p>Nelson’s albums from the 1970s blazed new paths for country music. Nelson secured complete creative control for his album “Red-Headed Stranger,” released in 1975, and its success struck a blow in support of artists’ independence from the constraints of the country music industry in Nashville, a rebellion that took further root with “Wanted! The Outlaws” the following year. That album – a collaboration with <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/arts/music/tompall-glaser-country-artist-in-outlaw-movement-dies-at-79.html">Tompall Glaser</a>, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/country-music/jessi-colter-biography">Jessi Colter</a> and frequent partner <a href="https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/waylon-jennings">Waylon Jennings</a> – named a movement.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Qn8A72wnOZM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Willie Nelson’s band performed on the pilot episode of ‘Austin City Limits’ on Oct. 17, 1974.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Outlaw country was in part a marketing move for country artists who wore their hair long, leaned into rock’s grit or wore biker leather. On another level, though, Nelson and Jennings lodged a successful critique of industry practices for country artists who wanted to use their own bands in the studio, have a greater say in the material they recorded, and be regarded as serious artists rather than simply the label’s hired help. </p>
<p>The outlaw years took Willie to a new class of stardom. He made films with Robert Redford and duetted with Julio Iglesias. </p>
<p>There were twists in the path, though. In 1990, the outlaw image turned literal in a high-profile dustup with the IRS. The loss of his son Billy the next year was a much more harrowing setback. Through it all, he kept on the road, kept recording and stuck with family, community and song.</p>
<h2>Advocate and elder statesman</h2>
<p>It was, perhaps, these ups and downs that made Nelson a prominent advocate for others. </p>
<p>He held the door open for the sorts of folks who had traditionally had a hard time breaking into country music. He has consistently showcased artists and issues from just outside the bounds of traditional country, from early support for Black artist <a href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/country-music/charley-pride-biography">Charley Pride</a> and benefits for the United Farm Workers in the 1970s to his recording of the gay-themed “<a href="https://youtu.be/2FdUjkKApGc">Cowboys are Frequently Secretly Fond of Each Other</a>” in 2006. More recently, in a moment when country music’s gatekeepers <a href="https://www.billboard.com/music/country/her-country-marissa-moss-interview-1235078910/">have not been generous with women artists</a>, Nelson has championed new voices like <a href="https://www.kaceymusgraves.com/">Kacey Musgraves</a>, <a href="https://www.margoprice.net/">Margo Price</a> and <a href="https://allisonrussellmusic.com/">Allison Russell</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two bearded men, one Black and middle-aged and the other white and elderly and wearing a straw hat, stand together at a podium on a stage" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522721/original/file-20230424-3152-sj0dw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">William Barber and Willie Nelson shared the podium during The Poor People’s Campaign: A National Call for Moral Revival on July 31, 2021, in Austin, Texas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/william-barber-and-willie-nelson-speak-during-the-poor-news-photo/1331689799">Rick Kern/Getty Images for MoveOn</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nelson has been an elder statesman for a very long time, but he has chosen to stay in the thick of things, even as the wheels on the bus begin to slow. Members of the Family Band that traveled so many miles with him have been exiting the stage of late: Bee Spears died in 2011, Jody Payne in 2013, Paul English in 2020 and sister Bobbie in 2022. Nelson’s sons Lukas and Mikah have often joined the band in the meantime, as has Paul’s brother Billy English. </p>
<p>Things change, seasons pass, but there is continuity, too, in Nelson’s world. </p>
<p>He reminds us that eccentricity is among the most traditional of country music’s verities. In a single concert, the joking wink to mortality of “Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die” can share the set with a rousing gospel closer, Nelson singing “Will the Circle Be Unbroken?” or “I’ll Fly Away” as he points skyward, imploring the audience to join in on what he calls “the big finish.