tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/tablets-4385/articlesTablets – The Conversation2023-09-13T23:54:51Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2134472023-09-13T23:54:51Z2023-09-13T23:54:51ZWhat is USB-C? A computer engineer explains the one device connector to rule them all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548132/original/file-20230913-17-n62xiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C9%2C3212%2C1943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">With pressure from the European Union, Apple has thrown in the towel on its Lightning connector, left, in favor of the standard USB-C, right.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/charger-and-a-traditional-apple-lightning-charger-are-seen-news-photo/1659531079">Frederic J. Brown/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Apple announced on Sept. 12, 2023, that it plans to <a href="https://www.wsj.com/tech/iphone-15-and-15-pro-first-look-why-a-tiny-usb-c-port-is-a-huge-deal-d72fc419">adopt the USB-C connector</a> for all four new iPhone 15 models, helping USB-C become the connector of choice of the electronics industry, nine years after its debut. The move puts Apple <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/24/tech/eu-law-charging-standard/index.html">in compliance with European Union law</a> requiring a single connector type for consumer devices.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.usb.org/usb-type-cr-cable-and-connector-specification">USB-C</a> is a small, versatile connector for mobile and portable devices like laptops, tablets and smartphones. It transfers data at high speeds, transmits video signals and delivers power to charge devices’ batteries. USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. The C refers to the third type, following types A and B.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.usb.org/about">USB Implementers Forum</a>, a consortium of over 1,000 companies that promote and support USB technology, developed the USB-C connector to replace the older USB connectors as well as other types of ports like HDMI, DisplayPort and VGA. The aim is to create a single, universal connector for a wide range of devices. </p>
<p>The key features and benefits of USB-C include a reversible connector that you can insert in either orientation. It also allows some cables to have the same connector on both ends for connecting between devices and connecting devices to chargers, unlike most earlier USB and Lightning cables. </p>
<p>USB-C’s widespread adoption in the electronics industry is likely to lead to a universal standard that reduces the need for multiple types of cables and adapters. Also, its slim and compact shape allows manufacturers to make thinner and lighter devices. </p>
<p>USB-C refers to the physical connector. Connectors use a variety of data transfer protocols – sets of rules for formatting and handling data – such as the USB and Thunderbolt protocols. USB-C supports USB and Thunderbolt, which makes it suitable for connecting laptops, smartphones, tablets, monitors, docking stations and many other devices.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/09/breaking-down-how-usb4-goes-where-no-usb-standard-has-gone-before/">latest USB protocol, version 4</a>, provides a data transfer rate of up to 40 gigabits per second, depending on the rating of the cable. The <a href="https://www.pcmag.com/how-to/what-is-thunderbolt-4-why-this-new-interface-will-matter-in-pcs-in-2021">latest Thunderbolt</a>, also on version 4, supports up to 40 gigabits-per-second data transfer and 100 watts charging. The <a href="https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2023/09/intel-confirms-thunderbolt-5-name-120gbps-tech-arrives-in-2024/">newly announced Thunderbolt 5</a> will support up to 80 and 120 gigabits-per-second transfer and 140 to 240 watts power transfer over a USB-C connector.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/w3-yM1IjuB0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">What Apple’s shift to USB-C means.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why USB-C matters</h2>
<p>Due to the fragmented nature of technology evolution, computer users a decade ago were struggling with too many connectors: USB for data; power cables for charging; HDMI, DisplayPort or VGA for video; and Ethernet for internet. This called for an industrywide effort to convergence on an all-purpose connector.</p>
<p>Since its introduction in 2014, USB-C has gained widespread popularity and has already become the connector of choice for most non-Apple devices. Apple converted the iPad Pro to USB-C in 2018 and now is doing the same for the best selling Apple device, the iPhone. Some market forecasts suggest there will be close to 4 billion USB-C connector sales by 2025 and <a href="https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/usb-type-c-market">19 billion by 2033</a>.</p>
