tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/sport-technology-3401/articlesSport technology – The Conversation2022-11-18T09:15:59Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1946402022-11-18T09:15:59Z2022-11-18T09:15:59ZVAR and peace? Why tech-assisted refereeing won’t do away with disputed decisions at the World Cup<p>The football teams of 32 nations are gathered in Qatar for the quadrennial FIFA World Cup. Some <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/qatar-world-cup-audience-projected-5-bln-says-fifa-boss-2022-05-23/">5 billion people</a> around the world are expected to tune in to watch matches over the course of the month-long tournament.</p>
<p>These enormous audiences will be ready to applaud great play – and to howl ferociously when a referee’s decision goes against their team. To ensure the tough decisions are fair and accurate, FIFA (the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA">Fédération Internationale de Football Association</a>, the sport’s global governing body) has invested not only in the best human referees but also in the latest and greatest in technological tools. </p>
<p>Video replays and other tools can help cut down on blatant mistakes and human oversights, but will they ever eradicate errors entirely? </p>
<p>We are researchers who study how organisations use technology, and we’re not so sure. In the messy and complex world of football, human judgement – with all its fallibility – will always reign supreme.</p>
<h2>What is the video assistant referee (VAR)?</h2>
<p>The video assistant referee (VAR) system uses a team of people watching multiple angles of match video to help referees make tough decisions. It was <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/var-football-world-cup">used at the 2018 FIFA World Cup</a> and since then in many competitions all over the world. </p>
<p>At this year’s World Cup, the VAR team can get involved <a href="https://www.fifa.com/technical/football-technology/football-technologies-and-innovations-at-the-fifa-world-cup-2022/video-assistant-referee-var">in only four types of situation</a> involving goals and other match-changing events.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-the-qatar-fifa-world-cup-so-controversial-192627">Why is the Qatar FIFA World Cup so controversial?</a>
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<p>The VAR team continuously watches for clear and obvious errors related to those situations. When they spot such an error (or an incident that has been missed) they will let the referee know.</p>
<p>The VAR team also has access to extra tools to assess whether a ball has fully crossed the goal line, as well as a semi-automated system that tracks players and the ball to determine whether any player is <a href="https://www.thefa.com/football-rules-governance/lawsandrules/laws/football-11-11/law-11---offside">offside</a>.</p>
<h2>Grey areas</h2>
<p>Technologies such as these can be powerful tools, and they are being applied more heavily across <a href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/56192876-ccfc-4cda-bbd4-f2cd71e6a663/content">all areas of sport</a>. However, they will always be in tension with the inherent complexity of real-world <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11573-021-01058-5">incidents on the pitch</a>.</p>
<p>Handball decisions in football are one example that is open to interpretation regardless of the technology. Video alone can’t truly determine whether there was contact between the ball and the player’s arm below the shoulder, <a href="https://theathletic.com/3133239/2022/03/17/what-is-the-handball-rule-now-explaining-var-interventions-and-the-intricacies-of-the-armpit-and-shoulder/">which constitutes a handball</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-maradonas-hand-of-god-goal-is-priceless-and-unforgettable-193760">Why Maradona's 'Hand of God' goal is priceless -- and unforgettable</a>
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<p>In a game earlier this year, Manchester City’s Rodri appeared to handle the ball but the VAR team and match referee did not award a foul because there was not conclusive evidence. After the game, however, the refereeing body Professional Game Match Officials Limited <a href="https://theathletic.com/news/pgmol-apologises-to-frank-lampard-over-handball-call-and-admit-var-got-decision-wrong/Y2PkTFovg9MY/">admitted there had been an error</a>.</p>
<p>These controversies are less common in more clear-cut contexts. Similar technologies used in tennis are rarely disputed, as the ball is either “in” or “out” – there is no grey area.</p>
<h2>Interpretation and doubt</h2>
<p>The application of VAR in subjective contexts raises questions about who is correct, what is the truth, and how to interpret information.</p>
<p>For instance, when a referee calls a foul and the VAR team recommends they review their decision, the referee may see something they missed and should have considered. This is how the system is meant to work. </p>
<p>However, the review may also lead the referee to doubt their initial decision, because many incidents are open to interpretation and remain subjective.</p>
<p>At the World Cup, there will be <a href="https://www.fifa.com/technical/football-technology/football-technologies-and-innovations-at-the-fifa-world-cup-2022/video-assistant-referee-var">four people on the VAR team</a>. This means there are as many VAR officials as there are officials monitoring the game in person.</p>
<h2>Matters of context</h2>
<p>In some situations, the VAR team may offer a snippet of slow-motion footage to a referee (usually only seconds long) – which can lack context and miss the nuance of the situation at hand.</p>
<p>In September, a goal was scored in <a href="https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11661/12687709/newcastle-0-0-crystal-palace-tyrick-mitchell-own-goal-ruled-out-by-var-as-toon-frustrated-in-entertaining-stalemate">an English Premier League game between Newcastle United and Crystal Palace</a> – and the VAR team immediately asked the referee to review an incident that had occurred just prior to the goal. The ref reviewed a snippet of footage, interpreted it as a foul against the goalkeeper by an attacking player, and disallowed the goal. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/goal-or-is-it-how-technology-and-not-just-var-is-changing-sport-121838">Goal! Or is it? How technology – and not just VAR – is changing sport</a>
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<p>However, the snippet didn’t show that the attacker had himself been pushed by a defender, which was why he collided with the goalkeeper. The Professional Game Match Officials Limited later accepted the decision was wrong, but still the goal did not count. </p>
<p>Incidents such as these show how lack of context can result in incorrect decision reversals, because the replay is not necessarily a faithful representation of the action.</p>
<h2>Tech problems</h2>
<p>In addition to the human component, technology has its fair share of issues. </p>
<p>In an Italian Serie A game between Juventus and Salernitana in September, a goal was disallowed on the basis of a VAR decision – but it turned out <a href="https://the18.com/en/soccer-news/juventus-salernitana-game-ends-with-var-nightmare">the VAR cameras had left a crucial player out of the frame</a>, and the goal should have stood. </p>
<p>Another notorious technology failure occurred in a 2020 <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-soccer-england-technology-idUKKBN23P3S4">Premier League game between Aston Villa and Sheffield United</a>: the ball crossed the goal line but, because the goal-line cameras were obstructed by players, it failed to register with the goal decision system. The match officials, not receiving the automatic notification they expected if a goal had been scored, did not award the goal. </p>
<p>What these examples show is that technology struggles to offer answers to inherently messy and subjective matters.</p>
<h2>Reality is up for grabs</h2>
<p>So, during this World Cup, when a player makes the most of contact in the box and everyone turns to VAR and the referee to make the right decision over whether to give a penalty, it is worth acknowledging that VAR may only provide partial help. Any 50–50 call is debatable, and reality is up for grabs!</p>
<p>These decisions don’t take place in a vacuum. There is an intense interplay between the unfolding of the game (some games are more physical than others), players and coaches (protesting and trying to influence decisions), passionate spectators cheering and protesting, and team dynamics between the referees on the field and the VAR team. </p>
<p>At the World Cup repercussions for errors will be high and the spotlight will shine heavily on VAR. And yet again, a few controversies are likely to overshadow the correct decisions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194640/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stan Karanasios is a member of the Association for Information Systems.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bikesh Raj Upreti is a member of the Association for Information Systems</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Federico Iannacci does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>No amount of technology will ever remove the role of human judgement in refereeing the messy, complex world of football.Stan Karanasios, Associate Professor, The University of QueenslandBikesh Raj Upreti, Lecturer in Business Information Systems, The University of QueenslandFederico Iannacci, Senior Lecturer in Management, University of Sussex Business School, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1893172022-09-02T16:32:44Z2022-09-02T16:32:44ZHow the Premier League’s wealth funded a revolution in training technology<p>The English Premier League (EPL) celebrates its <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/61922723">30th season</a> this year, and much has changed since the league’s inception in 1992. For many long-time fans, the period may well be defined by the influx of money into the sport, with <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/uk/en/pages/sports-business-group/articles/annual-review-of-football-finance.html">player wages</a> ballooning, <a href="https://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/british-transfer-record-broken-fees-signings">transfer records</a> toppling, and <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/a1e3ef0a-cedf-487a-9b66-7474332ca835">broadcasting deals</a> reaching into the billions of pounds.</p>
<p>Some of this wealth has been used to impose major technological enhancements on the league, including the <a href="https://www.premierleague.com/season-review/the-football/1747764?articleId=1747764">video assistant referee</a> (VAR), <a href="https://www.premierleague.com/news/60519">goalline technology</a>, and <a href="https://www.premierleague.com/news/60519">vanishing spray</a> applied to the playing surface by the referee to indicate where set plays should be taken from. Meanwhile, increasingly advanced player tracking systems have given commentators and pundits access to team performance metrics in ever more granular <a href="https://talksport.com/football/1170827/erik-ten-hag-man-united-brentford-premier-league-training-session/">detail</a>.</p>
<p>These changes have <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.192026">improved the accuracy</a> of refereeing decisions and the quality of pundits’ player analysis. But it’s less obvious how training technology and sports science is being used behind the scenes, in and around club training grounds, to improve the quality of the product itself: the football on the pitch.</p>
<p>Having worked in elite football myself, I’ve seen how clubs have used their new riches to produce more athletic players and more entertaining teams. Before you scoff that football’s not all it once was, it’s worth considering how these changes, funded by lucrative TV and sponsorship deals, have made the EPL such an <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1536504216628849">internationally cherished</a> sporting spectacle.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Launched in 1992, the Premier League promised to be ‘a whole new ball game’.</span></figcaption>
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<p>It’s often argued that the EPL is the most <a href="https://global.espn.com/football/english-premier-league/story/4688754/premier-leagues-top-stars-face-exhausting-start-to-2022-23-season">physically demanding</a> league in world football, and that the athleticism demanded of players has increased over time. Top teams that take part in European competition now play up to 60 games per season, about ten more than they did 20 years ago. Training time has increased too, so that overall the modern player completes <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26746908/">2.5 times as much</a> “work” as elite players did 15-20 years ago. </p>
<p>To meet the demands of the modern game, players at the highest level have had to relentlessly train their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/24748668.2020.1746555">physical attributes</a>. That training is augmented by advances in technology, with elite teams now having access to a myriad of <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/FullText/2018/06000/The_Current_Use_of_GPS,_Its_Potential,_and.9.aspx">player tracking</a>, <a href="https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/fitness-testing-in-soccer-revisited-developing-a-contemporary-tes">monitoring</a> and <a href="https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/fitness-testing-in-soccer-revisited-developing-a-contemporary-tes">testing</a> technologies that barely existed in 1992.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier-league/premier-league-training-gps-vests-statsports-coronavirus-lockdown-a9485676.html">GPS technology</a> is now used routinely, with players’ match and training activity recorded and analysed each day to ensure that they work at an appropriate level, to promote the beneficial effects of training, and to track excessive fatigue and injury risk. In the 1990s and 2000s, coaches simply couldn’t monitor their players in this way. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Most Premier League teams now use GPS vests.</span></figcaption>
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<p>It’s not just the first team that benefits. The tracking process now starts in club academies, when players are in their teenage years, so that clubs have extensive information on each promising player as they progress through the <a href="https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/mind-the-gap-a-comparison-of-the-weekly-training-loads-of-english">ranks</a>.</p>
<h2>Bespoke programmes</h2>
<p>Many clubs also use bespoke online platforms to analyse other aspects of player health. These systems can track fatigue and muscle soreness, players’ sleep, their nutritional status, and their psychological wellbeing. <a href="https://www.kitmanlabs.com/modern-analytics-for-football-associations/">Trends are monitored closely</a>, often using machine learning techniques. </p>
<p>Training technologies that players could only previously access in the lab are now embedded in EPL club training grounds. That means that coaches and performance experts can individualise training for each player, optimising their schedule so that they make the most of their physical attributes while avoiding injury. </p>
<p>This relies on highly trained staff. Since 1992, the volume of football-specific scientific research has <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/MED/23978109">increased exponentially</a>, removing some of the intuition and guesswork previously used by coaches. Clubs have invested heavily in their staffing infrastructure, with more science, medical and fitness staff employed to optimise everything from travel arrangements to sleep schedules.</p>
<h2>A more beautiful game</h2>
<p>As a result of this innovation, the intensity of the work that players complete in matches has increased. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25009969/">One study</a> compared the match activity of EPL players in the 2006-07 season against the 2012-13 season. While the total distance covered by players had only increased by a modest 2%, the study found a large increase in high-intensity actions. </p>
<p>Specifically, in just six years the amount of high-speed running (the distance that players run at a speed over 19.8 km/h during a game) had increased by 30% and “sprints” (distance covered at a speed over 25.2 km/h) had increased by 35%. The number of sprints players performed had increased by 85%, suggesting that the game has become far more explosive. This trend has likely continued over subsequent seasons.</p>
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<img alt="A premier league footballer sprinting" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481793/original/file-20220830-24-t37olj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Explosive sprints have become a hallmark of the modern game.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kharkiv-ukraine-october-22-2018-gabriel-1222778107">Oleksandr Osipov/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Notably, the top speed of elite players was found to be 2% faster, which explains the increase in <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/8/2/article-p148.xml">high-intensity actions</a>. And it’s not just sheer athleticism that has improved. The technical performance of EPL players has too, with the number of successful passes having improved by 7% in the period between 2006 and 2013.</p>
<p>It’s perhaps little wonder that the EPL continues to attract many of the world’s best players, coaches and managers. High wages will also play a part, but access to world-class facilities, informed by cutting-edge research, will entice those with a desire to reach the pinnacle of their game.</p>
<p>The effects of modern training technology may have been most profound for England’s homegrown talent. Since 2012, all 28 of England’s national teams have trained at <a href="https://www.thefa.com/about-football-association/st-georges-park">St George’s Park,</a> a state-of-the-art facility that makes use of all the innovations introduced at club level. The recent progress of the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/62370131">women’s</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/51198762">men’s</a> national teams must, in part, be ascribed to their access to these facilities.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The facilities at St. George’s Park are among the best in the world.</span></figcaption>
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<p>With the EPL’s revenue forecast to <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/a1e3ef0a-cedf-487a-9b66-7474332ca835">increase further</a>, we can only speculate where the league and football in general will go in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sms.13681">30 years’ time</a>. What’s certain is that, for all the complaining about player wages and transfer fees, some of this money will be used to make clubs more competitive, and to further enhance the spectacle that is the English Premier League.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189317/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Player wages and transfer fees make the headlines, but the wealth generated by the Premier League has also been spent behind the scenes.Jonathan Taylor, Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise, Teesside UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1312492020-02-06T11:50:08Z2020-02-06T11:50:08ZNike Vaporfly ban: why World Athletics had to act against the high-tech shoes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313933/original/file-20200206-43095-1gdejg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bangkok-thailand-october-2019-runner-wearing-1529219165">Nattawit Khomsanit/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kenyan runner Eliud Kipchoge last year became the first person to run a marathon distance in <a href="https://theconversation.com/kipchoges-marathon-success-remains-a-mystery-some-clues-from-my-research-117040">under two hours</a>. But instead of being a pure celebration of human performance, the achievement (though not technically an official world record) <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/18/sports/marathon-running-nike-vaporfly-shoes.html">led to criticism</a> of Kipchoge’s shoes, an advanced design of the Nike Vaporfly. It represented an intensification of concern that the Vaporfly design was turning the humble trainer into an unfair form of performance enhancement.</p>
<p>Now Kipchoge’s Vaporflys <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/01/31/sport/nike-world-athletics-vaporfly-alphafly-ban-spt-intl/index.html">have been banned</a> from competition in a recent move by running’s governing body, World Athletics. Despite this, other versions of the shoes will <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nike-vaporfly-shoes-avoid-ban-but-prototypes-regulated-2020-1?r=US&IR=">still be legal</a>. The <a href="https://www.worldathletics.org/news/press-releases/modified-rules-shoes">new rules</a> also set a maximum sole thickness and a limit to the number of internal carbon plates that are used to help manage the runner’s energy. In addition, any new design of shoes has to be made available for anyone to buy four months before they can be used in competition. </p>
