tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/seafood-9291/articlesSeafood – The Conversation2024-01-24T20:58:25Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2200222024-01-24T20:58:25Z2024-01-24T20:58:25ZCanada lags behind on efforts to address human rights abuses in seafood supply chains<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/canada-lags-behind-on-efforts-to-address-human-rights-abuses-in-seafood-supply-chains" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Seafood has become a source of concern for consumers who pay attention to the environmental and social impacts of what they buy. Climate change is <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-challenges-marine-conservation-efforts-in-atlantic-canada-211580">adversely affecting ocean ecosystems</a>, and a series of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.02.009">widely publicized scandals</a> have exposed <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28916-2">widespread illegal fishing</a> and awful working conditions in both fishing and seafood processing.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104796">Seafarers in fishing</a> often work 18 hours a day in <a href="https://www.the-human-cost-of-fishing.org/">what is widely considered to be the world’s most dangerous profession</a>. Many are at sea for months or even years at a time, and most have <a href="https://globallaborjustice.org/wifinowforfishersrights/">no access to Wi-Fi</a>. <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/human-rights-institute/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2019/05/Georgetown-THE-PRICE-OF-PARADISE-5-4-19-WEB-2.pdf">They are often excluded from labour laws</a> and <a href="https://bristoluniversitypressdigital.com/gsc/view/journals/gscj/2/2/article-p146.xml">all are paid very low wages</a>, despite producing food for high-income consumers. </p>
<p>Similarly, those working in seafood processing are also poorly paid, and <a href="https://www.dal.ca/news/2023/03/01/migrant-workers-new-brunswick-conditions.html">many are migrant workers</a> who lack basic labour rights.</p>
<p>In response to these concerns, governments in many seafood importing countries have taken action. The <a href="https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/fisheries/rules/illegal-fishing_en">European Union</a> and <a href="https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/japanese-legislature-passes-law-to-curb-iuu-fishing">Japanese government</a> have banned imports of seafood produced by illegal fishing, while the <a href="https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/comply-chain/steps-to-a-social-compliance-system/step-6-remediate-violations/key-topic-information-and-resources-on-withhold-release-orders-wros">United States’ program to ban imports produced by forced labour</a> includes seafood. </p>
<p>The EU is also instituting a <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20231205IPR15689/corporate-due-diligence-rules-agreed-to-safeguard-human-rights-and-environment">corporate due diligence</a> approach that holds corporations accountable for human rights abuses and environmental impacts in their supply chains.</p>
<p>The Canadian government has yet to implement similar policies for seafood sold in Canada and is an outlier in its failure to hold buyers and retailers accountable for labour abuse in seafood supply chains. In the meantime, many Canadian seafood buyers and retailers have turned to private schemes that certify for sustainability, and less commonly for worker rights.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.loblaw.ca/en/loblaws-journey-to-a-sustainable-seafood-future/">Loblaws</a>, for example, is prioritizing wild-caught seafood that is sourced from fisheries that are certified by the <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-us?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiA44OtBhAOEiwAj4gpObPhf7KMXOD6_yH6enKQvw-0LvkGx1BqbUbvBTHwBi6VpXEH0k0RSRoCUnUQAvD_BwE">Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)</a>, as well as organic standards or fisheries making progress toward these or other private standards.</p>
<p>The MSC is the world’s premier sustainability certification for fishing, <a href="https://www.seachoice.org/certification-verification-or-fabrication-a-seachoice-report/">praised by ocean conservation groups</a>. What Canadian seafood consumers do not know is that evidence is mounting that even gold standard certifications like MSC fail to address terrible working conditions in seafood supply chains.</p>
<h2>Seafood supply chains</h2>
<p>To start, we need to recognize seafood supply chain complexity. The freezer sections in Canadian supermarkets are full of frozen seafood labelled “product of China,” while in the canned seafood section, most tuna is labelled as a “product of Thailand.” </p>
<p>In reality, most of this seafood is caught by fisheries around the world and shipped to China, Thailand or other seafood processing hubs, where it is transformed into seafood products and exported — mostly to higher income countries.</p>
<p>China is the world’s <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/online/sofia/2022/trade-of-aquatic-products.html">largest seafood processing hub</a>, importing, transforming and exporting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abl4756">pollack, cod, shrimp, salmon, herring</a> and other species, as well as processing raw material caught by Chinese fishing vessels. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theoutlawocean.com/investigations/china-the-superpower-of-seafood/reach/#the-globe-and-mail">Investigative journalism</a> by the non-profit <a href="https://www.theoutlawocean.com">Outlaw Ocean Project</a> has revealed the use of <a href="https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/bombshell-outlaw-ocean-report-finds-evidence-of-seafood-processed-by-forced-labor-in-us-supply-chain">forced Uyghur labour in many of China’s seafood processing facilities</a>, as well as human rights violations and illegal fishing in <a href="https://www.theoutlawocean.com/investigations/china-the-superpower-of-seafood/findings/">China’s global squid fishery</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1729893072530534477"}"></div></p>
<p>Many of the seafarers who work in this fishery are from Indonesia and the Philippines. They are paid a few hundred dollars a month to work under conditions that would be considered unacceptable on land.</p>
<p>Outlaw Ocean investigators found that many Chinese seafood factories had been audited for labour standards, and that importers were relying on these audits to assure consumers that the seafood was ethical.</p>
<p>But these audits — including the independent audits <a href="https://www.theoutlawocean.com/investigations/china-the-superpower-of-seafood/discussion/#marine-stewardship-council">required by MSC for its sustainability certified seafood</a> — failed to detect the use of forced labour found by the Outlaw Ocean Project.</p>
<p>The Outlaw Ocean’s <a href="https://www.theoutlawocean.com/investigations/china-the-superpower-of-seafood/bait-to-plate/#!">Bait-to-Plate tracing tool</a> has identified many <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-canadian-seafood-company-high-liner-cuts-ties-with-supplier-following/">Canadian seafood importers</a> and supermarkets that source from processing plants accused by the Outlaw Ocean of using forced labour.</p>
<h2>Poor working conditions worldwide</h2>
<p>These findings are not unique to China. Our <a href="https://workatsea.info.yorku.ca/">Work at Sea</a> project has found that unacceptable working conditions are ubiquitous in transnational seafood supply chains. This includes Thailand’s tuna canning industry, which is the world’s <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc7781en/cc7781en.pdf">largest</a>. </p>
<p>Thailand’s seafood processing industry relies on <a href="https://thailand.iom.int/news/new-report-highlights-opportunities-protect-migrant-workers-thailands-fishing-and-seafood-processing-sector">over 160,000 migrant workers</a> from Myanmar and Cambodia. Workers are not guaranteed a minimum number of working days per month, meaning they are more likely to work excessive overtime hours and/or fall into debt. </p>
<p>This situation is made worse by <a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_848445.pdf">inadequate labour inspections</a> and <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/10/mscs-revised-chain-custody-certification-fails-adequately-address-forced-labor-and">audits</a>, <a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_848445.pdf">ineffective grievance mechanisms</a> and the lack of unions. It is <a href="https://mekongmigration.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Book_Agents-of-Change.pdf">illegal in Thailand</a> for migrant workers to participate in organizing unions, although they can be members of unions.</p>
<p>The raw materials for Thailand’s canned tuna industry are imported as frozen whole fish from fisheries across the Pacific and Indian Ocean. The vessels are owned and operated from Taiwan and other East Asian countries, and are mostly crewed by workers from the Philippines and Indonesia. </p>
<p>These seafarers have told our research team that work on Taiwanese vessels is preferable to Chinese vessels, partly because their pay, at a minimum of US$550 per month minus agency fees, is better.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104685">working conditions still fall short of standards</a> set out in private certifications schemes, government fishing labour regulations or the <a href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C188">Work in Fishing Convention</a>, which is meant to ensure fishers have decent working conditions. The reality of this transnational supply chain is not visible on canned tuna labels.</p>
<h2>Canada is lagging behind</h2>
<p>Canada is falling behind in addressing labour abuse and sustainability in seafood supply chains. Although the <a href="https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/cntrng-crm/frcd-lbr-cndn-spply-chns/index-en.aspx">Forced Labour and Supply Chain Reporting Law</a> came into effect in January 2024, this law has been <a href="https://cnca-rcrce.ca/2023/05/03/canadas-new-law-on-forced-and-child-labour-in-supply-chains-wont-work/">criticized for serving as a mere checkbox exercise</a> for companies and lacking effectiveness in <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-why-canada-will-continue-to-be-a-dumping-ground-of-products-made-with/">curbing forced labour in Canadian supply chains</a>. </p>
<p>To address these shortcomings, Canada needs human rights and environmental <a href="https://cnca-rcrce.ca/campaigns/mhredd/">due diligence legislation</a> — policy that mandates Canadian companies to substantially address human rights abuses and environmental harm in their supply chains.</p>
<p>It is also critical that Canada go beyond private audits and government inspections to work with international institutions to help create a robust system that monitors and enforces standards for work in global fishing, one that meaningfully involves workers. </p>
<p>Canada has not even ratified the International Labour Organization’s <a href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C188">Work in Fishing Convention </a> — that would be a good start. For inspection and monitoring, the <a href="https://www.itfseafarers.org/en/focs/about-the-inspectorate">ITF inspectorate</a>, working in some 140 ports around the world to monitor working conditions in the shipping sector, is a potential model.</p>
<p>By taking these steps, Canada can play a pivotal role in fostering ethical and sustainable practices in its seafood supply chains, ensuring the well-being of workers and the environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220022/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Vandergeest receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carli Melo receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the York Centre for Asian Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Marschke receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p>Canada is an outlier in its failure to hold buyers and retailers accountable for labour abuse in seafood supply chains.Peter Vandergeest, Emeritus Professor, Geography, York University, CanadaCarli Melo, PhD Candidate in Geography, York University, CanadaMelissa Marschke, Professor, School of International Development and Global Studies, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2174282023-12-14T22:14:08Z2023-12-14T22:14:08ZClimate change is further reducing fish stocks with worrisome implications for global food supplies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565799/original/file-20231214-17-9k9tr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Seafood is a ubiquitous human food-source, the future stability of which is uncertain.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/climate-change-is-further-reducing-fish-stocks-with-worrisome-implications-for-global-food-supplies" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The health benefits of eating seafood are appreciated in many <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/online/sofia/2022/consumption-of-aquatic-foods.html">cultures</a> which rely upon it to provide critical nutrients vital to our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.afnr.2021.04.001">physical and mental development and health</a>. Eating fish and shellfish provides significant benefits to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3820">neurological development and functioning</a> and provides protection against the risks of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-019-0013-1">coronary heart disease and Type 2 diabetes</a>. </p>
<p>Over three billion people get at least 20 per cent of their daily animal protein from fish. In countries from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Gambia, Ghana, Indonesia, Sierra Leone and Sri Lanka, <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/ca9229en.pdf">fish consumption accounts for 50 per cent or more</a> of daily intake.</p>
<p>However, expansive growth of human populations globally puts immense pressure on the health of wild fish stocks. Fish catches <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10244">peaked in 1996</a>, and <a href="https://www.fao.org/state-of-fisheries-aquaculture">one-third are considered overexploited</a>. With less fish available to still more people, the future of fish as an accessible source of nutritious food is at risk, particularly among low-income countries.</p>
<h2>Seafood nutrient losses</h2>
<p>Threats to seafood access aren’t just due to overharvesting. There is a growing body of research showing that higher water temperatures due to climate change can impact the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12156">presence and abundance of the catch</a>, through shifts in species distribution and changes in the species caught. This impacts the amount that can be harvested, as well as the nutritional value of that harvest.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01822-1">new study</a> (which Aaron MacNeil contributed to) quantified nutrient availability from seafood through time considering the twin impacts of overfishing and climate change. </p>
<p>Focusing on four key nutrients important to human health — calcium, iron, omega-3 fatty acids and protein — the authors argue that nutrient availability in seafood has been declining since 1990 and will further decline by around 30 per cent by 2100 in predominately tropical, low-income countries with 4 C of warming.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-induced-stress-is-altering-fish-hormones-with-huge-repercussions-for-reproduction-213140">How climate change-induced stress is altering fish hormones — with huge repercussions for reproduction</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These predicted losses are significant. While global famines are now relatively rare, some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100480">50 million people suffer from “hidden hunger”</a> — nutrient-deficient diets that are masked by being otherwise calorie-sufficient. </p>
<p>For animal-derived nutrients such as B12 and omega-3 fatty acids, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/534317a">nearly 20 per cent of the global population are at risk of becoming nutrient-deficient</a> in coming decades due to reliance on wild-caught fish.</p>
<p>Climate change is also affecting natural cycles of nutrients in the ocean. For example, it has been predicted that increasing water temperatures will cause a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01234-6">decline in natural omega-3 availability from seafood by more than 50 per cent by 2100</a>. At the bottom of the food chain, microalgae that naturally produce omega-3s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13295">are less productive at warmer temperatures</a> and this cascades through marine and freshwater food chains resulting in fish having less omega-3s available to eat and store in their bodies. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Men standing on three small boats cast nets into the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565818/original/file-20231214-15-s4v8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The global problems of climate change and overfishing have led to decreasing availability of seafood for millions around the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These kinds of climate-caused losses are expected to disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, especially in inland Africa.</p>
<h2>Challenges and strategies for nutritious seafood</h2>
<p>Aquaculture can help supply some of these missing nutrients, but it is an industry also vulnerable to the effects of climate change. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.609097">recent study</a> predicted that 90 per cent of aquaculture will be impacted by climate change, where warm waters increase <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26920865">disease outbreaks, harmful algal blooms and impact the availability of feed supplies</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/food">Global disparities already exist in food security</a> that will be exacerbated by climate change in the future. Yet the effects of warming waters on nutrient availability from seafood will compound these inequities among tropical and low-income countries. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-fishing-and-fish-and-the-health-of-the-ocean-hinges-on-economics-and-the-idea-of-infinity-fish-182749">The future of fishing and fish — and the health of the ocean — hinges on economics and the idea of 'infinity fish'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These results suggest a major challenge to our future nutritional security that demands strong fisheries and aquaculture management to facilitate equitable distribution of nutritious seafoods. </p>
<p>Improvements are possible. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1592-6">redirecting nine per cent of Namibia’s fisheries toward its coastal population</a> would alleviate the severe iron deficiencies experienced there. Policies that prioritize nutrient supply would help maintain diets as the climate warms. </p>
<p>The recent United Nations call to action for <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc0459en/">blue transformation</a> emphasizes the need to provide sufficient aquatic food from fisheries and aquaculture for our growing population in a sustainable way. </p>
<p>To do this, strategies are needed to achieve healthy, equitable and resilient food systems that adequately deal with overfishing, strive for equal access to resources and markets and mitigate the environmental impacts of aquatic food production. </p>
<p>Ultimately, these strategies must support the nutritional security of vulnerable nations and consider global health equity and the cultural significance of seafood.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefanie Colombo receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council and the Ocean Frontier Institute, through an award from the Canada First Research Excellence Fund. She serves as the Science Advisor for the Aquaculture Association of Nova Scotia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron MacNeil receives funding from the Shark Conservation Fund, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, and the Ocean Frontier Institute, through an award from the Canada First Research Excellence Fund.</span></em></p>Climate change and overfishing are depleting global fish stocks with clear implications for the food security future of billions of people.Stefanie Colombo, Canada Research Chair in Aquaculture Nutrition, Dalhousie UniversityAaron MacNeil, Professor, Department of Biology, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2187212023-12-12T19:17:01Z2023-12-12T19:17:01ZChina-Africa relations in 2023: key moments and events to remember<p>In a year when headlines have been dominated by conflict in Europe and the Middle East, and geo-economic tensions between China and the West, China-Africa relations were, in comparison, a steady and stable norm. </p>
<p>Having followed China-Africa relations for two decades, I wanted to flag a few key moments from this year. These reveal that the relations between China and the continent have focused on building momentum and deepening ties, especially when it comes to trade and the promotion of African exports. </p>
<p>They also highlight China’s growing commitment to supporting the development of African countries. </p>
<h2>China-Africa trade and the expo</h2>
<p>In June, the third <a href="https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/326222.html">China-Africa Economic and Trade Expo</a> was held in Changsha, Hunan province. </p>
<p>It’s the most intensive China-Africa trade event in the calendar because of its scale and focus. It’s also a chance for small and medium enterprises to be involved. </p>
<p>This year’s expo <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3226366/deals-down-hunans-china-africa-trade-expo-reaps-us10-billion">reportedly recorded</a> some 100,000 visitors and agreed some 120 projects worth a total of US$10.3 billion.</p>
<p>The expo allows face-to-face interaction to happen in the hope of developing commercial partnerships and sales. There were deals <a href="http://www.focac.org/zfzs/202306/t20230630_11106280.htm">around essential oils from Madagascar, gems from Zambia, wood carvings from Zimbabwe</a>, and flowers from Kenya. One Chinese food group <a href="https://english.news.cn/20230627/9efd6c4d936b415598b0632ce4e6d2b4/c.html">displayed</a> its first imported batch of Kenyan anchovies to seafood distributors. This helped catapult demand – on one day in September, <a href="http://www.news.cn/fortune/2023-09/07/c_1129848863.htm">52 tons</a> of dried wild Kenyan anchovies landed in Hunan for distribution across China.</p>
<p>There were a few important take-aways from the event: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>It flagged the emerging role of <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-africa-strategy-is-shifting-from-extraction-to-investment-driven-from-the-industry-rich-hunan-region-209044">Hunan</a> in China-Africa relations. Hunan is the source of a sizeable share of China’s own food supply. It’s also home to advanced agricultural processing and heavy industry capabilities. </p></li>
<li><p>There were high-level <a href="https://venturesafrica.com/a-slice-of-opportunity-benin-joins-chinas-fruit-export-market/">“green lanes” dialogues</a> where issues in clearing more African fruits, vegetables, and other African products for export to China were discussed. The aim of these dialogues was to support agricultural modernisation in Africa and increase export revenue. </p></li>
<li><p>The emerging Hunan-based <a href="http://www.enghunan.gov.cn/hneng/Government/Bulletin/202306/t20230608_29370776.html">“Africa Brand Warehouse”</a> project used the event to support the entry of more (106 specificially) African brands into major Chinese shopping malls</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The China-Africa Leaders’ Dialogue</h2>
<p>In August President Xi Jinping visited South Africa for a <a href="https://brics2023.gov.za/">summit</a> of the five-country bloc (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa), Brics. </p>
<p>Parallel to the Brics summit the <a href="https://www.thepresidency.gov.za/press-statements/south-africa-co-chair-china-africa-leaders-round-table-dialogue">China-Africa Leaders’ Dialogue</a> – a dialogue initiated by China and co-chaired by Presidents Xi and Cyril Ramaphosa – was held. </p>
<p>A couple of things stood out from the dialogue.</p>
<p>First, its emphasis on promoting <a href="https://www.thepresidency.gov.za/press-statements/south-africa-co-chair-china-africa-leaders-round-table-dialogue">African integration</a> and <a href="https://www.thepresidency.gov.za/press-statements/south-africa-co-chair-china-africa-leaders-round-table-dialogue">the participation</a> of African regional organisations that play key roles in fostering intra-African trade. Discussions focused on the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and trade-related infrastructure and policy.</p>
<p>Second, Xi <a href="https://www.kzaobao.com/shiju/20230826/145524.html">announced</a> three new plans for Africa relating to agriculture, industrialisation and talent development. The plans aim to address challenges in China-Africa economic relations, such as laggard agricultural productivity, lack of manufacturing and economic diversification, insufficient job creation and educational opportunities. They also aim to address hurdles in Africa’s development. </p>
<p>These actions speak to Xi’s <a href="https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/735319/the-gravity-of-chinas-african-export-promise">promise</a> to create a “new type of China-Africa strategic partnership”. </p>
<p>This involved the growth of trade, especially with respect to African exports to China. </p>
<p>It would also see a change in the structure of trade. A long-standing <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/twec.12229">pattern</a> is that Africa sells raw materials and buys manufactured goods, which entrenches the continent’s under-development. China is trying to move past this by buying more processed goods, and fostering services like tourism and finance. </p>
<h2>China’s foreign minister comes to Africa</h2>
<p>As has happened every year for at least the past 30 years, China’s foreign minister visited Africa. Qin Gang’s trip in January included visits to Ethiopia, Gabon, Angola, Benin and Egypt.</p>
<p>From my lens, Qin’s visit was conservative in its announcements and continued to demonstrate China’s commitment to the continent. </p>
<p>He cemented important bilateral and multilateral ties, for instance with the African Union and China-Arab relations. </p>
<p>One moment that stood out was the launch of the Horn of Africa Peaceful Development Concept, which aims to bring lasting peace and economic stability to countries of the conflict-afflicted region. This stands out because China has a
<a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2023/05/11/what-to-make-of-chinas-non-interference-policy-in-africa/">long-held foreign policy doctrine of non-interference</a>, and a much shorter history of US or European-style proactive roles in seeking to foster cross-country peace.</p>
<h2>Infrastructure changes around Lagos</h2>
<p>Various infrastructural developments around Lagos, Nigeria were a milestone in China-Africa relations this year. These will gradually change the scale with which Nigeria can trade with the world. </p>
<p>In April, Lekki Deep Sea Port – Nigeria’s first deep sea port – launched its commercial operations. It’s <a href="https://lekkiport.com/project-overview-structure/">administered</a> by Lekki Port LFTZ Enterprise Limited, a joint venture enterprise owned by a group of investors (comprising China Harbour Engineering Company Ltd and Singapore’s Tolaram Group), the Lagos state government and the federal government of Nigeria through the Nigerian Ports Authority.</p>
<p>The port, one of the largest in Africa, will eventually connect to Lagos’ Rail Mass Transit system. <a href="https://africa.cgtn.com/lagos-set-to-increase-train-trips-on-chinese-built-metro-rail/">The first phase of the rail system, the Blue Line, was opened in September</a>. </p>
<p>The Blue Line was <a href="https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/00L77SUF.html">built by</a> China’s Civil Engineering and Construction Corporation. Its corridor spans 13km and covers five stations. It’s the first rail infrastructure traversing Okokomaiko, a densely populated area of western Lagos, and the Marina district, notable for high-rise commercial offices. </p>
<h2>Into 2024</h2>
<p>Relations look set to keep evolving and growing into the new year. </p>
<p>Later in the year, a Forum on China-Africa Cooperation summit is due to be hosted by China. Typically the forum leads to announcements of new directions in China-Africa ties by both sides, and commercial deals being agreed. </p>
<p>Otherwise, there are some key bilateral anniversaries to be marked, such as the 60th anniversary of China-Tanzania and China-Zambia relations. In addition, China and Tanzania are expected to launch the flagship <a href="https://dailynews.co.tz/tz-sees-investment-fortunes/#google_vignette">East Africa Commercial and Logistics Centre project</a>. This is expected to expand trade and investment ties between China and other landlocked economies within the region.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218721/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Johnston does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Several key events highlighted the growing ties between China and Africa.Lauren Johnston, Associate Professor, China Studies Centre, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1967212022-12-19T13:36:24Z2022-12-19T13:36:24ZThe lenses of fishes’ eyes record their lifetime exposure to toxic mercury, new research finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501636/original/file-20221216-18-9nfdr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C0%2C3983%2C3024&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When fish like this netted cod are exposed to mercury, it accumulates in certain organs, including the lenses of their eyes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yvette Heimbrand</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mercury pollution is a global threat to human health, especially to unborn babies and young children. Exposure to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/mercury/how-people-are-exposed-mercury">methylmercury</a>, a type that forms when mercury washes into lakes and streams, can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/msj.20228">harm children’s brain development</a> and cause symptoms including <a href="https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury">speech impairment and muscle weakness</a> in adults who consume seafood as their main food source. Methylmercury also threatens health and reproduction in <a href="https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2020/10/26/new-study-on-mercury-contamination-has-global-implications-for-wildlife-conservation/">fish and other wildlife</a>.</p>