<p>Thanks to the industrywide adoption of USB-C, consumers soon won’t have to ask “Is this the right connector?” when they reach for a cable to charge or sync their portable devices. And if you’re an iPhone user and find yourself with a new model, you can <a href="https://www.familyhandyman.com/article/what-to-do-with-your-old-chargers-wires-and-cables/">recycle your no-longer-needed Lightning cables</a> by, for example, bringing them to an Apple store.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shreyas Sen receives research funding from a variety of sources, including federal government, state government, and private enterprises. The full list can be seen from his CV at <a href="https://tinyurl.com/ShreyasSenVitae">https://tinyurl.com/ShreyasSenVitae</a>. He is the Founder and CTO of the startup, Ixana. Shreyas was a Research Scientist at Intel Labs from 2011 to 2015 where he was the recipient of an Intel Award for impact on USB-C. </span></em></p>With Apple’s capitulation on the latest iPhone models, USB-C is poised to become the standard connector for all devices.Shreyas Sen, Elmore Associate Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2080262023-06-23T03:09:20Z2023-06-23T03:09:20ZWe are closer than ever to being able to 3D print medicines. Here’s why that’s important<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533596/original/file-20230622-19-sykymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C411%2C1509%2C1041&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Liam Krueger</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>3D-printed medicine could be the future of personalised healthcare, with research now suggesting printed tablets have reached a sufficient quality to match the standards set for conventionally manufactured tablets.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123132">Our new study</a>, published in the International Journal of Pharmaceutics, highlights the promise 3D-printed medicines hold for patients.</p>
<p>If we can scale 3D printing to everyday use, the near limitless potential to have medicines customised to your specific health needs may become a reality sooner than you think. </p>
<h2>One size doesn’t fit all</h2>
<p>For a long time, medicines have been produced with what you might call a “one-size-fits-all” approach, whereby tablets and capsules come in only a set number of doses. But what if those exact doses don’t work for you?</p>
<p>Taking too much or too little of your medication can be hard to avoid when it only comes in set doses. This can have serious consequences when taking important medications such as antidepressants that trigger side effects when the dose is changed too quickly.</p>
<p>The traditional solution to these scenarios has been to try and break the tablet into halves or quarters to get a dose in-between. But this isn’t possible for every tablet, and even if it is, research shows it often ends up with an <a href="https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.04.054">inaccurate dose</a>.</p>
<p>3D printing can take away the guesswork and provide flexibility for health professionals to truly personalise medicine suited to you. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-it-ok-to-chew-or-crush-your-medicine-39630">Health Check: is it OK to chew or crush your medicine?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>Layer by layer</h2>
<p>You may have seen 3D printers producing toys, <a href="https://theconversation.com/millions-of-products-have-been-3d-printed-for-the-coronavirus-pandemic-but-they-bring-risks-137486">medical devices</a> and even <a href="https://theconversation.com/would-you-eat-a-3d-printed-pizza-70335">food</a>.</p>
<p>The printing of medicines uses the same technology, building a tablet one layer at a time by melting the medication combined with other approved ingredients to help it dissolve in the stomach. Importantly, the tablet can be 3D printed at any required dose by giving instructions to the machine to print it bigger or smaller. </p>
<p>In our proof of concept study we were able to 3D print tablets containing very accurate doses of caffeine, in a way that would be exceedingly difficult with conventional manufacturing methods.</p>
<p>Rather than choosing a dose based on limited commercial options, we selected the dose first and then designed and printed the tablet accordingly.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pile of yellow coloured oval wafers on a purple background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533607/original/file-20230623-23-pb14vz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A pile of the finished 3D-printed tablets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Liam Krueger</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While not often thought of as a medicine, the choice of caffeine in this research is important because it is the most widely used behavioural drug worldwide. Trying to cut down on caffeine often causes headaches and nausea because of the challenges in lowering the dose correctly. This is one of many scenarios where a one-size-fits-all approach would fall short.</p>
<p>Compared to attempts to split a conventional caffeine tablet into the same doses, the 3D-printed tablets proved to have far more accurate dosage.</p>
<p>Our results demonstrate a straightforward process for producing “the right medicine for the right patient at the right time”. This is one of the guiding principles of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1752-8062.2008.00003.x">personalised medicine</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cancer-doctors-use-personalised-medicine-to-target-variations-unique-to-each-tumour-47349">How cancer doctors use personalised medicine to target variations unique to each tumour</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A healthcare evolution</h2>
<p>Although 3D printing has been around for decades, its use for producing medicines – especially in a hospital or pharmacy environment – is very new.</p>
<p>Australia has rigorous quality control standards for medicines thanks to regulation by the Therapeutic Goods Administration, and it is too early to tell how it will regulate 3D printed medicines.</p>
<p>The United States already has one 3D-printed seizure medication, Spritam, approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The printing process helps the resulting tablet <a href="https://spritam.com/making-medicine-using-3d-printing/">rapidly disintegrate in the mouth</a> for patients who have trouble swallowing, but does not offer dose customisation.</p>