<p>These amendments are arguably a balanced and pragmatic approach that addresses some of the problems that new technology can pose to competitive sport. In this case, all of running’s world records will remain, but a firmer line has now been drawn before footwear design advances further. </p>
<p>But this outcome could still be criticised because Nike’s competitors now only have until spring to respond to the Vaporfly’s design, otherwise their shoes will not be legal for the upcoming Tokyo Olympic & Paralympic Games. Either way, it will likely still affects the sport at both a professional and amateur level. </p>
<p>We know that the kind of technology that the Vaporfly incorporates can give runners an advantage. A study published in 2017 demonstrated that such shoes were <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0811-2">4% more efficient</a> than several of their competitors. </p>
<p>But the influence of any new form of sports technology should still ensure that the sport remains fair and accessible to everyone. A review <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40064-015-1331-x">published in 2015</a> proposed that sports technology could be considered inappropriate if people can’t access it, afford to purchase it, or safely use it.</p>
<p>These kind of issues have occurred before in <a href="https://theconversation.com/wafer-thin-bicycles-speedy-shorts-go-faster-trainers-controversial-technology-in-sport-126301">several other sports</a>. In 2009, the world of athletics debated whether Paralympian Oscar Pistorius could (and should) compete against able-bodied runners because it was argued that his prostheses <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17461390802635483">were performance enhancing</a>. (He eventually ran in the 2012 Olympic Games.)</p>
<p>Likewise, once full-body and specially textured swimsuits started rapidly rewriting swimming’s world records, their <a href="http://www.cultureunbound.ep.liu.se/v3/a07/cu11v3a7.pdf">adoption was challenged</a> and eventually outlawed. In that case (like that of Kipchoge’s Vaporflys), athletes who couldn’t get hold of the swimsuits were left at a competitive disadvantage if they had sponsorship or endorsement with brands that didn’t produce the equipment.</p>
<p>There are other concerns too. Some athletes can also feel coerced into using new technology – whether it is optimal or not – for fear of being left behind. Likewise, a sport can be deskilled or somehow made easier by allowing new technology. This was why the unique string pattern on tennis rackets known as “spaghetti stringing” was <a href="https://www.tennis.com/gear/2013/02/question-day-revisiting-spaghetti-racquet/46306/">ultimately banned</a> in the 1970s because it made it easier to control and create spin on the ball.</p>
<h2>Impact on amateurs</h2>
<p>All of these ethical concerns require consideration when competitive rules are constructed and work together with any scientific measurements to ensure the most robust regulations are created. Yet, while this debate usually centres on elite athletes, Nike’s Vaporflys could also profoundly change what recreational runners will be able to achieve themselves. </p>
<p>While running shoes now have functional limits placed upon them for major competitions, the rules will be unlikely to apply to amateurs who run or race for mere enjoyment. It’s not inconceivable that the gap between amateur and professional could narrow slightly if elites cannot use the same shoes as everyone else.</p>
<p>This situation could already hypothetically occur, in that a recreational jogger with a lower-limb amputation could use a highly effective bionic limb to run. Yet a Paralympian can’t use much more than a composite spring when racing under current <a href="https://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/180112123931374_World+Para+Athletics+Rules+and+Regulations+2018-2019+-+January+2018.pdf">International Paralympic Committee rules</a>.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the proposed gains of the Vaporfly shoes will not suddenly turn recreational donkeys into racehorses. But at an elite level it is possible for a top athlete to suddenly become uncompetitive if they don’t keep up with the kind of innovation Nike has demonstrated. Irrespective of the World Athletics decision, running has moved from being a footrace to an arms race.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131249/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Dyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New rules on athletes’ trainers were on the cards since Eliud Kipchoge ran the first sub-two hour marathon in special Vaporflys.Bryce Dyer, Deputy Head of Department, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1263012019-11-04T15:40:02Z2019-11-04T15:40:02ZWafer-thin bicycles, speedy shorts, go-faster trainers: controversial technology in sport<p>When the Kenyan runner Eliud Kipchoge became the first human to run a marathon in under two hours as part of the recent INEOS <a href="https://www.ineos159challenge.com/">1:59 Project Challenge</a>, this was arguably one of the most significant achievements of athleticism since Sir Roger Bannister broke the four-minute mile in 1954. But almost immediately afterwards there was <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-7640927/Athletics-Record-busting-shoes-loom-large-marathon-debate.html">controversy</a>, not toward the runner or the unofficial nature of his run (his record has no official status), but over his running shoes. </p>
<p>The trainers in question were the AlphaFLY running shoes designed and manufactured by Nike. They are built around a carefully considered sole design that absorbs the energy of each foot strike and then helps store, channel and return it as the athlete runs. Its <a href="https://www.believeintherun.com/2019/10/09/a-breakdown-of-the-nike-kipchoge-prototype/">various patented innovations</a> include the types of polymers used and how they and air pockets are located to absorb and return energy, coupled with a carbon plate built into the midsole. The question is, can a running shoe really be they key to sporting success? Or is it just an easy target for others’ misplaced jealousy? </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16260981">study published back in 2005</a> predicted the probable limits of the men’s marathon record. Yet since then the maximum projections in that study have already been exceeded by around two minutes, and nearly by four if you include Kipchoge’s time. On that basis it seems fair to suggest that the shoes are at least partly responsible for such large and unexpected performance improvements. The International Association of Athletics Federations, the governing body, has established a group to study the Nike’s running shoes and <a href="https://www.marca.com/en/more-sports/2019/10/15/5da5cb9e46163fa89f8b4584.html">report back with an adjudication</a>.</p>
<p>A more recent study examining shoe technology <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30374945">supports this concern</a>, suggesting that a predecessor to the Alphafly shoe design had been shown to improve running economy significantly. In fact, compared directly to other elite-level trainers in the same study, the performance gain was in the range of 2.6%-4.2%. At the razor thin margins of elite sport, that sort of benefit is the equivalent of bringing a gun to a knife fight.</p>
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<h2>Seeking an edge through technology</h2>
<p>To be sure, as far as debating technological assistance in sport goes, we’ve been here plenty of times before. The Australian sprinter Cathy Freeman wore a one-piece aerodynamic suit in the 400 metres at the Sydney 2000 Olympics. In 2008, the very nature of disability itself was challenged when South African Oscar Pistorius attempted to run in both the Paralympic and Olympic Games the same year while using a pair of composite prosthetic legs. These, like Kipchoge’s shoes, also raised concerns about the nature of and extent to which technology contributes toward helping us perform at our very best. In a <a href="https://springerplus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40064-015-1331-x">systemic review published in 2015</a>, I found the impact of technology in sport as having brought a huge source of positive interest, but, on occasion, being hugely damaging.</p>
<p>The British Olympic team recently unveiled its new track cycling bicycle, dubbed <a href="https://www.bikeradar.com/news/hope-lotus-hb-t/">HB.T</a>, upon which athletes will be competing at the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games. This machine (a project undertaken between British Cycling and manufacturers Hope and Lotus Engineering) pushes the rules to their absolute limits and demonstrates the flair that Lotus themselves applied back in 1992 when they designed Chris Boardman’s gold medal-winning Lotus bicycle. But this design was itself later <a href="https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/product-news/for-the-love-of-lotus-the-story-behind-the-iconic-lotus-type-110-bike-356243">banned from competition</a> due to its perceived unfairness. </p>
<p>The new Team GB bicycle is resplendent with an unusual fork configuration and bowed, thin frame members that virtually disappear from view when you look at it head on. Engineers will be keen to know the measured advantages. But I’m wondering whether the real effects of the bike are in the psychological blow to its opposition as it is wheeled out for the first time – at a point probably and quite intentionally too late for competing cycling teams’ to respond to in time for Tokyo.</p>
<p>The general criticism behind such new technology is not just about how effective it may or may not be but also about its perceived fairness. Such arguments typically debate issues surrounding equal access to a technology, the ability to ensure any new technology is safe, that it is not fundamentally an unfair advantage, and that it doesn’t ultimately change the nature of the sport entirely.</p>
<p>Some sports governing bodies attempt to remove or marginalise the impact of technology. Cycling has <a href="https://inrng.com/2012/03/uci-rules-regulation-bikes-clothing/">tried several times to do so</a>. However, even the relative simplicity of a sport such as running was changed forever when Kipchoge used a huge team of around 40 pace-setters in an aerodynamic formation and those shoes. </p>
<p>Technological progress can be slowed, but it can’t easily be halted – and arguably shouldn’t be. So there will be much more debate on the effects of technology ahead of the Tokyo 2020 Games as more athletes, teams and manufacturers all compete for the most prized medals in competitive sport.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126301/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Dyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Can running shoes make the difference that breaks a record? Nike’s new trainers are neither the first nor last examples of technology causing a stir in competitive sport.Bryce Dyer, Principal Academic, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1218382019-08-19T15:43:40Z2019-08-19T15:43:40ZGoal! Or is it? How technology – and not just VAR – is changing sport<p>Gabriel Jesus’s disallowed goal in the English Premier League, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49302583">between his club Manchester City and Spurs</a>, when a controversial handball decision was given by the video assistant referee (VAR) system, has fuelled the already fierce debate about the use of technology.</p>
<p>The handball law was <a href="https://www.espn.co.uk/football/blog-fifa/story/3799425/handball-revamp-confirmed-as-ifab-reveals-new-laws-of-the-game-for-2019-20">changed in March 2019</a> due, in part, to the use of VAR. The new rule said a handball that gave advantage to the player handling the ball would be penalised – even if it was accidental. Previously the law had given the referee the discretion to rule on whether a handball was accidental. Use of technology effectively removed the officials’ ability to use their discretion. Jesus’s <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49388102">handball was one of those situations</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/video-assistant-referee-in-football-as-in-war-sometimes-we-need-a-human-touch-119397">Video Assistant Referee: in football, as in war, sometimes we need a human touch</a>
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<p>VAR has already become a big talking point in top-flight football after the same City player had a goal disallowed in the first week when his team took on West Ham, this time over a <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/premier-league/west-ham-man-city-var-gabriel-jesus-offside-goal-picture-video-replay-a9051251.html">marginal offside decision</a>.</p>
<p>This has led football’s law makers to review the approach taken to offside decisions. The officials should call offside only if there is a “<a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/var-offside-decisions-under-review-8v8bdhmz7">clear error</a>”. And <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-7367673/THE-GREAT-VAR-DEBATE-Tech-said-Sterling-2-4cm-offside-allowed-13cm-margin-error.html">there are questions</a> over whether the technology is accurate enough to be able to measure offside to such a degree.</p>
<p>Football has followed the trend of other sports that have already adopted technology. Rugby league provided a <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/investing/business-of-sport/rugby-league-technology/">video referee in 1996</a>. Cricket included the <a href="https://www.hawkeyeinnovations.com/products/ball-tracking">Hawk-eye ball tracking system from 2001</a>. Rugby union introduced the <a href="https://www.rugbyworld.com/tournaments/rugby-world-cup-2019/tmo-television-match-official-explained-88934">Television Match Official (TMO)</a> in 2001. And <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2012/09/how-instant-replays-changed-professional-tennis/262060/">tennis began using Hawk-eye in 2002</a> to judge line calls.</p>
<h2>They think it’s all over</h2>
<p>The introduction of any technology can mean that the experience of spectators changes – and not necessarily for the better. Technology <a href="https://img.fifa.com/image/upload/zeghumlzve8t7pppcw8m.pdf">reduces errors</a>, which is of vital importance in today’s big-money sporting contests. But it also means a goal can be scored, celebrated and then disallowed, meaning that spectators at the stadium do not act spontaneously. Instead of being able to jump up and down in delight at their team scoring or taking a wicket, they have to wait on technology. It’s just not the same. </p>
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<p>Another criticism is that spectators often <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/42865634">do not know what is happening on the pitch</a> when VAR is being used. The use of big screens in the stadiums to replay VAR decisions has been approved for the 2019-2020 Premier League season, displaying the incident to supporters <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/big-screens-to-show-var-replays-to-fans-in-the-stadium-jkwh7llcl">to help them understand</a> what is going on. But criticisms of the process continue and it is still to be decided whether spectators should be <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/football/2019/08/12/football-lawmakers-will-review-whether-fans-should-shownentire/">shown the entire VAR decision-making process</a>.</p>
<p>At home, spectators have the benefit of technology. There are more camera angles, sharper pictures, and the benefit that any VAR review is immediately communicated and explained. As the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/48953873">BBC noted</a>, people are beginning to wonder whether it’s not better to save money and stay at home to watch on television. That would be a disaster.</p>
<h2>Players behaving badly</h2>
<p>We know that changes in the interpretations of law between countries can <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/SBM-04-2014-0019/full/html">change the behaviour</a> of both officials and players. It’s too early to tell how VAR will change how football works, but we do know that technology has changed player behaviour in cricket.</p>
<p>The decision review system (DRS) was introduced in 2001, aimed at improving decision-making accuracy for catches, and enhanced in 2008 in order to detect <a href="https://www.hawkeyeinnovations.com/products/ball-tracking/cricket-decision-review-system">leg-before-wicket</a> (when a batter’s leg stops the ball hitting the stumps). Teams are now using their reviews tactically, which can change the rhythm of a game and interrupt a batter’s concentration – surely not within the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/23328247">spirit of the game</a>. </p>
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<p>There have also been incidents of player behaviour influencing the removal of technology. Hotspot is an infrared imaging system used to show whether a ball had struck a batsmen, bat or pad. But it was taken out of the DRS after it was shown that placing tape <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cricket/2016/06/06/hot-spot-can-be-fooled-by-bat-tape-say-scientists/">along the edge of the bat</a> could fool the thermal imaging cameras that were there to detect the heat created by the friction when a ball hits a bat, no matter how slightly.</p>
<h2>Umpires are only human</h2>
<p>Technology can also put pressure on match officials, which can contribute to negative performances. The first 2019 Ashes test match between England and Australia saw a number of on-field umpire decisions overturned <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cricket/2019/08/05/joel-wilson-unfortunate-face-crickets-umpiring-problem-ashes/">following use of DRS</a>. </p>
<p>Umpires stand for up to five days during a test match, and so a number of incorrect decisions can build pressure over the course of the game. This is increased by the umpire knowing that their decision can be challenged and overturned using technology at any moment.</p>
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<p>Pressure for cricket umpires comes, at least in part, from media exposure and the use of technology in the game. This is also true for football referees who are exposed to extensive media coverage.</p>
<h2>Level playing field</h2>
<p>It’s hard enough for officials to do their jobs properly with the pressures outlined above. But then take into account that different sports in different countries are having to contend with variations in the way technology is applied. (See, for example, the controversy over <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/vars-in-premier-league-will-not-order-penalty-re-take-if-goalkeeper-comes-off-line-next-season-ffd6h0qbq">goalkeepers moving off their line</a> when a penalty is taken.)</p>
<p>There is big money at stake in professional sport, and careers can hinge on a key decision. So sporting administrators need to be careful about the impact any changes to their sports have on the live and televised “product”, sold in TV rights deals for millions of pounds around the world. If supporters stop watching, if television companies stop paying, they have a major problem. With technology, sometimes it seems we need to be careful what we wish for.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121838/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Webb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Technology in sport is a constant source of controversy as players and officials struggle to keep up.Tom Webb, Senior Lecturer in Sports Management and Development, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/361382015-01-26T19:29:14Z2015-01-26T19:29:14ZNew gadgets and gimmicks to keep us watching sport live on TV<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69213/original/image-20150116-5191-1fghtxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More tech on the way to keep us watching sport live on TV.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">CCat</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s love of sport appears to be more from in front of a TV screen than actually attending any event live, and that could be on the increase given some of the new technology heading our way.</p>
<p>Samsung has confirmed that its new <a href="http://www.gizmodo.com.au/2015/01/samsungs-sports-live-to-bring-second-screen-stats-to-aussie-tvs-in-2015/">Sports Live app</a> – on display at this year’s Consumer Electronic Show in the US – will be available in Australia later this year, but for which sport codes has still to be announced.</p>
<p>The app is part of its smart television range and provides on-screen information – over and above that normally provided onscreen by the host broadcaster – relative to the particular sporting event being viewed. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Samsung’s Sports Live app on show at the Consumer Electronic Show.</span></figcaption>
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<p>This helps the viewer as they can continue to watch the broadcast and not be distracted by sourcing any further game information from other devices, such as their smart phone or tablet device.</p>
<p>But how will new technologies, such as Samsung’s Sports Live, change the way we watch sport on television? This is particularly interesting in Australia where sport is a large part of <a href="http://www.openforum.com.au/content/why-sport-so-important-australian-culture">our culture</a>.</p>
<h2>We love it live … on TV</h2>