<p>Humans, animals and birds are exposed to methylmercury when they eat fish and shellfish. Scientists have been working for decades to understand how and when fish accumulate mercury. This information is key for assessing mercury risks across different water bodies and landscapes, and for evaluating <a href="https://www.epa.gov/mercury/what-epa-doing-reduce-mercury-pollution-and-exposures-mercury">policy changes designed to reduce mercury emissions</a>.</p>
<p>For decades, scientists have used fish ear stones, known as otoliths, to gain insights into fish growth, migration, diet and the timing of their exposure to certain pollutants. These tiny structures of calcium carbonate, roughly the size of a pea, form inside fishes’ inner ears, where they help regulate hearing and balance. Otoliths can also provide clues about <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-is-climate-change-affecting-fishes-there-are-clues-inside-their-ears-110249">how climate change is affecting fish</a>.</p>
<p>But some pollutants, including mercury, are not incorporated into otoliths. Rather, they bind very strongly to tissues that contain sulfur, such as muscle tissues. That’s why muscle tissues have historically been used to assess contamination due to mercury pollution.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two small oval stones in a petri dish with two round eye lenses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501627/original/file-20221216-12-jdaenu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish otoliths (above) and eye lenses (below) reveal complementary information about fish life history.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karin Limburg</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a newly published study, we describe a new window into individual fish’s lifetime exposure to mercury by <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00755">measuring it in the fish’s eyes</a>. This work is unlocking new possibilities for understanding fish lifetime exposure to this potent neurotoxicant.</p>
<h2>Clues in fish ears and eyes</h2>
<p>Today, scientists analyze mercury uptake in fish by measuring how much of it accumulates in whole bodies of fish, or often just in fillets – that is, muscle tissues. This approach tells us how much mercury the fish has accumulated over its lifetime, but it doesn’t tell us specifically when in its life the fish was exposed. A time stamp is missing.</p>
<p>Mercury concentrations can vary widely within any given fish species. For example, from 1991 to 2010, U.S. government monitors detected <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/metals-and-your-food/mercury-levels-commercial-fish-and-shellfish-1990-2012">mercury levels in cod</a> that averaged 0.111 parts per million but ranged as high as 0.989 parts per million, a ninefold difference. This suggests that in addition to changes in mercury emissions over time, an individual fish’s movements and diets can significantly affect its exposure. </p>
<p>In our study, we propose a new method that combines measurements of otolith aging and of mercury in the lenses of a fish’s eyes to assign ages to fish eye mercury concentrations. Eye lenses are made of pure protein, are high in sulfur content and thus readily take up mercury either <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/cb4004805">directly from water</a> or from the fish’s diet. </p>
<p>Methylmercury appears to be preferentially taken up in certain organs, <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0803147105">including eye lenses</a>. At high doses, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.10.015">may impair fish vision</a>.</p>
<p>Our approach starts with the well-established technique of aging a fish using its otolith. As a fish grows and ages, its otoliths add yearly layers of calcium carbonate. We can estimate the fish’s age and growth rates by measuring the distance between the yearly growth layers, which are called annuli, much as foresters date trees by measuring the growth rings in their trunks. </p>
<p>We also know that a fish’s eye grows at a rate that is proportional to the growth of its otolith. So in our analysis, we apply the proportional distance that we found in the fish’s otolith to its eye lens. For our focal species, the Round Goby (<em>Neogobius melanostomus</em>), the linear relationship between these two measurements is strong. </p>
<p>As the eye lens grows and accumulates mercury, we can pinpoint when the fish was exposed using this correspondence with the otolith. And because the fish’s eye lens grows in layers throughout life, we can follow the chronology of lifetime exposure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cross-section of a catfish eye lens and graphic showing mercury exposure as recorded in the lens" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=866&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=866&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=866&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1089&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1089&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501628/original/file-20221216-16-cm75i8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1089&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An eye lens of a brown bullhead catfish (top) sliced into a cross section that shows the core, formed at birth, and the layers that grow throughout life. The lower image shows the spatial pattern of the element mercury in the same lens, analyzed at the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source. Note that concentrations are at background levels in the layers deposited when this fish was young and increased as it got older and began to consume other fish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karin Limburg</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A possible climate connection</h2>
<p>With this new method, we can start to trace the chronology of a fish’s lifetime mercury exposure. And we can ask questions about how life history events, such as migration and diet shifts, or temporal events such as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ms-htf/northern-gulf-mexico-hypoxic-zone">low dissolved oxygen levels in water</a> at certain times of year, may influence a fish’s mercury levels.</p>
<p>The strength of this method is that it provides information for individual fish, which matters just as it does for humans. Different individual fish have varying abilities to catch prey and avoid or tolerate stress, all of which can affect their growth and exposure to mercury. </p>
<p>And having information about mercury exposure for all ages of a single fish can help decrease the need to collect large samples of many fish across all ages, which is how scientists traditionally have assessed how fishes’ exposure changes over their lifetimes.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1179802840728051712"}"></div></p>
<p>This new method may also help us understand how climate change is affecting mercury exposure.</p>
<p>As water temperatures rise, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans are losing some of their dissolved oxygen. This process, known as <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/research/climate-change-resources/faq-ocean-deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a>, is a critical stressor for aquatic life. </p>
<p>When oxygen in a pond or bay falls below 2 milligrams per liter, compared with normal levels of 5 to 8 milligrams per liter, that water body is said to be hypoxic – and hypoxic conditions can be associated with elevated concentrations of methylmercury. This loss of oxygen is exacerbated by <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/hypoxia/#">nutrient pollution</a> – for example, from urban or agricultural runoff. But it can also occur in the open oceans, far from continents, due to warming.</p>
<p>Increasing hypoxia could negate <a href="https://www.mercuryconvention.org/en">recent global efforts to reduce mercury emissions</a> by making the mercury that is already in lakes and oceans more available for uptake into fish. However, fish response to hypoxia can vary by individual and by species. Our current research, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, is exploring how fish eye lenses, together with otoliths, can help us disentangle exposure to mercury from diet and hypoxia. </p>
<p>Increasingly, scientists are recognizing that various body parts of organisms function as archives of the past. For us, eye lenses and otoliths serve as key means to understand the secret lives of individual fish.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196721/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roxanne Razavi receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hadis Miraly is supported by funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karin Limburg receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation, which sponsored this research. </span></em></p>A new study shows that a time stamp can be put on mercury that accumulates in fish eyes, offering a window into their lifetime exposure.Roxanne Razavi, Assistant Professor of Environmental Biology, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and ForestryHadis Miraly, PhD Candidate in Environmental Biology, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and ForestryKarin Limburg, Distinguished Professor of Environmental Biology, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and ForestryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860312022-09-12T12:13:41Z2022-09-12T12:13:41ZHow you can help protect sharks – and what doesn’t work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483766/original/file-20220909-1182-fq1lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C181%2C2160%2C1435&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Whitetip sharks amid a school of anthias near Jarvis island in the South Pacific.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/JXZz61">Kelvin Gorospe, NOAA/NMFS/Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Blog/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sharks are some of the most ecologically important and most threatened animals on Earth. Recent reports show that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.062">up to one-third of all known species of sharks and their relatives, rays</a>, are threatened with extinction. Unsustainable overfishing is the biggest threat by far. </p>
<p>Losing sharks can disrupt coastal food webs that billions of people depend on for food. When food chains lose their top predators, the rest can unravel as <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=121020">smaller prey species multiply</a>. </p>
<p>In my years of talking with the public about sharks and ocean conservation, I’ve found that many people care about sharks and want to help but don’t know how. The solutions can be quite technical, and it’s challenging to understand and appreciate the scale and scope of some of the threats. </p>
<p>At the same time, there is an enormous amount of oversimplification and even misinformation about these important topics, which can lead well-intentioned people to support policies that experts know won’t work. </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xb7noGAAAAAJ&hl=en">marine conservation biologist</a> and have sought to improve this situation by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12668">surveying shark researchers</a> and helping scientists identify <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12629">research topics that can advance conservation</a>. I’ve also written a book, “<a href="https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title/12267/why-sharks-matter">Why Sharks Matter: A Deep Dive With the World’s Most Misunderstood Predator</a>.” Here are three ways that anyone can make a difference for sharks and avoid taking steps that are ineffective or even harmful.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tKXd8Ud1sOo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A 2020 study that surveyed 371 reefs found that sharks had virtually disappeared from about 20% of them.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Don’t eat unsustainable seafood</h2>
<p>The No. 1 threat to sharks and rays – and arguably, to marine biodiversity in general – is unsustainable overfishing. Some fishing methods <a href="https://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/visions/coral/side3.html">are incredibly destructive</a> to marine life and habitats. </p>
<p>They can also produce high rates of <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-bycatch">bycatch</a> – the unintended catch of nontarget species. For example, fishermen pursuing tuna may accidentally catch sea turtles or sharks swimming near the tuna. </p>
<p>The single most effective thing that individual consumers can do is to avoid seafood produced using these harmful methods. This does not mean completely avoiding seafood, as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/09/seas-stop-eating-fish-fishing-industry-government">some advocates urge</a>. Seafood is healthy, delicious and culturally important, and there are environmentally friendly ways of catching it sustainably. There are even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.017">sustainable fisheries for sharks</a>. </p>
<p>Reputable organizations such as California’s <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> publish <a href="https://www.seafoodwatch.org/">sustainable seafood guides</a> that rate different types of seafood based on how they are caught or raised. While experts may quibble over details of some of these rankings, consumers can follow these guidelines and know that they are helping to protect sharks and ocean life in general.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CUvmPhQMu-5/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Support reputable environmental nonprofits, not harmful extremists</h2>
<p>Lots of great environmental nonprofit organizations work on shark issues and offer opportunities to get involved, such as donating money and communicating with elected officials and other decision-makers. In my book, I describe the work of many of these groups, including my favorite, <a href="https://sharkadvocates.org/">Shark Advocates International</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, some organizations promote pseudoscience that doesn’t help anyone or anything. In a 2021 study, colleagues and I surveyed employees of 78 nonprofits that work on shark conservation issues to understand whether and how these organizations engaged with the science of shark conservation. </p>
<p>We found that a small but vocal minority had never read scientific reports or spoken with scientists, and held <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96020-4">blatantly incorrect and harmful views that cannot help sharks</a>. For example, some organizations are trying to get certain airlines to stop carrying shark products like dried fins, without acknowledging that well over 95% of fins are shipped by sea or that sustainable sources of these fins exist. </p>
<p>One of my particular pet peeves is amateur online petitions that may not reflect actual conditions. For example, in the spring of 2022, some 60,000 people signed a petition calling for Florida to ban the practice of shark finning – without recognizing that Florida had <a href="https://twitter.com/WhySharksMatter/status/1516046259748020225">banned shark finning in the early 1990s</a>. As I explain in my book, it is essential to identify organizations that use science in support of worthwhile conservation goals and avoid promoting others that do not.</p>
<h2>Look to experts</h2>
<p>Many ocean science, management and conservation experts are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fsh.10031">active on social media</a>. Following them is a great way to learn about fascinating new scientific discoveries and conservation issues. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1567886741985533953"}"></div></p>
<p>Unfortunately, sharks also get a lot of sensational coverage in the media, and well-intentioned but uninformed people often spread misinformation on social media. For example, you may have seen posts celebrating Hawaii for <a href="https://twitter.com/teamsharkwater/status/1486795216682110982?s=20&t=ulMIBdE-3wn7JS_Mfrzf0w">banning shark fishing in its waters</a> – but these posts don’t note that about 99% of fishing in Hawaii occurs in federal waters. </p>
<p>Don’t take the bait. By getting your information from reliable sources, you can help other people learn more about these fascinating, ecologically important animals, why they need humans’ help and the most effective steps to take.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186031/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Shiffman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sharks are much more severely threatened by humans than vice versa. A marine biologist explains how people can help protect sharks and why some strategies are more effective than others.David Shiffman, Post-Doctoral and Research Scholar in Marine Biology, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894712022-09-12T01:00:25Z2022-09-12T01:00:25ZWhere is your seafood really from? We’re using ‘chemical fingerprinting’ to fight seafood fraud and illegal fishing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483426/original/file-20220908-9292-419un6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3359&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/assorted-seafood-in-a-market-2031994/">Photo by Chait Goli/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fake foods are invading our supermarkets, as foods we love are substituted or adulterated with lower value or unethical <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFC-09-2020-0179/full/html">goods</a>.</p>
<p>Food fraud threatens human health but is also bad news for industry and sustainable food <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/I8791EN/">production</a>. Seafood is one of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X14003246">most traded food products</a> in the world and reliant on convoluted supply chains that leave the the door wide open for seafood <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-018-0826-z">fraud</a>.</p>
<p>Our new <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12703">study</a>, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12703">Fish and Fisheries</a>, showcases a new approach for determining the provenance or “origin” of many seafood species.</p>
<p>By identifying provenance, we can detect fraud and empower authorities and businesses to stop it. This makes it more likely that the food you buy is, in fact, the food you truly want to eat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman walks through a seafood market." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483431/original/file-20220908-18-ivhoux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seafood is one of the most traded food product in the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-waling-on-market-in-meat-and-fish-section-123013/">Photo by Saya Kimura/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-technology-will-help-fight-food-fraud-85783">How technology will help fight food fraud</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Illegal fishing and seafood fraud</h2>
<p>Wild-caught seafood is vulnerable to illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing.</p>
<p>Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing can have a devastating impact on the marine environment because:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>it is a major cause of overfishing, constituting an estimated one-fifth of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12462">seafood</a> </p></li>
<li><p>it can destroy marine habitats, such coral reefs, through destructive fishing methods such as blast bombing and cyanide fishing</p></li>
<li><p>it can significantly harm wildlife, such as albatross and turtles, which are caught as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320714003140">by-catch</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>So how is illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing connected to seafood fraud?</p>
<p>Seafood fraud allows this kind of fishing to flourish as illegal products are laundered through legitimate supply <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/I8791EN/">chains</a>.</p>
<p>A recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2003741117">study</a> in the United States found when seafood is mislabelled, it is more likely to be substituted for a product from less healthy fisheries with management policies that are less likely to reduce the environmental impacts of fishing.</p>
<p>One <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/fraud_gap_report_final_6_6_16.pdf">review</a> of mislabelled seafood in the US found that out of 180 substituted species, 25 were considered threatened, endangered, or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).</p>
<p>Illegal fishing and seafood fraud also has a human cost. It can:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>adversely affect the livelihoods of law-abiding fishers and seafood <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128015926000048">businesses</a></p></li>
<li><p>threaten food security</p></li>
<li><p>facilitate human rights abuses such as forced labour and <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-030-32811-5_127-1.pdf">piracy</a> </p></li>
<li><p>increase risk of exposure to pathogens, drugs, and other banned substances in <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/fraud_gap_report_final_6_6_16.pdf">seafood</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The chemical fingerprints in shells and bones</h2>
<p>A vast range of marine animals are harvested for food every year, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en/">echinoderms</a>.</p>
<p>However, traditional food provenance methods are typically designed to identify one species at a time. </p>
<p>That might benefit the species and industry in question, but it is expensive and time consuming. As such, current methods are restricted to a relatively small number of species.</p>
<p>In our study, we described a broader, universal method to identify provenance and detect fraud. </p>
<p>How? We harnessed natural chemical markers imprinted in the shells and bones of marine animals. These markers reflect an animal’s environment and can identify where they are from.</p>
<p>We focused on a chemical marker that is similar across many different marine animals. This specific chemical marker, known as “oxygen isotopes”, is determined by ocean composition and temperature rather than an animal’s biology. </p>
<p>Exploiting this commonality and how it relates to the local environment, we constructed a global ocean map of oxygen isotopes that helps researchers understand where a marine animal may be from (by matching the oxygen isotope value in shells and bones to the oxygen isotope value in the map).</p>
<p>After rigorous testing, we demonstrated this global map (or “isoscape”) can be used to correctly identify the origins of a wide range of marine animals living in different latitudes. </p>
<p>For example, we saw up to 90% success in classifying fish, cephalopods, and shellfish between the tropical waters of Southeast Asia and the cooler waters of southern Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mussels lie on an ice bed at a shop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483430/original/file-20220908-19-s61mzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Demand for seafood remains strong around the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/pile-of-fresh-mussels-on-white-surface-with-sour-lemons-6397652/">Photo by Julia Volk/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What next?</h2>
<p>Oxygen isotopes, as a universal marker, worked well on a range of animals collected from different latitudes and across broad geographic areas.</p>
<p>Our next step is to integrate oxygen isotopes with other universal chemical markers to gives clues on longitude and refine our approach.</p>
<p>Working out the provenance of seafood is a large and complex challenge. No single approach is a silver bullet for all species, fisheries or industries. </p>
<p>But our approach represents a step towards a more inclusive, global system for validating seafood provenance and fighting seafood fraud. </p>
<p>Hopefully, this will mean ensure fewer marine species are left behind and more consumer confidence in the products we buy.</p>
<p><em>Dr Jasmin Martino, a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, contributed to this research and article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189471/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zoe Doubleday receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, and the Australian Academy of Science.</span></em></p>Traditional food provenance methods are typically designed to identify one species at a time. So we worked out a new approach, as part of a broader effort to combat seafood fraud and illegal fishing.Zoe Doubleday, Marine Ecologist and ARC Future Fellow, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1822052022-05-16T17:57:40Z2022-05-16T17:57:40ZClimate change is now on the menu at seafood restaurants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462902/original/file-20220512-22-fd3ssw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C90%2C6679%2C4124&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Warmer-water preferring fish species like sardines and squid may soon dominate seafood menus on the west coast of Canada. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/climate-change-is-now-on-the-menu-at-seafood-restaurants" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Restaurant menus across the West Coast of Canada will soon see an influx of squid and sardine dishes, while the popular sockeye salmon makes a slow exit. As it turns out, <a href="https://news.ubc.ca/2022/04/21/vancouver-restaurant-menu-squid-sockeye-salmon/">climate change may have something to do with this</a>.</p>
<p>Restaurants update their menus all the time and this often goes unnoticed by diners. These changes are driven by culinary trends, consumer preferences and many environmental and socio-economic factors that affect the availability of the ingredients. According to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-022-01244-6">a recent study</a> published by my research team, we can now add climate change to this list. </p>
<p>We found that as the ocean temperature rises, many marine fish and shellfish move from their traditional habitats towards the North and South Poles in search of cooler waters. This movement of fish stocks affects the availability of seafood catch, compelling chefs to rewrite the menus of seafood restaurants on the West Coast of Canada.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/species-on-the-move-4-ways-conservation-can-adapt-in-an-era-of-climate-change-179254">Species on the move: 4 ways conservation can adapt in an era of climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Climate change affects our ocean and fisheries</h2>
<p>The latest report from the UN’s <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> confirmed that climate change is impacting the ocean, fish stocks and fisheries through ocean warming, loss of sea ice, <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-acidification">ocean acidification</a>, heatwaves, <a href="https://www.iucn.org/theme/marine-and-polar/our-work/climate-change-and-oceans/ocean-deoxygenation">ocean deoxygenation</a> and other <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/">extreme weather events</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Underwater bleached white corals surrounded by fish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463076/original/file-20220513-24-cnheuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish stocks are affected by ocean warming, acidification, loss of sea ice and many other effects of climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The impacts of warming-induced ecological shifts are also seen in our fisheries. Fish catches around the world are increasingly dominated by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12156">species that prefer warmer water</a>.</p>
<p>We applied an index called “mean temperature of catch” to measure such changes in species of fish caught along the West Coast of Canada, and found that the catch of warmer-water species in this region has increased from 1961 to 2016. </p>
<h2>Relating seafood on menus to climate change</h2>
<p>But how exactly do these changes in fisheries catch dictate the food that appears in our plates? <a href="https://news.ubc.ca/tag/john-paul-ng/">My co-author John-Paul Ng</a> and I decided to tackle this question ourselves by focusing our efforts on the West Coast of Canada and the U.S. where many restaurants serve seafood.</p>
<p>We looked at present-day menus from restaurants in these areas, along with menus — some dating back to the 19th century — taken from historical archives in city halls and local museums. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A restaurant menu from 1888" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463081/original/file-20220514-21-ipvlc5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Caption Hotel Vancouver 1888 dinner menu. Restaurant menus show the seafood selection at different periods in time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(City of Vancouver Archives, AM1519-PAM 1888-17)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After looking at 362 menus, we used a similar approach to the one we developed to study fisheries catches and calculated a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-022-01244-6">mean temperature of restaurant seafood</a>.” This index represents the average preferred temperature across all seafood species that appeared on the sampled menus from restaurants in a city for a specific time period. This index is a tool to help us gauge whether our restaurants are serving more or less warm and cold water seafood. </p>
<p>We found that the average preferred water temperature of fish and shellfish appeared in our menu increased to 14 C in recent times (2019-21) from 9 C in 1961-90 period. </p>
<p>This increase in the preferred water temperature of fish on restaurant menus is connected to changes in sea water temperature and the temperature-related changes in the composition of fish species caught during the same time period.</p>
<h2>More squid and sardine dishes</h2>
<p>Ocean warming is starting to change the variety of seafood available. </p>
<p>Driven by the higher ocean temperature in the northeast Pacific Ocean, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702043104">the Humboldt squid — a large, predatory squid species</a> that inhabits the eastern Pacific Ocean — is now making more frequent appearances on present-day restaurant menus in Vancouver.</p>