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202098/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Mellard does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Willie Nelson is an icon who rose to the top of an industry by challenging it – showing that you can be a counterculture figure and activist while remaining as American as apple pie.Jason Mellard, Director of the Center for Texas Music History, Texas State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/815862017-08-01T17:35:42Z2017-08-01T17:35:42ZElvis Presley was paid a king’s ransom for sub-par movies – because they were marketing gold<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180519/original/file-20170801-11176-13lj7um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=820%2C228%2C2925%2C1916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/toronto-canada-nov-1-2016-elvis-514731382?src=U2FHBMLg8Y4L8F26qTNsAg-3-2">Dan Kosmayer/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This summer marks 40 years since the <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/garry-rodgers/elvis-presleys-death-what_1_b_9157820.html">death of Elvis Presley</a>. In the decades since the singer finally left the building, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2005/jan/10/elvis25yearson.elvispresley">hits have continued</a>, his home at Graceland is now a top tourist attraction, and he is regularly listed as one of the top earning dead celebrities by <a href="http://variety.com/2016/biz/news/highest-earning-dead-celebrities-2016-michael-jackson-prince-david-bowie-1201886991/">Forbes</a>. </p>
<p>From the moment he burst onto the music scene in the 1950s, to the late Vegas years of garish jumpsuits, Presley’s career tells a host of intriguing tales. From an economics point of view, however, his roster of entirely forgettable, but wildly successful movies offers the most fertile ground.</p>
<p>Many readers will be familiar with the existence of <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000062/">Elvis’s films</a>, even if the plotlines don’t spring immediately to mind. Between 1956 and 1972, he made 33 movies, and in all but one he took the starring role. And they were popular. In today’s money, the total box office receipts <a href="http://www.ultimatemovierankings.com/elvis-presley-movies/">equate to over US$2.2 billion</a>, and that is for the US alone. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180511/original/file-20170801-16474-mza6cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Shake your money maker.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Girls_Girls_Girls_Poster_B.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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<h2>All Shook Up</h2>
<p>Each film typically cost around US$2m to make, a reasonable sum in the 1960s, equating to around US$15.5m in today’s money (<a href="http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/year/2016">but only around 10% of the budget of Disney’s Moana</a>). On average, they grossed around three times that at the US box office. Hollywood saw them as a safe money-spinner, the domestic market alone guaranteed a profit. In some ways, Elvis’ films were the precursor to today’s music videos. They followed a tried and tested formula, generally featuring Elvis in exotic locations such as Hawaii, Acapulco, or Las Vegas, and performing an album’s worth of songs in the midst of adventures involving racing cars, flying planes, or deep sea diving. </p>
<p>From a marketing perspective, film making was a win-win situation, a virtuous circle of marketing gold. The films advertised Presley’s latest recordings to his fans. Seeing the film would then encourage fans to buy the soundtrack album, while radio plays of recordings from the soundtrack would prompt them to go and see the film. And there was the added bonus that fans all around the world could watch Elvis perform without him having to travel. The film companies generally <a href="http://www.randomhouse.com/rhpg/promos/elvisdaybyday/1955.html">paid the costs</a> for recording the soundtrack, as well as the publicity photos that went on the sleeves, meaning that RCA, Elvis’ record company, had the majority of their costs covered too. </p>
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<p>The films may have been sound financial investments, but their artistic ambition <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F01E2DA1130E03ABC4951DFB166838D679EDE">didn’t impress the critics</a>. The focus on profit meant that budgets were squeezed. Filming schedules were very tight, typically four weeks, although films such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissin%27_Cousins">Kissin’ Cousins</a> were made in less than three weeks by a producer known as <a href="http://streamline.filmstruck.com/2010/01/04/the-king-of-rock-n-roll-meets-the-king-of-the-quickies/">the “king of the quickies”</a>. </p>
<p>The songs also got worse, soundtrack recordings such as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pro7XpRpU04">Yoga is as Yoga Does</a>, and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJPybmxIQkQ">A Dog’s Life</a> were a far cry from the hits that made him famous. In his <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/2253737.Elvis_Presley">comprehensive overview of Elvis’ recording career</a> Ernst Jorgensen quotes one of the Jordanaires’ (who sang backup on most of these recordings), who recalled: “the material was so bad that [Elvis] felt like he couldn’t sing it”. </p>