<p>Despite reports of <a href="http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/afl/game-attendance-drops-13-per-cent-as-fans-shy-away-from-afl-trials-and-high-costs/story-fni5f22o-1226978813478">poor crowds</a> at games – and empty seats seen at many sporting events – Australia’s love for sport still remains, even if it is via watching it on TV screens. Sport broadcasts are among the highest rating programs in Australia.</p>
<p>The 2014 AFL and NRL grand finals were some of the largest television audiences for many years.</p>
<p>The AFL grand final was the <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/media/grand-final-most-watched-show-of-2014/story-e6frg996-1227072950169">most watched show</a> on Australian television for 2014 while a week later the NRL grand final was the “<a href="http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-and-radio/rabbitohs-win-is-the-highest-rating-nrl-grand-final-ever-20141006-10qqmd.html">highest-rating NRL game ever</a>”, since the <a href="http://www.oztam.com.au">OzTam ratings</a> began in 2001. </p>
<p>In addition to the television audience, Australia’s love of social media sees fans as one of the world’s most “<a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/media/twitter-tv-ratings-underline-our-obsession-with-sport-reality/story-e6frg996-1227125425621">prolific tweeters</a>” when it comes to interacting with sport.</p>
<h2>So why are we not attending the games more?</h2>
<p>Arguably there are many factors, but one possible influence could be the increase and experimentation with broadcast technologies and techniques. Many of these attempt to add to the viewer’s on screen experience and bring the viewer closer to the action. </p>
<p>Cricket has seen many technologies introduced, one of the first was the <a href="http://www.gizmodo.com.au/2013/07/7-great-australian-sport-innovations/">addition of microphones</a> near the stumps during the 1980s, followed quickly by stump-cam.</p>
<p>Since then we have seen the introduction of <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cricket-channel-4-reveals-the-sensational-snickometer-1102323.html">Snickometer</a> (1999), <a href="http://observer.theguardian.com/cvtf500/story/0,,2215222,00.html">Hawkeye</a> (2002) and HotSpot (2006), along with spider-cam, which has <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-08/smith-fumes-at-spidercam-over-dropped-catch/6006810">recently come under scrutiny</a>. </p>
<p>The most recent additions by the <a href="http://www.9jumpin.com.au">Nine Network</a> to its cricket broadcast has been <a href="http://www.vizrt.com/news/newsgrid/34660/Viz_Libero_is_on_air_with_Cricket_and_iPad_control">Viz Libero</a>, a realistic 3D analysis system which allows <a href="http://vimeo.com/98361959">360 degree replays</a>. </p>
<p>A similar technology, <a href="http://replay-technologies.com">FreeD technology</a>, is used in the US for the NFL and Major League baseball. While these technologies are currently controlled by the broadcaster, there is great possibilities if access is open to the viewing audience to control from <a href="http://vimeo.com/102871517">their own devices</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Replay Technologies – FreeD.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The <a href="http://tenplay.com.au">Ten Network</a> has also added its own additions to cricket television broadcasts during the <a href="http://www.bigbash.com.au">KFC T20 Big Bash League</a>. During the game the network has fielding players wear microphones, while cameras are attached to the helmets and caps of both batsman and umpires for a point-of-view perspective of the action. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Vision from Helmet-cam during a T20 game.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The Ten Network was also fundamental in bringing a point-of-view perspective into broadcasts of AFL games, when it introduced <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/afl/afl-news/goal-post-cameras-to-be-used-by-channel-ten-20100824-13l1k.html">goal post cameras</a> in 2010.</p>
<p>Later came the addition of cameras on goal umpire’s hats, which last year during one game was <a href="http://www.afl.com.au/news/2014-08-24/goal-review-correct-afl">criticised by the AFL</a>. These technologies, like many discussed previously, are intended to be two-fold, benefiting both the players and viewers.</p>
<p>Despite the initiatives for cricket and AFL broadcasts in Australia, tennis television broadcasts appear not to have yet added many of these broadcast technologies, other than HawkEye. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Hawkeye at the Australia Open.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The new format, <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/tennis/fast4-tennis-new-format-explained/story-fndkzym4-1227181842596">Fast4 tennis</a> would have been ideal for the trial of new broadcast technologies. Particularly as it is seen as a competitor to cricket’s faster format Twenty20, which uses various additional broadcast technologies.</p>
<p>This lack of experimentation during Tennis TV broadcasts could be part of the <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/sport/tennis/viewers-slam-channel-nines-fast4-coverage-20150113-12n2ub.html">viewers disappointment</a> with the new “faster” format.</p>
<p>The FreeD technology has been used <a href="http://sportsvideo.org/main/blog/2014/03/atp-tennis-to-get-freed-360-degree-treatment-courtesy-of-gearhouse-broadcast-replay-technologies/">overseas for tennis</a>, but despite the Nine Network using the similar technology (Viz Libero) for cricket broadcasts, it was not added for its Fast4 tennis broadcast.</p>
<h2>Some technologies come and go</h2>
<p>The 3D television broadcast of sport is one of the biggest new technologies to have been largely discontinued, despite the initial interest. </p>
<p>One US study reported by <a href="http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/consumer/purchase-intent-for-3dtv-varies-around-the-globe/">Nielsen</a> in 2010 found 65% of respondents wanted to see sport broadcast in 3D, the most popular genre ahead of nature and animal programs (62%), and action and adventure (60%).</p>
<p>This was the same year that 3D broadcasts of sport <a href="http://www.brw.com.au/p/business/marketing_media/no_ratings_data_for_tv_shows_xxN9pyDSFbTizdtZcf2JXK">began in Australia</a>, with the Nine Network broadcasts of State of Origin (Rugby League), and Foxtel and SBS broadcasting soccer games in 3D.</p>
<p>The ratings for these broadcasts were not known, as OzTam did not capture the information due to the broadcasts being part of a trial. </p>
<p>At the time it was reported that 2,000 3D televisions had been sold. Since the 2010 trial, Nine also broadcast replays of the 2012 London Olympic Games. Network Ten had <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/broadcasters-cool-on-3d-tv-20130717-2q2tw.html">no plans to broadcast</a> the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics in 3D “despite Olympic organisers committing to shooting it in 3D”.</p>
<p>Important to note that by this time ESPN, “the largest and most important source of 3DTV content”, had abandoned its <a href="http://gizmodo.com/report-espn-is-killing-3d-broadcasts-by-the-end-of-the-512858617">dedicated 3D sports channel</a>. Much of the dissatisfaction for viewers was having to <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11102038/3D-TV-falls-further-out-of-favour-as-Sky-omits-Premier-League-matches-from-schedule.html">wear the additional glasses</a>. </p>
<h2>Is wearable technology the future for sports broadcast?</h2>
<p>The dissatisfaction for wearing additional technologies (3D glasses) raises interesting questions for the future of sports broadcasts, as 2015 is argued to be the <a href="http://www.engadget.com/2015/01/10/2015-ces-wearables-wrap-up/">year of wearable technologies</a>.</p>
<p>In Australia, Foxtel has already experimented with wearable technology and sports broadcasts, with its Alert Shirt. Described by the developers, <a href="http://wearableexperiments.com">Wearable Experiments (We:eX)</a>, as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[…] a fan jersey that uses wearable technology to take the experience into the physical world, allowing fans to feel what the players feel live as it happens during the game’.</p>
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<p>Not only can you watch the game, you can now feel it.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Introducing the Alert Shirt.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Much simpler examples of wearable technologies and sport include Victoria Bitter’s <a href="http://www.techly.com.au/2014/11/19/summer-australia-means-cricket-beer-wearables/">Live Cricket Watch</a>. Launched as part of the 2014/15 summer of cricket in Australia. The watch links to a smart phone and provides the user with game updates direct to the watch face.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7SEGZBIRT84?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">VB Cricket Watch Ad.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This year there will be some interesting developments, as wearable technologies become a more common part of our daily lives; as smart phones have.</p>
<p>For sports television broadcasts there are many possibilities based on the technologies currently available. The addition of wearable technologies and the accessibility of technologies like FreeD technology to the viewing audience, will only amplify the viewing experience.</p>
<p>The question yet to be answered though is whether this is what Australians want?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36138/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc C-Scott is a board member of C31 Melbourne (Community Television Station).</span></em></p>Australia’s love of sport appears to be more from in front of a TV screen than actually attending any event live, and that could be on the increase given some of the new technology heading our way. Samsung…Marc C-Scott, Lecturer in Digital Media, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/359622015-01-21T19:10:16Z2015-01-21T19:10:16ZBeyond the line call: how Hawk-Eye can improve performance<p>The evolution of professional tennis has always been linked to the changing technology of the day. For example, the decline of the wooden racket lead to the whole new power-based style of play we enjoy today.</p>
<p>One of the more recent introductions to have significant impact is <a href="http://www.hawkeyeinnovations.co.uk/page/sports-officiating/tennis">Hawk-Eye</a> ball tracking.</p>
<p>It’s certainly transformed the way we watch and adjudicate tennis. But can we go further and utilise this truly awesome technology to improve the on-court performance of the competitions elite?</p>
<h2>The traditional use of Hawk-eye</h2>
<p>Hawk-Eye is a computer vision based technology that allows the trajectory of a ball and players to be tracked purely from video. The advantage of such a system is that it’s completely un-intrusive, you don’t need to put sensors in anything.</p>
<p>It’s mostly used to make line-calls, as a back-up when players object to the call made by a lines referee. It’s also used by broadcasters to provide a general overview of a game, set or match.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XhQyVnwBXBs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Its introduction has seen <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-Hawk-eye-for-detail-how-accurate-is-electronic-judging-in-sport-8136">some debate</a>, but it was nonetheless approved for use at tour level by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) in 2005, after the 2004 US Open Women quarter-final – when Serena Williams lost to Jennifer Capriati – was marred by a series of <a href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/open/2004-09-08-replay_x.htm">dubious line calls.</a>.</p>
<p>In this application, it solves a real problem. It eliminates the human element of line-calling, Hawk-Eye doesn’t feel pressure on big points. It doesn’t come cheap, <a href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2011-03-09-bnp-paribas-open-hawkeye_N.htm">one report from 2011</a> putting the cost between US$60,000 and US$70,000 per court to operate, <a href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/01/08/tech-israel-tennis-idUKL6N0U20TX20150108">another report this year</a> put that figure at US$100,000 a court.</p>
<p>It’s hard to argue the cost isn’t worth it just for line calls, it would be hard to see us going back to a world where we don’t use ball tracking. But Hawk-Eye isn’t just good for line-calls. </p>
<h2>More to Hawk-Eye than line calls</h2>
<p>Fans only ever really see the brief interaction between ball and court, but Hawk-Eye sees far more.</p>
<p>By collecting data over the entire trajectory of every shot played on Australian show-courts this summer, Tennis Australia (TA) is amassing richer data sources than ever.</p>
<p>At this year’s Australian Open, Hawk-Eye based insights as a tool for pre-match opposition analysis will be greater utilised than ever before by Tennis Australia’s High-Performance unit.</p>
<p>Hawk-Eye has been deployed on multiple courts at the Australian Open and AO series events (Brisbane and Sydney for example) since 2007, and as such we have tracking data for some 250 tennis players.</p>
<p>Thanks partially to funding from an Australian Institute of Sport (<a href="http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais">AIS</a>) grant, an app (like the ones on your favourite smart-phone) has been constructed using <a href="http://www.r-project.org/">open source technologies</a> with Hawk-eye data at its core.</p>
<p>Coaches can log-in from anywhere in the world, and interactivity sort and visualise data, tapping into their unique expertise without the need to consult the performance analysis team every time they want to delve deeper into the data.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69520/original/image-20150120-24457-1li727y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Partial typical output of coaching app. º Spread is standard-deviation.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The above shows part of a typical output for the applet. In this case, only serves hit (from right to left) by Rafael Nadal during tie-breaks are selected. We can see clearly in this case where Rafa’s favourite serve to the deuce side is down the middle, rather than to the side.</p>
<p>The app is essentially a “Google for tennis coaches”, a tie breaker if you will. Ever wondered who hits off-forehands faster, Nadal or Roger Federer? (Nadal by 4kmph) Or who gets a higher net-clearance on serves to the advantage side of the court? (Nadal by half a centimeter), or who hits backhands deeper at 30-40? (Federer by 60cm).</p>
<p>These aren’t debates anymore, and TA coaches can definitively answer questions like these and more at the tap of an app. These insights can be used in a multitude of situations, from planning for a grand-slam opponent to goal-setting for developing athletes.</p>
<p>For example, a coach may suspect a developing athlete is too cautious serving on break point 2nd serves. The coach can use the app, on court from a tablet or phone, to quickly derive typical serve speeds under that exact scenario for a multitude of top players.</p>
<p>Such data quickly eliminates any debate that the hypothetical athlete just doesn’t measure up to the competition, and that they should work on that area of their game.</p>
<h2>Moving beyond ‘stats’</h2>
<p>There’s more to analytics than just stats though, much more. Stats are great but they can often be miss-leading and are almost always misinterpreted. (As Homer Simpson so <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PTiBU-1Ji_8">eloquently put it</a>: “You can use facts (stats) to prove anything that’s even remotely true”.)</p>
<p>A growing area of data-science is <a href="http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/machine-learning">Machine Learning</a>, where you quite literally build simple Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms inside computers, which commit large sets of observations to memory and find patterns within, essentially by trial and error.</p>
<p>These algorithms mimic the way we learn, to the extent that one of the most historically successfully algorithms – the artificial neural-network – has structure heavily inspired by that of our own brains.</p>
<p>Machine learning algorithms have been adapted to use Hawk-Eye data in an attempt to uncover trends within matchplay. The result is a “little black book” of potential match-day strategies, which could provide an edge in competition. TA coaches are able to draw on such insights where they see fit as part of the preparation for an opponent.</p>
<p>The system is still very much in development, but has been implemented in some top-level competition. For example, insights derived from data were presented to the player-group prior to Australia’s 2014 Davis cup <a href="http://www.daviscup.com/en/draws-results/tie/details.aspx?tieId=100021096">win over Uzbekistan</a>.</p>
<p>So whether you like it or not, we are heading rapidly into the information age and how we collect and use data is taking over every aspect of our lives.</p>
<p>Sport – and tennis – is no exception.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>See also:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-hawk-eye-for-detail-how-accurate-is-electronic-judging-in-sport-8136">A Hawk-Eye for detail: how accurate is electronic judging in sport?</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35962/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Bane received funding from the Australian Institute of Sport Research into Action Fund (2014). Michael Bane's position is co-funded by Tennis Australia</span></em></p>The evolution of professional tennis has always been linked to the changing technology of the day. For example, the decline of the wooden racket lead to the whole new power-based style of play we enjoy…Michael Bane, Research officer, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/290082014-07-14T15:12:47Z2014-07-14T15:12:47ZThe science behind Tour de France’s hide-and-seek tactics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53781/original/3p5jccp2-1405335513.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=55%2C0%2C1585%2C806&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Get in line. Riders keeping out of the wind on the road to Sheffield.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/adambowie/14404150668/in/photolist-oeaM6o-8kG362-6n6vHy-ofiskV-odwpAe-odn5C1-ocW8T1-oeNvdC-2eqCgS-6DiMsR-6DnXib-nWR3aj-bHuUyz-nXtNvm-nW2AHd-oeNqmK-nx7YGu-brbUB-brbWV-brc9M-brcn4-brbHE-brce3-brbSv-brcrB-brc13-brcE4-brbNj-92qsuC-brcGi-brbpD-brbEe-brbLz-brcpy-brbwv-brcwY-brbmC-brbCB-brcvm-gMjRX-brcbb-brbtT-brbAV-brbr2-brctu-92Y3me-a6ypwe-h25UwA-aaPb2X-892p9Y">Adam Bowie</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the Tour de France comes to town, it’s a chance to get your gladrags on. This year’s Grand Depart in Yorkshire saw Leeds decked out with yellow flowers, bikes placed in coffee bar windows, statues wearing yellow jerseys and locals showing off yellow ties or Tour de France socks. For the riders, though, the science that governs their sport means it’s about being as inconspicuous as possible.</p>
<p>Tour cyclists will ride 21 stages and cover more than 3,600km over the three weeks and a mix of flat, hilly and mountainous stages (and let’s <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2014/us/stage-5/gallery.html#v_226779">not forget the cobbles</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xeEKNwKBu9Q">the wind</a>) in a feat of endurance which simply demands an intense focus on sport science to get athletes to Paris for the final day. </p>
<p>No surprise then, that pacing is a crucial part of the puzzle as riders and coaches aim to take advantage of their own strengths while hanging in there while others make most of theirs. The purest test of this will come in the <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2014/us/stage-20.html">time trial from Bergerac to Perigueux</a> when each rider climbs into a skinsuit and propels themselves against the clock for 54km.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2211732">Research has shown</a> that a flat time trial demands a relatively even pace to get the most out of a rider. This year, however, the stage 20 route goes over some lumps and bumps which change the optimal pacing strategy. When cyclists race over hilly and/or windy terrain in general, riders can be advised to vary their power output in parallel with hill gradient and wind direction, to minimise differences in speed over the race. They’re not on their own judging this. </p>
<p>Advances in portable GPS systems give rider and coaches essential input data to allow even more accurate predictions of performance on a specific time trial, incorporating hilliness and windiness. Incorporated in an advanced cycling model, the GPS information can even be used to assist in making choices related to cycling material and equipment before they roll down the start ramp.</p>
<h2>Follow the leader</h2>
<p>Most stages, however, are not lone efforts. And it’s here where riders, team leaders particularly, will seek refuge at every opportunity to enjoy the large beneficial effect of drafting: hiding behind your opponent. </p>