<p>British Columbia once had a commercially important Pacific sardine fishery, which was a common restaurant seafood. After the fishery collapsed in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/f94-048">mid-1940s</a>, the fish seldom appeared in our sampled restaurant menus.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A school of fish in the ocean water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463080/original/file-20220514-26-1fd1kh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research shows that sardines will soon become more abundant in B.C. waters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to research conducted by colleagues in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196127">fisheries research</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145285">by our team at the Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries</a>, the sardines, which prefer warmer water, will soon make a big comeback on the West Coast of Canada. We expect that more sardine dishes will start appearing on the menus of restaurants here.</p>
<h2>Responding to changing seafood availability</h2>
<p>Globalization and the diversification of cuisines have brought a wider array of seafood options to coastal cities such as Vancouver and Los Angeles. Imported and farmed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomm.2017.12.004">seafood are increasingly common ingredients in menus</a>.</p>
<p>As climate change continues to shuffle species’ distribution in ocean waters, we expect that climate-induced changes to seafood menus at restaurants will become even more pronounced. </p>
<p>Our study on restaurant menus underscores the <a href="https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/climate-crisis-may-destroy-aquatic-food-systems-and-livelihoods-economies-79066">wide-ranging impacts of climate change on our food system</a>. In cases where alternative seafood ingredients are available and consumer preferences are flexible, the impacts on our social, economic and cultural well-being may be limited. However, substantial <a href="https://www.vancity.com/viewport/mobile/SharedContent/documents/pdfs/News/Vancity-Report-Impact-of-Climate-Change-on-Seafood-in-BC-2015.pdf">negative consequences</a> are likely to be felt by many vulnerable communities that do not have the capacity to adapt to such changes. </p>
<p>Global and local actions to support both climate change adaptation and mitigation are essential if we want the ocean to continue to provide food for the people around the world who rely on it for nutritional security.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182205/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William W. L. Cheung receives funding from NSERC, SSHRC, CIHR, and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.</span></em></p>As the ocean temperature rises, many marine species are moving toward the north and south poles in search of cooler waters, thus rewriting the menus of seafood restaurants on the West Coast of Canada.William W. L. Cheung, Professor and Director, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1793522022-04-14T12:14:16Z2022-04-14T12:14:16ZThe information age is starting to transform fishing worldwide<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457990/original/file-20220413-20-ppujj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5118%2C3399&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A researcher at the advocacy group Oceana uses GPS data to trace the activity of fishing boats. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/lacey-malarky-an-oceana-campaign-manager-on-illegal-fishing-news-photo/1149646104">Eric Baradat/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People in the world’s developed nations live in a post-industrial era, working mainly in service or knowledge industries. Manufacturers increasingly rely on sensors, robots, artificial intelligence and machine learning to replace human labor or make it more efficient. Farmers can <a href="https://theconversation.com/farmers-of-the-future-will-utilize-drones-robots-and-gps-37739">monitor crop health via satellite</a> and <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/agricultural-drones-precision-mapping-spraying">apply pesticides and fertilizers with drones</a>.</p>
<p>Commercial fishing, one of the oldest industries in the world, is a stark exception. <a href="http://www.oceansatlas.org/subtopic/en/c/1303/">Industrial fishing</a>, with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/factory-ship">factory ships</a> and deep-sea trawlers that land thousands of tons of fish at a time, are still the dominant hunting mode in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aao5646">much of the world</a>. </p>
<p>This approach has led to <a href="https://www.fao.org/state-of-fisheries-aquaculture">overfishing, stock depletions</a>, <a href="https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/biodiversity/will-the-fish-return/trawling-takes-a-toll">habitat destruction</a>, the senseless killing of unwanted <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-bycatch">by-catch</a> and wastage of as much as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.08.013">30% to 40% of landed fish</a>. Industrial fishing has <a href="https://www.seaaroundus.org/high-impact-fishing-dominates-catches-in-many-parts-of-the-world/#more-19241">devastated artisanal pre-industrial fleets</a> in Asia, Africa and the the Pacific. </p>
<p>The end product is largely a commodity that travels around the world like a manufactured part or digital currency, rather than fresh domestic produce from the sea. An average fish <a href="https://slowfoodusa.org/slow-fish/">travels 5,000 miles before reaching a plate</a>, according to sustainable-fishing advocates. Some is frozen, shipped to Asia for processing, then <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2016/12/05/tale-fish-two-countries">refrozen and returned to the U.S.</a></p>
<p>But these patterns are starting to change. In my new book, “<a href="https://islandpress.org/books/blue-revolution">The Blue Revolution: Hunting, Harvesting, and Farming Seafood in the Information Age</a>,” I describe how commercial fishing has begun an encouraging shift toward a less destructive, more transparent post-industrial era. This is true in the U.S., Scandinavia, most of the European Union, Iceland, New Zealand, Australia, South Korea, the Philippines and much of South America.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZizIpLCQ_oM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Sustainable fishing limits catches at or below levels that fisheries can replace at their natural reproductive pace.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fishing with data</h2>
<p>Changes in behavior, technology and policy are occurring throughout the fishing industry. Here are some examples: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org">Global Fishing Watch</a>, an international nonprofit, monitors and creates open-access visualizations of global fishing activity on the internet with a 72-hour delay. This transparency breakthrough has led to the arrest and conviction of owners and captains of <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/transparency/the-capture-of-the-mv-nika-a-case-of-illicit-fishing-and-a-showcase-for-how-to-beat-it/">boats fishing illegally</a>. </p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://traceability-dialogue.org/what-is-the-global-dialogue/">The Global Dialogue on Seafood Traceability</a>, an international business-to-business initiative, creates voluntary industry standards for seafood traceability. These standards are designed to help harmonize various systems that <a href="https://fishchoice.com/traceability-providers">track seafood through the supply chain</a>, so they all collect the same key information and rely on the same data sources. This information lets buyers know where their seafood comes from and whether it was produced sustainably. </p></li>
<li><p>Fishing boats in New Bedford, Massachusetts – the <a href="https://www.wpri.com/news/local-news/se-mass/new-bedford-is-americas-most-lucrative-fishing-port-for-20th-straight-year/">top U.S. fishing port</a>, based on total catch value – are rigged with sensors to develop a <a href="https://www.sphericalanalytics.io/news/2019/5/21/spherical-analytics-launches-marine-databank-with-port-of-new-bedford">Marine Data Bank</a> that will give fishermen data on ocean temperature, salinity and oxygen levels. Linking this data to actual stock behavior and catch levels is expected to help fishermen target certain species and avoid unintentional bycatch.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/southeast/sustainable-fisheries/frequent-questions-annual-catch-limit-monitoring">Annual catch limits</a>, divvied up through individual quotas for each fisherman, have helped curb overfishing. Imposing catch shares can be <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/04/05/522731573/the-race-to-fish-slows-down-why-thats-good-for-fish-fishermen-and-diners">highly controversial</a>, but since the year 2000, 47 U.S. stocks that were overfished and shut down have been <a href="https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/2022-01/q4-2021-rebuilt-map.png">rebuilt and reopened for fishing</a>, thanks to policy judgments based on the best available science. Examples include Bering Sea snow crab, North Atlantic swordfish and red grouper in the Gulf of Mexico.</p></li>
<li><p>A growing “fishie” movement that mirrors the widespread “foodie” locavore movement has been gaining steam for more than a decade. Taking a page from agriculture, subscribers to <a href="https://marketyourcatch.msi.ucsb.edu/alternative-market-types/community-supported-fisheries-csfs">community-supported fisheries</a> pay in advance for regular deliveries from local fishermen. Such engagement between consumers and producers is beginning to shape buying patterns and introduce consumers to new types of fish that are abundant but not iconic like the cod of yore.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1422202287150227465"}"></div></p>
<h2>Growing fish on land</h2>
<p>Aquaculture is the fastest-growing form of food production in the world, led by China. The U.S., which has <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2006/182/basemaps/useez/useezmeta.htm">exclusive jurisdiction over 3.4 million square miles of ocean</a>, has a mere 1% share of the global market. </p>
<p>But aquaculture, mostly shellfish and kelp, <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/new-england-mid-atlantic/aquaculture/aquaculture-new-england-and-mid-atlantic">is the third-largest fisheries sector in the Greater Atlantic region</a>, after lobsters and scallops. Entrepreneurs are also raising finfish – including salmon, branzino, barramundi, steelhead, eels and kingfish – mostly in large, land-based <a href="https://www.aquacultureid.com/recirculating-aquaculture-system/">recirculating systems</a> that reuse 95% or more of their water. </p>
<p>Industrial-scale ocean salmon farming in Norway in the 1990s was largely responsible for the perception that farmed fish were <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-48266480">bad for wild fish and ocean habitats</a>. Today this industry has moved to less dense <a href="https://www.theexplorer.no/solutions/ocean-farm-1--moving-fish-farms-out-to-sea/">deep-water offshore pens</a> or land-based recirculating systems.</p>
<p>Virtually all new salmon farms in the U.S. – in Florida, Wisconsin, Indiana, and several planned for Maine and California – are <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56829129">land-based</a>. In some cases, water from the fish tanks circulates through greenhouses to grow vegetables or hemp, a system called <a href="https://www.nal.usda.gov/legacy/afsic/aquaponics">aquaponics</a>.</p>
<p>There is <a href="https://modernfarmer.com/2021/11/offshore-aquaculture-bill/">heated debate</a> over proposals to open U.S. federal waters, between 3 and 200 miles offshore, for ocean aquaculture. Whatever the outcome, it’s clear that without a growing mariculture industry, the U.S. won’t be able to reduce and may even widen its <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/aquaculture/us-aquaculture">$17 billion seafood trade deficit</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vsafviTKsqs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Vancouver, Canada-based Willowfield Enterprises raises coho salmon in recirculating tanks on land.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A voracious China</h2>
<p>This kind of progress isn’t uniform throughout the fishing industry. Notably, China is the <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en/">world’s top seafood producer</a>, accounting for 15% of the global wild catch as well as 60% of aquaculture production. Chinese fishing <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-chinas-expanding-fishing-fleet-is-depleting-worlds-oceans">exerts huge influence on the oceans</a>. Observers estimate that China’s fishing fleet may be <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/538736/the-outlaw-ocean-by-ian-urbina/">as large as 800,000 vessels</a> and its distant-water fleet may include up to 17,000 vessels, compared to 300 for the U.S.</p>
<p>According to a study by the nonprofit advocacy group <a href="https://oceana.org/">Oceana</a> using Global Fishing Watch data, between 2019 and 2021 Chinese boats carried out <a href="https://usa.oceana.org/blog/far-reaching-fishing-the-global-footprint-of-chinas">47 million hours of fishing activity</a>. More than 20% of this activity was on the high seas or inside the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eez.html">200-mile exclusive economic zones</a> of more than 80 other nations. Fishing in other countries’ waters without authorization, as some Chinese boats do, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/aug/25/can-anyone-stop-china-vast-armada-of-fishing-boats-galapagos-ecuador">is illegal</a>. Chinese ships often target <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-chinas-expanding-fishing-fleet-is-depleting-worlds-oceans">West African, South American, Mexican and Korean waters</a>. </p>
<p>Most Chinese distant-water ships are so large that they scoop up as many fish in one week as local boats from Senegal or Mexico <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/538736/the-outlaw-ocean-by-ian-urbina/">might catch in a year</a>. Much of this fishing would not be profitable <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2504">without government subsidies</a>. Clearly, holding China to higher standards is a priority for maintaining healthy global fisheries.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1441500224141160449"}"></div></p>
<h2>The ocean’s restorative power</h2>
<p>There is no shortage of gloomy information about how overfishing, along with other stresses like climate change, is <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081742">affecting the world’s oceans</a>. Nonetheless, I believe it bears emphasizing that over 78% of current marine fish landings <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en/">come from biologically sustainable stocks</a>, according to the United Nations. And overharvested fisheries often can rebound with smart management.</p>
<p>For example, the U.S. east coast scallop fishery, which was essentially defunct in the mid-1990s, is now a <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/story-map/atlantic-sea-scallop-fishery-success-story">sustainable US$570 million a year industry</a>. </p>
<p>Another success story is <a href="http://www.cabopulmopark.com/maps.html">Cabo Pulmo</a>, a five-mile stretch of coast at the southeast end of Mexico’s Baja Peninsula. Once a vital fishing ground, Cabo Pulmo was barren in the early 1990s after intense overfishing. Then local communities persuaded the Mexican government to turn the area into a marine park where fishing was barred.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>“In 1999, Cabo Pulmo was an underwater desert. Ten years later, it was a kaleidoscope of life and color,” ecologist <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/find-explorers/enric-sala">Enric Sala</a>, director of National Geographic’s <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/pristine-seas/">Pristine Seas Project</a>, <a href="https://www.scribd.com/podcast/463577688/Let-s-turn-the-high-seas-into-the-world-s-largest-nature-reserve-Enric-Sala-Let-s-turn-the-high-seas-into-the-world-s-largest-nature-reserve-Enri">observed in 2018</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cb8Lx-nhDiq/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Scientists say that thanks to effective management, marine life in Cabo Pulmo has recovered to a level that makes the reserve <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/conservation/solutions-success-stories/cabo-pulmo-protected-area">comparable to remote, pristine sites</a> that have never been fished. Fishing outside of the refuge has also rebounded, showing that conservation and fishing are not incompatible. In my view, that’s a good benchmark for a post-industrial ocean future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179352/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas P. Sullivan is a member of the national Local Catch Network.</span></em></p>One of the oldest industries, fishing, is entering the world of advanced analytics and data-driven planning. With oceans under stress and key fish stocks dwindling, can precision fishing help?Nicholas P. Sullivan, Senior Research Fellow, Fletcher Maritime Studies Program, and Senior Fellow, Council on Emerging Market Enterprises, Tufts UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766822022-03-23T03:29:04Z2022-03-23T03:29:04ZHow much tuna can I eat a week before I need to worry about mercury?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444960/original/file-20220208-23-mcta7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5568%2C3692&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For as little as A$1 a tin, canned tuna is an excellent, affordable source of protein, polyunsaturated fats and other nutrients. A tin of tuna is significantly cheaper than many types of fresh meat or fish. </p>
<p>Sounds good, but how much can you eat before you need to worry about mercury?</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/chemicals/mercury/Documents/Mercury%20in%20Fish%20brochure%20Dec%202020%20Final.pdf">Food Standards Australia New Zealand</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>It is safe for everyone (including pregnant women) to consume canned tuna as part of their fish intake. </p>
<p>Canned tuna generally has lower levels of mercury than tuna fillets because smaller tuna species are used and the tuna are generally younger when caught.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But how many tins a week? </p>
<p><a href="https://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/mercury/11016258">Lab tests</a> we did for the ABC TV science program Catalyst in 2015 suggest – depending on your body weight and the exact brand of tuna you buy – you could eat anywhere between 25 and 35 small tins (95g each) of tuna a week before you hit maximum mercury limits.</p>
<p>That’s a level even the most keen tuna-lover would be hard pressed to consume.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-gold-industry-stamped-out-mercury-pollution-now-its-coals-turn-151202">Australia’s gold industry stamped out mercury pollution — now it's coal's turn</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How does mercury end up in fish anyway?</h2>
<p>Mercury is naturally present in our environment but can biomagnify to relatively high concentrations in fish – particularly predatory fish. </p>
<p>In other words, it builds up as smaller fish get eaten by middle-sized fish, which get eaten by large fish, which get eaten by us. So the bigger the fish, the higher the likely mercury content.</p>
<p>Most forms of mercury are potentially very toxic to humans. But to make matters worse, a substantial proportion of mercury in fish is present as methylmercury – a potent neurotoxin formed by bacteria in waters and sediments. </p>
<p>Although mercury pollution has increased since industrialisation, accumulation of methylmercury in animals is a completely natural phenomenon.</p>
<p>Even fish caught from the middle of the ocean, far from any polluting sources, will contain methylmercury.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450287/original/file-20220307-84943-1py9m1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tinned tuna is cheap, tasty and nutritious.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tuna in Australian cupboards is likely smaller species</h2>
<p>Over the years, some scientists have <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23308249.2017.1362370?journalCode=brfs21">raised concerns</a> about high concentrations of mercury in canned tuna. </p>
<p>Mercury concentrations are higher in predatory fish such as tuna and generally increase with age and size. So this concern has largely been associated with the use of tuna species such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935103002202?via%3Dihub">albacore and larger tuna specimens</a>.</p>
<p>Skipjack and yellowfin are the main tuna species listed as ingredients in canned tuna in brands sold at Australian supermarkets. </p>
<p>Skipjack are the smallest of the major tuna species, while yellowfin are larger.</p>
<p>So, the fact the canned tuna in Australian cupboards is likely to contain smaller species is already a bonus when it comes to reducing mercury risk. </p>
<p>But let’s drill down to the details.</p>
<h2>How much mercury can we have?</h2>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Documents/mercury%20in%20fish%20-%20further%20info.pdf">Food Standards Australia New Zealand</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Two separate maximum levels are imposed for fish ― a level of 1.0 mg mercury/kg for the fish that are known to contain high levels of mercury (such as swordfish, southern bluefin tuna, barramundi, ling, orange roughy, rays and shark) and a level of 0.5 mg/kg for all other species of fish.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, whether mercury is harmful or not also depends on the amount of fish you eat and how often. After all, it is the dose that makes the poison.</p>
<p>Based on <a href="https://www.wam.go.jp/wamappl/bb11gs20.nsf/0/49256fe9001b533f49256ef4002474e9/$FILE/2-1_1.pdf">international guidelines</a>, Food Standards Australia New Zealand also provides recommended safe limits for dietary intake. In other words, how much mercury you can safely have from <em>all</em> food sources (not just fish).</p>
<p>This limit is known as the “provisional tolerable weekly intake” or PTWI.</p>
<p>The maximum dose of mercury set for the general population is <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Pages/Mercury-in-fish---background-to-the-mercury-in-fish-advisory-statement.aspx">3.3 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per week</a>. 1,000 micrograms (µg) is 1 milligram (mg).(The guidelines assume all mercury in fish is present as the more harmful methylmercury as a worst case scenario).</p>
<p>The dose for pregnant women is approximately half this value – <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Pages/Mercury-in-fish---background-to-the-mercury-in-fish-advisory-statement.aspx">1.6 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per week)</a>. </p>
<p>Pregnant women are advised to limit their fish intake because of placental transfer of mercury to the unborn foetus and the effect of mercury on neural development.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450289/original/file-20220307-25900-1outlwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whether mercury is harmful or not also depends on the amount of fish you eat and how often.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Testing three tins</h2>
<p>Our laboratory is well equipped to measure mercury concentrations in fish. As part of the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/mercury/11016258">Catalyst</a> program in 2015, we analysed mercury concentrations in Australian fish including three tins of canned tuna purchased from the supermarket.</p>
<p>Given the very low sample numbers, our data is just a snapshot of mercury concentrations. More research is clearly needed.</p>
<p>We found none of the canned tuna brands exceeded the safe consumption levels for mercury of 0.5 milligrams of mercury a kilogram. All three tins had slightly different levels of mercury but even the “worst” one wasn’t that bad. </p>
<p>You would have to eat around 25 tins (at 95g a tin) of it a week before you hit the maximum tolerable intake of mercury. For pregnant people (or people trying to get pregnant), the limit would be around 12 tins (at 95g a tin) a week.</p>
<p>It is unlikely many consumers will reach these limits.</p>
<h2>But watch out for other species of fish</h2>
<p>Some Australian fresh fish can contain higher mercury concentrations than canned tuna.</p>
<p>Food Standards Australia New Zealand <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/chemicals/mercury/Pages/default.aspx">recommends</a> that, for orange roughy (also known as deep sea perch) or catfish, people should limit themselves to <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Documents/mercury%20in%20fish%20-%20further%20info.pdf">one 150 gram serving a week</a> with no other fish that week. For shark (flake) or swordfish/broadbill and marlin, the <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/chemicals/mercury/Pages/default.aspx">limit</a> is one serving a fortnight.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176682/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A tin of tuna is significantly cheaper than many types of fresh meat or fish. But how much can you eat before you need to worry about mercury?Simon Apte, Senior Senior Principal Research Scientist, CSIROChad Jarolimek, Senior Experimental Scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1778712022-03-01T19:04:00Z2022-03-01T19:04:00ZSwap salmon for sardines to keep four million tonnes of fish in the sea<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448381/original/file-20220224-50602-8dsgfm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3594%2C2193&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/fish-can-metallic-aluminum-3287443/">Monicore/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cutting down on meat and dairy is one way to make your diet better for the planet. But when it comes to sustainable seafood, buying sardines instead of salmon for your sandwiches and salads should be your first port of call. </p>
<p>A third of fish stocks are being harvested at rates that exceed what these populations can replenish, and 90% are fished right up to their sustainable limit, according to the UN <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2020/en/">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>. A leading cause of overfishing is, ironically, the demand for fish feed. Over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005">one-third</a> of all fish caught worldwide are fed to farmed animals instead of people. Fish farming, or aquaculture, is the world’s <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2020/en/">fastest growing</a> food sector. <a href="https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/statistics">Most</a> of the Atlantic salmon sold in supermarkets in the UK is farmed. </p>
<p>Rearing these large, predatory fish involves feeding them a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids and protein, nutrients that are also essential to humans for brain development and nerve function. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005">new study</a>, my colleagues and I found that if people ate the wild-caught fish, such as sardines, which are usually destined for salmon farms, it would leave nearly 4 million tonnes of fish in the sea and provide an extra 6 million tonnes of seafood.</p>
<h2>Feed people, not fish farms</h2>
<p>The sea provides humanity with a bounty of nutrient-rich food, which we have benefited from for thousands of years. Seafood is one of the most easily absorbed sources of key nutrients such as omega-3 and vitamins D and A that humans need. It is believed that a diet that included seafood may have helped humans develop <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/107/22/10002">bigger brains</a>. There is a global responsibility to sustainably use this resource, as over <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2020/en/">3.3 billion people</a> rely on it as their source of animal protein.</p>
<p>Salmon raised in coastal farms off Scotland is the UK’s <a href="https://www.salmonscotland.co.uk/news/economy/salmon-consumption-rises-by-nearly-8-in-the-uk">largest food export</a> by total annual economic value (followed by bread and pastries). Our research team carried out a thorough assessment of the Scottish salmon industry, collecting data on fish nutrient content, fishmeal and fish oil composition and examining the transfer of micronutrients from feed to fish.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A circular pen containing swimming fish seen from above." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449201/original/file-20220301-4202-1l09gji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coastal salmon farms produce a lot of effluent pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-salmon-fish-farms-grand-manan-1112269721">Russ Heinl/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that by removing wild-caught fish from salmon feed and only using fish byproducts instead – such as trimmings and offcuts from the filleting of farmed fish – 3.7 million tonnes of fish could be left in the sea and global annual seafood production could increase by 6.1 million tonnes. Over half of the essential dietary minerals and fatty acids available in wild fish are currently lost to human mouths when these fish are fed to farmed salmon.</p>
<p>By comparing salmon with other options, our research also highlighted the health and environmental benefits of eating more sustainably farmed seafood, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00423-5">mussels</a>. Mussels belong to the bivalve class of molluscs that include shellfish like clams and oysters (but not prawns, lobsters or crabs). <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/directory/david-willer">Our research</a> has shown that mussels are one of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0116-8">most sustainable foods on the planet</a>, more so than any other meat, fish, and most land-based crops like soya, wheat and rice. </p>