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<p>They didn’t all lack quality. Presley’s earlier films are generally held in greater esteem, with <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gj0Rz-uP4Mk">Jailhouse Rock</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zfkLnZhhoTY">King Creole</a> and a few others considered to be <a href="http://www.avclub.com/article/where-to-start-with-elvis-presleys-uneven-yet-char-96055">good examples of the genre</a>.</p>
<h2>Heartbreak Hotel</h2>
<p>Now, we can argue the toss over whether to judge the movies by financial or artistic success. But Elvis’ focus on filmmaking, as opposed to live appearances, has been <a href="http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2013/09/movie-killed-elvis-presley/">convincingly presented</a> as one of the reasons for his mid-60s decline. As Elvis stuck to his formula, the music scene changed. While the Beach Boys were making classic albums like Pet Sounds, Elvis was singing about pet dogs, cows and shrimps. Half a century ago, when the Summer of Love got into full swing, The Beatles released the seminal Sgt Pepper album. Elvis was inviting everyone to a clambake. </p>
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<p>By the late 1960s, Presley’s popularity had waned; movie box office receipts fell, critics were less impressed with each release, and the records from the soundtracks <a href="http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/13107/elvis-presley/">no longer climbed as far up the charts</a>. Strangely though, at the same time, film companies such as MGM and United Artists, were paying ever higher fees for his services. The chart below shows both the box office receipts and the fee Elvis received for the film. Over time we can see that the fees Elvis earned were rising as the box office receipts were declining.</p>
<p>Hollywood appeared to be paying for his star power, which in turn pushed them towards making cheaper, low quality films. Economic theory would predict that as demand falls, the price, Elvis’ fee, should also fall. Yet, it appears that his fame insulated him somewhat from market forces, with film companies prepared to cut other costs in order to secure their star.</p>
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<span class="caption">Elvis films revenue vs fees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.ultimatemovierankings.com/elvis-presley-movies/">Ultimate Movie Rankings</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Presley’s film career is often remembered as playful and flimsy, and rightly seen as an exercise in marketing first and foremost. Yes, US$2.2 billion is a lot of money, but could Elvis’ film career been more fulfilling? There is a long line of singers who have made a successful film career for themselves from <a href="http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/lists/frank-sinatra-10-essential-films">Frank Sinatra</a> and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/list/ls006521170/">Dean Martin</a> through to <a href="https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/tom_waits/">Tom Waits</a> and <a href="http://decider.com/2016/05/09/justin-timberlake-film-roles-ranked/">Justin Timberlake</a>.</p>
<p>A 1977 article in Rolling Stone magazine revealed that those who worked with Presley <a href="http://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/shake-rattle-and-roll-em-19770922">felt he had more to give</a>. <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0851537/">Norman Taurog</a>, who directed nine of his films, felt Elvis never reached his peak. <a href="http://www.indiewire.com/2012/04/the-essentials-the-films-of-don-siegel-111423/">Don Siegel</a>, director of Flaming Star (and later on Dirty Harry), felt he only went along for the ride. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Abel_(animator)">Robert Abel</a>, co-director of Elvis on Tour, neatly summed it up when he said: “[Elvis] was basically an incredibly fine actor with a lot of vulnerability and a lot of humanity that he could have communicated in his films. And occasionally he did”.</p>
<p>Yet, the films are mostly fun, and they mean we still get to see a youthful Elvis perform classic songs such as Teddy Bear, Jailhouse Rock or Can’t Help Falling in Love. And don’t forget, A Little Less Conversation – the song which was remixed and launched into an entirely new generation in 2002 – was originally found in the 1968 movie <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_a_Little,_Love_a_Little">Live a Little, Love a Little</a>. Ultimately, these films served their purpose at the time, and have helped to give The King longevity into the 21st century.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81586/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Johnston is a member of the Labour Party</span></em></p>His films made more than US$2 billion, but did they do him justice?Andrew Johnston, Principal Lecturer in International Business and Economics, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/786982017-06-28T14:55:51Z2017-06-28T14:55:51ZTo sign, or not to sign? That is the question for South African musicians<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175014/original/file-20170621-9586-9uza9k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Brenda Fassie performing in her hey day.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Instagram</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is a persistent narrative in South Africa of famous, bestselling musicians “dying as paupers”. A prime example is <a href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/simon-nkabinde">Mahlathini</a>, the lead vocalist who performed with the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TEWYFkjH2jc">Mahotella Queens</a>, a 1960s <a href="http://www.theartsdesk.com/new-music/south-african-sound-mbaqanga">mbaqanga</a> group that attracted global recognition. </p>