<p>The scientific basis for this benefit has to do with principles that are well known in aerodynamics. A key aspect is Bernoulli’s principle, named after the <a href="http://www.famousscientists.org/daniel-bernoulli/">Swiss physicist and mathematician Daniel Bernoulli</a>. This is the principle that explains why aeroplanes can fly, but also the same principle that makes the shower curtain move towards you while taking a hot shower. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53805/original/zmd3vm2k-1405351785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1129&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yellow fever.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bert Otten</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This principle states that an increase in the speed of air molecules coincides with a decrease in pressure. When a cyclist moves through the air on his way to the finish line, the air molecules in front of him are moving with a relatively low velocity. In front of the cyclist, there is thus an area of relatively high pressure. Due to the dynamics caused by the passage of the cyclist, air molecules behind the cyclist will be moving with a high velocity, that is, a low pressure. A small vacuum might even occur behind the cyclist (no molecules at all).</p>
<p>The pressure difference between front (high pressure) and back (low pressure) causes an increase in air resistance “pushing” the cyclist back. Now we get to the benefit of hiding behind your opponent: if the person in front of you has created an area of low pressure behind him, and you are close to him, that area is in front of you. So by cycling close to the rider in front of you, you can make use of his low pressure area, creating a lower pressure difference between your front and backside.</p>
<h2>Power game</h2>
<p>This leads to a lower air resistance. In terms of power output and effort, this means that a cyclist that rides closely behind another cyclist at 40km/h (this is about the <a href="http://www.uci-travel.com/glossary/tour-de-france-average-speed/">average speed during the Tour de France nowadays</a>) can get away with a power output that is 15% less than that of the rider at the front. Because of the nonlinear relationship that exists between power output and velocity, the benefit of drafting is larger at higher velocities, so during the flat stages drafting is more important than during the mountain stages.</p>
<p>However, there is also a downside of drafting: riding close to the wheel in front is more dangerous, and every Tour de France is known for some famous “chutes”: think of Dutchman <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYPDAry-A-s">Johnny Hoogerland who landed in barbed wire</a> in 2011, when his opponent was hit by a team car and Hoogerland was unable to avoid him. But there are always crashes caused purely by proximity, the most dramatic of which this year has been the <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2014/us/stage-4/gallery.html#v_226331">innocuous clash of wheels</a> which brought down defending champion Chris Froome.</p>
<p>It’s a simple decision though. You cannot ride out front in the wind for 3,600km, however strong you might be, so you take the risks, ride through the pain and hope the rewards follow. Sports science might be able to explain the theory, calculate the power outputs and design the recovery programme. But it’s the riders that must find the motivation to get back on the bike day after day, even if they do spend all their time as hidden as they possibly can be.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/29008/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Florentina Hettinga does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the Tour de France comes to town, it’s a chance to get your gladrags on. This year’s Grand Depart in Yorkshire saw Leeds decked out with yellow flowers, bikes placed in coffee bar windows, statues…Florentina Hettinga, Lecturer Sport and Exercise Science, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/279572014-07-02T05:07:43Z2014-07-02T05:07:43ZFrom one man and his bike to the hi-tech peleton: the changing face of the Tour de France<p>The Tour de France is one of the most iconic and physically demanding sporting events in the world. Held annually since 1903, it has evolved from a simple test of endurance and speed to a festival of technology and innovation as teams fight to find the edge that will take them over mountains, high speed straights and cobbled roads ahead of their rivals. </p>
<p>The basic premise of the tour has generally remained the same since 1913 – the rider who covers the route in the least accumulated time across all of the stages wins. But the route is changed by the organisers every year, which means that unique demands are placed on the riders, the teams and their resources. </p>
<p>This year’s tour is divided into <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2014/us/overall-route.html">21 stages covering a total of 3,656km</a>. There are nine flat stages, five hilly stages, six mountain stages, one 54km time trial and two rest days. As a result of all these different conditions, an awful lot of specialised equipment is needed. In early tours, the same bike was used for the whole race but these days, a different one is chosen based on the different demands of the stage, its gearing and wheels tailored to the terrain.</p>
<h2>Cobble horror</h2>
<p>Perhaps the most intriguing test for the teams this year will come on stage five when the riders face some perilous sections of cobbled roads. The tour riders, who generally weigh between 60kg and 80kg, will be subjected to massive levels of impact and vibrations as they pass over these surfaces.</p>
<p>To add to their misery, these cobbled roads have been in place for decades so they are not flat. Wear, breakage and subsidence makes them uneven, to put it mildly. To maximise speed and control, the best riders often ride in the middle or “crown” of these sections. With space at a premium though, experienced riders might also choose to ride in the dirt gutter between the cobbles and the grass banks at the sides of the road which has often been worn smooth.</p>
<p>This decision becomes critical in wet weather in particular, when riding on even the slightest camber can be extremely dangerous at these speeds. Punctures, loss of control and crashes are common and injuries can be severe.</p>
<p>Many of the riders looking to do well in a race like the tour will not typically ride on these kind of surfaces in other events because they are suited to heavier, stronger riders rather than those built for mountainous terrain. There are a small number of early season races in the spring that do feature these kind of surfaces such as the notorious Paris-Roubaix – known as the “Hell of the North” – which give a flavour of what riders can expect. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/92xUr-NptOI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Paris-Roubaix.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eDsZkvkf_lw">To ride these cobbled stages</a>, bicycle frames may use a different geometry when compared to those used on tarmac or asphalt. These bikes may be longer in length to help smooth the ride. Riders will also often use extra padded bar tape and wider tyres to absorb the vibrations and sometimes extra brake levers are added to help them stop quickly in the peloton.</p>
<h2>Higher ground</h2>
<p>During the hilly and mountain stages, when the race passes through both the Alps and the Pyrenees, the teams will send their riders out on the lightest bikes possible. The lighter a bike is, the faster it will go uphill. A professional rider may be able to generate and sustain 6.4 watts of power per kilogram on a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10378916">typical alpine climb</a> whereas a recreational rider may only be able to achieve half of that ratio. As a result, the bike’s weight will be as close to the <a href="http://www.bikeradar.com/road/news/article/ucis-outdated-6-8kg-minimum-bike-weight-rule-to-be-replaced-40656/">regulation minimum</a> of 6.8kg as possible and lightweight wheels will be used to minimise the impact of rotating mass which could slow a bike’s acceleration when a rider wishes to attack others when on a climb.</p>
<h2>Time trial tech</h2>
<p>Stage 20 this year will showcase the real importance of cycling aerodynamics. This relatively flat individual time trial will see the riders trying to generate maximum power while minimising aerodynamic drag. Put simply, the more aerodynamic you are, the faster you will go (or the more energy you can save) <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02844004">for the same power</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51382/original/dqv8bhp8-1403014893.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bradley Wiggins on a time trial.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/waterboyzoo/9368662257/sizes/l">Waterboyzoo</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The bicycles used for this are highly specialised, with filled-in disc rear wheels and low drag frames. The riders themselves will assume a riding style that makes them look a lot like a downhill skier with their arms angled directly in front of their chest and torso to minimise their frontal area. They’ll use aerobars and wear a teardrop shaped helmet to reach speeds that can average 50km an hour.</p>
<h2>Staying in touch on level ground</h2>
<p>One of the more controversial new technologies in professional cycling has been the use of team radios to relay orders and information during the race. The organisers have even <a href="http://www.stltoday.com/sports/riders-angry-over-losing-radios-tour-de-france-experiment-at/article_3105afc2-48ca-53bd-a2a3-b2f73145f12f.html">experimented with removing the riders’ earpieces</a> in an effort to add more drama to the racing.</p>
<p>It is true that radio technology is often used to influence the result. Flat terrain typically results in a mass sprint but sometimes a small group of riders will break away at an early point in a stage and try to hold onto the lead until its end. However, these early escapes are rarely successful because the team cars and the riders following the breakaway can calculate the distance between the breakaway group and the “peloton” and then use radio transmitters to determine how fast they need to move to control or close the gap. It’s very hard for the breakaway group, typically containing just a few cyclists, to overcome the horsepower of 200 chasing riders armed with precise knowledge of the wherabouts of their quarry.</p>
<h2>Do it yourself</h2>
<p>Technology is a major part of the tour these days but that has not always been the case. In the early editions of the event over a hundred years ago, the riders were very much expected to compete alone and be self-sufficient.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=956&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=956&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=956&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1202&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1202&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/51386/original/7nqnyg5v-1403015350.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1202&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eugène Christophe.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When the forks of Eugène Christophe’s bike snapped mid-race in 1913, he had to visit a local blacksmith and then re-weld them himself. It was later discovered that Christophe had enlisted the help of a local boy to pump the bellows for the forge and as a result, he was later penalised for receiving outside assistance.</p>
<p>The use of new developments in cycling technology was frowned upon too. The tour’s organisers didn’t even allow the use of mechanical gear changing systems until 1913. Before this, a rider would have to stop, unbolt their rear wheel and flip it over so they could switch to a single cog mounted on the other side of the hub. In the event of a puncture, they rode with spare tyres looped around their torsos.</p>
<h2>Battling bodies and brains</h2>
<p>Technology is now, of course, a fundamental part of riding the tour. And it stretches far beyond the bicycles themselves. Preparations for the race will have begun long before the start and the clothing riders wear, the bicycles they ride and the nutrition they take are finely honed products that can take months or even years to develop.</p>
<p>When they’re not actually riding, recovery technology is used to prepare them for the next stage. Riders will have massages, wear compression clothing and take ice baths to help reduce muscle soreness and inflammation. The key principle here is that winners are not always the strongest but those who possibly tire the least over the three weeks.</p>
<p>Each team of riders is supported by doctors, mechanics, physiologists, coaches and operational management. There are multiple team cars and buses which house their equipment and spares. They become, in effect, a mobile business and garage for the duration of the race.</p>
<p>Professional bike racing has been referred to as “chess on wheels” as the smartest rider and team, not the strongest, often win. We’ll find out if this is the case this year from July 5.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27957/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Dyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Tour de France is one of the most iconic and physically demanding sporting events in the world. Held annually since 1903, it has evolved from a simple test of endurance and speed to a festival of technology…Bryce Dyer, Senior Lecturer in Product Design, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/244042014-03-30T19:46:21Z2014-03-30T19:46:21ZIn the long run: keeping track of athletes with wearable tech<p>With the AFL season in full swing many of us are glued to our screens marvelling at the speed and tactics of the athletes. </p>
<p>Midfielders, such as ex-Cat-now-Sun Gary Ablett Jnr, can run between <a href="http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/factsheets/sports/australian_rules_football">12 and 20km</a> in a match, ranging from slow jogs to high-intensity bursts of sprinting.</p>
<p>Even forwards – such as Hawk-turned-Swan Lance “Buddy” Franklin – average <a href="http://mm.afl.com.au/portals/0/2012/2011-afl-gps-report.pdf">around 13km</a> per game.</p>
<p>But today’s coaches aren’t satisfied with analysing highlights footage post-match to get these stats – they want to know how fast a player runs, track exactly where they run, and collect data on the movements of all players individually and as a group in real time.</p>
<p>To help gather and collate this information, the CSIRO has developed an exceptionally accurate wireless position location system that works anywhere that current global positioning system (<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-gps-12248">GPS</a>) satellites can’t reach – handy when foul weather means the roof of Etihad Stadium is shut!</p>
<h2>Athlete monitoring and stats</h2>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44960/original/jm7b7d8j-1395964599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Essendon captain Jobe Watson modelling the Catapult tracking device.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO/Catapult</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sports fans among us have seen the proliferation of wearable GPS devices in professional sports such as AFL and the rugby codes, where tracking devices are worn between the shoulder blades of the athletes. </p>
<p>And it is not limited to the professionals, as any Lycra-clad weekend cyclist with a GPS-enabled smartphone will tell you.</p>
<p>By tracking athletes and measuring heart rates it is possible to monitor fatigue, track player movements in relation to each other, plan team strategies and improve training.</p>
<p>The next revolution is to make it all possible indoors and under stadium roofs, and with the new CSIRO indoor tracking system the future is already upon us.</p>
<p>With the addition of the CSIRO wireless ad-hoc system for positioning (<a href="http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/ICT-and-Services/People-and-businesses/Position-Location-System.aspx">WASP</a>) technology, these parameters can all be measured under the roof of the Docklands stadium, in ice hockey rinks, netball centres and indoor velodromes. The device, called <a href="http://www.catapultsports.com/system/indoor/">ClearSky</a>, is produced by Victorian company Catapult Sports which supplies GPS devices to the international elite sports market, including the US National Football League (<a href="http://www.nfl.com/">NFL</a>) and European football leagues.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AMa73ljihJw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Already AFL teams have been trialling the system in pre-season and in their training programs.</p>
<p>(The technology is not limited to sports, of course. In the mining space CSIRO has <a href="http://csironewsblog.com/2013/08/20/wireless-wasps-let-loose-in-underground-mines/">licensed the technology</a> to a South Australian based company, Minetec. Its customers include open cut and underground mines and assists with improved operations production and safety.)</p>
<h2>How does the WASP work?</h2>
<p>The WASP indoor technology works much like a GPS system, but instead of using satellites in space, the WASP system uses fixed reference nodes that need to be located either within the building or just outside. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44964/original/w26z6xj7-1395965501.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nodes – which act as satellites – triangulate an athlete’s position to accuracy of 20cm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Catapult</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In football stadiums, the wall at the front of the upper levels of seating is the ideal location. The mobile devices measure the time it takes signals to travel from each of the fixed nodes, and triangulate to work out their position. </p>
<p>The technical challenge when doing this indoors is that the signals bounce off walls, resulting in multiple signal paths which must be taken into account (called multipath interference). This does not happen in outdoor GPS systems, where the satellites are all in a line of sight of the mobile devices, and as such it is much easier to triangulate.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44963/original/6xr7jg52-1395964602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A node. The system works under closed roofs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO/Catapult</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>CSIRO’s WASP system has accuracy down to 20cm (compared to metre accuracy for GPS), has high resistance to multipath interference, long range operation, high update rate and simple deployment, so it’s precise, sensitive and reliable. </p>
<p>Its unique set of features is well suited to a wide range of commercial and industrial applications for which no other solution currently exists. </p>
<p>In addition to tracking, the system also provides direct proximity detection between nodes for safety applications and provides more than 6Mbps data communication between devices.</p>
<p>The new technology opens up a vast range of exciting possibilities for revolutionising the way we organise our lives, ensure safe working environments, optimise factory operations, and support in-home health care.</p>
<p>Outdoor GPS based systems have already penetrated many aspects of our daily lives. Car navigation systems have replaced paper maps, and smartphone electronic maps have ended the need for planning your day’s activities ahead of time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44962/original/r556g6jm-1395964601.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Dallas Cowboys using Catapult technology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO/Catapult</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>After the final siren</h2>
<p>Having solved the basic indoor wireless location problem, the next challenge is to extend the system to be fully integrated with existing cellular and Wi-Fi systems, and free the mobile sensor on the athlete from needing any reference nodes at all. </p>
<p>The future concept is to have all the mobile nodes simply self-referencing off each other. The potential then is for even more flexible use of the technology, extending to applications such as security, occupational safety, emergency response, virtual online gaming and in-home assisted living.</p>
<p>Wireless technology continues to surprise. Sensors and other devices get smaller and more wearable. The data they collect is more detailed and offers smarter analytics. </p>
<p>Having a mobile device that allows seamless location finding, both indoors and outdoors, cannot help but lead us to a truly extraordinary set of possibilities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/24404/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Iain Collings leads the CSIRO team that developed the WASP system.</span></em></p>With the AFL season in full swing many of us are glued to our screens marvelling at the speed and tactics of the athletes. Midfielders, such as ex-Cat-now-Sun Gary Ablett Jnr, can run between 12 and 20km…Iain Collings, Deputy Chief, Computational Informatics Division, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/242502014-03-14T10:27:57Z2014-03-14T10:27:57ZThe incredible tech behind Paralympian daredevil stunts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43620/original/m6mhk5hd-1394561632.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Austria's Roman Rabl makes light work of the Sochi slopes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Vassil Donev</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Watching the Paralympics makes us forget about the term “disability” and the idea that sport with a disability is about limitations. The athletes on the slopes and rinks at Sochi are showing us that theirs is a ruthless, competitive environment.</p>