<p>Mussels require no feed, they simply eat algae in the water. The reefs they create act as nurseries where young fish can develop to full size, helping to regenerate wild fish stocks. Bivalve farms use up no land and no freshwater. They actually act as a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/raq.12465">carbon sink</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crab rests on an underwater rope covered in mussels." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449204/original/file-20220301-21-2xsmtu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mussel farms can provide habitat for other species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/carcinus-maenas-known-green-crab-captured-1494248843">A Daily Odyssey/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what if you like eating salmon? The use of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03308-6">alternative feeds</a> in salmon farms is growing, but some are better than others. Feeds made from crops like soya and corn need a lot of land and water to produce, but those made using <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0078-x">algae</a> are richer in omega-3 and use up sea space (of which there is plenty) instead of land. We need more research and investment to produce nutritious seafood while reducing pressure on marine ecosystems.</p>
<p>If you’re ever unsure, there are two simple mnemonics to guide what fish you should buy:</p>
<p>ECOME - Eat clams, oysters and mussels everywhere</p>
<p>SMASH - Sardines, mackerel, anchovies, sprats and herring</p>
<p>So enjoy your moules frites and barbecued sardines. Eat small, oily fish and bivalve shellfish. Eating more of these tasty foods, and foregoing the salmon and tinned tuna, can make a real difference to the ocean.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177871/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr David Willer is funded by a Henslow Research Fellowship at Murray Edwards College, University of Cambridge.</span></em></p>Farming shellfish instead of large, predatory fish, is also better for the planet.David Willer, Henslow Research Fellow, Sustainable Seafood, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1729542021-12-19T19:53:09Z2021-12-19T19:53:09ZBuy Australian oysters and farmed barramundi: 5 tips to make your feast of summer seafood sustainable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436279/original/file-20211208-23-1hhuar6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4031%2C3017&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Summer in Australia is synonymous with seafood, from fish and chips at the beach to prawns on the barbie. But how do we know if the seafood is sustainable – that is, harvested from healthy stocks with minimal negative environmental impacts?</p>
<p>More than one third of the world’s fisheries are being harvested at unsustainable levels according to the <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en/">latest figures</a> from the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation. </p>
<p>Research shows public awareness of the problem is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/faf.12148">growing</a>. But <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/abares/research-topics/fisheries/fisheries-and-aquaculture-statistics/seafood-consumption">62% of the seafood</a> Australians eat is imported, which can make it hard to determine the food’s provenance.</p>
<p>While comprehensive sustainable seafood guides like the Australian Marine Conservation Society’s <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/sustainable-seafood-guide/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA47GNBhDrARIsAKfZ2rAh7Ua3F22ItDtGZqDqWUbQRnhqmh0_dnEgnt8goejwrl8YUgO1NgoaAnloEALw_wcB">Good Fish</a> are readily available, we know some people find them daunting and time-consuming to use. To make it simpler, we’ve put together five tips for better seafood-buying, focusing on holiday favourites. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-you-really-eating-how-threatened-seafood-species-slip-through-the-law-and-onto-your-plate-147108">What are you really eating? How threatened ‘seafood’ species slip through the law and onto your plate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="oyster farm in lake in NSW" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436260/original/file-20211208-19-fwwlds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oyster farms like this one in Merimbula, NSW, are often classed as sustainable.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5 ways to ensure you’re buying sustainable seafood this summer</h2>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Eat farmed Australian prawns.</strong> Much intensive prawn farming overseas <a href="https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/wrestling-with-a-generational-problem-thai-shrimp-industry-rates-higher/">has been linked</a> to the destruction of coastal habitats, and <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/species/banana-prawn/">some Australian wild-caught prawns</a> have bycatch issues, meaning rare species like dugongs and turtles are accidentally caught by trawling. By contrast, Australian prawn farming is done in tanks on land, often making it a <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/Corporate-governance/Ensuring-our-impact/Impact-case-studies/Future-Industries/Aquaculture-feed-and-prawn-breeding">more sustainable industry</a>. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Eat wild-caught Australian rock lobster.</strong> This year, lobster prices <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2021-11-16/victorians-tempted-with-cheap-lobster-for-christmas/100624512">are much lower</a> than usual due to export issues. Australia’s rock lobster fisheries are generally <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11160-017-9493-y">sustainably fished</a> as opposed to imported lobster. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Eat farmed Australian oysters and mussels.</strong> It’s hard to go wrong here – fresh local oysters and mussels are widely available in stores and restaurants and are usually sustainable. Imported options are not widely available and usually tinned. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Eat farmed Australian barramundi.</strong> Locally farmed barramundi is the most commonly available sustainable fish species. Some wild-caught Australian barramundi fisheries have <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/species/barramundi/">issues with bycatch</a> while imported farmed barramundi have <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.666897/full#B21">recurring issues</a> with disease. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>When in doubt, pick fresh Australian seafood.</strong> Australian fisheries are <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000131">better managed</a> than most others around the world, making local fish usually the better choice. </p></li>
</ol>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-624" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/624/3e29ef21fe913d800c4650212f7acb23d80a0154/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p><em>Data taken from the Good Fish Guide.</em></p>
<h2>What to watch out for</h2>
<p>My team and I recently <a href="https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202112.0164/v1">examined</a> more than 50,000 seafood products from southeast Queensland supermarkets, restaurants and other outlets and found only 5% could be classed as sustainable. </p>
<p>If you’re buying seafood to cook at home, you’re most likely to find sustainable options at speciality seafood outlets, which we found were more likely to stock Australian products. While some sustainable options are available in major supermarkets, they skew much more heavily to imported seafood. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/like-eating-fish-its-time-to-start-caring-where-it-comes-from-33144">Like eating fish? It's time to start caring where it comes from</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We know there are a lot of salmon lovers out there - it was the most commonly found seafood product in our survey. Nearly all salmon sold in Australia is farmed Atlantic salmon produced in Tasmania. Unfortunately, this salmon is <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/species/atlantic-salmon/">currently classified</a> as “Say No” by the Good Fish guide due to significant environmental impacts. </p>
<p>On a positive note, the Tasmanian salmon industry is <a href="https://nre.tas.gov.au/Documents/Salmon%20Plan%20-%20One%20Year%20Review.pdf">working to address</a> these well-documented problems and the potential for improvement is high. It’s worth checking sustainable seafood guidelines frequently, as sustainability changes over time. </p>
<p>The Good Fish guide <a href="https://goodfish.org.au/sustainable-seafood-guide/?species_rating=better-choice">lists more options</a> such as sustainable abalone (wild and farmed), mullet, mudcrabs and whiting. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Black tiger prawns caught in a net" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436261/original/file-20211208-19-1gzsm7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s farmed prawns are typically regarded as more sustainable than imported prawns and many wild-caught options.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What about eating out?</h2>
<p>Australia has no regulations requiring origin and species labels on cooked seafood. That means that when you buy flake, it could actually be a critically endangered species like the hammerhead or school shark. </p>
<p>This is not a problem we can solve as individual seafood lovers. A 2014 Senate inquiry found the exemption for cooked seafood <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Rural_and_Regional_Affairs_and_Transport/Seafood_labelling/%7E/media/Committees/rrat_ctte/Seafood_labelling/c03.pdf">should be removed</a>, but it did not become law. </p>
<p>To fix this, the government should introduce laws to improve seafood transparency and sustainability, especially in restaurants and cafes. This would make Australia world leaders in this area, given many major countries do not have mandated country-of-origin labelling for cooked seafood. </p>
<p>While we work towards a national solution, it’s important we vote with our wallets to buy sustainable seafood wherever possible. This will encourage the industry we want to see and avoid unnecessarily trashing our oceans.</p>
<p><em>Tia Vella contributed to this article</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carissa Klein receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>It’s a great time to buy sustainable Australian seafood, from cheaper lobster to farmed prawns and oysters. Here’s how.Carissa Klein, Associate professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1728482021-12-03T19:34:28Z2021-12-03T19:34:28ZPlastic trash in the ocean is a global problem, and the US is the top source – a new report urges action<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435428/original/file-20211202-21915-1bvno5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=69%2C0%2C3730%2C2578&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic debris on a beach on Lanai, a sparsely populated Hawaiian island.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Koller</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plastic waste of all shapes and sizes permeates the world’s oceans. It shows up on <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/beach-cleanups-missing-millions-of-plastic-pieces">beaches</a>, in <a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-fish-species-including-many-that-humans-eat-are-consuming-plastic-154634">fish</a> and even in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03825-5">Arctic sea ice</a>. And a <a href="https://www.nap.edu/resource/other/dels/plastics-in-the-ocean/">new report</a> from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine makes clear that the U.S. is a big part of the problem. </p>
<p>As the report shows, the U.S. produces a large share of the global supply of plastic resin – the precursor material to all plastic industrial and consumer products. It also imports and exports billions of dollars’ worth of plastic products every year. </p>
<p>On a per capita basis, the U.S. produces an order of magnitude more plastic waste than China – a nation often vilified over pollution-related issues. These findings build off a study published in 2020 that concluded that the U.S. is the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd0288">largest global source of plastic waste</a>, including plastics shipped to other countries that later are mismanaged. </p>
<p>And <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/plastics-material-specific-data">only a small fraction</a> of plastic in U.S. household waste streams is recycled. The study calls current U.S. recycling systems “<a href="https://www.nap.edu/resource/26132/Ocean_Plastic_Waste_Highlights_2021.pdf">grossly insufficient</a> to manage the diversity, complexity and quantity of plastic waste.”</p>
<p>As scientists who study the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uo1sSBwAAAAJ&hl=en">effects of plastic pollution</a> on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-4sV0MEAAAAJ&hl=en">marine</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=t87Kkb8AAAAJ">ecosystems</a>, we view this report as an important first step on a long road to reducing ocean plastic pollution. While it’s important to make clear how the U.S. is contributing to ocean plastic waste, we see a need for specific, actionable goals and recommendations to mitigate the plastic pollution crisis, and would have liked to see the report go further in that direction. </p>
<p><iframe id="clZxl" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/clZxl/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Plastic is showing up in seafood</h2>
<p>Researchers started documenting marine plastic pollution in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/4083505">late 1960s</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.175.4027.1240">early 1970s</a>. Public and scientific interest in the issue exploded in the early 2000s after <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_J._Moore">oceanographer Charles Moore</a> drew attention to the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/great-pacific-garbage-patch/">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a> – a region in the central north Pacific where ocean currents concentrate floating plastic trash into spinning collections thousands of miles across. </p>
<p>More plastic garbage patches have now been found in <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/podcast/mar18/nop14-ocean-garbage-patches.html">the South Pacific, the North and South Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean</a>. Unsurprisingly, plastic pervades marine food webs. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abh0945">Over 700 marine species</a> are known to ingest plastic, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15533">over 200 species of fish that humans eat</a>. </p>
<p>Humans also consume plastic that <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.9b02540">fragments into beverages</a> and food from packaging and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c07384">inhale microplastic particles in household dust</a>. Scientists are only beginning to assess what this means for public health. Research to date suggests that exposure to plastic-associated chemicals may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.07.029">interfere with hormones that regulate many processes in our bodies</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106330">cause developmental problems in children</a>, or <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.724989">alter human metabolic processes in ways that promote obesity</a></p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IlEJmXPvfwE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists estimate that if plastics continue to enter the ocean at current rates they will outweigh fish by 2050.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A need for a national strategy</h2>
<p>The new report is a sweeping overview of marine plastic pollution, grounded in science. However, many of its conclusions and recommendations have been proposed in various forms for years, and in our view the report could have done more to advance those discussions.</p>
<p>For example, it strongly recommends developing a national marine debris monitoring program, led by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration’s <a href="https://marinedebris.noaa.gov">Marine Debris Program</a>. We agree with this proposal, but the report does not address what to monitor, how to do it or what the specific goals of monitoring should be.</p>
<p>Ideally, we believe the federal government should create a coalition of relevant agencies, such as NOAA, the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institutes of Health, to tackle plastic pollution. Agencies have done this in the past in response to acute pollution events, such as the 2010 <a href="https://www.gulfspillrestoration.noaa.gov">BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill</a>, but not for chronic problems like marine debris. The report proposes a cross-government effort as well but does not provide specifics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic showing main types of waste collected on U.S. beaches" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435646/original/file-20211203-25-vl7p5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2019 volunteers for the nonprofit Surfrider Foundation removed nearly 300,000 pounds of trash from U.S. beaches, nearly all of it plastic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.surfrider.org/coastal-blog/entry/surfriders-2019-beach-cleanup-report">Surfrider Foundation</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An underfunded problem</h2>
<p>Actions to detect, track and remove plastic waste from the ocean will require substantial financial support. But there’s little federal funding for marine debris research and cleanup. In 2020, for example, NOAA’s Marine Debris Program budget request was <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/legacy/document/2019/Nov/FY2020-BlueBook.pdf">$US7 million</a>, which represents 0.1% of NOAA’s $5.65B 2020 budget. Proposed funding for the Marine Debris Program <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-06/NOAABlueBook2022_final.pdf">increased by $9 million for fiscal 2022</a>, which is a step in the right direction.</p>
<p>Even so, making progress on ocean plastic waste will require considerably more funding for academic research, nongovernmental organizations and NOAA’s marine debris activities. Increased support for these programs will help close knowledge gaps, increase public awareness and spur effective action across the entire life cycle of plastics.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H84d8eyhfyY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">One way to address marine plastic waste is to capture it before it enters the ocean. Mr. Trash Wheel, a solar-powered semi-autonomous trash interceptor, removes floating debris from Baltimore’s Inner Harbor.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Corporate responsibility and equity</h2>
<p>The private sector also has a crucial role to play in reducing plastic use and waste. We would have liked to see more discussion in the report of how businesses and industries contribute to the accumulation of ocean plastic waste and their role in solutions.</p>
<p>The report correctly notes that plastic pollution is an environmental justice issue. Minority and low-income communities are disproportionately affected by many activities that produce plastic waste, from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105617">oil drilling emissions</a> to toxic chemicals released during the <a href="https://ej4all.org/life-at-the-fenceline">production or incineration of plastics</a>. Some proposals in the report, such as better waste management and increased recycling, may benefit these communities – but only if they are directly involved in planning and carrying them out. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>The study also highlights the need to produce less plastic and scale up effective plastic recycling. More public and private funding for solutions like reusable and refillable containers, reduced packaging and standardized plastic recycling processes would increase opportunities for consumers to shift away from single-use disposable products. </p>
<p>Plastic pollution threatens the world’s oceans. It also poses direct and indirect risks to human health. We hope the <a href="https://www.sullivan.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/save-our-seas-20-lead-sponsors-welcome-new-academy-of-sciences-report-on-marine-debris-crisis">bipartisan support this study has received</a> is a sign that U.S. leaders are ready to take far-reaching action on this critical environmental problem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172848/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Savoca receives funding from the National Science Foundation and Stanford University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Robuck receives funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the AURORA grant agreement and the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Kashiwabara is a volunteer for The Marine Mammal Center. </span></em></p>An estimated 8 million metric tons of plastic waste enters the ocean each year – equivalent to dumping in a garbage truckload of it every minute. A new report calls on the US to help stem the deluge.Matthew Savoca, Postdoctoral researcher, Stanford UniversityAnna Robuck, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount SinaiLauren Kashiwabara, Master's Degree Student in Biological Sciences, University of the PacificLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1670642021-10-05T16:24:59Z2021-10-05T16:24:59ZSome people are willing to pay more for sustainable seafood - new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421644/original/file-20210916-25-wktb4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1200%2C738&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Increasing numbers of fish farms are receiving sustainability certifications.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Fish-farm-hero.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than seven billion people live on Earth today, of whom almost <a href="https://www.un.org/en/food-systems-summit/news/2021-going-be-bad-year-world-hunger">one billion</a> do not have enough to eat. By 2050, our planet’s human population is likely to reach almost <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/how-sustainably-feed-10-billion-people-2050-21-charts">ten billion</a>, an extremely challenging number of people to feed sustainably.</p>
<p>Oceans cover over <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceanwater.html#:%7E:text=About%2097%20percent%20of%20Earth's,be%20found%20in%20our%20ocean.">70%</a> of the Earth’s surface, and many of the animals inhabiting them – like fish and shellfish – are a vital <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/sustainable-seafood">source of nutrition</a> for societies across the globe. Managing this resource sustainably can help combat food shortages. But to give fishers and fish farmers an incentive to harvest the seas with long-term environmental health in mind, there needs to be consumer demand for sustainable production practices.</p>
<p><a href="https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/en/publications/the-value-of-responsibly-farmed-fish-a-hedonic-price-study-of-asc">Our research</a>, using data from German households, shows that certified sustainable farmed fish sell for slightly higher prices – suggesting that some consumers are indeed willing to pay more for a meal that’s gentler on the environment.</p>
<p>Previous work has looked at the prices of products of open-water fisheries. But studies investigating consumer preferences for sustainably farmed (not fished) seafood remain scarce, despite the fact that <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/CA9229EN.pdf">fish farms</a> now contribute more seafood to people’s plates than <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/116/25/12238">open-water fishing</a>. </p>
<p>In order to analyse how willing consumers are to pay more for sustainably produced farmed seafood, we analysed “<a href="https://www.marketingstudyguide.com/price-premium-metric/">price premiums</a>”, or the price difference between sustainable and “standard” seafood products across supermarkets. This difference reflects consumer readiness to pay a higher price for a product different in some way from its typical equivalent.</p>
<p>To do this, we took advantage of <a href="http://www.ecolabelindex.com/ecolabels/">ecolabelling</a> schemes. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2020.1840664">Ecolabels</a> have established themselves in the seafood market as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.06.002">tool</a> to help people differentiate between sustainably- and non-sustainably produced foods, by providing information about the food’s environmental impact.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A fish farm in open water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421843/original/file-20210917-23-12mnqyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many farmed fish products originate from farms like this one, in a Norwegian fishing village.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ninara/50202652263">Ninara/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.06.005">leading label</a> helping to assure environmentally friendly production of farmed seafood – the <a href="https://www.asc-aqua.org/">Aquaculture Stewardship Council</a> (ASC) label – was implemented in 2012. Its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.06.002">equivalent</a> for open-water fisheries, the <a href="https://www.msc.org/uk">Marine Stewardship Council</a> (MSC) label, was introduced in 1997.</p>
<h2>Consumer preferences</h2>
<p>There’s already a significant market for these products in countries across Europe. Just under <a href="https://www.asc-aqua.org/news/latest-news/two-reports-highlight-continued-growth-of-certified-seafood-in-the-netherlands/">three quarters</a> of fresh, frozen and canned seafood sold in Dutch supermarkets now carries either the ASC or MSC label. And in the UK, MSC-labelled products made up <a href="https://www.which.co.uk/reviews/shopping-sustainably/article/how-to-buy-sustainable-fish-ajvkk3x9RzeA">over a third</a> of supermarket seafood sales between 2019 and 2020. Money spent by UK consumers on MSC-certified fish alone in 2020 hit <a href="https://www.msc.org/docs/default-source/uk-files/marketreport_2020_interactive.pdf">£1.3 billion</a>.</p>
<p>Several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12138">studies</a> provide evidence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8489.12217">price premiums</a> associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.06.002">MSC-certified</a> seafood. We were interested to see whether this trend would hold for ASC-certified seafood, too.</p>
<p>We assessed prices for the three most common farmed whitefish carrying the ASC label in Germany: pangasius, tilapia and rainbow trout. Across the board, we found price premiums for smoked, fresh, and canned fish relative to frozen fish. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A packet of tilapia fish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421645/original/file-20210916-15-15audc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whitefish like tilapia can fetch higher prices when fresh.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://world.openfoodfacts.org/product/2005713009362/farmed-fresh-tilapia-skinless-and-boneless-fillets-kirkland">Open Food Facts</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, we also found that on average, both ASC-labelled pangasius and tilapia fetch a price 6% above that of unlabelled products, while for ASC-labelled trout the price difference is even higher, at 9%. However, the variation in premiums for farmed fish appears to be lower than for ocean-caught fish, likely because of the fish farming is a more predictable method of production than open-water fishing, which is highly dependent on weather, legal restrictions and stock conditions. </p>
<p>Overall, our study indicates that consumers are willing to pay more for ASC-labelled farmed fish than for their non-labelled counterparts. This apparent willingness to pay for more sustainably produced seafood suggests that such consumers genuinely care about reducing the environmental impact of their diet, including lessening <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing">damage to ocean habitats</a> and injuries to marine mammals, sea turtles and seabirds. </p>
<p>And the existence of this consumer demand for sustainable fish at a premium price could give retailers and farmers a powerful incentive to stock, and produce, more environmentally friendly products.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167064/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frank Asche receives or has received funding from the Norwegian Research Council and the Hewlet-Packard Foundation to to investigate the impact of ecolabels in seafood markets. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andreea L. Cojocaru and Julia Bronnmann do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ecolabelled seafood fetches higher prices in supermarkets, giving retailers and producers the incentive to up their sustainability game.Julia Bronnmann, Assistant Professor in Environmental and Resource Economics, University of Southern DenmarkAndreea L. Cojocaru, Postdoctoral Fellow in Natural Resource Economics, University of StavangerFrank Asche, Professor of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1678542021-09-16T20:08:21Z2021-09-16T20:08:21ZTasmania’s salmon industry detonates underwater bombs to scare away seals – but at what cost?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421037/original/file-20210914-15-165vtic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4256%2C2816&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australians <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/heres-the-seafood-australians-eat-and-what-we-should-be-eating/">consume</a> a lot of salmon – much of it farmed in Tasmania. But as Richard Flanagan’s <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=richard+flanagan+toxic&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8">new book Toxic</a> shows, concern about the industry’s environmental damage is growing. </p>
<p>With the industry set to <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/salmonplan.pdf">double in size</a> by 2030, one dubious industry practice should be intensely scrutinised – the use of so-called “cracker bombs” or seal bombs.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-12-01/tasmanian-atlantic-salmon-industry-growth-over-30-years/12923592">A$1 billion industry</a> uses the technique to deter seals and protect fish farming operations. Cracker bombs are underwater explosive devices that emit sharp, extremely loud noise impulses. Combined, Tasmania’s three major salmon farm operators have <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/RTI%20075%20-%202020-21.pdf">detonated</a> at least 77,000 crackers since 2018. </p>