<p>However, it seems we are on the brink of customised approaches in the clinic, with three <a href="https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/research/3d-printing-of-pharmaceuticals-and-the-role-of-pharmacy">new 3D-printed medications</a> receiving FDA investigational new drug approval over 2021-22, and several other <a href="https://www.fabrx.co.uk/2019/09/03/fabrx-first-clinical-study-3d-printed-dosage-forms">clinical trials</a> completed in the last few years. </p>
<p>We envision 3D printers in pharmacies and hospitals for <a href="https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.51381">on-site and true personalisation</a>. However, at this stage that doesn’t necessarily mean replacing or even competing with conventional medicines. </p>
<p>The production speed of current 3D printing technologies is much slower than conventional manufacturing. The greatest benefits will likely be for patients with particularly complicated medication regimens, or those taking certain types of medicines like antidepressants. Thus, the people who need it most could have their own tailor-made medicine.</p>
<p>In fact, the possibilities extend further than just choosing the right dose. The practice of pharmaceutical 3D printing could potentially include combining multiple drugs into a single “<a href="https://theconversation.com/3d-printed-drugs-could-be-a-godsend-for-those-on-multiple-pills-a-day-and-potentially-life-saving-119764">polypill</a>”, and fully customising features like shape, size, colour, or texture.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Video of a 3D printer laying down different colours in a single oval tablet" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533608/original/file-20230623-25-z1rzbl.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A timelapse video showing the proof of concept for a ‘polypill’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Liam Krueger</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We envision an evolution of digital healthcare where 3D printing is combined with technologies like <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-artificial-intelligence-has-not-revolutionised-healthcare-yet-69403">machine learning</a>, artificial intelligence and <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-big-data-13780">big data</a>, taking our next big step towards truly personalised medicine.</p>
<p>This future will require a collaborative effort between researchers, health professionals, and regulatory bodies to define the place of 3D printing in healthcare, but could see us picking up our personalised medicine from a local pharmacy or hospital with the touch of a button.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amirali Popat receives funding from The University of Queensland. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jared Miles receives funding from The University of Queensland. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liam Krueger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One size doesn’t fit all – customising your medicines with 3D printing could be a game changer, especially for people with complex medical needs.Amirali Popat, Associate Professor and Director of Research, The University of QueenslandJared Miles, Lecturer, The University of QueenslandLiam Krueger, Research scientist, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1998852023-02-21T04:10:31Z2023-02-21T04:10:31ZCrusty, blistering and peeling: where do cold sores come from and what can you do about them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510774/original/file-20230217-20-hr3tx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4913%2C3253&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/part-young-womans-face-virus-herpes-1165988803">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Three quarters of <a href="http://conditions.health.qld.gov.au/HealthCondition/condition/14/188/62/genital-herpes">Australians</a> are living with herpes simplex virus type 1 (<a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/herpes-simplex-virus">HSV-1</a>), an infection which causes cold sores. These tiny fluid-filled <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cold-sore/symptoms-causes/syc-20371017">lesions</a> and blisters sit along the mouth and nose area. </p>
<p>This is not the same virus that causes genital herpes, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/herpes-simplex-virus">HSV-2</a>, which is present in about 13% of people worldwide. </p>
<p>In most cases, the body is quite good at suppressing HSV-1 with help from the immune system. This means that not everyone with the virus knows they have it.</p>
<p>However, sometimes the virus can overwhelm the system and present as a cold sore, which is a highly contagious sore on the mouth.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-dry-lips-and-how-can-you-treat-them-does-lip-balm-actually-help-161264">What causes dry lips, and how can you treat them? Does lip balm actually help?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Always at the worst time</h2>
<p>Around 92% of us have viruses inside our systems from past <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-014-0071-7">infections</a>. For most people, these are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3142679/">latent viruses</a>, which do not cause any concerns until reactivated.</p>
<p>While we can keep these viruses from <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3142679/">reactivating</a> and causing any issues, most of the time, exhaustion, physical exertion, as well as psychological stress, can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306987700912192">suppress</a> elements of the immune system. This leaves our body weakened, and opens the door for viruses.</p>