<p>Alongside the athlete, technology has long been a part of sport. Every event, whether it’s cycling, sailing or skiing requires uniquely designed technology. Over in Sochi right now, athletes are showcasing the greatest of innovations being pushed to the limits of their design.</p>
<h2>Bluetoothing to victory</h2>
<p>Visually impaired skiing at Sochi has attracted a lot of interest, with Great Britain’s gold medallist <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/disability-sport/26504413">Kelly Gallagher</a> and her guide Charlotte Evans taking gold with the help of bluetooth wireless headsets that enable them to communicate all the way down the slope. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43622/original/bgkcw7jd-1394562201.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kelly Gallagher and Charlotte Evans stay connected on the slope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Vassil Donev</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the visually impaired categories, the guide helps the athlete by skiing in front of them and telling them about the course and conditions through the headset. That is no mean feat when you consider the speeds involved and the degree of trust required between the two athletes when one of them is relying on the vision of the other.</p>
<h2>60mph on a chair</h2>
<p>Many Paralympians make use of a sit ski when they take to the slopes. This is essentially a seat mounted to a single ski. To help maintain control, the skier uses a pole in each hand which has a smaller ski mounted on the end.</p>
<p>The skiers might seem to start relatively sedately but by the time they are halfway down the slope, they are already moving at 60 miles an hour and still accelerating.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43621/original/yrhwrcxb-1394561791.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Switzerland’s Christoph Kunz competes in the men’s super-G sitting race.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Ennio Leanza</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since many of the athletes do not have lower limbs, they often have no easy means of absorbing the huge impacts, vibrations and shocks that able-bodied skiers would typically absorb using their legs when hurtling down hill at these speeds. Instead they use a sprung suspension system mounted below the chair, attached to the composite ski. The speeds are high, the crashes often severe and the technology has to help to maximise the former while not contributing to the latter.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, if outright speed isn’t your thing, consider biathlon. It combines the exhausting demands of cross-country skiing with the ability to periodically stop suddenly, compose yourself and then accurately fire a rifle at a series of targets. Visually impaired para-biathletes take a unique approach to the shooting side of the event, using electro-acoustic headphones to effectively “aim” by listening to a tone that varies in pitch as they move their gun on target.</p>
<h2>You vs me and my metal cage</h2>
<p>Over in team sports, sledge hockey players are putting their equipment under serious stress. The sport is played in the same way as conventional ice hockey and that includes all the high impact collisions. Players sit on metal sledge frames, which provide a protective cage for the lower part of their torso and limbs. These sledges have to survive the continual battering of players constantly charging into each with all their might throughout a 45 minute match.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/43619/original/q8byxsbm-1394561172.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paralympic ice hockey players double up on blades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">PA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That means bodily impact and impact from the from the formidable, multi-purpose sticks players wield in each hand. The engineers behind Paralympic ice hockey have designed the equipment with multiple needs in mind so these have a curved blade at one end to strike the puck an a metal pick at the other which gives the player the means to obtain traction and push forwards when they need to move.</p>
<h2>Sochi debut</h2>
<p>One of the newest additions to this year’s Winter Paralympics is snowboarding, where prostheses are at the fore. Some of the athletes with a lower-limb amputation are using specialised prostheses that are vastly different to those you see in other sports, such as the <a href="http://www.ossur.com/prosthetic-solutions/products/feet">Cheetah Flex Foot</a> often used in athletics.</p>
<p>Some of the designs use linkages and pneumatic springs to help absorb the landing forces that snowboarders are often subjected to after extreme jumps. The design of these is challenging because the leg needs to maximise the athletes’ ability to absorb any impact yet perform manoeuvres without being restricted by weight and mobility. It also needs to be comfortable for the athlete as it attaches to their residual limb, which can be very sensitive.</p>
<p>The Paralympic Games showcases novel sports that require innovative solutions to get the best from athletes, be it through engineering, wireless technology or adaptation of traditional equipment. Years of training and preparation go into these sports but the outcome of each event can often be decided in just a few seconds of effort.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/24250/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Dyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Watching the Paralympics makes us forget about the term “disability” and the idea that sport with a disability is about limitations. The athletes on the slopes and rinks at Sochi are showing us that theirs…Bryce Dyer, Senior Lecturer in Product Design, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/229852014-03-05T10:29:38Z2014-03-05T10:29:38ZHard Evidence: how will the 2014 World Cup ball swerve?<p>There are now only a few months to go until the biggest sporting event of 2014 – the FIFA World Cup in Brazil – and questions are being asked. Will the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/10674397/World-Cup-2014-Stadium-delays-are-threat-to-fans-safety-says-Fifa-head-of-security.html">stadiums</a> be ready? Are the <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/20/us-soccer-world-airlines-idUSBREA1J2B620140220">airports</a> ready for the crowds?</p>
<p>But one matter rises above all others – and may have an impact on the destiny of the cup itself: how will the ball move through the air?</p>
<p>The words “Love me or Lose me” appear beside Adidas’s new World Cup football – <a href="http://www.adidas.co.uk/worldcup">the Brazuca</a> – on billboards the world over. They implore the reader to accept the football for what it is and may be a subtle nod to the controversy which dogged the Brazuca’s ancestors: the Jabulani and Teamgeist.</p>
<p>Since 1970, every World Cup football has been made by Adidas, an ideal opportunity to showcase their latest developments in ball design and technology. In 2006 they took a radical departure from the norm with the Teamgeist. Traditionally, a football is constructed from 32 panels stitched together by hand. The Teamgeist had 14 panels which were glued together with heat (thermally bonded), resulting in a ball more “marble-like” than previous generations. </p>
<p>The change was not only aesthetic. Players using the ball complained of erratic behaviour in flight. For the next World Cup (South Africa, 2010) Adidas had considerably redesigned the ball – the Jabulani – which had only eight thermally bonded panels. Unfortunately, the criticism of the ball was, if anything, louder than it had been four years earlier. Many coaches and players compared the Jabulani to a beach ball which swerves unpredictably.</p>
<p>What, if anything, went wrong? And will the same fate greet the new ball, the Brazuca, which has just six polyurethane panels? Many of the barbs aimed at the previous footballs commented on their unnatural lightness – hence the frequent comparisons to beach balls – but both the Teamgeist and Jabulani are just below the maximum mass limit of 445g (the lower limit is 420g). </p>
<p>Their radical design is different from a standard stitched football in two ways. First, fewer panels mean shorter seams. By my own measurements, a 32-panel football has a seam length of around 405cm, compared to 345cm on the Teamgeist and 203cm on the Jabulani. Second, thermal bonding created a much lower seam profile. A laser-scan of the surface of the Jabulani and a stitched football shows the stitched seam is more than twice as deep as the Jabulani’s. The floating, beach ball-like behaviour of these footballs isn’t because they are light, but because they are smooth.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41617/original/byy86xr9-1392581383.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A laser scanned profile of the seams from a 32-panel stitched football and the adidas Jabulani.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Hart, Centre for Sports Engineering Research, Sheffield Hallam University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As air flows over a smooth, sleek object, it hugs the surface until it has passed over it completely, creating very little drag. Air flowing over a ball behaves differently, it separates from the surface, creating an area of low pressure behind it – a wake. The low pressure region creates drag force and slows the ball. At low speeds, the air flow is smooth (laminar) and separates early, creating a large wake and relatively high drag force. As speed increases the air becomes more chaotic (turbulent) which helps it stick to the ball for longer, reducing the size of the wake and lowering drag force.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=221&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=221&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=221&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41618/original/y8hrbpsv-1392581662.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The wake behind a scale-model football at low (left image) and high (right image) air speed. The difference in the size of wake is clear.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Carre MJ, Goodwill SR, Haake SJ / Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Crucially, the seams of a football disturb the air helping it to enter “low drag” at lower speeds. A perfectly smooth football would be unplayable; high levels of drag would radically alter the behaviour of the ball. In addition, at certain speeds a ball can experience smooth and chaotic air flow over different regions of its surface. The resulting asymmetrical wake creates a force imbalance, pushing the ball in a particular direction. While cricket and baseball players take advantage of this effect to create <a href="http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/258645.html">swing</a>, in football the effect occurs at speeds too low to be useful.</p>
<p>The image below shows the drag behaviour of a 32-panel football, it enters low drag at around 60kmph, at which point the chaotic or smooth method of swerving is mostly unavailable. The swerve in football is generated by <a href="http://physicsbuzz.physicscentral.com/2012/06/perfect-free-kick-and-magnus-effect.html">spinning the ball</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41619/original/354m87r5-1392581958.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How the drag of a 32-panel football (measured as the coefficient of drag) changes with air speed. Data obtained from a wind tunnel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Takeshi Asai, University of Tsukuba, Japan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The kind of shots which caused trouble in 2006 and 2010 were flat, because the ball had very little spin. The ball seemed to move unpredictably, suddenly swerving and changing direction. Due to the balls’ smoothness, chaotic or smooth airflow could occur at ball speeds experienced during shots and free kicks. In addition, low spin causes the forces acting on the ball to change direction rapidly and unpredictably, leading to unstable flight. This is equivalent to a particular pitch in baseball called the “<a href="http://baseball.physics.illinois.edu/knuckleball.html">knuckleball</a>”.</p>
<p>This effect can occur with other footballs but importantly, the increased smoothness of the Jabulani and Teamgeist made it occur more frequently, at speeds regularly experienced in play.</p>
<p>Will the new Brazuca behave in the same way? There are a couple of reasons why I don’t expect the same amount of controversy at this World Cup. Although the Brazuca uses the same thermal bonding technology of previous generations, the seams are much deeper. This is obvious when handling the ball and a laser scan shows a depth of 1.56 mm, 50% deeper than our 32-panel ball and three times deeper than the Jabulani.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41620/original/rxmfwz4b-1392582254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The scanned seam profile from the adidas Brazuca.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Hart, Centre for Sports Engineering Research, Sheffield Hallam University.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With six panels, the Brazuca has the fewest panels of any World Cup football. However, I measured the seam length to be 327cm, greater than the Jabulani. Each panel <a href="http://www.soccerbible.com/news/general/archive/2013/12/03/adidas-brazuca-world-cup-ball-testing.aspx">resembles a four-armed windmill</a> and doesn’t have the large regions of smoothness present on previous panel designs, which further avoids the chaotic or smooth airflow problem. </p>
<p>To complete the argument, the figure below shows the aerodynamic performance of a 32-panel football, a Brazuca and a Jabulani. Notice how the Brazuca behaves very similarly to the 32-panel football and how the Jabulani doesn’t enter low drag until nearly 90kmph, making it prone to the chaotic or smooth behaviour described earlier.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41621/original/9drq364d-1392582326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The aerodynamic data for a 32-panel football, the adidas Jabulani and the adidas Brazuca. Data obtained from a wind tunnel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Takeshi Asai, University of Tsukuba, Japan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is interesting to note that the frenzied media reports regarding the odd behaviour of the Jabulani died down once the matches had begun in earnest. While players and coaches may well find something to complain about with the Brazuca, it is certainly not a beach ball.</p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/hard-evidence">Hard Evidence</a> is a series of articles in which academics use research evidence to tackle the trickiest public policy questions.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22985/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Choppin works for the Centre of Sports Engineering Research, Sheffield Hallam University who consult for adidas.</span></em></p>There are now only a few months to go until the biggest sporting event of 2014 – the FIFA World Cup in Brazil – and questions are being asked. Will the stadiums be ready? Are the airports ready for the…Simon Choppin, Research fellow, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/237702014-03-03T19:38:47Z2014-03-03T19:38:47ZWar robots and the 2014 World Cup – defenders off the field<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42885/original/n3w8679d-1393810352.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A team of 30 PackBots – one shown here being used in Afghanistan – will boost security in Brazil during the World Cup.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/soldiersmediacenter/2879759988/sizes/l/">The U.S. Army/Flickr (cropped)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>High-tech robots called <a href="http://www.irobot.com/en/us/learn/defense/packbot.aspx">PackBots</a> will be <a href="http://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/irobot-military-bots-to-patrol-2014-world-cup-in-brazil/">unleashed</a> during the 2014 <a href="http://www.fifa.com/">FIFA</a> World Cup in Brazil to help boost security and examine suspicious objects. </p>
<p>The Brazilian government purportedly spent <a href="http://robohub.org/packbot-serving-the-military-and-world-cup-football/">US$7.2 million</a> to buy 30 military-grade robots from designers <a href="http://www.irobot.com.au/About-IRobot">iRobot</a> that will police the stadiums throughout Brazil’s 12 host cities during soccer matches.</p>
<p>PackBot is a hunk of metal with an extendable arm and tactile claw, jam-packed on-board <a href="http://phys.org/news11166.html">sensors</a> and a computer with overheat protection, nine high-resolution cameras and lasers and two-way audio. </p>
<p>But is it overkill to implement wartime robots to a sporting event?</p>
<h2>Sport’s history of violence</h2>
<p>On April 30 1993, then-world number 1 tennis sensation Monica Seles was <a href="http://espn.go.com/espnw/news-commentary/article/9226901/espnw-stabbing-stole-monica-seles-tennis-career">stabbed</a> in the back while playing a quarter-final at <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/tennis/germany-knife-attack-on-monica-seles-changed-face-of-sport/story-fnbe6xeb-1226632270388">Hamburg’s Rothenbaum</a>. She was only 19. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4F_uotrIEZo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>That incident not only changed the course of women’s tennis history but also changed the face of security in sport. </p>
<p>Of course, we can also point to the <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/%7Eachaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Munich_massacre.html">Munich massacre</a> of the 11 members of the Israeli Olympic team during the <a href="http://www.olympic.org/munich-1972-summer-olympics">1972 Summer Olympics</a> in West Germany in rethinking approaches to the safety of high-profile athletes. </p>
<p>It was Seles’ plight however, that brought attention to an ever-increasing problem of public figure security. Her stabbing in Hamburg had naught to do with terrorism, and more to do with her perpetrator’s fixation on arch rival Steffi Graf. Player safety was going to become even bigger business.</p>
<p>It was floated that the Rothenbaum tournament organisers had spent A$650,000 on security, and that Seles herself had employed security guards to protect her at all her tournament appearances. So what went wrong?</p>
<h2>The human factor</h2>
<p>Not only are people unpredictable but intervention is almost impossible if one cannot anticipate the actions of another. On November 13 1982, one of Australia’s great wicket takers <a href="http://www.espncricinfo.com/australia/content/player/3943.html">Terry Alderman</a> made a costly mistake when he took security matters into his own hands. </p>
<p>The West Australian was disabled for over a year with a shoulder injury he sustained when he <a href="http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/341460.html">came off second best</a> after attempting to tackle an English-supporting ground invader at the WACA Ground in Perth.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42876/original/23pvmh3p-1393808787.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The after-game kick-to-kick tradition at the MCG is a rare sight these days.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/flying_cloud/3829266412/sizes/l/">Flying Cloud/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Such has become the concern over security that spectators can no longer spill onto the grounds after the final siren to get close to their heroes. </p>
<p>Pitch invasions had long been a tradition of Australian Football League (<a href="http://www.afl.com.au/">AFL</a>), and at the end of matches supporters could run onto the field to celebrate the game and play kick-to-kick with their family and friends. </p>
<p>But in recent years stricter controls were introduced and finally the “rushing the field” was banned, to the <a href="http://www.bigfooty.com/forum/threads/did-i-miss-kick-to-kick-being-banned.439374/">great disappointment</a> of fans.</p>
<h2>The non-human factor</h2>
<p>What makes PackBots attractive for civilian security situations, such as large-scale sporting tournaments?</p>
<p>PackBots made their debut in Afghanistan as far back as 2002. During the “war on terror” these uninhabited systems had <a href="http://www.army-guide.com/eng/product2717.html">several tasks</a>: </p>
<ul>
<li>to clear bunkers</li>
<li>search in caves</li>
<li>enter collapsed buildings in search of life</li>
<li>cross minefields</li>
<li>conduct surveillance. </li>
</ul>
<p>This began a trend of development subsequently in Iraq and other US conflicts, until recently when they went where no human would want to go, the Fukushima nuclear facility in March 2011 after the devastation of the Japanese tsunami.</p>