<p>The industry says the deterrent is necessary, but international research shows the devices pose a <a href="https://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/techreports/trkerr2018.html">significant threat</a> to some marine life. Unless the salmon industry is more strictly controlled, native species will likely be killed or injured as the industry expands.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="pile of grey and white fish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421042/original/file-20210914-15-10gn41b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tasmanian salmon farming is a billion-dollar industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Protecting a lucrative industry</h2>
<p>Marine farming has been <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/sea-fishing-aquaculture/marine-farming-aquaculture">growing rapidly</a> in Tasmania since the 1990s, and Atlantic salmon is Tasmania’s <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/research/animals/Aquaculture/Salmon">most lucrative</a> fishery‑related industry. The salmon industry comprises three major producers: Huon Aquaculture, Tassal and Petuna. </p>
<p>These companies go to great effort to protect their operations from fur seals, which are <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marine/marine-species/seals-and-sea-lions">protected</a> in Australia with <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/wildlife-management/management-of-wildlife/seal-management">an exemption</a> for the salmon industry. </p>
<p>Seals may attack fish pens in search of food and injure salmon farm divers, though known incidents of harm to divers are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-25/tasmania-salmon-farm-seal-response-too-much-advocates-say/10422294">extremely rare</a>.</p>
<p>The industry uses a number of seal deterrent devices, the use of which is approved by the government. <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/Seal%20Management%20Framework.pdf">They include</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>lead-filled projectiles known as “beanbags”, which are fired from a gun</p></li>
<li><p>sedation darts fired from a gun</p></li>
<li><p>explosive charges or “crackers” thrown into the water which detonate under the surface.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In June this year, the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-18/salmon-giant-tassal-behind-seal-deaths-and-injuries/100226774">ABC reported</a> on government documents showing the three major salmon producers had detonated more than 77,000 crackers since 2018. The documents showed how various seal deterrent methods had led to maiming, death and seal injuries resulting in euthanasia. Blunt-force trauma was a factor in half the reported seal deaths.</p>
<p>A response to this article by the salmon industry can be found below. The industry has previoulsy <a href="https://www.theadvocate.com.au/story/5699108/seal-control-methods-scrutinised/">defended</a> the use of cracker bombs, saying it has a responsibility to protect workers. It says the increased use of seal-proof infrastructure means the use of seal deterrents is declining. If this is true, it’s not yet strongly reflected in the data.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-seafood-australians-eat-and-what-we-should-be-eating-108046">Here's the seafood Australians eat (and what we should be eating)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="salmon farm infrastructure in water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421039/original/file-20210914-17-19mjxt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seal deterrents are deployed to protect salmon farm operations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Piercing the ocean silence</h2>
<p>Given the prevalence of seal bomb use by the salmon industry, it’s worth reviewing the evidence on how they affect seals and other marine life.</p>
<p>A study on the use of the devices in California <a href="https://www.middlebury.edu/institute/sites/www.middlebury.edu.institute/files/2018-12/Seal%20Bombs%20in%20CA-%20Final.pdf">showed</a> they can cause horrific injuries to seals. The damage includes trauma to bones, soft tissue burns and prolapsed eye balls, as well as <a href="https://www.et.org.au/grisly_animal_welfare_abuses">death</a>.</p>
<p>And research suggests damage to marine life extends far beyond seals. For example, the devices can disturb porpoises which rely on echolocation to find food, avoid predators and navigate the ocean. Porpoises emit clicks and squeaks – sound which travels through the water and bounces off objects. In 2018, a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00142/full">study</a> found seal bombs could disturb harbour porpoises in California at least 64 kilometres from the detonation site.</p>
<p>There is also a body of research showing how similar types of industrial noise affect marine life. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-16569-x">A study</a> in South Africa in 2017 showed how during seismic surveys in search of oil or gas, which produce intense ocean noise, penguins raising chicks often avoided their preferred foraging areas. Whales and fish have also shown similar avoidance behaviour.</p>
<p>The study showed underwater blasts can also kill and injure seabirds such as penguins. And there may be implications from leaving penguin nests unattended and vulnerable to predators, and leaving chicks hungry longer. </p>
<p>Research also shows underwater explosions damage to fish. <a href="https://www.awionline.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/McCauley-1238105863-10165.pdf">One study</a> on caged fish reported profound trauma to their ears, including blistering, holes and other damage. Another <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00142/full">study</a> cited official reports of dead fish in the vicinity of seal bomb explosions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-causing-tuna-to-migrate-which-could-spell-catastrophe-for-the-small-islands-that-depend-on-them-164000">Climate change is causing tuna to migrate, which could spell catastrophe for the small islands that depend on them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="dolphin jumps out of waves" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421041/original/file-20210914-21-la37yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Man-made noise can disturb a variety of marine animals, including porpoises.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Shining a light</h2>
<p>Clearly, more scientific research is needed into how seal bombs affect marine life in the oceans off Tasmania. And regulators should impose far stricter limits on the salmon industry’s use of seal bombs – a call <a href="https://salmonreform.org/upload/675860/documents/B9FB00CB7B9F994C.pdf">echoed</a> by Tasmania’s Salmon Reform Alliance. </p>
<p>All this is unfolding as federal environment laws <a href="https://theconversation.com/let-there-be-no-doubt-blame-for-our-failing-environment-laws-lies-squarely-at-the-feet-of-government-141482">fail</a> to protect Australian plant and animal species, including <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/scienceshow/a-call-for-strengthened-environmental-legislation/13371866">marine wildlife</a>. </p>
<p>And the laws in Tasmania are far from perfect. In 2017, Tasmania’s Finfish Farming Environmental Regulation <a href="https://www.legislation.tas.gov.au/view/html/inforce/2017-12-04/act-2017-046">Act</a> introduced opportunities for better oversight of commercial fisheries. However, as the Environmental Defenders Office (<a href="https://www.edo.org.au/publication/fin-fish-farming-environmental-regulation-tasmania/">EDO</a>) has noted, the director of Tasmania’s Environment Protection Authority can decide on license applications by salmon farms without the development necessarily undergoing a full environmental assessment. </p>
<p>Tasmania’s Marine Farming Planning Act <a href="https://www.legislation.tas.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-1995-031">covers</a> salmon farm locations and leases. As the EDO <a href="https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/ctee/Council/Submissions/FIN%20FISH/Submissions%20126%20-%20223/220%20Environmental%20Defenders%20Office.pdf">has noted</a>, the public is not notified of some key decisions under the law and has very limited public rights of appeal.</p>
<p>Two relevant public inquiries are underway – a federal inquiry into <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/About_the_House_News/Media_Releases/Opportunities_for_expansion_in_aquaculture">aquaculture expansion</a> and a Tasmanian parliamentary probe into <a href="https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/ctee/Council/Reports/gaa.inq.FIN.rep.200409.INTERIMREPORTFIN.%20jm.004.pdf">fin-fish sustainability</a>. Both have heard evidence from community stakeholders, such as the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/Standing_Committee_on_Agriculture_and_Water_Resources/Australianaquaculture/Submissions">Tasmanian Alliance for Marine Protection</a> and the <a href="https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/ctee/Council/Submissions/FIN%20FISH/Submissions%201%20-%20125/89%20Tasman%20Peninsula%20Marine%20Protection.pdf">Tasmanian Conservation Trust</a>, that the Tasmanian salmon industry lacks transparency and provides insufficient opportunities for public input into environmental governance.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/salmonplan.pdf">Tasmanian government</a> has thrown its support behind rapid expansion of the salmon industry. But it’s essential that the industry is more tightly regulated, and far more accountable for any environmental damage it creates.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-indigenous-knowledge-should-be-an-essential-part-of-how-we-govern-the-worlds-oceans-161649">Why Indigenous knowledge should be an essential part of how we govern the world's oceans</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<p>In a statement in response to this article, the Tasmanian Salmonid Growers Association, which represents the three producers named above, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Around $500 million has been spent on innovative pens by the industry. These pens are designed to minimise risks to wildlife as well as to fish stocks and the employees. We believe that farms should be designed to minimise the threat of seals, but we also understand that non-lethal deterrents are a part of the measures approved by the government for the individual member companies to use. If these deterrents are used it is under strict guidelines, sparingly, and in emergency situations when staff are threatened by these animals, which can be very aggressive.</p>
<p>Tasmania has a strong, highly regulated, longstanding salmon industry of which we should all be proud. The salmon industry will continue its track record of operating at world’s best practice now and into future. Our local people have been working in regional communities for more than 30 years, to bring healthy, nutritious salmon to Australian dinner plates, through innovation and determination.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167854/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Richardson is a member of the Tasmanian Greens, and a former member of the management committee of the Tasmanian Environmental Defenders Office.</span></em></p>The industry says the deterrent is necessary, but evidence suggests the devices pose a significant threat to some marine life, including maiming and killing seals.Benjamin J. Richardson, Professor of Environmental Law, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1660222021-08-18T22:53:42Z2021-08-18T22:53:42ZIndividual dietary choices can add – or take away – minutes, hours and years of life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416466/original/file-20210817-27-105w4xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C74%2C6064%2C3130&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eating more fruits, vegetables and nuts can make a meaningful impact on a person's health – and the planet's too.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/ingredients-for-the-healthy-foods-selection-the-royalty-free-image/1179272859?adppopup=true">kerdkanno/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Vegetarian and vegan options have become standard fare in the American diet, from upscale restaurants to fast-food chains. And many people know that the food choices they make affect <a href="https://theconversation.com/confused-about-what-to-eat-science-can-help-118745">their own health</a> as well as that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/31/avoiding-meat-and-dairy-is-single-biggest-way-to-reduce-your-impact-on-earth">of the planet</a>. </p>
<p>But on a daily basis, it’s hard to know how much individual choices, such as buying mixed greens at the grocery store or ordering chicken wings at a sports bar, might translate to overall personal and environmental health. That’s the gap we hope to fill with our research.</p>
<p>We are part of a team of researchers with expertise in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vVPGeT0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">food sustainability and environmental life cycle assessment</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JKdT2e0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">epidemiology and environmental health</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Victor-Fulgoni">nutrition</a>. We are working to gain a deeper understanding beyond the often overly simplistic animal-versus-plant diet debate and to identify environmentally sustainable foods that also promote human health. </p>
<p>Building on this multi-disciplinary expertise, we combined 15 nutritional health-based dietary risk factors with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229466">18 environmental indicators</a> to evaluate, classify and prioritize more than 5,800 individual foods.</p>
<p>Ultimately, we wanted to know: Are drastic dietary changes required to improve our individual health and reduce environmental impacts? And <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evL7GvmaQWo">does the entire population need to become vegan</a> to make a meaningful difference for human health and that of the planet?</p>
<h2>Putting hard numbers on food choices</h2>
<p>In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00343-4">2021 study</a> published in the research journal Nature Food, we provide some of the first concrete numbers for the health burden of various food choices. We analyzed the individual foods based on their composition to calculate each food item’s net benefits or impacts. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://myumi.ch/pdryj">Health Nutritional Index</a> that we developed turns this information into minutes of life lost or gained per serving size of each food item consumed. For instance, we found that eating one hot dog costs a person 36 minutes of “healthy” life. In comparison, we found that eating a serving size of 30 grams of nuts and seeds provides a gain of 25 minutes of healthy life – that is, an increase in good-quality and disease-free life expectancy. </p>
<p>Our study also showed that substituting only 10% of daily caloric intake of beef and processed meats for a diverse mix of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes and select seafood could reduce, on average, the dietary carbon footprint of a U.S. consumer by one-third and add 48 healthy minutes of life per day. This is a substantial improvement for such a limited dietary change.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Relative positions of select foods on a carbon footprint versus nutritional health map" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=699&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=699&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416694/original/file-20210818-13-1enqh5y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=699&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Relative positions of select foods, from apples to hot dogs, are shown on a carbon footprint versus nutritional health map. Foods scoring well, shown in green, have beneficial effects on human health and a low environmental footprint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Austin Thomason/Michigan Photography and University of Michigan</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How did we crunch the numbers?</h2>
<p>We based our Health Nutritional Index on a large epidemiological study called the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32366-8">Global Burden of Disease</a>, a comprehensive global study and database that was developed with the help of <a href="http://www.healthdata.org/gbd/about">more than 7,000 researchers around the world</a>. The Global Burden of Disease determines the risks and benefits associated with multiple environmental, metabolic and behavioral factors – including 15 dietary risk factors. </p>
<p>Our team took that population-level epidemiological data and adapted it down to the level of individual foods. Taking into account more than 6,000 risk estimates specific to each age, gender, disease and risk, and the fact that there are about a half-million minutes in a year, we calculated the health burden that comes with consuming one gram’s worth of food for each of the dietary risk factors.</p>
<p>For example, we found that, on average, 0.45 minutes are lost per gram of any processed meat that a person eats in the U.S. We then multiplied this number by the corresponding <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101441">food profiles</a> that we previously developed. Going back to the example of a hot dog, the 61 grams of processed meat in a hot dog sandwich results in 27 minutes of healthy life lost due to this amount of processed meat alone. Then, when considering the other risk factors, like the sodium and trans fatty acids inside the hot dog – counterbalanced by the benefit of its polyunsaturated fat and fibers – we arrived at the final value of 36 minutes of healthy life lost per hot dog. </p>
<p>We repeated this calculation for more than 5,800 foods and mixed dishes. We then compared scores from the health indices with 18 different environmental metrics, including carbon footprint, water use and air pollution-induced human health impacts. Finally, using this health and environmental nexus, we color-coded each food item as green, yellow or red. Like a traffic light, green foods have beneficial effects on health and a low environmental impact and should be increased in the diet, while red foods should be reduced.</p>
<h2>Where do we go from here?</h2>
<p>Our study allowed us to identify certain priority actions that people can take to both improve their health and reduce their environmental footprint. </p>
<p>When it comes to environmental sustainability, we found striking variations both within and between animal-based and plant-based foods. For the “red” foods, beef has the largest carbon footprint across its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1201/b19138">entire life cycle</a> – twice as high as pork or lamb and four times that of poultry and dairy. From a health standpoint, eliminating processed meat and reducing overall sodium consumption provides the largest gain in healthy life compared with all other food types. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cattle in feedlot or feed yard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416696/original/file-20210818-19-rjp2yz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beef consumption had the highest negative environmental impacts, and processed meat had the most important overall adverse health effects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/feedlot-cattle-29-royalty-free-image/1303979847?adppopup=true">Clinton Austin/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Therefore, people might consider eating less of foods that are high in processed meat and beef, followed by pork and lamb. And notably, among plant-based foods, greenhouse-grown vegetables scored poorly on environmental impacts due to the combustion emissions from heating.</p>
<p>Foods that people might consider increasing are those that have high beneficial effects on health and low environmental impacts. We observed a lot of flexibility among these “green” choices, including whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes and low-environmental impact fish and seafood. These items also offer options for all income levels, tastes and cultures.</p>
<p>Our study also shows that when it comes to food sustainability, it is not sufficient to only consider the amount of greenhouse gases emitted – the so-called carbon footprint. Water-saving techniques, such as drip irrigation and the reuse of gray water – or domestic wastewater such as that from sinks and showers – can also make important steps toward lowering the water footprint of food production.</p>
<p>A limitation of our study is that the epidemiological data does not enable us to differentiate within the same food group, such as the health benefits of a watermelon versus an apple. In addition, individual foods always need to be considered within the context of one’s individual diet, considering the maximum level above which foods are not any more beneficial – one cannot live forever by just increasing fruit consumption. </p>
<p>At the same time, our Health Nutrient Index has the potential to be regularly adapted, incorporating new knowledge and data as they become available. And it can be customized worldwide, as has already <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092745">been done in Switzerland</a>.</p>
<p>It was encouraging to see how small, targeted changes could make such a meaningful difference for both health and environmental sustainability – one meal at a time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166022/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was funded by an unrestricted grant from the National Dairy Council and the University of Michigan Dow Sustainability Fellowship. Olivier Jolliet. has received funding on unrelated projects from US EPA, USDA, American Chemistry Council Long-Range Research Initiative, and Unilever, and became part, after submission of the present manuscript of the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board created with the unrestricted support from Nutella. The funding organizations did not have a role in the manuscript development.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was funded by an unrestricted grant from the National Dairy Council and the University of Michigan Dow Sustainability Fellowship.</span></em></p>A new study puts numbers to the health and environmental benefits – or impacts – of individual foods and shows how small changes can make a significant difference.Olivier Jolliet, Professor of Environmental Health Sciences, University of MichiganKaterina S. Stylianou, Research Associate in Environmental Health Sciences, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1583152021-05-11T14:53:48Z2021-05-11T14:53:48ZSeaspiracy: how to make fishing more sustainable by tackling bycatch – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400036/original/file-20210511-16-1kfg7wh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bycatch is a serious problem within commercial fishing</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/caught-web-fishing-net-fishing-nets-138850/">Efraimstochter/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Capturing audiences worldwide with its no-holds-barred indictment of the fishing industry, Netflix’s <a href="https://www.netflix.com/id-en/title/81014008">Seaspiracy</a> is the latest documentary to draw attention to the plight of our oceans. With marine species at risk of <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/summary-statistics">extinction</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.022">degradation</a> of coral reef habitats, and threats to <a href="http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/534317a">nutritionally important fish species</a>, public concern about ocean mismanagement is well founded. </p>
<p>But does Seaspiracy hit the right mark? The film has been widely <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/seaspiracy-netflix-marines-true-story-b1824038.html">criticised</a> for its sweeping generalisations and oversimplified solutions. While it’s true that fisheries hurt marine ecosystems through <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis">degrading ocean habitats and driving climate change</a>, they’re also the source of huge social and economic value. Fisheries employ at least <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/i5555e/i5555e.pdf">40 million people</a> and provide <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/i5555e/i5555e.pdf">17% of global animal protein intake</a>. </p>
<p>That means simply stopping seafood consumption is neither a fair nor realistic option for most people and places: not to mention the potential unintended consequences of shifting the pressure to produce food onto land-based systems. Instead, we need to recognise the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-warming-has-fisheries-on-the-move-helping-some-but-hurting-more-116248">complex trade-offs</a> between fisheries and conservation, and work towards negotiating better solutions for people and nature.</p>
<p>What might this more balanced approach look like? Our <a href="https://rdcu.be/ckjQC">research</a> proposes a new solution: commercial fishing companies and seafood consumers should pay compensation for the environmental impacts of fisheries. To illustrate this idea, let’s take a look at the problem of bycatch.</p>
<h2>What’s so bad about bycatch?</h2>
<p><a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/ES12-00388.1">Bycatch</a> is the capture and death of marine life through large-scale fishing. It’s the <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/ES12-00388.1">most serious global threat</a> to migratory, long‐lived marine megafauna - the ocean’s largest and most iconic creatures, including sharks, turtles and seabirds. Overall, fisheries harm at least <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/CA2905EN/ca2905en.pdf">20 million</a> individual creatures from endangered, threatened and protected species annually. </p>
<p>This enormous damage to ocean ecosystems is rarely compensated for - or even acknowledged - by fishing companies. Nor is the damage accounted for in the price of seafood once it reaches the supermarket.</p>
<h2>How could bycatch levies help?</h2>
<p>One way to solve this is to nudge the behaviour of fishing companies and seafood consumers through economic incentives. Bycatch levies, for example, could set a price on each unit of bycatch, which would be paid for by fishing companies or passed on to consumers via higher seafood prices. </p>
<p>Particularly <a href="https://oceana.org/sites/default/files/Bycatch_Report_FINAL.pdf">significant sources of bycatch</a> include shrimp trawls, tuna longlines, and swordfish gill nets. That means bycatch levies would be higher for fishing companies using these practices, and seafood sourced via these methods could become more expensive.</p>
<p>This approach would encourage fisheries to adopt fishing methods that result in less bycatch. Examples include <a href="https://www.bmis-bycatch.org/mitigation-techniques/circle-hooks#:%7E:text=Experiments%20suggest%20that%20circle%20hooks,J%20hooks%20and%20tuna%20hooks.">circular hooks</a> to reduce turtle capture, <a href="https://www.bmis-bycatch.org/mitigation-techniques/monofilament-wire-leaders">nylon lines</a> that sharks can more easily escape, or safe <a href="https://www.bmis-bycatch.org/mitigation-techniques?species_group=All&gear=All&mt=603&keys=">live-release methods</a> to help bycaught animals be returned to the ocean. </p>
<p>Given that it’s almost impossible to completely <a href="https://theconversation.com/catch-22-technology-can-help-solve-fishings-environmental-issues-but-risks-swapping-one-problem-for-another-139618">avoid bycatch</a>, levies could also raise money to support conservation efforts for species particularly affected by bycatch: including restoring ocean habitats or supporting small-scale fishers to buy bycatch-reducing gear they otherwise couldn’t afford. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dual benefits of bycatch levies" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393520/original/file-20210406-21-2lrc1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dual benefits of bycatch levies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hollie Booth</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Examples of bycatch levies are hard to come by, mainly due to companies and consumers’ unwillingness to foot extra costs. However, theoretical examples show that they’re potentially able to create benefits for both people and nature. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.12239">study on turtle bycatch</a> in the US found that bycatch levies invested into turtle conservation could generate greater benefits for turtle populations per dollar than other measures, such as fishery closures. Based on this, a coalition of US-based tuna companies has begun to invest US$1 (£0.71) per tonne of longline-caught tuna into community-based turtle conservation projects in the Pacific Ocean, with <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.549570/full">positive and cost-effective outcomes</a> for turtles as well as coastal communities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Smiling fisher and sea turtle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=206&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=206&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=206&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=259&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=259&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393521/original/file-20210406-19-1ovn0ku.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=259&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Investing bycatch levies in community-based conservation could create positive outcomes for fishers and people (photos from Aceh (left) and West Papua (right) in Indonesia)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hollie Booth</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the future, just as investors and consumers are demanding “deforestation-free” supply chains, so they could demand “bycatch-neutral” seafood. If widely adopted, this could generate billions of dollars for ocean conservation. The seven most commercially valuable tuna species are together worth about <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2016/05/netting-billions-a-global-valuation-of-tuna">US$42 billion</a>. If bycatch levies were valued at just 12% of this figure – a reasonable amount, given that global bycatch rates are estimated to make up at least <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12233">10%-20% of total catches</a> - this could raise enough money to pay for conserving <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/101/26/9694">20%–30% of the world’s oceans</a> while creating a host of long-term benefits for <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z">biodiversity, food security and climate</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://rdcu.be/ckjQC">Our findings</a> make it clear that levies must be well-designed, responsibly deployed, and used alongside other measures, such as establishing marine protected areas and developing more selective fishing technology. Importantly, they would need to be supported by supply chain transparency, consumer demand for responsible seafood and increased fisheries monitoring.</p>