<p>Similar stories were told after the more recent deaths of the legendary pop singer <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/what-happened-to-mabrrrs-money-299579">Brenda Fassie</a> and local kwaito star <a href="http://www.sundayworld.co.za/news/2012/05/14/pauper-s-grave-for-dash-unless-music-friends-cough-up-for-funerals">Brown Dash</a>.</p>
<p>Built into this narrative is a suspicion that record labels and producers take advantage of musicians, enriching themselves at the expense of the artist. </p>
<p>Despite this, many musicians are eager to sign a contract with a recording label as soon as the option opens up. Most view a record deal as a sign that they have made it in the industry and believe that a contract will guarantee continuous income. </p>
<p>My <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137562319">research</a> into contracts and patronage in the South African music industry highlights how important it is for artists to understand how the industry works – at the formal, legal level of contracts, as well as at the more hazy and unofficial level of favours and gifts. </p>
<h2>Know your contract</h2>
<p>Until recently, there were two main <a href="http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/367/90553.html">types of contracts</a> available to artists: recording agreements and licensing agreements. The main difference between them is in the ownership of the product and in the royalty share. </p>
<p>With a recording deal, the music company pays for the recording-related costs and from then on owns the product. The artist receives royalties on record sales and (nowadays) on radio play. But it’s common that the artist gets only a small amount or no recording royalties because the company first deducts various production costs.</p>
<p>A licensing deal means that the artist produces her or his record. They then authorise the music company to manufacture and distribute it. The artist gets a larger royalty share than in the recording deal and eventually holds the ownership for their record. So, in terms of ownership and incomes, licensing deal is often a better option. </p>
<p>Recently music companies have increasingly moved to what are called 360 degree deals. In these contracts, the company promises to enhance all aspects of an artist’s career development. In return, the music company is entitled to a share of all the artist’s income streams. These include publishing, booking, touring and ticket incomes, TV and video appearances, merchandise sales, endorsement deals and management fees – in addition to the usual record sales.</p>
<p>Whatever the type of the contract, the more established and popular the artist, the better deal she or he can negotiate. That is why, when it comes to signing a contract, timing is important.</p>
<p>A relatively new and unknown musician doesn’t have much bargaining power in negotiating the conditions of their contract. For this reason, music industry advocate <a href="http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/367/90553.html">Nick Matzukis</a> encourages emerging musicians to consider initially releasing their music on their own – or with the use of crowd-funding. The point is that they should prove their popularity before entering into negotiations with music companies.</p>
<p>Whether self-releasing or signing a contract, an artist is bound to fare better when armed with as much knowledge as possible about the music business and laws. This can be learnt through books, the internet or courses. And because contracts are complicated legal documents, it’s also advisable to consult an entertainment lawyer or advisor before signing one. </p>
<h2>Be weary of favours and gifts</h2>
<p>Beyond the complexities and pitfalls of the legalistic world of contracts, there are also some hazy practices that I call “patronage practices”. They can replace contracts or they can work alongside contracts. </p>
<p>Whereas contracts very specifically demarcate the shares of the diverse proceeds for each party, in a patronage relationship proceeds are negotiated through a more inexact give-and-take and they are often rewards in kind rather than money. </p>
<p>The record producer can, for instance, give food, accommodation or instruments, and some free records to the artist. For a famous artist, a flashy car and a fancy house can be given. </p>
<p>These arrangements seem casually negotiated rather than carefully calculated. And they may feel convenient for a time. They appear as flexible arrangements entered into by people who view each other as creative partners rather than legal subjects. This is both the beauty and the danger of patronage arrangements.</p>