<p>There are certainly <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/abstractAuthors.jsp?arnumber=6213860">positive uses</a> to these uninhabited systems which few would argue against.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/eaP0waiz43w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The next generation warrior: Packbot in the field in action in Afghanistan in 2002.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>PackBots can move faster than 14km/h, rotate 360 degrees, traverse rugged terrain, climb up 60% grades and even swim in water, being able to cope with being <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/04/object-of-interest-the-packbot.html">submerged</a> up to two metres. It can even be remotely operated with hardly any lag using a joystick. </p>
<p>iRobot’s bots are not recent entries into the commercial market. No, many of us would have been introduced to the domestication of the robot by the introduction of the company’s <a href="http://www.irobot.com/us/learn/home/roomba.aspx">Roomba</a> household cleaning machine.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Of2HU3LGdbo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Roombas: sometimes for cleaning, often for cat videos.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And the use of electronics in sport isn’t new. <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-hawk-eye-for-detail-how-accurate-is-electronic-judging-in-sport-8136">Hawk-Eye</a> officiates whether the ball was in or out of the sideline, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-03-01/drones-set-for-large-scale-commercial-take-off/4546556">FoxCopter</a> hovers above spectators at the cricket just to give us up-close personal shots of players and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/media-misses-point-on-crickets-decision-review-system-16086">third umpire</a> adjudicates challenges. </p>
<p>But now the PackBots are coming: ostensibly precise, they are not supposed to malfunction or act against the controller’s wishes (or those instructions that they have been programmed with) and they cannot be easily destroyed. In the not-so-distant future they could use their cameras to observe you, their chemical sensors to breathalyse you, their extended arm to trap you and their claw to handcuff you.</p>
<p>We are giving over control to machine entities, or better still, “objects and units” outside of ourselves. </p>
<p>In fact <a href="https://theconversation.com/lethal-autonomous-robots-whos-really-in-control-15305">many argue</a> we have already <a href="https://theconversation.com/lethal-autonomous-robots-must-be-stopped-in-their-tracks-14843">lost great chunks</a> of our autonomy without the expected commensurate increase in security. Will the natural instincts and creative inputs of human beings become increasingly redundant in a world where the “tin man” has the final say?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/23770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katina Michael receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC). She is affiliated with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Australian Privacy Foundation (APF).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>MG Michael does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>High-tech robots called PackBots will be unleashed during the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil to help boost security and examine suspicious objects. The Brazilian government purportedly spent US$7.2 million…Katina Michael, Associate Professor, School of Information Systems and Technology, University of WollongongMG Michael, Honorary Associate Professor, School of Information Systems and Technology, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/186102013-09-28T23:45:14Z2013-09-28T23:45:14ZDo we really need elite sports training in schools?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/32059/original/rrrwhm6w-1380255204.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1400%2C3346%2C3055&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Elite sports training is starting earlier and earlier – but is this always a good thing?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">School sport image from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A short conversation with a parent a number of years ago made me realise the extent of the problems we have in youth sport. This parent wanted advice on how to make his child faster and stronger to ensure he would become a professional soccer player. </p>
<p>After advising him that the services he required would be expensive, he replied: “don’t worry about the cost, my son’s career will be my superannuation”.</p>
<p>This left me astounded. The child was nine years old.</p>
<p>Sport is an integral part of the social and cultural landscape of Australia, and its physical and psychological benefits are <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/32/2/111">well-documented</a>. However, where once sport was considered a pastime, it has now evolved into a potential career choice. The catch is there are only a relative few who can make a career out of sport.</p>
<p>Sports science has had <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-02-10/dank-to-sue-for-defamation/4510980">some bad press of late</a>. And now a series of reports surrounding elite sport in schools, including the Scots College sports science unit, has added further fuel to the anti-sport scientist fire. </p>
<p>The school has been accused of <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/college-accused-of-buying-team-with-scholarships-20130923-2uabj.html">“buying” athletic students</a> with scholarships, giving supplements to students and providing over the top high-tech sport equipment. The school’s new high-performance centre has a resident sports scientist and a “<a href="http://www.theage.com.au/national/education/stakes-high-as-schools-dabble-in-elite-approach-to-success-20130924-2ucad.html">hypoxic chamber</a>” – a device to simulate training at high altitudes.</p>
<p>The traditional role of sport scientists is to maximise the potential of athletes whilst ensuring the risk of injury is minimised, whether that injury is physical or psychological. </p>
<p>So it’s not the involvement of sport scientists in schools per se that is the issue – injuries can be reduced and programs can be systematically monitored. After all, over-training among young athletes is a common problem. But the benefits of a sport science unit can be all be for nothing if the focus is purely on servicing the elite and not ensuring all students are able to fulfil their potential.</p>
<p>It all boils down to the reason we have sport in the first place. Somewhere in time, many parents, coaches and schools have got confused, and started to believe that the goal is to be elite. This concept of “elite” has then seemingly become a selling point for certain schools. They have created professional facilities in order to sell parents and students the dream of becoming a future professional athlete. </p>
<p>Otherwise why would a school have an hypoxic altitude chamber? If it is there to impress prospective parents and justify extensive fees – a kind of pricey marketing tool – then it could be understood.</p>
<p>But from a sport science perspective spending significant money on gaining a minimal, if any advantage, from an altitude chamber demonstrates a poor understanding of sport science and even poorer understanding of what is required to become an elite athlete. It is nearly laughable that school aged children would be using such equipment when so many basic changes can be made to improve performance. </p>
<p>There is a real concern that this kind of equipment is not really about enhancing the student but more about making an impression.</p>
<p>It is also a concern that many seem to want youngsters to stick to one sport early on, or what we call “early specialisation”. The reasoning is that this will give them the best chance to be “elite” with the mythical 10,000 hour rule often quoted. This rule suggests you need 10,000 hours of deliberate practice to become elite. Nevermind that this rule is based on research completed on <a href="http://matt.colorado.edu/teaching/highcog/fall8/cs73.pdf">chess players</a>, <a href="http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/gel/EricssonDeliberatePracticePR93.pdf">violinists and pianists</a>, not sportsmen. </p>
<p>The problem with early specialisation is the distinct decrease in exposure to a variety of movement patterns. If you are only solving the one movement puzzle we can be assured that we will have athletes of lower quality and <a href="http://www.yorku.ca/bakerj/High%20Ability%20Studies%20paper.pdf">increase the risk of injury through overuse</a>. </p>
<p>And with all the focus on being school sport “elite”, who is there to pick up the pieces when the dream of being a professional sportsman is shattered? What is the psychological cost when they get to 17 and do not fulfill the elite dream? What has been the cost to their schooling, their family and to their basic social development by chasing a dream that, in most cases, is not possible and may not have even been their own. </p>
<p>Rather than focusing on the elite, we should focus on the 99% that won’t make a living from sport, and ensure they are physically active for life.</p>
<p>We should always promote the desire to fulfil ones’ dreams but the concern is that with all the time spent training, the dream may become blurred, particularly when the dream is really that of the parents, coaches or the schools. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/18610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Duncan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A short conversation with a parent a number of years ago made me realise the extent of the problems we have in youth sport. This parent wanted advice on how to make his child faster and stronger to ensure…Craig Duncan, Senior Lecturer and Sports Science Consultant, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/160862013-07-15T06:07:13Z2013-07-15T06:07:13ZMedia misses point on cricket’s Decision Review System<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/27462/original/zsmj23pj-1373867560.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australia fell just short in the first Ashes Test.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/David Jones</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The first Ashes Test was indeed a veritable thriller. England <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-07-15/andersons-10-wicket-haul-ends-australia-resistance/4819554">edged Australia</a> by a mere 14 runs, after an absorbing four-and-a-half days of action to go one-up in the best-of-five series. For those not well versed on the sport, only a dozen or so of more than 2000 Tests dating back to 1877 have been decided by fewer runs.</p>
<p>Partly because of the closeness of the match, much of the <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/sport/cricket/proud-clarke-admits-drs-failings-20130715-2pyrc.html">media focus</a> has centred on decision outcomes arising from the Decision Review System (DRS). This system, which allows up to two incorrect challenges per innings, is in economic terms a resource like any other – a scarce one, and one to be used, lest it be lost.</p>
<p>Opening with a disclaimer, I have absolutely no sympathy for my team here. No Australian cricket fans were complaining back in the pre-DRS era in 2008 when the <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qo3UQkKReOk">Andrew Symonds incident</a> in Sydney arguably turned the entire series against India in Australia’s favour. I could even excuse Doug Bollinger for his infamous dummy spit in Adelaide a couple of summers later against the West Indies when the system was still in its infancy, but by now there is no longer any excuse for such irrationality.</p>
<p>What is not in dispute is that the DRS has significantly reduced the incidents of incorrect umpiring decisions being allowed to effectively stand, relative to the previous status quo. This is also true in tennis, yet the consensus is that it works perfectly well in that sport. This helps tell the economist in me that there is very little, if anything at all, wrong with the system itself in cricket. But try telling that to various print and broadcast journalists.</p>
<p>Many local scribes over the weekend into today have sadly succumbed to the temptation to pander to the masses of their readership. Since Australian fans want to have our spleen vented in one united voice right now (among other ways) by reading what we want to hear – that “we woz robbed” – sports writers have a strong incentive to serve up precisely that, even if it misses the entire point.</p>
<p>As an economist, of ultimate policy-related importance is that what the DRS did was to re-assign some (albeit small) proportion of decision-making power from the umpires to the players themselves. But what is being ignored in the DRS discourse is the commensurate responsibility that comes with that power.</p>
<p>Sure, Aleem Dar’s <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/sport/cricket/crickets-ethics-demanded-that-stuart-broad-walk-20130713-2pwe8.html">third-day call on Stuart Broad</a> was indeed a howler, and that wasn’t the only injustice served up by the men in white during this Test either. But why is it that no-one seems to be willing to give Australian captain Michael Clarke and his men the unconditional lambasting they deserve for wilfully squandering their unsuccessful challenges like a bunch of drunken sailors on tour?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Rel6XR-vOGo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Aleem Dar failed to give English batsman Stuart Broad out, but does the fault lie with the Australians using their reviews poorly?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An argument here might be to say that (former Australian wicketkeeper Adam Gilchrist’s <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/10/26/1067103274199.html">views on walking</a> aside) professional athletes cannot be trusted for complete honesty anyway. So why bother holding them to account like we have always done to the umpires?</p>
<p>However, this argument is weak at best. In fact, if I were Stuart Broad, I too would have defiantly stood my ground. What’s more, rather than looking sheepish about it, I would have backed it up by giving the Australian players a right old bollocking – or perhaps sledging – telling them (in laymen’s terms) that if they were not so systematically and profligately quick on the trigger with their challenges, I’d be back in the pavilion by now…so suck it up, laddies!</p>
<p>Even more worrying was that the harsh lessons from the third innings of the match were not heeded in the final innings, when Australia once again exhausted their challenges early on (though they had already benefited once from one correct challenge). Imagine if Brad Haddin had not actually nicked the ball, yet were incorrectly shown the index finger.</p>
<p>Economics, particularly on the micro side, is about decision-making. I am yet to meet a cricket-loving microeconomist who thinks the DRS is anything but a solid system with an appropriate treatment given to incentives and strategy. </p>
<p>It is just a pity that the Australian cricketers have not yet woken up to their responsibility of mastering the art of rationality around it, and that commentators and writers have not yet learned to correctly apportion the fair share of the blame on the players for the so-called injustices that can still arise under the system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/16086/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liam Lenten does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The first Ashes Test was indeed a veritable thriller. England edged Australia by a mere 14 runs, after an absorbing four-and-a-half days of action to go one-up in the best-of-five series. For those not…Liam Lenten, Senior Lecturer, School of Economics , La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/92782012-09-06T02:58:05Z2012-09-06T02:58:05ZPistorius shouldn’t be allowed to compete at the Paralympics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/15081/original/txym8g3s-1346826932.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sometimes having no legs is better than having one.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Jonathan Brady</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There has been a considerable amount of media coverage surrounding South African amputee sprinter <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/oscar-pistorius">Oscar Pistorius</a> who competed at the London Olympics and is now competing at the London Paralympics.</p>
<p>The coverage continued when, on August 2, Pistorius started the men’s 200m-T44 as favourite – having <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Pistorius#Disability_sports_events">dominated the event</a> since 2004 – only to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/beaten-by-a-length-pistorius-oliveira-and-paralympic-fairness-9251">beaten to the line</a> by Brazilian Alan Oliveira.</p>
<p>The result sparked <a href="https://theconversation.com/pistorius-loss-to-oliveira-fuels-the-disruptive-technology-debate-9250">a stunned and unsporting reaction</a> from Pistorius who suggested Oliveira had broken the rules by wearing prosthetic legs that were too long, giving him an unfair advantage.</p>
<h2>Overreaction or fair point?</h2>
<p>Response to this outburst generally fell into two camps: those who saw Oscar’s outburst as unsporting and those who sided with Oscar and questioned the International Paralympic Committee’s (IPC) rules and regulations on the use of prostheses.</p>
<p>In the following days, <a href="http://www.foxsports.com.au/other-sports/paralympics/paralympian-oscar-pistorius-apologises-for-the-timing-of-his-outburst-after-losing-t44-200m-title/story-fnff2dww-1226464721046">Pistorius apologised</a> for the timing of his outburst but did not retract his concern. He said he had contacted the IPC before the London Paralympics raising concerns about prosthesis lengths. I am certain the IPC would have looked into these allegations but it is not in their mandate to report directly to individual athlete concerns.</p>
<p>Because he did not get the response he wanted, Pistorius took his complaints directly to the media who have helped him develop the Oscar brand so successfully over the last five years.</p>
<p>The debate as to whether or not Oscar was cheated out of a gold medal in the 200m-T44 event is interesting for sports fans and the media has been all over the story.</p>
<p>But I want to take a step back and explore the rise of the Oscar phenomenon and suggest that, for far too long, Pistorius has been cheating the classification system that is central to the ethos of Paralympic sport.</p>
<h2>Banned before, banned again?</h2>
<p>In 2007 the <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/">International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)</a> attempted to ban the type of prosthesis Pistorius uses to run. This push was seen by many as an infringement on the rights of the disabled.</p>
<p>Pistorius himself was vitriolic when the <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/news/kind=101/newsid=42896.html">IAAF ban was announced</a>, saying that such a stance would be counterproductive to the advancement of Paralympic sport. It certainly could have negatively impacted upon the Oscar brand, but would it really have been bad for the Paralympic movement?</p>
<p>It could be argued that Pistorius – and those impaired in a similar manner such as Oliveira – should not be competing in the London Paralympic Games because to do so is unfair on the majority of athletes in their events.</p>
<p>The simple fact is that double below-the-knee amputees – such as Pistorius – have an unfair advantage over single below-the-knee amputees – the majority of Oscar’s competitors.</p>
<h2>An artificial advantage</h2>
<p>The outburst that started this recent debate was about the length of Oliveria’s blades. The IPC says that these blades are legal but to my mind the issue is all about balance.</p>
<p>According to the IPC, Pistorius is a class T43 athlete (T stands for track, the 4 represents the athletes impairment category – amputee – and the 3 is the athletes specific class – double below-the-knee) which, according to the Athletics Classification Handbook includes:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Double below-the-knee amputees and other athletes that are equivalent to a double below-the-knee amputation.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many of the athletes that Oscar competes against in Paralympic competitions are single below-the-knee amputees (T44) and as such have difficulty balancing the uneven ground forces between their human leg and the lower-leg prosthesis during running.</p>
<p>T44 athletes generally have better starts than T43 but once underway, the inertia of the balanced blades give the likes of Pistorius and Oliveira a huge advantage over 200m and 400m as the uneven forces of T44 athletes makes them more impaired.</p>
<p>IPC rules state that a less-impaired athlete cannot compete in a class with more impaired athletes because this makes the context inequitable. As counter-intuitive as it might sound, modern technology makes having no lower legs an advantage over having one.</p>
<p>Since there are not enough class T43 athletes running at an elite level (IPC rules state the ranking lists must be ten athletes deep from at least four nations) Pistorius should not be eligible to compete in the Paralympics.</p>
<h2>Pistorius isn’t alone …</h2>
<p>Many will think this is harsh but there are countless elite athletes with impairments who are not eligible to compete in the Paralympic Games for the same reason - a lack of numbers to produce exciting yet equitable competition.</p>