<p>Of course, bycatch levies aren’t the answer to all marine conservation issues. But they do represent a new approach to some of the environmental damage caused by fishing, in a way that enables both fishers and consumers to continue to enjoy seafood without a side of guilt. </p>
<p>Despite what Seaspiracy may have us believe, saving the oceans doesn’t have to mean shutting down fisheries. What it should mean is pushing fishing companies and seafood consumers to acknowledge the environmental consequences of their decisions - and to act accordingly.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158315/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Arlidge has previously received research funding from the University of Oxford, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and the US National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hollie Booth does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tackling bycatch in large-scale fishing can make our seafood habit more sustainableHollie Booth, PhD Candidate, Conservation Science, University of OxfordWilliam Arlidge, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland FisheriesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1594352021-04-30T04:20:32Z2021-04-30T04:20:32ZHow small-scale seafood supply chains adapt to COVID-19 disruptions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397273/original/file-20210427-21-igs0p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mobile traders, or _pedagang along-along_, in Langkat, Sumatra, were able to continue selling fish despite COVID-19 disruptions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sharon K. Suri</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In February 2020, Rio (not his real name), a crab and sea snail processor in Langkat regency on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, found his business drying up. Normally at this time of year his business would have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912421000043?via%3Dihub">booming from seafood exports</a> to China and Hong Kong for the Lunar New Year festival. </p>
<p>Like many others in small-scale seafood supply chains across the world, Rio was feeling the impacts of COVID-19. </p>
<p>In the early months of the pandemic, community lockdowns and public health risks combined with restrictions on worker movement and seafood trade forced small-scale fishing communities in several parts of the world to close down their businesses. They were <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08920753.2020.1766937">left in a state of economic and social uncertainty</a>.</p>
<p>Some small, local seafood vendors, like Indonesian <em>pedagang along-along</em> who sell fish, vegetables and other perishable foods from motorbikes, adapted. They were able to continue selling seafood despite the pandemic. </p>
<p>How did they cope? What helped or hindered others in small-scale seafood supply chains as they dealt with uncertainties generated by COVID-19?</p>
<p>In a recent article, we documented the initial pandemic impacts and responses across seven seafood supply chains in Indonesia, India, Peru and the US. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X21000851?via%3Dihub">Our findings</a> offer insights into how to increase the adaptability of fishworkers and small-scale seafood supply chains in preparation for future shocks.</p>
<h2>Coping amid the pandemic</h2>
<p>In some countries, like India and Peru, the important role of fishing and seafood sales in <a href="http://www.oannes.org.pe/noticias/pesca-y-acuicultura/peru-pesca-artesanal-y-el-coronavirus-un-cambio-de-la-historia-peruana/">maintaining livelihoods and providing food was overlooked</a>. The sector was <a href="https://www.hakaimagazine.com/news/indias-fishers-have-been-crushed-by-covid-19/">not classified as an essential service and was not allowed to continue operating</a>, despite its economic contribution to society.</p>
<p>Seafood is the <a href="http://www.fao.org/state-of-fisheries-aquaculture">most traded food item</a> in the world. Yet an <a href="http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/515701468152718292/pdf/664690ESW0P1210120HiddenHarvest0web.pdf">estimated 81%</a> of the catch from small-scale fisheries is sold for local consumption. </p>
<p>The global small-scale seafood sector <a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/the-ocean-economy-in-2030_9789264251724-en#page1">employs 32 million fishers and 78 million individuals</a> involved in processing and sales. Seafood supply chains are economically important for trade and livelihoods and critical to food systems.</p>
<p>International trade <a href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2010.00486.x">supports the livelihoods of many fishworkers</a>, but also exposes them to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378015300133?via%3Dihub">risks of global markets</a>. </p>
<p>As COVID-19 began to disrupt international trade, fishworkers involved in seafood exports had few options but to sell locally. Due to differences in preferences, this was not always successful. For example, jumbo flying squid is eaten in Peru, but not at the volumes or in the product forms consumed in the international market. </p>
<p>In some cases, high-production areas such as Langkat or <a href="https://es.mongabay.com/2020/05/peru-covid-19-economia-de-pescadores-artesanales-oceanos/">coastal regions of Peru</a> ended up with more seafood than local markets could handle. The result was a price crash. </p>
<p>Participating in a variety of supply chains, particularly at smaller, more local scales, helped some fishworkers deal with these shocks. </p>
<p>For example, in California, consumption of sea urchin roe, or <em>uni</em>, was usually limited to restaurants. With restaurants closed, some <em>uni</em> fishers and sellers promoted local supply chains by <a href="https://laist.com/news/food/sea-urchin-fishing-covid-santa-barbara-uni">teaching customers how to handle and prepare uni at home</a>. This made direct sales easier. </p>
<p>In India’s Andaman Islands, grouper fishers switched from multi-hooked longlines to nets. This enabled them to catch different fish and sell these to local markets. </p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/news-views/peruvian-fisheries-covid-19/">Peruvian offshore and high seas artisanal fishers switched to nearshore fishing</a>. By doing this, they contributed to local food security while earning revenue from diverse sources. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396947/original/file-20210426-17-1yh9cni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seafood supply chains span from the local (center) to global (outer ring) and include a variety of actors (icons/nodes). COVID-19 disruptions caused some activities to increase (blue), reduce (green), or become inactive (yellow) for supply chains like Langkat’s export-oriented processors (LE) and domestic mobile traders (LD), Andaman Islands’ grouper fishery (AE) and local net-based fishery (AD), Peru’s export-oriented (PE) and domestic-oriented (PD) artisanal fisheries, and California’s red sea urchin dive fishery (CU).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In all seven of the seafood supply chains we examined, some individuals and organisations quickly changed their marketing strategies and adapted to pandemic-related regulations. </p>
<p>Existing networks of fishery organisations and relationships with consumers helped reorient supply chains. For example, Peruvian fishing associations, which are normally socially and politically active, began marketing seafood through local supply chains. </p>
<p>In India, the <a href="https://www.dakshin.org/">Dakshin Foundation</a> and other non-profits working along the coast <a href="https://thebastion.co.in/politics-and/the-shore-scene-the-heavy-toll-of-the-covid-19-on-indias-fishers/">harnessed existing networks</a> like the National Fishworkers Forum and partnered with boat associations in several coastal states, including the Andamans, to distribute food aid within fishing communities and help stranded fishworkers return home.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397283/original/file-20210427-23-ivbj9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Communication technologies helped fishers and traders connect with networks and shift supply chains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Giordano</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With limited ability to meet in person, fishers and seafood traders used familiar apps, like WhatsApp, to communicate with other fishworkers and connect to local buyers. </p>
<p>In the Andamans, communities used WhatsApp to co-ordinate aid. In Peru, it was used to set up informal fish distribution networks. This enabled fish sellers to launch new services such as door-to-door delivery. </p>
<p>California’s <a href="https://www.thdocksidemarket.com/">Tuna Harbor Dockside Market</a> quickly developed an online platform to sell directly to consumers. At the same time, this increased their social media presence. The shift to online marketplaces enabled some fish sellers to reach a wider audience.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>COVID-19 has exposed many existing weaknesses in small-scale seafood supply chains. It has also highlighted several successful strategies for adapting to such large-scale shocks. </p>
<p>In the cases examined, these actions contributed to livelihoods and seafood distribution being able to continue during this pandemic.</p>
<p>The successes and failures of strategies adopted by individuals and organisations within this sector offer clear lessons for policymakers, the public and development agencies. </p>
<p>Policymakers could recognise small-scale fisheries as essential food suppliers, while local markets support small businesses and fishing communities to help supply chains adapt to disruptions. </p>
<p>When it comes to technology, NGOs, development agencies and the tech sector could help cultivate social networks and digital technologies for that purpose. </p>
<p>These lessons can inform adaptations to climate change and other predicted threats to seafood supply chains in <a href="https://focusweb.org/covid-19-outbreak-socio-economic-impact-on-small-scale-fisher-and-aquaculture-in-indonesia/">Indonesia</a> and beyond.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Sonia Sharan at Oceana and Christopher Giordano at Future of Fish co-authored this study and contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159435/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sahir Advani is a Junior Adjunct Fellow at Dakshin Foundation, a not for profit fisheries organization. Sahir received funding from The University of British Columbia, International Development Research Centre, Robin Rigby Trust for Collaborative Coastal Research to conduct part of this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hannah Bassett receives funding from the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program, the Foreign Language and Areas Studies Fellowship, and the South Bay Cable/Fisheries Liaison Committee. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline Lau works for WorldFish—an international, not for profit research organization and part of the CGIAR that seeks to deliver research for a more food secure world, particularly for societies most vulnerable women and men. This research was supported by the CGIAR Research Program on Fish Agri-Food Systems and the ARC Centre for Excellence in Coral Reef Studies.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sharon K Suri is studying fish trade networks in Indonesia within the Innovative Knowledge About Networks- Fish For Food (IKAN-F3) project through the Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR) at the University of Amsterdam. The IKAN-F3 project is funded by the Dutch Research Council (NWO project W 07.50.1818).
</span></em></p>Local, flexible buyers and networks helped support small-scale seafood supply chains coping with COVID-19 disruptions.Sahir Advani, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, University of British ColumbiaHannah Bassett, PhD Student, School of Aquatic and Fishery Science, University of WashingtonJacqueline Lau, Research Fellow, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook UniversitySharon K Suri, PhD Researcher, University of AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1519042021-03-26T12:24:08Z2021-03-26T12:24:08ZFarming fish in fresh water is more affordable and sustainable than in the ocean<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391754/original/file-20210325-15-bts8vt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5503%2C3650&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jeremiah Kiarie rounds up tilapia at Green Algae Highland fish farm in central Kenya on April 29, 2017.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/jeremiah-son-of-fish-farmer-william-kiarie-rounds-up-news-photo/696599724">Tony Karumba/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A tidal wave of interest is building in farming the seas. It’s part of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-economy-how-a-handful-of-companies-reap-most-of-the-benefits-in-multi-billion-ocean-industries-153165">global rush</a> to exploit oceanic resources that’s been dubbed the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-acceleration-our-dash-for-ocean-resources-mirrors-what-weve-already-done-to-the-land-130264">blue acceleration</a>.” </p>
<p>Optimistic projections say that smart mariculture – fish farming at sea – could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y">increase ocean fish and shellfish production</a> by 21 million to 44 million metric tons by 2050, a 36%-74% jump from current yields. Other estimates suggest that an ocean aquaculture area <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-tiny-portion-of-the-worlds-oceans-could-help-meet-global-seafood-demand-82680">the size of Lake Michigan</a> might produce the same amount of seafood as all of the world’s wild-caught fisheries combined. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br><em>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network.</em></p>
<p>Our work as interdisciplinary researchers studying <a href="https://worldfishcenter.org/strategy-2030/">aquatic</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gs3YPlEAAAAJ&hl=en">food</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wenbo-Zhang-18">systems</a> shows that these claims <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9">exaggerate mariculture’s true potential</a>, and that increasing mariculture in a sustainable way is fraught with challenges. </p>
<p>We see <a href="https://theconversation.com/let-them-eat-carp-fish-farms-are-helping-to-fight-hunger-90421">freshwater fish farms</a> as a better way to help fight hunger and bolster food security. In our view, governments, funders and scientists should focus on improving aquaculture on land to help meet the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">United Nation Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-yhtVSW65Ag?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In recent years Bangladesh has become a leader in low-cost, sustainable aquaculture.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Questionable assumptions</h2>
<p>Ocean aquaculture advocates often cite limited supplies of wild-caught fish and call for <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/how-aquaculture-can-feed-the-world-and-save-the-planet-at-the-same-time">cultivating them to feed the world</a>. As they see it, aquaculture on land is limited by scarce land and freshwater resources, while the oceans offer vast areas suitable for farming. </p>
<p>Framed this way, mariculture seems to offer boundless potential to meet future demand for seafood and feed vulnerable populations with <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/how-to-build-a-bluer-ocean-economy-after-cobid-19/">little environmental impact</a>. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19679-9">our research</a> paints a different picture. We see far fewer technical, economic and resource constraints for freshwater aquaculture than for ocean farming, and far greater potential for land-based fish farms to contribute to global food security.</p>
<p>Freshwater aquaculture has grown steadily over the past three decades. Asia is at the center of this boom, accounting for <a href="http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en">89% of world aquaculture production</a>, excluding plants. </p>
<p>The most important species groups – carp, tilapia and catfish – are herbivorous or omnivorous, so they don’t need to eat animal protein to thrive. While they may be fed small amounts of fish to speed growth, their mainstay diet consists of inexpensive byproducts of crops like rice, groundnut and soy, as well as natural plankton.</p>
<p>It’s relatively cheap and easy to grow freshwater fish in small earthen ponds. Aquaculture has been an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.08.077">economic boon</a>, especially in Asia, providing jobs and income for vast numbers of family farms, workers and small businesses. Farmed freshwater fish tend to be an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.005">affordable staple food</a> for millions of low- and middle-income consumers – and many better-off ones, too. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1362437219651379203"}"></div></p>
<h2>Raising marine fish</h2>
<p>Raising marine fish is a different proposition. The harsh ocean environment makes production risky, and the biology of these species makes many of them difficult and costly to breed and grow. </p>
<p>Most marine aquaculture species are carnivores, so they need other fish as part of their diets. About <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12209">20 million metric tons of fish</a> caught each year is used instead to feed farmed fish. It’s a <a href="https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-basics/sustainable-solutions/limit-wild-fish-use-as-feed">contentious environmental and ethical issue</a>, as some of these fish could otherwise be food for humans.</p>
<p>Improvements in technology have reduced, though not eliminated, the amount of fish used in feeds, especially for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2011.597890">farmed salmon</a>. It now takes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2019.100216">half as much fresh fish</a> to raise salmon as it did 20 years ago. </p>
<p>These innovations were achieved through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2019.1632391">massive investments</a> by the Norwegian government and the industry, dating back to the 1970s. Research focused on genetic improvement, nutrition and production systems, and it’s paid off. Farmed salmon now accounts for <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-production/en">45% of all fish farmed from the sea</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Floating salmon pens off Canadian coast." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391609/original/file-20210325-17-1r67r2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grieg Seafood operates a salmon farm in Clio Channel, Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia, Canada, in partnership with the Tlowitsis First Nation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2jnT5gB">David Stanley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, it’s unlikely that other less popular fish, like grouper, sea bass or cobia, will be as thoroughly researched or farmed with the same efficiency. The market is too small. </p>
<p>For a land-based analogy, think of chickens. Like salmon, they have long been the focus of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180325">intensive research and development</a>. As a result, they now grow to market size in just 45 days. On the other hand, the guinea fowl – a chickenlike bird raised for specialty markets – has undergone limited selective breeding, develops slowly and yields far less meat, making it more costly to raise and more expensive to buy. </p>
<h2>Farming the open ocean</h2>
<p>Marine fish farming is currently done in sheltered bays and sea lochs. But there is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808737115">growing interest</a> in a new high-tech method that raises fish in huge submersible cages anchored far from land in the open ocean. It’s risky business, with high operating costs. Expensive infrastructure is vulnerable to intense storms. </p>
<p>To be successful, offshore farms will need to grow high-priced fish such as bluefin tuna. And they will need to operate at industrial scale, like SalMar’s massive “Ocean Farm” in Norway, which has capacity for <a href="https://salmonbusiness.com/salmars-gigantic-ocean-farm-gears-up-for-harvest/">1.5 million fish</a>.</p>
<p>While open-ocean mariculture may be technically feasible, its economic viability is questionable. Pilot projects in Norway, <a href="https://www.marinelink.com/news/aquaculture-inside-de-maas-offshore-fish-483165">China</a> and the <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/can-deepwater-aquaculture-avoid-the-pitfalls-of-coastal-fish-farms">U.S.</a> are not yet commercially successful. And though there is strong global demand for salmon, other species like grouper have small niche markets. They are likely to remain specialized high-end products because of steep production costs. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Boats move a 100-foot-tall circular pen through ocean waters." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391758/original/file-20210325-19-1enkjzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A tugboat tows an offshore ocean farming facility in Qingdao, China, on June 14, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-offshore-ocean-farming-facility-ocean-farm-1-is-towed-by-news-photo/696148000">Visual China Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Freshwater alternatives</h2>
<p>Human population is growing fastest in <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2019-highlights.html">Africa</a>, and incomes are rising most rapidly in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/12/asia-economic-growth/">Asia</a>. Most additional future demand for fish will come from low- and middle-income consumers in these regions. Farming tilapia and catfish is already becoming more popular in Egypt and both West and East Africa. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Meanwhile, total seafood consumption in high-income countries <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/I9540EN/i9540en.pdf">has plateaued</a> since 2000. But even in these countries, demand for farmed freshwater fish is growing because it’s an affordable source of protein. In the U.S., tilapia, <a href="https://www.seafoodhealthfacts.org/description-top-commercial-seafood-items/pangasius">pangasius</a> (freshwater catfish) and channel catfish are the fourth-, sixth- and eighth-most-<a href="https://aboutseafood.com/about/top-ten-list-for-seafood-consumption/">consumed</a> seafood items.</p>
<p>Offshore mariculture might one day produce luxury fish that generate profits for a few large investors. But we believe freshwater aquaculture will continue to feed far more people and benefit many more farmers and small businesses. </p>
<p>Investments in selective breeding, disease control and farm management through public-private partnerships can create a more sustainable aquaculture industry, reducing the amount of land, freshwater and feed used to grow fish while increasing productivity. For more inclusive and sustainable development, we believe governments and funders should prioritize raising fish on land.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151904/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Belton shares a joint appointment with WorldFish as Global Lead for Social and Economic Inclusion</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Little receives funding from, and works on a voluntary basis for, various organisations supporting knowledge development and promotion of aquaculture. He has interests in a commercial tilapia company.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wenbo Zhang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Aquaculture is a growing source of healthy protein for millions of people around the world, but there are big differences between farming fish on land and at sea.Ben Belton, Associate Professor of International Development, Michigan State UniversityDave Little, Professor of Aquatic Resources Development, University of StirlingWenbo Zhang, Lecturer in Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1551552021-03-15T14:30:37Z2021-03-15T14:30:37ZSeafood: most Europeans struggle to identify the fish they eat – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389558/original/file-20210315-17-gsktyo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6885%2C4595&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fishmonger-selling-fish-658836184">PickOne/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How well do you know the fish you buy? Could you identify the species before it’s a fillet that you pick up in the supermarket? If so, according to our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-021-00932-z">new research</a>, you’re actually more knowledgeable than most European consumers.</p>
<p>You can test yourself by trying to name these six commonly eaten fish:</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Six images of fish commonly eaten in Europe." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=215&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389512/original/file-20210315-17-6jhkpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Answers at the bottom of the article.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-021-00932-z">Mariani & Cusa (2021)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once you’re done – no cheating – check the answers at the bottom of the article. If you managed to identify at least two species correctly, then you’re already ahead of most British and Belgian participants in our study and on par with the European average. If you named more than three, you scored higher than most of the people we interviewed.</p>
<p>So why are people so estranged from the food they eat? Well, it doesn’t help that seafood sold as a particular species might be something else. New scientific tools for determining the genetic origins of produce, such as DNA barcoding, have revealed that seafood mislabelling is rampant worldwide. A <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/15/revealed-seafood-happening-on-a-vast-global-scale">recent review</a> found that well over one-third of seafood samples from restaurants, shops and fishmongers in more than 30 countries belonged to different species than the ones they were labelled as. It wasn’t until we discovered over 60 different species of fish were being sold globally under the name “<a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12573">snapper</a>” that we suspected something was off. It seems the vast majority of people buying snapper wouldn’t know such a fish if it bit them on the thumb. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-rebrand-a-fish-so-that-it-sounds-tastier-155259">How to rebrand a fish so that it sounds tastier</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We reasoned that this was probably true for a lot of other popular fish species. But no research had ever estimated the average person’s knowledge of the fish they buy and eat. So, we set out to determine the level of seafood literacy among consumers in Europe.</p>
<h2>All at sea</h2>
<p>We asked 720 people from the UK, Ireland, Belgium, Spain, Italy and Greece to identify six commercial fish species from photos. People from Spain performed the best, with an average accuracy score of 38% and a little over two species guessed correctly. UK respondents did the worst, with an average accuracy score of 18% and just over one species correctly identified on average. </p>
<p>Most of the participants in our study struggled to identify even cod and salmon, and in a few cases threw out wild guesses, such as goldfish, stickleback, piranha and tiger shark. </p>
<p>This isn’t too surprising – most of us are detached from the sources of the food we eat, and fish don’t tend to roam our parks and gardens. But it may not bode well for the seafood industry or fish stocks. Previous <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719302757#:%7E:text=A%20gap%20in%20species%20literacy%20was%20found%20between%20professionals%20and,or%20all%20but%20one%20species.">studies</a> have shown that people are more likely to care for a common species if they can identify it.</p>
<h2>A glimmer of hope</h2>
<p>Amid generally poor fish literacy, there were some encouraging geographic patterns. People from more northern countries, such as the UK, Ireland and Belgium, had an easier time identifying cod and salmon, because these fishes have long been a mainstay of their markets. Likewise, people from Spain, Italy and Greece were better at identifying anchovy, sole and sea bass. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bar chart comparing cross-country recognition of six different fish species." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389511/original/file-20210315-13-914tba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People were better at identifying species if they were a fish market staple in their region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-021-00932-z">Springer/Mariani & Cusa (2021)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite increasingly globalised supply chains – which ensure, for instance, that seabass farmed in the Mediterranean is stocked in supermarkets across northern Europe – European consumers still seem to show the legacy of an earlier era, when seafood was sourced from the closest coast. This suggests that people haven’t become completely detached from the food they consume, and instead retain some awareness of regional sea foods. </p>
<p>A public education campaign could build on this and reconnect more people with the species that form an important part of their diets. More knowledgeable consumers could in turn be better at making informed choices in shops and restaurants, and become less vulnerable to seafood mislabelling and fraud. </p>
<p>Knowing more about the seafood we eat could also equip people with a better understanding of the conservation challenges in each fishery – an important step towards safeguarding a sustainable seafood industry for generations to come. Now then, how many species did you guess?</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>a)</strong> Mackerel, <strong>b)</strong> Sea bass, <strong>c)</strong> Common sole, <strong>d)</strong> Anchovy, <strong>e)</strong> Salmon and <strong>f)</strong> Atlantic cod.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefano Mariani receives funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council and the EU Atlantic Area Programme.