<p>Common reactivation of latent viruses include those that cause <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/glandular-fever">glandular fever</a>, as well as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31090135/">chicken pox</a>/<a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/shingles/symptoms-causes/syc-20353054">shingles</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man coughing, holding his hand up" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510780/original/file-20230217-24-gjujtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dormant viruses can cause many more problems when they become active.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/C-zwLtPSErc">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>When HSV-1 reactivates, it may present as cold sores.</p>
<p>This usually starts as a tingling, itching, or burning sensation around the mouth, lips, or nose. Fluid-filled blisters will subsequently form, which dry out and leave a crust after about a week. The scab then flakes off and will typically heal within one to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8706154/">two weeks</a> without leaving a scar.</p>
<p>Along with cold sores, other common symptoms of an active HSV-1 infection can include fever, nausea, headaches, sore throat, or swollen glands.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-scabs-form-151586">Curious Kids: how do scabs form?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Cold sores can get anyone</h2>
<p>Viruses can be spread quickly and easily. As such, if we do have an infection, preventing its spread is important.</p>
<p>Babies and children are particularly vulnerable. Around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4489118/">38%</a> of mothers kiss their babies on the lips, and 14% share a spoon with them. These practices can spread HSV-1, particulary in the first four weeks <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/neonatal-herpes/">after birth</a>, when a baby has the weakest immune defences. </p>
<p>As a general rule, to prevent spreading any infections, always avoid kissing a baby on the lips.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Baby" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510459/original/file-20230216-22-25drnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies still have developing immune systems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christian Moro, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sun <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781437717938000182">exposure</a> and cool weather encourage cold sores to appear, as the conditions can dry out the lips and damage the skin, creating a favourable environment for the virus.</p>
<p>Some treatments are available. If you are having trouble with cold sores, you can ask a doctor or pharmacist to outline some options for <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0166-3542(93)90094-Y">antiviral</a> medicines. These impact the virus’ ability to reactivate, replicate, and divide.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-my-hands-and-feet-always-cold-and-when-should-i-be-worried-184154">Why are my hands and feet always cold? And when should I be worried?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>So I have a cold sore, what should I do?</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, there is no cure for the underlying virus. But if you do have a cold sore, here are some things you can do to help:</p>
<ul>
<li>keep your hands clean and don’t touch the sores</li>
<li>avoid <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-eating-hot-chilli-peppers-actually-hurt-you-163489">spicy</a> or acidic foods to minimise burning sensations</li>
<li>seek over-the-counter or prescription <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0166-3542(93)90094-Y">antiviral</a> tablets or creams</li>
<li>remain hydrated</li>
<li>wear sunscreen and avoid direct sun exposure</li>
<li>cover-up during <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-need-to-pee-more-in-the-cold-184236">cold</a> or dry weather</li>
<li>avoid kissing or sharing anything with your saliva to minimise spreading.</li>
</ul>
<p>If you are concerned about your cold sores (for example, if the gums become swollen, the wound weeps pus, or you get a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxgEoLmOACo">fever</a>), seek advice from your family doctor.</p>
<p>While many people carry HSV-1, not everyone will get cold sores. For those who do, looking after yourself is key. <a href="https://synapse.koreamed.org/articles/1095278">Eating</a> healthy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-position-should-i-sleep-in-and-is-there-a-right-way-to-sleep-189873">sleeping well</a>, and noticing when our bodies are telling us to take a step back and relax goes a long way towards keeping latent viruses at bay.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-position-should-i-sleep-in-and-is-there-a-right-way-to-sleep-189873">What position should I sleep in, and is there a ‘right’ way to sleep?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199885/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Three quarters of Australians are living with HSV-1, with cold sores tending to appear at the most inconvenient times.Christian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond UniversityCharlotte Phelps, PhD Candidate, Health Science and Medicine, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1937172022-12-05T03:18:34Z2022-12-05T03:18:34ZAlways forgetting to take your medicines? Here are 4 things that could help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496080/original/file-20221118-14-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C5068%2C3434&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">ksenia yakovleva/unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Taking regular medicines is common, and it’s not unusual for people to miss an occasional dose or take it outside the regular time window. Forgetting to do something is normal, but in the case of medicines, forgetting to take them at the prescribed time can have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29278439/">negative health effects</a>.</p>