<p>The danger for musicians is that they may understand the received items as gifts or compensation for their creative accomplishments. But the company usually views them differently. It considers them debts or “advances” that will be deducted from the artist’s ensuing royalties. Often the artist would not know how much or which expenses are being deducted from the royalties and this eventually leads to confusion and irritation. </p>
<p>When the situation turns into an open dispute, the contracts are pulled out. These tend to protect the company because companies thoroughly consider their contents in advance. </p>
<p>Artists should therefore do likewise and not forget that the relationship is underpinned by a legal agreement.</p>
<p>The advice for a musician who wants to avoid becoming another line in the narrative of famous but impoverished artists is to be very careful with the contracts they sign, to acquire as much knowledge as possible about the music business and contracts, to be very active in promoting themselves even when signed, and to be weary of patronage arrangements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tuulikki Pietilä does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are a few things that musicians should understand about the music industry if they are to avoid being taken for a ride.Tuulikki Pietilä, Lecturer of Social and Cultural Anthropology, University of HelsinkiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/773662017-05-30T10:05:41Z2017-05-30T10:05:41ZFor the record: the vinyl revival and a plug-in too far<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170376/original/file-20170522-7372-v2m25k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/old-vinyl-record-collection-albums-578657308?src=thglCF7yOps9eytapjYiwg-2-5">Shutterstock/NataliaDeriabina</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Vinyl is back, or so it might seem. For better or worse? I’m not so sure myself. Like a lot of vinyl enthusiasts, I too enjoy the ritual, the feel, the physicality of a real product in my hands. But as soon as I get to the listening part, the sound engineer in me can’t help but feel it’s all a bit of snake oil.</p>
<p>Following yet another successful record store day in an ever growing market, a closer look at the top 10 highest selling vinyl albums of 2017 reveals that seven out of the 10 are either re-releases from legacy artists or <a href="http://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/the-official-biggest-selling-vinyl-albums-and-singles-of-2017-so-far__18651/">old soundtracks</a>. There’s plenty that has been said about the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/musicblog/2016/dec/09/vinyl-record-sales-up-but-indie-labels-dont-see-benefit">reality of this revival</a> on independent artists and labels but what impact has it had on the recording itself?</p>
<p>Although ostensibly a market driven forward by new technologies, the audio recording world has a tendency to be nostalgic for that same vintage “authenticity” that lies behind the vinyl revival. Analogue synths and reel-to-reel tape decks, although old technology, are still the holy grail for many recording engineers that yearn to capture the sounds they grew up with. And for the younger generation, a return to analogue recording ideals may well represent a rejection of the seemingly less real digital audio they grew up with.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"860139843162173442"}"></div></p>
<p>In a market increasingly aimed at bedroom producers and “prosumers”, many of the most popular audio plug-in manufacturers concentrate on creating “in-the-box” digital plug-in versions of vintage audio hardware. These plug-ins have done wonders to advance the quality of home recorded music and even the grumpiest of old-school sound engineers would find it hard to resist the temptation of owning a piece of that classic sound at a fraction of the price. But it was only a matter of time until all this vinyl frenzy seemingly forced a gap in the market for the snake oil salesmen to jump on that wagon.</p>
<h2>A new old sound</h2>
<p>Recently the popular audio plug-in developer Waves released its <a href="http://www.waves.com/plugins/abbey-road-vinyl#presenting-the-abbey-road-vinyl-plugin">Abbey Road Vinyl plug-in</a>. If the “Abbey Road” moniker alone wasn’t enough to steam up your rose-tinted glasses, this vinyl emulation promises to capture the very “retro feel of a record, combined with the analogue warmth of its sound which makes vinyl a beautiful nostalgic statement”. With a reputation like Waves’ and an RRP of $249 (about £192), I can only imagine that it does come close to being a “precise model” of the original Abbey Road cutting lathe. But is that really a good thing?</p>