<p>Since the formation of the Paralympic Games in 1948, athletes with Pistorius’ impairment have competed using wheelchairs. This is partly because the technology available for walking and running was very uncomfortable during training and competition.</p>
<p>There will come a time when there are enough athletes for Pistorius to compete with on a level playing field but that time isn’t now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/9278/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>P. David Howe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There has been a considerable amount of media coverage surrounding South African amputee sprinter Oscar Pistorius who competed at the London Olympics and is now competing at the London Paralympics. The…P. David Howe, Senior Lecturer, Anthropology of Sport, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/92512012-09-03T02:03:32Z2012-09-03T02:03:32ZBeaten by a length? Pistorius, Oliveira and Paralympic fairness<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14913/original/6hjrctyf-1346636090.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Oilveira's come-from-behind victory raises questions about the advantages provided by prosthetic legs.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julian Stratenschulte/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a major upset, <a href="http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/athlete/oliveira-alan-fonteles-cardoso-5502030/">Alan Oliveira</a> of Brazil beat Oscar Pistorius to win an extraordinary T43/44 200 metre race today. But did Oliveira have an unfair advantage? </p>
<p>The 20-year-old Brazilian finished ahead of 25-year-old Pistorius in what could only be regarded as a “flying” finish to take the gold medal (you can <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-09-03/pistorius-loses-200m-crown/4239406?section=paralympics">watch the full race here</a>).</p>
<p>Pistorius’ facial expression, body language and post-race interview showed his displeasure at the loss.</p>
<p>At the heart of Pistorius’ concerns was the fact Oliveira and the American <a href="http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/athlete/leeper-blake-5510714/">Blake Leeper</a> had an unfair advantage through the lengthening of their prostheses - the blades the three athletes ran on in the race.</p>
<p>In a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/paralympic-sport/9516463/Oscar-Pistorius-stunned-as-he-is-beaten-into-second-place-by-Brazilian-Alan-Oliveira-in-T4344-200m.html">post-race interview</a>, Pistorius went on to say:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We’re not racing a fair race here. The regulations say that you can make yourself unbelievably high. I think Alan’s an unbelievable athlete but I don’t think you can come from 8m behind to win.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Can of worms</h2>
<p>The technicalities of prostheses length are best left to the <a href="http://www.paralympic.org/">International Paralympic Committee</a> (IPC) and others to argue and the legality of their use in the race could be tested through protest if Pistorius’ concerns are within the realms of race considerations.</p>
<p>But whether Pistorius realises it or not, his post-race concerns about fairness have opened a can of worms for the IPC and the <a href="http://www.olympic.org/">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC), which have been raised in academic circles since before the Beijing 2008 Olympic and Paralympic Games.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/14915/original/m2x8wp3d-1346636101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The athletes exchange a handshake after the race.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerim Okten/EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As other articles have <a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-to-the-starting-line-easier-for-some-than-others-9177">recently examined on The Conversation</a>, the whole question of fairness and having a level playing field for Paralympic athletes is a complex issue that is a combination of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-classification-at-the-paralympics-9072">classification system</a>, the cyborgs of technology, and the relative imbalance between access to sport science and technology by developed and developing nations.</p>
<p>These issues have created considerable tension within the international Paralympic sporting movement and have raised significant issues about <a href="http://soc.sagepub.com/content/45/5/868.abstract">the role of advances</a> in technology and athletes with disabilities.</p>
<p>The history of the Paralympic movement has been dominated by <a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-to-the-starting-line-easier-for-some-than-others-9177">medicalised notions</a> of disability. </p>
<p>While there is now a greater representation of people with disability within international Paralympic sport administration, efforts to “normalise” the disabled body remain and have been raised to extraordinary lengths. </p>
<p>These efforts now see the Paralympics as an international showcase for the latest breakthroughs in medicine, sport science and sport’s equivalent of the technological “arms and leg race”.</p>
<p>In an Olympic context, the “cyborg factor” - the technology-body interface - <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17511320802221802">raises significant issues</a> with respect to whether technology “normalises” the disabled body, restoring the body within normative ranges of human ability, or creates an unfair advantage by extending performance beyond normal function of what would have been an athlete’s bodily potential.</p>
<h2>Where to now?</h2>
<p>Pistorius has asked, in a very public way, whether Oliveira and Leeper’s actions of the lengthening the blade length create an advantage beyond what should be regarded as fair?</p>
<p>Apart from the notions of fairness and equality of sport performance, the question also raises further questions as to the nature and positioning of the Paralympic games as the pinnacle event for disability sport, and the involvement of athletes with disabilities who <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-define-oneself-as-less-able-a-prerequisite-for-a-paralympian-9241">use prostheses in non-disabled sporting contests</a>, including the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.</p>
<p>The answer to Pistorius’ question will be hotly debated in the press, by the IPC and the IOC over the coming hours, days, weeks, months and years as we move towards the Rio 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games.</p>
<p><strong>Further reading:</strong><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pistorius-loss-to-oliveira-fuels-the-disruptive-technology-debate-9250">Pistorius’ loss to Oliveira fuels the ‘disruptive technology’ debate</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/9251/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Darcy has received funding from the Australian Sports Commission and the Australian Paralympic Committee. Simon has also conducted research approved by the International Olympic Committee and the International Paralympic Committee.</span></em></p>In a major upset, Alan Oliveira of Brazil beat Oscar Pistorius to win an extraordinary T43/44 200 metre race today. But did Oliveira have an unfair advantage? The 20-year-old Brazilian finished ahead of…Simon Darcy, Professor & Co-Director Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Research Centre - UTS Business School, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/91142012-08-30T20:17:22Z2012-08-30T20:17:22ZOn the ball: does the AFL need to design a better footy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14820/original/3w8nh3bj-1346306326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C32%2C3070%2C2031&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More than 30 years have passed since the AFL last looked at the specifications and standards for making Australian footballs.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">puuikibeach</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the game of Australian Rules Football (as with other football codes), few pieces of equipment are more important than the football itself.</p>
<p>And yet the relative attention paid to the ball by the AFL is quite at odds with the equipment’s importance and the amount of money the league turns over. In fact, it’s been well over 30 years since the AFL last looked at the specifications and standards that determine and prescribe how an Australian football should be manufactured.</p>
<p>But recently the AFL commissioned the <a href="http://www.vu.edu.au/institute-of-sport-exercise-and-active-living-iseal">Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL)</a> at Victoria University to conduct a comprehensive review of the critical performance characteristics of Australian Rules footballs.</p>
<h2>Changes</h2>
<p>In most other football codes, such as soccer, rugby league and rugby union, administrators have actively and regularly considered the playability and performance characteristics of the ball. In soccer in particular, new balls are designed for every major championship and several manufacturers try to steal market share from the leaders by introducing new and innovative products.</p>
<p>This often involves the use of new synthetic materials, surface covers and panel composition. The fact there is much more competition between ball manufacturers in games such as rugby and soccer also drives innovation of playing equipment.</p>
<p>Whatever the governing body deems to be the important performance characteristics of the ball need to be translated into competition-specific standards. Certain elements of ball performance may be singled out as characteristics becoming the focus of its (re)design. For example, the averse effect of balls becoming heavier in wet conditions may lead to the governing body tightening the weight and water absorption specifications of the ball.</p>
<p>Of course there is a risk involved in frequently changing the performance characteristics of playing equipment, in particular when discontent is voiced by the highest profile players of the game in the world.</p>
<p>This happened during the 2010 soccer World Cup in South Africa where the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adidas_Jabulani">Jabulani ball</a>, designed for Adidas by the sport technology department of Loughborough University, was <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/fifaworldcup/news/story/2010/06/03/sp-jabulani-criticism.html">frequently criticised</a> for being too “floaty”, too light and too unpredictable.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10231975">Sport engineers at Loughborough argued</a> that objective measures indicate the Jabulani was the best ball ever produced, and that subjective views widely communicated through the mass media were largely responsible for the public verdict the ball attracted. It did not prevent Adidas from <a href="http://www.adidas-group.com/en/pressroom/archive/2010/21June2010.aspx">selling record numbers</a> of the product around the globe.</p>
<p>The AFL operates in a different playing equipment business environment compared to soccer and rugby. Australian football is only played in one viable commercial market (for ball production) – Australia. This has led to at best an oligopolistic market for Australian footballs (there is more than one manufacturer), but it could even be argued that <a href="http://www.sherrin.com.au/">Sherrin</a>, as the dominant producer of footballs, can operate as a monopolist – as only Sherrins are used in the AFL competition.</p>
<p>In other words, hardly any pressure has been exercised through market forces to spend time and resources (by manufacturers) on constantly improving their products so competitors would not overtake them. It has been the intervention of the governing body of the sport – the AFL in this case – to consider its options in regard to regulating the improvement of the ball and spur innovation.</p>
<h2>Spot the difference</h2>
<p>The objectives of the current research project at ISEAL, from the AFL perspective, are simple. We seek to determine what the critical performance characteristics are of Australian footballs according to AFL stakeholders. Based on stakeholder insights, should we – and can we – make improvements to the ball for the betterment of the game as a whole?</p>
<p>From departure point we started to interview a diverse range of AFL stakeholders, including present and past AFL players (from eight different clubs representing four different states), administrators from the AFL, state leagues, country leagues, umpires, media representatives, several ball manufacturers, a sport technology and innovation company and a number of state League and junior players from Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria.</p>
<p>The most striking and maybe surprising outcome of this first stage of research was the fact that almost all interviewees commented on how inconsistent the shape and size of AFL match balls is. Even the six balls selected for every AFL match varied considerably in terms of size and shape.</p>
<p>There was also general agreement that balls that are “kicked in” performed better than balls that were brand new. Even when manufacturers unequivocally argue there is no difference whatsoever between yellow and red balls (other than colour of course), most elite players and umpires prefer the yellow ball, suggesting they seem to perform better.</p>
<p>This is an intriguing finding as objectively there should be no difference in performance. Subjectively there seems overwhelming agreement that there is.</p>
<p>Most interviewees seem to prefer to play with a Sherrin – perhaps given Sherrin’s dominant market position and 130 year history in the game – even when many also argue there may not be great differences in performance between different brands.</p>
<h2>Balls of the future</h2>
<p>Manufacturers argue that most of the inconsistency in production of balls derives from the fact that natural (leather) material is used to manufacture the product. With the inherent variation in the raw materials come the differences in output quality. </p>
<p>This problem could easily be solved by using synthetic materials to produce Australian footballs, but all stakeholders agree that a “real” Aussie football can only be made of leather.</p>
<p>In light of these findings, the second phase of the research project will take a large group of elite AFL players to the biomechanics laboratory at the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL) at Victoria University’s Footscray Park campus.</p>
<p>Non-branded balls from different manufacturers will be used to conduct a range of objective (record, measure, analyse) and subjective (blind testing and ratings) ball performance tests. The outcomes are expected to be available early 2013, and will be used to advise the AFL on tightening manufacturing specifications, and to consider a range of possible improvements and innovations that can be applied to the Australian football.</p>
<p>This will bring the Australian football from the 1980s to where the rest of the game resides – at the forefront of professional sporting practice in the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/9114/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hans Westerbeek is the project leader on the Australian football research project highlighted in this article. He (through Victoria University) receives funding from the AFL to conduct this project. He is a Board member of AFL Europe.</span></em></p>In the game of Australian Rules Football (as with other football codes), few pieces of equipment are more important than the football itself. And yet the relative attention paid to the ball by the AFL…Hans Westerbeek, Dean, College of Sport and Exercise Science and Institute of Sport, Exercise, Active Living, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/89242012-08-26T20:44:54Z2012-08-26T20:44:54ZWheelchair technology in the Paralympics … and its spin-offs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14535/original/xyh888sv-1345609326.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When it comes to design and performance, all wheelchairs are not created equally.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">April Fonti/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Equipment such as wheelchairs or prosthesis is fundamental in allowing some people with disabilities to carry out the tasks of daily living. But in the endeavour to go higher, faster and longer, athletes with a disability have found these standard devices can inhibit their sporting performance. So where do these two worlds meet?</p>
<p>Paralympic sports evolved from <a href="http://www.paralympiceducation.ca/Content/History/11%20History%20of%20the%20Paralympics.asp?langid=1">medical rehabilitation programs</a> in the 1950s. The objective of a rehabilitation program is to regain a level of function for the client. </p>
<p>For an athlete with a disability, the highest expression of this return to function is to compete at an elite level in the <a href="http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/">Paralympic Games</a>.</p>
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<p>To satisfy the demands of elite athletes, significant new technological developments in wheelchair design and prostheses have occurred, demonstrated by radical equipment designs such as <a href="http://aac-rerc.psu.edu/wordpressmu/RESNA-SDC/2010/05/13/uniform-throwing-chair-for-seated-throwing-sporting-events/">seated throwing chairs</a>, <a href="http://www.sureng.com.au/racing.htm">racing wheelchairs</a>, and <a href="http://www.ossur.com/?PageID=13462">running prosthesis</a>. </p>
<p>As technological advances continue to provide opportunities for improved athletic performance, an ongoing challenge for international sporting bodies is to determine if the use of a given technology represents “performance enhancement” or, rather, is “essential for performance”.</p>
<h2>A base to work from</h2>
<p>The traditional wheelchair (or day-chair) design consists of two larger wheels at the rear of the chair to allow forward propulsion via the push-rims, and two small smaller wheels at the front of the chair to provide stability. </p>
<p>The steering of the day-chair is controlled by manipulating the rear wheels, either braking or propelling more on one side to change direction. </p>
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<p>But the unique requirements of sporting use have modified this conventional design dramatically. Due to the need for rapid acceleration and to change direction suddenly in wheelchair basketball (see top video) and wheelchair tennis (see video above), many chairs now incorporate a fifth wheel at the back, preventing the chair from flipping backwards during play.</p>
<h2>Different strokes</h2>
<p>In the high-impact sport of wheelchair rugby (see video below), the chairs are also fitted with reinforced front and side bumper guards that have special “hooks” to trap opposition players. Players in such sports must often move quickly and change direction rapidly while carrying or holding balls or rackets. </p>
<p>To accommodate this, the camber (angle) of the rear wheels is increased to facilitate a quicker “grab” of the rear wheel. This increased camber also improves hand protection when two chairs collide on the court and improves turn velocity.</p>
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<p>For athletes who compete on the track or road, racing wheelchairs resemble a cross between a wheelchair and a bicycle. As with sport-specific prosthetic limbs, there are sport-specific racing wheelchairs that are lighter, will track in a straight line and are aerodynamically designed to enhance track performance. </p>
<p>For straight line racing on the track or road (see video below), the racing chair has evolved with an extra long-wheel base and a single large front wheel. </p>
<p>The push-rims are considerably smaller on the racing chair as the biomechanics of this configuration requires less arm movement but greater push. As a wheelchair racer will generally only compete against fellow wheelchair racers, the issue of performance enhancement is a moot point as the technology is essential for performance. </p>
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<p>But the equity of access to this wheelchair technology must be addressed.</p>
<h2>Advances and application</h2>
<p>Advances in technology underpin such assistive devices. The development of the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2649039">energy-storing prosthetic foot</a> can make a lower-limb amputee’s gait more efficient and ambulation faster. </p>
<p>When this revolutionary prosthetic technology was specifically applied to sprinters, studies showed that running velocity was significantly increased. </p>
<p>But the application of this technology has been controversial, as clearly demonstrated by the much-publicised <a href="https://theconversation.com/oscar-pistorius-and-the-olympics-good-news-or-bad-for-sport-8122">Oscar Pistorius</a> or “Blade Runner” debates before the 2008 Beijing and the 2012 London Olympic and now Paralympic Games. </p>
<p>The skill of the athlete, coupled with this new prosthetic technology, enabled Oscar to enter qualification in the men’s 400m sprint in both the Olympic and Paralympic Games.</p>