<p>By one <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42682/9241545992.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y%20available%20from%20https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42682">estimate</a>, about half the population of people taking regular medicines don’t take them as prescribed. Is this a breakdown in communication? A lack of understanding of their importance? Forgetfulness? </p>
<p>Largely, reasons for not taking medicines as prescribed can be organised into two types: intentional and unintentional.</p>
<p>Unintentional is when a patient intends to follow the prescribed regimen but doesn’t due to factors outside their control, including forgetfulness, difficulties understanding dosing instructions, or cost.</p>
<p>But for some, a patient consciously decides not to follow the prescribed regimen. This could be due to side effects, or not believing in the necessity of the medicine.</p>
<p>Medication-taking is complex because each person is unique and the challenges to each person’s medication-taking can vary quite significantly. The most effective strategy is one that also considers why a person isn’t taking their medicine. What are some of the support strategies available, and are they actually helpful?</p>
<h2>Pill boxes</h2>
<p>The most <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30561486/">commonly used</a> methods to support medication adherance are organisational strategies such as days-of-the-week pill containers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hands taking pills out of a container." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496081/original/file-20221118-20-4r4lvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pill containers labelled Monday to Friday can be filled at home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">towfiqu barbhuiya/unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These are functional if a patient has to take many different medications. </p>
<p>But they’re not always suitable – if the user does not fill the container correctly or doesn’t remember to collect the prefilled pack (called a Webster-pak, blister pack or dosette box) from the pharmacy, this simple intervention quickly becomes ineffective.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A medication box with many compartments" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496082/original/file-20221118-22-8vm3kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pharmacy can also make up dosette boxes, with medications for different times of day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some medicines can’t be packed because their stability is compromised with repacking, and patients with reduced eyesight or dexterity can <a href="https://www.nps.org.au/australian-prescriber/articles/encouraging-adherence-to-long-term-medication">struggle to use</a> these containers. </p>
<p>So while they are an effective prompt, simple reminder cues such as days-of-the-week pill containers may not be ideal for everyone. </p>
<h2>Alarms</h2>
<p>Pre-set alarms are another commonly used reminder method. </p>
<p>However, this strategy is not infallible, and the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36175739/">literature shows</a> many patients miss medication doses when out of routine because they turn their alarm off subconsciously when occupied with another task. </p>
<p>Reminder alarms only seem to be effective when they are interactive or personalised.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sketch of an automated tablet machine - a round device with padlock" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496083/original/file-20221118-15-wkrws0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Automated pill dispensers are handy for those with memory issues, but they’re not cheap.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, in a handy combination of both methods above, you can now buy automated pill dispensers with alarms that go off at predetermined times and only stop when the medication is removed.</p>
<p>These can be especially handy for those with memory issues such as dementia. However, they are not cheap, costing a few hundred dollars each, and so will not be accessible for everyone.</p>
<h2>Mobile apps</h2>
<p>The latest Apple iOS update allows you to track your medications and schedule reminders. </p>
<p>Medication reminder apps were first developed to support older adults and people with chronic diseases required to manage multiple medicines. </p>
<p>But they’ve now been embraced as a suitable support for anyone wishing to independently manage their own medicines, including those on short-term medicines such as antibiotics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Phone with pill reminders on screen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496085/original/file-20221118-11-wkrws0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Smart phone apps can help with medication reminders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They provide simple, practical health-specific information as well as supporting medication-taking through automation. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www1.racgp.org.au/newsgp/clinical/medication-reminder-apps-not-a-bitter-pill-to-help">The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners</a>, a lot of patients like receiving reminder prompts through an app, and it helps them remember to take their medication.</p>