He is a member of the Green Party.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marine Cusa receives funding from the EU.</span></em></p>When fish are out of water, consumers are out of their depth.Stefano Mariani, Professor of Marine Biodiversity, Liverpool John Moores UniversityMarine Cusa, Research Assistant at Liverpool John Moores University & PhD Candidate in Seafood Traceability, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1512012020-12-24T21:25:20Z2020-12-24T21:25:20ZA festive feast of fish and fruit: the creation of the Australian Christmas dinner<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373001/original/file-20201204-13-cnpef1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C0%2C4752%2C3151&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maddi Bazzocco/Unsplash</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In this new series, our writers explore how food shaped Australian history – and who we are today.</em></p>
<p>A traditional British meal of roast turkey and plum pudding may have once dominated Australia’s Christmas tables. But as our population has become more diverse, so has our menu. </p>
<p>While some may mark the day with a <a href="https://www.nordickitchenstories.co.uk/2017/11/30/pepparkakor-swedish-ginger-thins-recipe/">pepparkakor</a> and others a <a href="https://www.thespruceeats.com/panettone-italian-christmas-cake-from-milan-4052603">panettone</a>, it would now be a rare house where prawns and a bowl of cherries did not make an appearance. </p>
<p>But how did this distinctively Australian Christmas spread get its start?</p>
<p>The peculiarity of preparing a roast and pudding in high summer was amusing to colonials. In many ways its <a href="https://www.monash.edu/arts/philosophical-historical-international-studies/eras/past-editions/edition-six-2004-november/eras-journal-donaldson-r-abstract">absurdity was celebrated</a>, representing the ambiguity of emergent Antipodean identity. But there were soon calls for innovation. </p>
<p>In 1907, Henry Lawson described a “sensible Christmas dinner” in one of his short stories, celebrating a festive feast where all the food was cold. </p>
<p>His narrator <a href="https://www.telelib.com/authors/L/LawsonHenry/prose/sendroundthehat/prettygirlarmy.html">observed</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Billy’s wife and her sister [were] fresh and cool-looking and jolly, instead of being hot and brown and cross like most Australian women who roast themselves over a blazing fire in a hot kitchen on a broiling day, all the morning, to cook scalding plum pudding and red-hot roasts, for no other reason than that their grandmothers used to cook hot Christmas dinners in England.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two maids stand by a table laden with meat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372181/original/file-20201201-22-p3u0hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australian Christmas dinners – like this one in 1910 – were once very British affairs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Coffs Harbour City Council</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cornucopias of festive fruits</h2>
<p>From the late 19th century, new traditions developed celebrating summer. Tropical and stone fruits became <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442276987">increasingly popular</a> as a seasonal addition to the festive spread.</p>
<p>While the heady scent of mangoes and piles of ruby-red cherries must have seemed extraordinary to migrants used to a winter Yuletide, the emphasis on fruit was far from novel — fruit had long played a role in British Christmases. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/decking-the-halls-of-history-the-origins-of-christmas-decorations-129037">Decking the halls of history: the origins of Christmas decorations</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The heavy use of dried fruits — luxury goods imported from the east — underpinned the celebratory status of traditional favourites like <a href="https://library.leeds.ac.uk/special-collections/view/811">plum pudding</a> and <a href="http://www.reaktionbooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9781861894250">mince pies</a>. Oranges and apples appeared in the <a href="https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/A-Victorian-Christmas/">stockings</a> of Victorian children and as decorations on the tree.</p>
<p>In Australia, the bounty of colour was perfect for the Victorian tradition of festive window displays, and grocers competed to wow crowds with cornucopias of fruit and flowers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A busy market filled with people, fruits and plants." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373801/original/file-20201209-23-29gf7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Victoria Markets at Christmas, as printed in the Illustrated Australian News, 1893.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">State Library Victoria</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1890, The Daily Telegraph <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/235792341">reported</a> on the Christmas Eve spectacle in Sydney’s King Street Arcade:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>great masses of beautiful flowers at the florists and the magnificent spread of fruit near by — the piles of oranges, lemons, mangoes, pineapples, apricots, nectarines, peaches, plums, cherries, red and white currants, grapes, gooseberries and other fruits — decked with Christmas bush making a picture worth travelling to see.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Boxes of mangoes became popular gifts, so common that, in 1945, a columnist for the Rockhampton Morning Bulletin <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/56441320">decried</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>if we get another Christmas box that includes mangoes, pineapples or a watermelon I’ll scream.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the 20th century, the popularity of tropical fruits at Christmas was bolstered the development of another modern festive classic: the pavlova. </p>
<p>Rising in popularity in the decades following its fabled “<a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/press/books/otago071803.html">invention</a>” on one side of the Tasman or the other (a debate for another time), by the 1940s it was promoted by women’s magazines, newspapers and cookbooks as an <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/22390104">alternative to pudding</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pavlova with mango" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373002/original/file-20201204-15-1vw7lab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We are more likely to cook a pavlova than a pudding for Christmas dinner.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If the traditional pud was to be ousted, its rival needed a mythology of its own. The pav was a more than worthy opponent, and by December 2017, Australia’s recipe searches for pavlova <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-24/google-christmas-trends-pudding-pavlova/9255722">far outstripped</a> searches for pudding.</p>
<h2>Out with the meat and in with the fish</h2>
<p>The seafood feast is a decidedly more recent phenomenon. </p>
<p>In contrast to other parts of Europe, after Britain’s 16th century Reformation the seafood meal associated with Christmas Eve as a traditional Catholic fast day declined, and the festival became a decidedly <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442276987">meat-oriented affair</a>. </p>
<p>Fish had no defined role in the menu the British brought with them to Australia, where roast fowl, beef and ham dominated Christmas tables for <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/51907">almost 200 years</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tofu-turkey-paleo-feast-christmas-culinary-traditions-are-ever-changing-68748">Tofu turkey? Paleo feast? Christmas culinary traditions are ever changing</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Real change did not begin until the 1980s, gathering pace in the 1990s, as Australian culinary identity developed increasing confidence and embraced new flavours. Post-war migrants, especially from the Mediterranean, shaped change, too: bringing not just their seafood traditions, but also lessons in the art of cooking and eating <em><a href="http://coasit.com.au/IHS/journals/Individual%20Journal%20Extracts/Italian%20Migrant%20Food%20Australia%20from%20IHS%20Journal0032.pdf">al fresco</a></em>. </p>
<p>In 1994, the Sydney Fish Market began their 36-hour seafood marathon. </p>
<p>From 5am on 23 December until 5pm on Christmas Eve the market sells fish, squid, prawns and oysters to approximately 100,000 shoppers.</p>
<p>Last year, <a href="https://www.sydneyfishmarket.com.au/Portals/0/adam/Content/yS4yblh5t0u5e4H3AwF42Q/ButtonLink/Media%20Release_1.4%20Million%20Auction%20Trade.pdf">A$1.4 million</a> was spent over the 36 hours — an estimated 700 tonnes of seafood, including 130 tonnes of prawns.</p>
<p>Just over a century ago, Henry Lawson marvelled at the innovation of a cold seasonal spread. Today, it is fair to say the prawn and mango have well and truly found their place on the festive table as hallmarks of a uniquely Australian Christmas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151201/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madeline Shanahan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When British colonials came to Australia, they stuck to their winter Christmas traditions of roast meats and plum puddings. But over the centuries, Australians found their own ways to celebrate.Madeline Shanahan, Honorary Adjunct Lecturer, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1507282020-12-14T13:20:54Z2020-12-14T13:20:54ZTaking fish out of fish feed can make aquaculture a more sustainable food source<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373983/original/file-20201209-18-iriec0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2122%2C1404&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Farmed red tilapia, Thai Mueang, Thailand.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/red-tilapia-fish-farming-tubtim-fish-economic-royalty-free-image/1201463699">Kittichai Boonpong / EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Aquaculture, or fish farming, is the world’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en">fastest-growing food production sector</a>. But the key ingredients in commercial fish feed – fishmeal and fish oil – come from an unsustainable source: small fish, such as anchovies and herring, near the base of ocean food webs. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I have developed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75289-x">high-performing, fish-free aquaculture feed</a> that replaces these traditional ingredients with several types of microalgae – abundant single-celled organisms that form the very bottom of the food chain in fresh and saltwater ecosystems around the world. To test this approach, we developed our feed for <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/florida-fishes-gallery/nile-tilapia/">Nile tilapia</a> – the world’s <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/ca5224en/CA5224EN.pdf">second-most-farmed fish</a>, exceeded only by carp. </p>
<p>Our research showed that tilapia fed our fish-free diet grew significantly better, achieving 58% higher weight gain than tilapia fed conventional feed. The resulting cost per kilogram of tilapia raised on our feed was lower than for fish raised on conventional commercial feed. And our feed yielded a higher level of a key fatty acid that is <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-Consumer/">important for human health</a>, DHA omega-3, in the resulting tilapia fillets. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic of marine food chain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373990/original/file-20201209-13-1wckc1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small schooling species such as sardines, sauries, and smelt – commonly known as forage fish – play a critical role in sustaining the ocean. These species eat tiny plants and animals, in turn becoming an important food source for bigger fish, seabirds and marine mammals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/data-visualizations/2013/forage-fish-faq">Pew Charitable Trusts</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>About 19 million tons of wild fish – some 20% of the total quantity caught around the world – are rendered into fish meal and fish oil every year, even though <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12209">90% of these harvested fish are fit for human consumption</a>. Analysts project that aquaculture feed demands for fish meal and fish oil could outstrip the supply of small <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2013/09/25/forage-fish-faq">forage fish</a>, also known as prey or bait fish, by 2037. If this happens, it could have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0077-1">disastrous consequences</a> for human food security and marine ecosystems. </p>
<p>Aquaculture feeds can also contain soy and corn ingredients from industrial farms on land that generate large amounts of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1404067111">water pollution</a>. Fish can’t fully digest these ingredients, so they end up in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12013">aquaculture wastewater</a>. Just like wastewater from cattle or poultry farms, effluent from fish farms can be a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267877126_Aquaculture_Effluents_and_Water_Pollution">serious pollution source</a>. What’s more, these crops could be used for direct human consumption.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Handful of pelletized fish feed made from microalgae." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374530/original/file-20201211-17-u8bi1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish-free aquafeed made with two types of microalgae.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Devin Fitzgerald</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For all of these reasons, developing fish-free fish feed is a key leverage point for reforming aquaculture so that it helps to conserve natural ecosystems instead of damaging them. Reducing pressure on forage fish will strengthen global marine fisheries. Our work also shows that it is possible to improve the human health benefits of eating farmed tilapia by manipulating the fishes’ diet. </p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>We developed our fish-free feed formula in a series of experiments over six years. First, we evaluated how well fish could digest specific varieties of marine <a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/microalgae">microalgae</a>. Then we conducted separate experiments to see how well fish grew using these individual ingredients as replacements for either fish meal or fish oil. </p>
<p>For this feed we used two types of marine microalgae. One is a waste product left over after another type of omega-3 fatty acid, called EPA, has been extracted from the microalga for use in human nutritional supplements. This is the first proof of concept for a tilapia feed that eliminates fish meal and fish oil while improving growth metrics and the resulting nutritional quality of the fish. </p>
<p>Our feed is a substantial improvement over other commercially available feed products. There are some existing fish-free feeds that use soy, corn and other plant-based ingredients, but terrestrial vegetable oils within these feeds lack long chain omega-3 fatty acids. As a result, they produce fish fillets with <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/science/earth/02tilapia.html?_r=0">lower nutritional value</a>.</p>
<p>Microalgae ingredients don’t have this problem. Researchers have been experimenting with using microalgae to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2012.03100.x">replace either fishmeal or fish oil in aquaculture feeds</a>, but there haven’t yet been any fully fish-free microalgae blend feeds available in the market. We hope that ours will be the first. </p>
<p>The other major challenge in developing a commercially successful fish-free feed is achieving a competitive edge over conventional feed on cost and fish growth performance. Our research showed promising results for these factors as well. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Farm employee scoops fish feed into pond" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373982/original/file-20201209-17-1031c1p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feeding pellets to tilapia in ponds in Northern Province, Zambia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2cxs6Gf">Kendra Byrd, Worldfish/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We currently have a patent pending for our formula and hope to work with the aquafeed industry, ingredient suppliers and sustainable aquaculture entrepreneurs to bring it to market. The major challenge will be achieving a consistent ingredient supply in order to produce large quantities on an industrial scale. </p>
<p>We’re also working now to develop fish-free feeds for other aquaculture species, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonidae">salmonids</a>, a group that includes trout and salmon. Unlike tilapia, which eat a primarily vegetarian diet, these species are predators, so farming them accounts for most of the fishmeal and fish oil used in aquaculture feeds. Successfully replacing fishmeal and fish oil with microalgae in salmonid feed would be a major advance toward more sustainable aquaculture.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150728/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pallab Sarker and other participants in the research described in this article have received funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture; the Sherman Fairchild Professorship, Dean of the Faculty and Vranos family gift at Dartmouth College; the Dean of Social Sciences and Executive Vice Chancellor at the University of California Santa Cruz; and the National Sea Grant Aquaculture Federal Funding Opportunity. </span></em></p>Fish farms feed millions of people around the world, but they also consume a lot of fish that are dried or ground up to make aquafeed. Researchers are developing more sustainable alternatives.Pallab Sarker, Associate Research Professor of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa CruzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1509912020-12-10T17:13:35Z2020-12-10T17:13:35ZFamily-owned fishing businesses displaced by waterfront developments on Great Lakes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373770/original/file-20201209-23-1tnr6ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C3976%2C2245&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The waterfront at Port Dover, Ont.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For three generations, the Minor family — today brothers Carson and Landon and their father Paul — have been up before first light to board their fishing tug and make their way to their fishing grounds on Lake Erie. </p>
<p>Most mornings, the Minors leave from Port Colborne, Ont., a small port city that sits at the entrance to the Welland Canal on the eastern end of Lake Erie. Each afternoon they return to the port to unload their fresh catch of perch and pickerel. Some of their catch is <a href="https://soundcloud.com/conservechange/social-fishtancing-episode-5-the-great-lakes">sold locally</a> to eateries up and down Lake Erie’s north shore, and most is eaten within the Great Lakes region. </p>
<p>A few months ago, though, the Minors returned from a day of fishing to find their unloading zone under construction to make way for a <a href="https://www.newhamburgindependent.ca/news-story/9856682-cruise-operators-chart-course-for-port-colborne-in-2022/">new cruise ship dock</a>. Without warning, the unloading zone their family had used for more than 70 years was blocked off. They were forced to move to a new port further away from their fishing grounds, increasing travel time and putting them at greater risk during bad weather.</p>
<p>The Minors have tried to address these problems with local leadership, but they have yet to find a tenable, long-term solution. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two men in bright orange overalls pull fish from a haul" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373479/original/file-20201208-17-1r9gb9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carson (left) and Landon Minor (right) pull nets from the eastern waters of Lake Erie. Most of the perch, pickerel, and other species they catch on their quota are eaten within 250 kilometres of the Great Lakes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Hannah Harrison)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The slow decline of working waterfronts</h2>
<p>The Minors’ story is not new, nor is it isolated. Working waterfront access — the access needed by fishing folks to unload their catch, process fish and retrieve ice and fuel — is being affected by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2012.677635">coastal gentrification</a>, also called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40152-017-0062-8">coastal grabbing</a>” by researchers who study these changing waterfronts. </p>
<p>For decades, tourism-oriented development and high-end waterfront housing have slowly been supplanting working waterfront infrastructure. But as more people work from home and are shifting from urban to rural residences, they may be unaware of the less palatable aspects of living near working waterfronts. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coronavirus-pandemic-is-pushing-canadians-out-of-cities-and-into-the-countryside-144479">The coronavirus pandemic is pushing Canadians out of cities and into the countryside</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The rural esthetic of colourful fishing tug boats can also come with early morning noise, bright lights and unpleasant smells.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tug boat moored by the dock" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372064/original/file-20201130-13-5ji2fj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Minor family’s fish tug, the Lincoln R., sits docked in Port Colborne.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Hannah Harrison)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ports such as Port Dover on the north shore of Lake Erie are seeing high-end condo development on their historic waterfront. These new residences also happen to be just a few hundred metres from the Port Dover commercial fishing basin. Will future condo owners, who bought <a href="http://www.doverwharf.com/about-us/">the advertising</a> of condos immersed in a fishing landscape, also enjoy the sound of diesel engines starting at 5 a.m. most mornings, or the occasional odor of fish on the breeze? </p>
<p>Tourists flock to Port Dover in the summer months to enjoy a perch dinner by the beach and watch the fishing tugs come in, but few wander over to appreciate the many moving pieces that get fish from the boat to their plates. This disconnect is a broken link in our understanding of seafood supply chains, and our food systems as a whole. </p>
<h2>Understanding seafood chains</h2>
<p>Canada is the sixth largest seafood exporter in the world, <a href="https://www.livingoceans.org/sites/default/files/Taking-Stock-FINAL-Report.pdf">sending over two-thirds of domestically caught seafood to foreign markets</a>. Yet a substantial portion of the seafood actually eaten by Canadians is imported, often from less sustainable fish stocks than those harvested in Canadian waters, and from supply chains that struggle with <a href="https://nationalpost.com/life/food/when-it-comes-to-seafood-in-canada-theres-a-very-good-chance-what-you-think-youre-buying-isnt-what-youre-getting">traceability and labelling</a>. </p>
<p>While the export-driven nature of Canada’s seafood industry has been quite profitable for large players, it has led to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.02.019">increasing consolidation</a> of licences, quota and other key fishing infrastructure into the hands of fewer and fewer individuals. This trend has, in turn, driven up the cost of entry into many fisheries across Canada, in part preventing new generations of fishermen from entering the industry.</p>
<p>Decline and consolidation of working waterfronts have also made Canadian fisheries more vulnerable to crisis, such as what we saw in the spring of 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic shuttered fisheries around Canada (and the world) as global seafood markets temporarily collapsed. Some of those fisheries already underway found themselves with nowhere to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08920753.2020.1766937">sell or process their catch</a>. </p>
<p>As seafood became unavailable from traditional retailers, such as grocery stores and restaurants, consumers turned to local fishermen. This created a <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/kuzwq/">pandemic bump</a> in demand for local seafood products and sales. While some harvesters were able to <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-coronavirus-threatens-seafood-economy-community-fisheries-find-ways-to-stay-afloat-135276">adapt their operations</a>, many fishers without appropriate infrastructure to process their catch were left high and dry.</p>
<h2>Policies to keep waterfronts working</h2>
<p>Fortunately, awareness and protection of working waterfronts is happening on several fronts. The <a href="https://www.nationalworkingwaterfronts.com/">Working Waterfront Network</a> in the United States has developed a <a href="https://www.nationalworkingwaterfronts.com/toolkit/">Sustainable Working Waterfronts Toolkit</a>. Closer to home, the <a href="https://sciencepolicy.ca/">Canadian Science Policy Centre</a> recognized a <a href="https://cdn.sciencepolicy.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/CSPC2020-Award-Youth-Submissions.pdf">policy proposal on working waterfronts</a> as their 2020 Science Policy <a href="https://sciencepolicy.ca/awards/">Award of Excellence</a> — Youth Category. </p>
<p>Working waterfront revitalization projects in <a href="https://novascotia.ca/news/release/?id=20190418008">Nova Scotia</a>, as well as <a href="https://soundcloud.com/conservechange/social-fishtancing-episode-16-working-waterfronts">stories of waterfront challenges across Canada</a>, have also received attention in recent years. In the U.S., groups like the <a href="https://www.mainecoastfishermen.org/">Maine Coast Fisherman’s Association</a> have made significant strides in identifying ways to <a href="https://www.mainecoastfishermen.org/working-waterfront">protect existing working waterfront access and infrastructure</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1321082315007791107"}"></div></p>
<p>From a Canadian policy standpoint, there are several options to strengthen working waterfront protections. Policy-makers could strengthen existing right-to-farm legislation, such as Ontario’s <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/98f01">Farm and Food Production Protection Act</a> or British Columbia’s <a href="https://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/96131_01">Farm Practices Protection Act</a>. In Ontario, this legislation asserts that agricultural areas, uses and normal farm practices should be promoted and protected in a way that balances the needs of farmers with public health, safety and environmental concerns.</p>