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<p>Zealots on either side of the fence can argue until they’re blue in the face about whether vinyl sounds better or not. But even if we ignore that a large number of commercially released vinyl is pressed using CD quality digital files, the reality is that technically it just can’t compete. Surface noise, warping and added distortion are inherent to vinyl and all amount to a far different representation of the audio that the artists and producer intended for the listener.</p>
<p>Then what does vinyl emulation hope to achieve exactly? It would seem that the soul purpose of these types of plug-ins is to actually recreate the particularly undesirable artefacts that recording engineers tried so hard to eliminate before digital audio existed. So if the vinyl revival is really driven by the music fans’ desire to have a real product, complete with the ritual and aura of a physical record, then vinyl emulation is nothing more than a degradation tool. Maybe it’s time we stopped with the nostalgia, fellow recording engineers. We’ve gone too far, time to go back. Or should that be forward?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77366/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jamie Birkett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Vinyl is one thing but digital plug-ins which claim to emulate the analogue sound are a rose-tinted step too far.Jamie Birkett, Lecturer, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/646362016-09-14T11:40:32Z2016-09-14T11:40:32ZHow a mining engineer’s invention made pop singers all sound the same<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137718/original/image-20160914-4948-1t3lbuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rasyidien/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone who listens to commercial radio nowadays has probably been hit with the impression that a lot of pop music sounds very similar. It’s easy to dismiss this complaint as a gripe of the old and the cynical, but science actually bears this out: pop music has indeed been pretty homogenous throughout its history and is becoming ever more so.</p>
<p>In one 2014 study, researchers in the US and Austria <a href="https://mic.com/articles/107896/scientists-finally-prove-why-pop-music-all-sounds-the-same">analysed more than 500,000 albums</a>, across 15 genres and 374 sub-genres. The complexity of each genre of music over time was compared to its sales. And almost always, as genres increase in popularity, they also become more generic.</p>
<p>In itself, this does not mean much – since genres and subgenres are always emerging. It may be considered a truism that a genre becomes accepted once its rules are defined – and once the genre is established, deviation will result in a new genre or sub-genre. For instance, funk emerged as a new genre out of soul and RnB, with a far stronger emphasis on rhythmic groove and the bass. </p>
<p>Another study, in 2012, <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep00521">measured the evolution of Western popular music</a>, using a huge archive known as the <a href="http://labrosa.ee.columbia.edu/millionsong/">Million Song Dataset</a>, which contains vast amounts of low-level data about the audio and music content in each song. They found that between 1955 and 2010, songs had become louder and less varied in terms of their musical structure.</p>
<p>These are trends – but the perception among many listeners is that this homogenisation of music has taken a big leap forward in recent years. And there are a couple of important technological developments that have made this happen.</p>
<h2>The loudness war</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.cnet.com/uk/news/is-dynamic-range-compression-destroying-music/">Dynamic range compression</a> is the (usually automated) continual adjustment of the levels of an audio signal, primarily intended to reduce the variations in loudness. Its overuse has led to a “loudness war”. The musician who wants a loud recording, the record producer who wants a wall of sound, the engineers dealing with changing loudness levels during recording, the mastering engineers who prepare content for broadcast and the broadcasters competing for listeners have <a href="https://musicmachinery.com/2009/03/23/the-loudness-war/">all acted as soldiers in this loudness war</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137538/original/image-20160913-19222-15gdk94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pump up the volume.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeff Wilson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the loudness war may have already peaked. Audiologists have become concerned that the prolonged loudness of new albums might <a href="http://www.sfxmachine.com/docs/loudnesswar/loudness_war.pdf">cause hearing damage</a> and <a href="http://articles.latimes.com/2008/aug/30/entertainment/et-code30">musicians have highlighted the sound quality issue</a>. An annual <a href="http://dynamicrangeday.co.uk/">Dynamic Range Day</a> has been organised to raise awareness, and the <a href="http://www.turnmeup.org/">non-profit organisation Turn Me Up!</a> was created to promote recordings with more dynamic range. Standards organisations have provided recommendations for how loudness and loudness range can be measured in broadcast content, as well as recommending appropriate ranges for both. Together, these developments have gone a long way towards establishing a truce in the loudness war.</p>