<p>Although the platforms differ slightly, the general premise is a patient independently inputs their medication-taking and prescription refill schedule, and the app then generates automatic reminders for the patient. </p>
<p>The only downside is like any notification, they can be easily dismissed or overlooked.</p>
<h2>Habit stacking</h2>
<p>When our day changes, for example if we go out for brunch and we usually take our medicines with breakfast, or an unexpected visitor arrives at the usual 11am pre-lunch tablet time, often we forget our medications. This is where “habit stacking” may be beneficial. </p>
<p>Although habit stacking is a relatively new approach to fostering medication taking, habit formation has been repeatedly shown to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30229557/">effectively support wellbeing</a>. Linking medication-taking to a behaviour that does not change from day to day, such as cleaning your teeth, or removing shoes when entering the house, can help you to remember medications. </p>
<p>Some more habit stacking examples to support medication taking may include:</p>
<p>• hygiene routine – shower, shave, swallow</p>
<p>• after dinner unwind – cuppa and meds</p>
<p>• morning mantra as you leave the house – keys, phone, wallet, meds.</p>
<h2>What else can we do?</h2>
<p>We are all unique, so to make sure we actually take our medicines we need to find what works for us, and consider why we weren’t actually taking them in the first place. </p>
<p>Reminders, gadgets, habit stacking, or a combination may help. We need strategies that can adapt to the unexpected.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193717/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amelia Cossart does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>About half the population of people taking regular medicines don’t take them as prescribed. Here are some tips to help you remember.Amelia Cossart, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1931922022-10-25T20:22:51Z2022-10-25T20:22:51ZDevelopment of vision in early childhood: No screens before age two<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491691/original/file-20221025-22-wx4aqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C7%2C979%2C655&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic devices are not, in and of themselves, a source of visual problems. Using these devices inappropriately can interfere with the natural development of the eye, as well as reading and learning skills. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Things are busy on a rainy Saturday afternoon when I make a trip to the mall to finalize some back-to-school shopping. I pass by a lot of people, including several parents with young children under two years old, in strollers, and am struck by the fact that all of the children have a tablet or phone in their hands. Has technology become the ultimate tool for keeping children calm?</p>
<p>As an optometrist and eye health expert, this observation saddens me every time I see it, since I know all the harmful effects such exposure to electronic tools can have on children.</p>
<p>These effects are all the more critical during the first years of life, both on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34625399/">visual level</a> and on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36190219/">cognitive and social development of children</a>.</p>
<h2>Visual development of children</h2>
<p>The human eye develops <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/health-wellness-and-safety-resources/helping-hands/infant-vision-birth-to-one-year">through stimulation</a>. The quality of the optical stimulus influences the growth of the eyeball via a complex and balanced mechanism. At birth, the eye is hyperopic, that is to say, its power is not perfectly adjusted to its size. A child sees at short distances and is barely able to distinguish a shadow when grandpa comes to the bedroom door.</p>
<p>In the first few weeks, the eye grows, the retina matures and a balance is established between the growth of the eyeball and the power of the inner lens. At six months of age, each of the toddler’s two eyes has the vision of an adult eye. From this moment on, the eyes will develop their coordination, in order to generate vision in three dimensions. It’s also starting at the age of six months that the communication between the eyes develops in the visual brain as well.</p>
<p>Billions of neurological connections will have to be made during the <a href="https://opto.umontreal.ca/clinique/pdf/EFFETS%20DES%20ECRANS%20SUR%20LE%20D%C3%89VELOPPEMENT%20VISUEL%20DES%20ENFANTS.pdf">first eight years of life</a>. This maturation time is long, but necessary, considering that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413001917">more than a third of the brain’s neurons are dedicated to vision</a>.</p>
<h2>A question of distance</h2>