<p>While Great Lakes fisheries ostensibly fall under this act as part of food production, the act’s language only makes specific mention of “cultured fish.” In short, wild-caught fisheries may be excluded from the protections of the act, both in Ontario and elsewhere. This oversight could be amended to protect not only Canadian wild-caught fisheries, but also the working waterfronts that support them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in fishing gear looks at a cement wall" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372067/original/file-20201130-13-1rb2c42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Landon Minor looks up the cement wall to where Paul Minor waits to unload a tote of yellow perch. The Minors must now unload up a vertical wall and over a railing in an active pedestrian walkway — an activity that will grow more dangerous in the summer months when they will share the walkway with tourists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Hannah Harrison)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Alternatively, a localized movement to protect normal seafood harvester activities could also be effective at safeguarding waterfront access and infrastructure. Local or regional ordinances establishing a similar right-to-fish policy in coastal fishing communities could be a viable first step, as could establishing <a href="https://nationalworkingwaterfronts.com/law-and-policy/public-trust-doctrine/">public trust doctrines</a> that preserve public access and use of waterfronts over private interests. </p>
<p>Whatever route is taken, protecting working waterfronts is an essential step toward protecting fishing livelihoods and the food they provide.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150991/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hannah L. Harrison receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Arrell Food Institute, the MEOPAR Network, and the Guelph Institute for Environmental Research. She occasionally works as a science communication consultant for the Alaska seafood industry.</span></em></p>Working waterfronts are a key link between consumers and seafood, but are increasingly threatened by developers. Policies need to ensure that waterfronts remain accessible to seafood harvesters.Hannah L. Harrison, Postdoctoral scholar, Department of Geography, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1497622020-11-23T14:17:08Z2020-11-23T14:17:08ZFishing industry must do more to tackle human rights abuses – here’s where to start<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369780/original/file-20201117-23-h4wle4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fishermen-work-529355779">ZoranOrcik/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You might opt for a tin of “dolphin-friendly” tuna as one way of ensuring the seafood you buy is ethically sourced. Certain fishing methods and equipment can kill a lot of sealife that boats aren’t even targeting, by ensnaring marine mammals or drowning seabirds. It’s important to consider how sustainable our choices are when shopping, but how can you guarantee that the people who catch your seafood are well treated?</p>
<p>The average consumer may not realise it, but the fishing industry is also tied to some horrific abuses of human rights. In putting a meal on the table, you may also be helping to sustain <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-07118-9">patterns of exploitation and abuse</a> at sea.</p>
<p>Several reports have highlighted that some sectors of the fishing industry continue to use <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0210241">forced labour</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jun/10/-sp-migrant-workers-new-life-enslaved-thai-fishing">physical punishment</a>, and even deliberately <a href="https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/01/23/hidden-chains/rights-abuses-and-forced-labor-thailands-fishing-industry">kill workers</a>. Fishers can be extremely vulnerable while at sea, far out of sight of law enforcement agencies or help from friends and family. </p>
<p>Changes within the industry have exacerbated the problem. Factory ships, which were first seen in the whaling industry, are now <a href="https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/uk-news/supertrawler-factory-fishing-ship-seen-17023018">commonly sighted</a> processing fish in the waters of many states. Smaller fishing vessels now visit them to offload their catches rather than returning to shore themselves. The result is that some fishers now spend weeks or months aboard, isolated from support networks on land. </p>
<p>Many boats sail under “flags of convenience”, which means that their owners have registered them with a country that <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/usfm32&div=6&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals">will not extend</a> any real scrutiny over working conditions. Despite international agreements that notionally protect workers, employers can exploit these enforcement gaps to ignore workers’ rights.</p>
<p>The global epicentre of abuse is the Gulf of Thailand – the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X16000622">main source</a> of prawns for the UK and US market. A <a href="https://www.ilo.org/asia/media-centre/news/WCMS_220597/lang--en/index.htm">survey</a> by the International Labour Organisation found that at least one in six workers in the region had either been coerced or deceived into working against their will. </p>
<p>But forced labour has even been reported in the coastal waters of countries thought to have much stronger worker protections, such as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/01/slavery-warning-uk-scallop-fisheries">UK</a> and <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/ajoinl7&div=9&g_sent=1&casa_token=BzB5pHwYTw8AAAAA:xc60T1blKsBNRYfXYuXFlIvJUTwLEsuIlpcWS_OZS3jYMH1vXepmnCIyUKMgMrgVt92fHceG&collection=journals">New Zealand</a>. These abuses are still largely invisible to people buying seafood or fish-based products, including dietary supplements and pet food. Most people would be appalled to know that their purchases are helping to keep unscrupulous businesses afloat. </p>
<h2>Promoting better practices</h2>
<p>Protecting workers far out at sea may seem difficult, but there is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jopp.12238">much that can be done</a> to make workers’ rights in the fishing industry more secure. The international <a href="https://www.msc.org">Marine Stewardship Council</a> awards its famous blue tick to fish caught sustainably and without harming other wildlife. </p>
<p>At present, the Council <a href="https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/our-approach/forced-and-child-labour">denies certification</a> to companies that have been caught using forced labour in the last two years. To ensure the blue tick helps protect core labour rights, certification should also be conditional on fair pay, written contracts, a commitment to ending the dangerous culture of long working hours, and decent health and safety standards. With robust guarantees, consumers can make more ethical choices when buying seafood. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A 'certified sustainable seafood' sign next to a pool." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370115/original/file-20201118-21-1kxyknl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A zoo enclosure sports the Marine Stewardship Council’s blue tick.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sydney-nsw-australia-january-30th-2020-1649114617">Cromo Digital/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Companies involved in the fish trade can make a major contribution. <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/contents/enacted">The UK’s Modern Slavery Act of 2015</a> requires large corporations to report on the risk of slavery and forced labour within their supply chains. It’s not clear that the Act has had a decisive impact on the fishing industry yet, but if properly enforced, it could provide a vital safeguard. Other countries should adopt similar standards, and enforce them consistently. </p>
<p>Governments could also refuse import licences for fish sourced from countries which refuse to drive out exploitative labour practices. By raising the profile of these issues, non-governmental organisations such as <a href="https://www.humanrightsatsea.org">Human Rights At Sea</a> will also be invaluable. </p>
<p>After being rocked by a series of abuse scandals, New Zealand has <a href="https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/new-zealand-moves-to-compensate-slave-like-fishermen">taken steps</a> to ensure that employers who use slave labour can’t operate in its waters. It now only allows New Zealand-flagged vessels to fish those waters, enabling it to apply robust labour laws more easily. Other countries should similarly to make their shores less hospitable to abusive employers. Short of following New Zealand’s example, other states could at least refuse access to vessels operating under flags of convenience. </p>
<p>Coastal states often appear willing to wash their hands of workers’ rights violations on foreign vessels. But this is inexcusable. No state should sell access to its waters unless employers agree to respect core standards on working hours, contracts, and health and safety. Until we make progress in protecting workers’ rights, the simple act of buying fish may mean we are supporting cruel and exploitative practices in the industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149762/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Armstrong received funding from the British Academy / Leverhulme Trust to support this research. </span></em></p>One in six fishers in the Gulf of Thailand have been coerced or deceived into working against their will.Chris Armstrong, Professor of Political Theory, University of SouthamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1462912020-11-12T13:25:32Z2020-11-12T13:25:32ZAmericans don’t eat enough fish and miss out on robust health benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362000/original/file-20201006-18-sjzgsw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C307%2C3019%2C3721&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sardines are rich in oils and protein.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/9I3aLTYnWa4">Photo by Ahmed Nadar for Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="26 lbs. - Recommended annual amount of seafood that Americans should eat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368646/original/file-20201110-15-ov7t7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Eating fish can provide powerful advantages for the <a href="https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.lib.umb.edu/doi/pdf/10.1080/10408398.2018.1425978?needAccess=true">heart and brain</a>, yet Americans eat <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7353403/">less than half</a> of the 26 pounds per year that experts recommend. By contrast, Americans buy <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/food-availability-and-consumption/">seven times more chicken and beef</a> annually than fish. </p>
<p>Why Americans don’t eat more fish has been pondered <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/11/how-to-get-americans-to-eat-fish/265150/">for a long time</a> by health experts, fish farmers and fishermen themselves. One way to consider this question is production. Consumers can buy a product only if it’s available. The more they buy, theoretically, the more that item will be produced. In this case, a greater demand for fish would be stimulated if more fish were offered for sale. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wild-caught salmon from the Pacific Ocean are a prized fish for consumers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359146/original/file-20200921-22-1pcuggj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Salmon caught in the Pacific Ocean is a prize catch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/xp3xtQW3pqs">Photo by NOAA for Unsplash.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More seafood could be made available for American consumers from <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/sites/default/files/2019-11/19_HLP_BP1%20Paper.pdf">global ocean sources</a> given that at least <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1905650116">60% of seafood</a> in the U.S. is imported. U.S. aquaculture has the capacity to <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/its-time-to-be-honest-about-seafood/">significantly increase</a>. Research conducted by the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/population-assessments/status-us-fisheries">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries</a> also indicates slightly more domestic wild-caught fish can be harvested. </p>
<h2>Why eat fish?</h2>
<p>Rich in lean protein and long chain omega-3 fatty acids, fish provides robust nutritional benefits that can help ward off <a href="https://www.seafoodnutrition.org/press-releases/eat-seafood-america-boost-health/">chronic disease, boost immunity and reduce inflammation</a> in the body. Seafood provides your body with critical omega-3 fats and minerals, like selenium, zinc, iron and iodine. It also provides vitamins B12 and D that fend off heart disease, among other benefits. </p>
<p>Fish provides such positive benefits for the body that recent <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/2020-advisory-committee-report">USDA Dietary Guidelines</a> offer guidance specific to pregnant women and children based on the finding that seafood consumption leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2019.10.001">cognitive improvement in children</a>. Research shows that integrating seafood into a diet as a way to prevent coronary disease can lead to a potential annual health care <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002981">savings of US$12.7 billion</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wild Pacific Ocean Dungeness crab." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359148/original/file-20200921-18-1mikw8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dungeness crab are fished off the Pacific coast from California to the Gulf of Alaska.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Mqe3P62_Nfc">Photo by Sidney Pearce for Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Additionally, seafood, as a protein, has a relatively <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fee.1822">low greenhouse gas production</a>. This benefit is heightened when analyzing the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.229">many species</a> that offer both high nutrient density and low greenhouse gas production. </p>
<h2>Fish beyond shrimp</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/2015-2020_Dietary_Guidelines.pdf">2015-2020 USDA Dietary Guidelines</a> suggest that Americans eat 26 pounds of seafood each year. The recommended amount would ideally provide 250 mg per day of the important omega-3 fats. Yet because of how American consumers purchase seafood, this provides them with, on average, only 38% of the recommended daily omega-3’s.</p>
<p>Many of the most popular seafoods purchased by consumers are relatively low in omega-3’s, such as shrimp, the most popular seafood in the U.S., comprising nearly 30% of annual fish sales. Considering the <a href="https://www.intrafish.com/markets/here-are-americas-most-consumed-seafood-species/2-1-760884">10 species</a> that make up 85% of fish available for Americans to buy in restaurants and markets, only salmon, the second most popular seafood item, has <a href="https://www.seafoodnutrition.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/RDN-Toolkit-2020_Omega3-Chart.pdf">relatively high levels of omega-3’s</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Eat fish more often." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359144/original/file-20200921-24-k77m33.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish oil can protect the heart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/GbfBGZ5Netw">Photo by Gunnar Ridderstrom for Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are many species of fish high in omega-3’s that are not regularly purchased or eaten, such as anchovies, herring and sardines. People can replace eating fish by <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010177">taking supplements</a> or eating other foods, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japr.2019.10.002">such as eggs</a> that contain omega-3’s, to help overcome this deficiency. However, research shows that eating fish itself is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11745-003-1077-x">better</a> than supplements, given that a fish filet has a full complement of <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/fish-oil-friend-or-foe-201307126467">fats, vitamins, minerals and other supporting molecules</a>. </p>
<p>The health and environmental benefits of fish make it a smart choice to buy and eat. With more people <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/daphneewingchow/2020/03/31/five-ways-that-coronavirus-will-change-the-way-we-eat/#241f04ae1a2b">at home</a> because of the pandemic, this is a good time to explore <a href="https://www.seafoodnutrition.org/recipes/">recipes</a> and <a href="https://www.thespruceeats.com/seafood-basics-4162172">enjoy</a> this nutritionally important food. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146291/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Tlusty receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, and the National Sea Grant College Program. He is on the Science and Nutrition Advisory Council of the Seafood Nutrition Partnership, a judge for the F3 Challenge, a board member for the Center for Responsible Seafood, and on the Advisory Committee of the Marine Conservation Action Fund.</span></em></p>The oils in fish are excellent buffers against disease. Why don’t we eat more fish?Michael Tlusty, Associate Professor of Sustainability and Food Solutions, UMass BostonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1496072020-11-09T21:06:30Z2020-11-09T21:06:30ZAfter a nuclear war, the world’s emergency food supply could be seafood — if overfishing stops now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368394/original/file-20201109-13-10895ux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C23%2C4998%2C2668&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A major war between the United States and Russia could make global fish catches fall by as much as 30 per cent. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People in wealthy, industrialized countries are used to finding their supermarket shelves fully stocked. Yet for a brief period early in the COVID-19 pandemic, some of those shelves emptied out, as panic drove shoppers to stockpile and supply chains were interrupted. </p>
<p>For many, this came as a reminder that our food supply system is not invulnerable, and that it may come under much more serious strain in the future in response to unexpected catastrophes.</p>
<p>As scientists who study the global marine fishery, we are particularly interested in the future supply of seafood. So when some colleagues approached us with the idea of studying the response of the global fishery to nuclear war, we thought it would be a fascinating, though grim topic. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-hoarding-why-you-can-stop-amassing-toilet-paper-135659">Coronavirus hoarding: Why you can stop amassing toilet paper</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As expected, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2008256117">our research</a> showed that nuclear war would have a negative impact on marine fish, although not as bad as we had initially thought. Surprisingly, we also found that marine fish could serve as a crucial global emergency food supply in times of crisis if marine ecosystems were in a healthy state to start with.</p>
<h2>Calculating catastrophes</h2>
<p>Our colleagues in the project <a href="https://futureoflife.org/2016/10/31/nuclear-winter-robock-toon-podcast/">have researched the consequences of nuclear war using global climate models for decades</a>. One of their most troubling findings is that a nuclear war would not only cause dreadful local damage in the warring countries, but <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/222/4630/1283.abstract">that it could have global consequences</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A volcano spews black ash as farmers work in the foreground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368397/original/file-20201109-14-yfufmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Villagers work at their farm as Mount Sinabung spews volcanic materials during an eruption, in Karo, North Sumatra, Indonesia, in August 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The nuclear detonations could cause huge fires, and the soot rising into the atmosphere could block out sunlight — <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/04/160408-tambora-eruption-volcano-anniversary-indonesia-science/">like after large volcanic eruptions</a>. By using modern global climate models — designed to simulate the consequences of climate change — they have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay5478">this smoke could significantly block sunlight and cool the world for a few years</a>. </p>
<p>Agricultural crop models nested within the climate models have in turn suggested that even a relatively small, regional war between India and Pakistan could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1919049117">reduce the total global production of maize, wheat, rice and soybean by about 10 per cent for five years</a>, a potential disaster for global food security.</p>
<p>The question for us was: what would happen in the oceans? </p>
<p>We used the climate model output provided by our colleagues to simulate the consequences of a range of nuclear wars for global fisheries. Our fisheries model uses mathematical equations that estimate how plankton growth and water temperature influence fish populations, as well as profit-seeking fishing fleets that range the global ocean. </p>
<p>According to the model, the dark and cold conditions would slow the growth of fish, especially due to the decrease in plankton photosynthesis. Just as humans would suffer from the reduced growth of plants on land, fish would go hungry due to the reduction of algae in the sea. </p>
<p>In the largest war scenario we investigated — a major war between the United States and Russia — this made global fish catches fall by as much as 30 per cent. The effects would vary by region, with countries at high latitudes — where the largest crop failures occur — also having the most negative fishery impacts.</p>
<h2>An overfished ocean yields few fish</h2>
<p>But our simulations also show the degree to which the change in global seafood catch depends on other human factors, not just the direct climate impacts of the war. A war-induced fuel shortage could make it hard to go fishing after a war, while an agricultural food shortage could intensify fishing effort. Most importantly, our results pointed to the critical role of fisheries management <em>before</em> the war took place.</p>
<p>Many of today’s fish stocks <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/325/5940/578">have been heavily depleted after decades of intensive fishing</a>. When fish stocks are overfished, the small number of fish leads to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10818-010-9090-9">poor catches</a> and <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/02/14/global-fisheries-sunken-billions">low profit</a>, as well as making the ecosystem <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.00523/full">less resilient to change</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man standing at the side of a trawler looking at a large net full of fish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368399/original/file-20201109-24-mi3gfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A trawler reels in a fishing net containing hundreds of thousands of cod.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Wikimedia)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Effective fisheries regulations that succeed in limiting the fishing effort are required to prevent overfishing. Well-regulated fisheries, <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/325/5940/578">such as those in Alaska or New Zealand</a>, are profitable, prolific and robust. Knowing <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/113/18/5125">the importance of regulations</a>, we therefore wanted to see how different the aftermath of nuclear war would be if fisheries were well-managed ahead of time. And the results were striking. </p>
<h2>Stocking up for hard times</h2>
<p>We found that, if fisheries were well managed before the war, global fish catches could potentially quadruple for one to two years, temporarily replacing nearly half of current animal protein production. This boost would be particularly important after a war, because animal farming would probably be limited by the lack of feed. </p>
<p>It’s important to recognize that this potential seafood bounty is only significant in terms of animal protein. In terms of calories, even the largest possible boost of fish catches would fail to offset the losses in agriculture on land. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man buying fish from another man at a market." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/368401/original/file-20201109-13-7sejv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People shop for fish at a market in Kolkata, India, on Aug. 22, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Bikas Das)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cereals from agriculture provide 25-30 times more calories than marine fisheries, and even a small regional conflict between India and Pakistan is expected to cause far more of a caloric loss than could be directly compensated by fisheries. Nonetheless, by diverting livestock feed to direct human consumption and eating fish instead, fisheries may be able to provide additional flexibility within the food system than one would expect from calories alone.</p>
<p>Our findings highlight an important but overlooked benefit of good fisheries management: the ongoing efforts to put effective management measures in place automatically builds a large backup supply of edible fish in the sea, at no additional cost. This could serve as a lifesaving resource during a global food emergency — whether caused by a nuclear war, a volcanic eruption or a global pandemic. </p>
<p>Going into this work, we knew that strengthening fisheries regulations to prevent overfishing was a no-brainer, because it ensures higher catch, higher profit and higher resilience of ecosystems to climate change. The fact that well-managed fisheries can also provide a major emergency food supply in times of trouble makes their establishment all the more urgent.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Galbraith receives funding from the European Research Council and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim Scherrer receives funding from the European Research Council. </span></em></p>Marine fish could serve as a crucial global emergency food supply in times of crisis, if marine ecosystems were in a healthy state to start with.Eric Galbraith, Professor of Earth System Science, McGill UniversityKim Scherrer, PhD Candidate in Fisheries Modelling, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.