<h2>Auto-Tune</h2>
<p>But there’s another technology trend that shows no signs of slowing down. Auto-Tune, which a surprising number of today’s record producers use to correct the pitch of their singers, actually originated as a byproduct of the mining industry.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137562/original/image-20160913-4980-1ffd93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dinner party conversation led to the invention of Auto-Tune.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Antares</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From 1976 through to 1989, Andy Hildebrand worked for the oil industry, interpreting seismic data. By sending sound waves into the ground, he could detect the reflections and map potential drill sites – in effect, using sound waves to find oil underground. Hildebrand, popularly known as “<a href="http://www.antarestech.com/about/dr-andy.php">Dr Andy</a>”, studied music composition at Rice University in Houston, Texas and used his knowledge in both areas to develop audio processing tools – the most famous of which was Auto-Tune.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137539/original/image-20160913-19266-1ohyox0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unsound revolution in music?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">believekevin</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At a dinner party, a guest challenged him to invent a tool that would help her sing in tune. Based on the phase vocoder, which covers a range of mathematical methods to manipulate the frequency representation of signals, Hildebrand devised techniques to analyse and process audio in musically relevant ways. Hildebrand’s company, Antares Audio Technologies, released Auto-Tune in late 1996.</p>
<p>Auto-Tune was intended to correct or disguise off-key vocals. It moves the pitch of a note to the nearest true semitone (the nearest musical interval in traditional octave-based <a href="http://www.bigcomposer.com/module/lectures/keysignatures1.pdf">Western tonal music</a>), thus allowing the vocal parts to be tuned. </p>
<p>The original Auto-Tune had a speed parameter which could be set between 0 and 400 milliseconds and determined how quickly the note moved to the target pitch. Engineers soon realised that this could be used as an effect to distort vocals and make it sound as if the voice leaps from note to note while staying perfectly and unnaturally in tune all the while. It also gives the voice an artificial, synthesiser-like sound, that can be appealing or irritating depending on your personal taste. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5Uu3kCEEc98?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>This unusual effect was the trademark sound of Cher’s December 1998 hit song, Believe, which was the <a href="http://www.theverge.com/2013/2/27/3964406/seduced-by-perfect-pitch-how-auto-tune-conquered-pop-music">first commercial recording</a> to intentionally feature the audible side-effects of Auto-Tune. </p>
<p>Like many audio effects, engineers and performers found a creative use for Auto-Tune, quite different from the intended use. As Hildebrand said: “<a href="http://www.dolphinmusic.co.uk/article/3244-auto-tune-why-pop-music-sounds-perfect.html">I never figured anyone in their right mind would want to do that</a>.” Yet Auto-Tune and competing pitch correction technologies, such as Celemony’s <a href="http://www.celemony.com/en/melodyne/what-is-melodyne">Melodyne</a>, are now widely applied (in amateur and professional recordings – and across many genres) for both intended and unusual, artistic uses.</p>
<p>Its became so prevalent, in fact, that these days it is expected almost universally on commercial pop music recordings. Critics say that it is a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jul/27/pop-music-sounds-same-survey-reveals">major reason why so many recordings sound the same nowadays</a> (though the loudness wars and overproduction in general are also big factors). And some young listeners who have grown up listening to auto-tuned music think the singer lacks talent if they hear an unprocessed vocal track. </p>
<p>It has been lampooned in music and television and on social media, and Time magazine called it one of the “50 Worst Inventions”. But if anything, both its subtle, corrective use and overt, creative use continues to grow. So if you can’t tell your <a href="http://6thfloor.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/12/love-letter-to-auto-tune-final-installment/?_r=0">Chris Brown</a> from your <a href="http://www.musicradar.com/news/tech/kanye-west-says-auto-tune-makes-him-a-better-singer-185278">Kanye West</a>, it may be down to Dr Andy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua Reiss does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Auto-Tune was originally developed as a tool in the oil exploration industry, but now it’s widely used in pop music.Joshua Reiss, Reader, Centre for Digital Music, Queen Mary University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.