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<p>Although not discussed in peer-reviewed literature, it is well documented in the press and sports communities that both the Olympic and Paralympic movements struggle with the role of technology in the sporting arena. </p>
<p>In the best interest of the athlete, and to avoid potential legal problems and unwarranted issues, the role of technology needs to be clarified. </p>
<p>In particular the speculation that advances in technology create a greater advantage than the best performance-enhancing drugs – giving rise to the often-heard comment: “Who’s going to win the gold medal, the athlete or the technician?”</p>
<h2>Match fit</h2>
<p>A fundamental aspect of the above problem is for the sport scientist to effectively “match” the technology with the athletes’ requirements. </p>
<p>Simply picking up an elite athlete’s equipment will not result in a world championship performance. If an athlete uses Roger Federer’s tennis racket, that alone will not produce a Grand Slam-level performance. </p>
<p>The right matching requires skill, commitment, opportunity and technology. As such, advances in wheelchair technology are essential for an athlete to perform.</p>
<p>And ultimately this new knowledge will translate into more functional wheelchair devices for daily activities in the broader population.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/8924/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>There are no potential conflicts.</span></em></p>Equipment such as wheelchairs or prosthesis is fundamental in allowing some people with disabilities to carry out the tasks of daily living. But in the endeavour to go higher, faster and longer, athletes…Brendan Burkett, Professor of Sport Science , University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/87312012-08-15T04:15:56Z2012-08-15T04:15:56ZAustralian Olympic athletes – underperforming or underdeveloped?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/14012/original/qj2zxgtp-1344405053.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sprinter Brendan Cole (left) and swimmer Tomasso D'Orsogna enjoy the recovery facilities at the Australian Institute of Sport's (AIS) Recovery Centre in Canberra.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Australian Sports Commission</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s no secret – Australia underperformed at the 2012 London Olympics. But was the criticism directed at our Olympians unfair on the athletes, coaches, and support staff who worked so hard, and gave up so much in the lead-up to the Games?</p>
<p>Australia is a world leader in research and application of sport science. Our universities have some of the largest and most sophisticated teaching and research programs available anywhere. We produce highly knowledgeable and skilled graduates with the capabilities to contribute in a meaningful way at all levels of sport, from children through elite athletes. </p>
<p>Our institutes and academies of sport are staffed by dedicated and hard-working professionals who are the equal of anyone in the field internationally.</p>
<p>But, over the past eight-to-ten years there has been a “brain drain” of some of our best people, who have been lured away to work for our competitors. </p>
<p>In particular, Great Britain has poached many Australians from our universities, professional sporting teams, institutes and academies of sport. Rowing and cycling are two notable examples. </p>
<p>The motivation for people to go and work for our competitors is both financial and environmental. They can make more money overseas to support their family. In many instances they are working in a collaborative environment with greater support, innovation and autonomy than they have experienced here in Australia.</p>
<p>The other trend I have observed over the last two Olympic cycles is a reduced training focus on the underlying qualities of neuromuscular strength and power. </p>
<p>Put simply, our athletes are not sufficiently muscular or strong enough to compete with the likes of China and the United States. One only has to observe our athletes lined up on the swimming blocks or waiting for the start of a cycling event to see that some of our notable competitors simply have much larger engines. </p>
<p>The cause is multifaceted and encompasses the spectrum of long-term athlete development, from junior training programs through to the balance of training effort programmed at the Olympic athlete level.</p>
<p>Having closely observed preparation in Australia, Great Britain and the United States it is clear that we have less emphasis on the strength and conditioning aspects for the long-term development of our athletes. </p>
<p>This is certainly exacerbated by the movement of strength and conditioning specialists from Australia to work in other countries, again due to financial, support and infrastructure factors. The result is a markedly reduced capacity for the strength and conditioning of Australian athletes at all levels and in all sports.</p>
<p>So, what can we do about it?</p>
<p>Solutions are not necessarily driven by large investment of financial resources. Overall, Australia has considerable infrastructure in terms of training and competition facilities. </p>
<p>But this will become a growing disadvantage as our key competitors, in particular Great Britain, China and the United States, continue to expand and update their sports facilities. </p>
<p>The priority should be to create environments within our universities, professional teams, institutes and academies of sport so that our sport scientists and strength and conditioning specialists remain in Australia. </p>
<p>We need to make changes so we attract our people currently overseas back to Australia, to rebuild the sport science workforce.</p>
<p>A second strategy is to reinforce the benefit of increased muscle size, strength and power as crucial elements to the performance of athletes in a contemporary competitive arena. </p>
<p>This would require open and respectful collaboration between all professionals involved in athlete support, from coaches, strength and conditioning specialists and exercise scientists, to physiotherapists, and medical professionals and of course the athletes themselves.</p>
<p>To draw an analogy with Formula One, we need to stop blaming the driver (athlete) when Australia is building them a car which cannot match the technology, development, planning and ultimately performance of our competitors.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/8731/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Newton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s no secret – Australia underperformed at the 2012 London Olympics. But was the criticism directed at our Olympians unfair on the athletes, coaches, and support staff who worked so hard, and gave up…Rob Newton, Foundation Professor in Exercise and Sports Science, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/79912012-07-20T01:01:08Z2012-07-20T01:01:08ZAthletic ability and genetics: can science spot a sure-fire winner?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13144/original/m9mfh3r3-1342663546.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C68%2C618%2C480&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists are looking for ever-more-sophisticated ways to find and optimise athletes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Johnson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For more than 50 years, sport scientists have used a variety of physical tests to try and identify those exceptional athletes who walk among us. Despite most countries having some sort of athlete talent identification program, many talented individuals remain unidentified. But could our genes be the key to unlocking our athletic potential?</p>
<p>Twin and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18179392">family studies</a> suggest that more than 50% of the difference in athletic performance can be explained by genetic factors. </p>
<p>The big question isn’t whether genetic factors are associated with elite athletic status and trainability: it’s which genetic profiles contribute to elite performance. And can we use those profiles to identify champion athletes early in life so they can receive the support they need to achieve their incredible potential?</p>
<h2>A search for genes for performance</h2>
<p>The search for “elite sport genes” started in 1998, when <a href="https://iris.ucl.ac.uk/research/personal/index?upi=HEMON01">Professor Hugh Montgomery</a> from University College of London and his colleagues <a href="https://iris.ucl.ac.uk/research/publication?upi=HEMON01&per_page=40&page=5">identified an association</a> between genetic markers and exceptional endurance performance. </p>
<p>They revealed a genetic marker within the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiotensin-converting_enzyme">angiotensin-converting enzyme</a> (or ACE, responsible for fluid balance, and cardiac and muscle hypertrophy) is strongly associated with elite British high-attitude mountaineers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13141/original/q867776z-1342663096.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">British researchers found links between genetic markers and mountain-climbing endurance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Gene/Flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Following that, <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/people/academics/profiles/kathryn.php">Professor Kathryn North</a> from the University of Sydney, together with colleagues from the <a href="http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/">Australian Institute of Sport</a> (AIS), identified that the <a href="http://www.geneffect.com/actn3/en/actn3gene.html">ACTN3 gene variant</a> is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180686/">associated with elite Australian athletes</a>. Those papers ignited an intense interest in the influence of genes on sports performance.</p>
<h2>What do we know now?</h2>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.vu.edu.au/institute-of-sport-exercise-and-active-living-iseal/key-research-areas-kras/sport/nature-and-nurture-projects">research group</a> and others are trying to identify the relative contribution genes make to performance. We are looking at both sprinters and and endurance athletes. </p>
<p>From physiological and biochemical point of view, pure endurance and pure sprint or power performances represent the distinct end points of a sporting continuum. The metabolic demands in a marathon are the polar opposite of those required in a 100m sprint. </p>
<p>It’s assumed an individual is predisposed toward better performance in either sprint and power, or endurance events.</p>
<p>For the last two decades, the focus has been on testing a single or a small number of genetic markers. Studies have shown an association between more than 25 genetic markers and elite athletic performance in several populations around the world. </p>
<p>But most of these studies are conducted with small numbers of participants and are based on single observations. The small numbers and the possible uncontrolled confounding variables – such as poor selection of genuine elite athletes – make it difficult to prove the presence of any genetic marker that influences athletic performance.</p>
<h2>Are there any genetic differences between Caucasian and African athletes?</h2>
<p>It is almost an urban myth that African athletes are genetically gifted when it comes to sports. There is no direct evidence to explain the success of African athletes in short-distance events, or in long-distance events. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13140/original/9xnmgcmy-1342662529.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is no evidence to suggest African runners are genetically gifted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">makeroadssafe/Flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to Professor <a href="http://www.gla.ac.uk/researchinstitutes/icams/staff/yannispitsiladis/">Yannis Pitsalidis</a> and his colleagues from Glasgow University, there’s <a href="http://news.menshealth.com/why-kenyans-keep-winning-marathons/2011/06/03/">no evidence</a> of unique genetic make-up that separates world-class African runners from Caucasian runners. </p>
<p>The group has tested the best runners in the world for both ACE and ACTN3 gene variants, but hasn’t found any association between these genes and either sprinters or marathon runners. </p>
<p>They conclude that environmental factors such as the high levels of physical activity of Ethiopian and Jamaican children contribute to the phenomena much more than genetics. But they acknowledge that the research is still in its infancy.</p>
<h2>Take that to the biobank</h2>
<p>So is there a future for genes and athletic performance research? Yes! </p>
<p>We have only scratched the surface when it comes to genes and athletic performance, but the current evidence is promising. The Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (<a href="http://www.vu.edu.au/institute-of-sport-exercise-and-active-living-iseal">ISEAL</a>) at Victoria University and the University of Sydney are setting up the largest international collaboration of its kind to establish DNA biobank of more than 3,000 elite athletes from Australian, Europe and Africa. </p>
<p>The athletes participating are the best in their countries: many are medal winners at World Championships and Olympic games. We also have access to state-of-the-art <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotyping">genotyping</a> technologies to ensure one of the most sophisticated analyses ever on this large group of elite athletes.</p>
<p>The findings from this project will hopefully spark interest among those drawn to the science of sports and genetics, and those interested in improving sports performance. National sporting organisations may get information that will allow them to identify the athletes most likely to perform well in a given sport. </p>
<p>Athletes and the spectating public will be particularly excited at the prospect of faster times and greater distances achieved in top-tier sporting contests.</p>
<p>By mapping and understanding the genetic markers associated with elite athletic performance, sports scientists will be able to assist individuals with genetic potential to become champion athletes, and provide appropriate individualised training programs to fit the athlete’s potential. However, we expect another 5-10 years of research as translation in science does not have to mean immediate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/7991/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For more than 50 years, sport scientists have used a variety of physical tests to try and identify those exceptional athletes who walk among us. Despite most countries having some sort of athlete talent…Nir Eynon, Lecturer, SES, and ISEAL, Victoria UniversityLauren Banting, Research Officer, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/81362012-07-17T20:51:06Z2012-07-17T20:51:06ZA Hawk-Eye for detail: how accurate is electronic judging in sport?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12857/original/jxyxygd2-1342059821.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In or out? Technology can help but it might not be as reliable as you think.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul Gilham/Pool</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans are fallible. Deciding who has won a tennis game or a sprint race can come down to a <a href="http://static8.businessinsider.com/image/4fe86410ecad04ec0e000015-960/allyson-felix-olympic-trials-track-and-field-tie-100m-womens.jpg">millimetre-accurate decision</a>. So when an Olympic gold medal is on the line, it’s no wonder we turn to electronics to help us. </p>
<p>But can we really rely on Hawk-Eye, or some other electronic gadget?</p>
<p>Many sports are now using some kind of electronics to assist in the judgement calls of the officials. In essence, these judgement calls are made as to the position and speed of the players. If the players use a moving object, then it’s also the position and speed of that object. Most commonly, that’s a ball.</p>
<p>The position of the player or object is generally measured relative to a line, such as the finishing line of a foot race, or the baseline of a tennis court. These measurements generally need to be done in a split second, requiring expert judges, or the assistance of electronics. In “tight” cases, these judgements are often wrong – and clearly, we need them to be right.</p>
<p>Two outstanding examples are tennis and cricket. </p>
<p>I was at Wimbledon recently, and as I walked into the stadium, I heard the commentators say “<a href="http://www.hawkeyeinnovations.co.uk/">Hawk-Eye</a> has got it wrong again, twice, in rapid succession”. </p>
<p>Most of us who have watched tennis will have seen <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawk-Eye#Tennis">Hawk-Eye in action</a>. It’s an outstanding example of a system that measures the bounce point of the ball relative to the global coordinates of the tennis court, and then tries to infer the position of that bounce point relative to the line. </p>
<p>This is called a “secondary” measurement, and has to be far more accurate than a “primary” measurement, where the bounce point is measured relative to the line itself.</p>
<p>The video below gives a good explanation of how the technology is employed in practice. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XhQyVnwBXBs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Let’s explore Hawk-Eye in the context of tennis and cricket. It gives us a lot of insight on how electronic judging is done in many other sports (thought it’s worth remembering all these sports have very contrasting requirements).</p>
<p>Hawk-Eye uses an area of modern technology called <a href="https://www.coursera.org/course/vision">Computer Vision</a> (CV). CV has been enabled by the huge rise in freely-available computing power and our ability to capture images electronically and rapidly. </p>
<p>CV is different to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing">image processing</a>. It uses captured images to infer information about the physical environment around us. It’s central to robotics and to road speed cameras. </p>
<p>The input in CV is an image and the output is information about what is observed. In the case of image processing, the input is an image and the output is another image.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Fs0kP3-0pwA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Hawk-Eye is in wide use in cricket and tennis - now FIFA is trialling it for football.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In tennis, we don’t care where the player is, other than when serving, and then only his feet. But we really do care where the ball bounces relative to the lines on the court. In the case of cricket, what we really want to know is where the ball may go after it has bounced. </p>
<p>Hawk-Eye uses exactly the same technology to provide these two contrasting pieces of information about the travel of a ball. It uses very clever algorithms that I will describe later, but it has a very serious failing: it makes a “secondary” measurement.</p>
<p>This secondary measurement measures the flight of the ball relative to its global position in the playing area. In the case of tennis it’s trying to infer millimetre accuracy relative to a playing area that may be 50 metres in length. (In cricket, we are starting to use a technology called “<a href="http://www.espncricinfo.com/sri-lanka-v-england-2012/content/story/560131.html">hot-spot</a>”). </p>
<p>This is a primary measurement and is never challenged. It measures where the ball has actually struck by measuring the rise in temperature caused by that collision.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_CTfREipYxc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>In tennis, Hawk-Eye rapidly captures images of the ball during flight from multiple positions around the court. The cameras have to be very accurately positioned relative to the court lines and the overall court coordinates. </p>
<p>It then uses CV to locate the position of the ball relative to the court multiple times as it travels along its trajectory. </p>
<p>These captured positions are not precise. The ball is a tube-like blur and there’s crowd movement and noise in the background. </p>
<p>These ball location estimates are then combined with the ball ballistics to provide a maximum likelihood estimate of what the ball trajectory may have been. The equation is then used to draw a graphic of the ball’s travel, and infer a bounce point. </p>
<p>It would be a tall order to get it right all the time. Some estimates suggest that Hawk-Eye only gets it right in tennis 60% of the time.</p>
<p>In summary, electronic judging tries to do a good job of reducing the uncertainty of human observation in sport. Mostly it “gets it right” - more often than humans do - but there are no absolutes. </p>
<p>What it definitely does do is add enormously to the entertainment value of sport, and particularly for those of us who watch it on television.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/8136/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Braun has received funding to do research into electronic line calling from FlightScope Pty Ltd, Stellenbosch, South Africa. <a href="http://www.flightscope.com">www.flightscope.com</a></span></em></p>Humans are fallible. Deciding who has won a tennis game or a sprint race can come down to a millimetre-accurate decision. So when an Olympic gold medal is on the line, it’s no wonder we turn to electronics…Robin Braun, Professor of Telecommunications Engineering, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.