<p>Electronic devices are not, in themselves, a source of visual problems. Rather, the inappropriate use of these devices can interfere with the natural development of the eye, as well as reading and learning skills.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two small children with glasses sitting on white chairs : a boy with a tablet computer, a girl with a cell phone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For normal visual development, it is recommended that exposure to electronic devices be avoided between the ages of zero and two years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first thing to consider is viewing distance. The eye is designed to look at a near distance that is about equal to the length of the forearm (distance from the elbow to the fingertips of the hand). That means about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698913000795">30 cm for a young child, and 40 cm for an adult</a>. However, tablets and phones are held on average 20-30 cm from the eye, and this distance <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cxo.12453">becomes shorter with prolonged exposure</a>. The visual effort required to maintain a clear image at this distance is therefore doubled.</p>
<p>A distance that is too short influences the quality of the retinal image (and therefore visual development) and causes <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=jGGROHBFYt8C">excessive eye fatigue</a>. It is also important to understand that when eyes must accommodate short distances, they automatically converge towards the nose in order to focus at the normal reading distance. Too much effort spent accommodating the short distance is therefore accompanied by a greater than normal convergence. As the eye cannot maintain this prolonged effort over a long period of time, it will relax its effort and the perceived image will become blurred for a while, a sensory penalty that we want to avoid. After a period of rest, the eye will resume its effort, and this alternation between the clearness and the blur will continue as long as attention to the close image is required. So, ideally, the tablet or phone should always be kept at the distance of the forearm.</p>
<h2>Constant stimulation is not recommended</h2>
<p>The use of electronic tools, with games or videos, requires a constant attention span, without breaks. This is the second factor to consider. When a child draws in a notebook or reads a paper book, he or she will instinctively stop at some point, look elsewhere, far away, and become interested in something else around them. These pauses and breaks are beneficial <a href="https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/eye-and-vision-conditions/computer-vision-syndrome?sso=y">for the visual system to recover from its effort</a>. Focusing on targets at a distance is also beneficial to the child’s visual development. With electronic tablets, it is not uncommon to see children doing sessions of more than two to three hours continuously, without looking up from the screen.</p>
<p>The visual apparatus of children from zero to two years old is simply not sufficiently developed and robust to undergo such stress from constant stimulation in front of the screen. In particular, the structural elements of the sclera (the deep layer of the eye), which give the eye rigidity and determine its size, develop between zero and two years of age and then stabilize. The visual stimulus at these ages can interfere and therefore <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335108098_Scleral_structure_and_biomechanics">influence the development of visual defects and pathology in later life</a>.</p>
<p>It is also important to note that the screen can emit blue light. Children’s eyes do not filter these rays like those of an adult. This means that children are exposed to more blue light, which may stimulate nearsightedness and disrupt the secretion of melatonin, <a href="https://www.myopiainstitute.com/eye-care/how-blue-light-affects-your-vision-and-overall-health/">which regulates our biological clock</a>. This can disrupt the naps necessary for children of this age, as well as sleep during the night. Sleep loss can also lead to myopia.</p>
<h2>Let’s learn about electronics</h2>
<p>For normal visual development, it is therefore recommended to <a href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/128/5/1040/30928/Media-Use-by-Children-Younger-Than-2-Years?_ga=2.208746386.1459529850.1665228699-655911314.1665228699?autologincheck=redirected?nfToken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000">avoid all exposure to electronic devices between the ages of zero and two</a>. The exception would be occasional video conversations, under the supervision of a parent, to say hello to a grandparent who lives far away, for a few minutes.</p>
<p>From the age of two years on, an hour of exposure per day can be considered, especially to consult educational sites, always accompanied by a parent or an educator.</p>
<p>When the visual system is mature, around the age of six to eight, exposure can be increased gradually, without exceeding two to three hours per day, with 10-minute breaks every hour. Electronic device use should be avoided during meals, family activities, and at least one hour before sleep.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young mother holding her cute, crying baby daughter, looking at a tablet during a virtual video call business or family meeting at a distance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rare video conversations, with parental supervision, to wave to a grandparent from a distance, for a few minutes, can be considered.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Let’s play outside!</h2>
<p>The best advice for successful visual development is to encourage exposure to outdoor light for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6678505/#:%7E:text=Each%20additional%20hour%20of%20daily,by%2013%25%20%5B23%5D.">at least one hour per day, ideally two hours</a>. We are talking about playing, walking, and activities that are done outside. The amount of light is then much greater than indoors, which would stimulate the production of dopamine, a chemical mediator essential to regulating the growth of the eye. This is the most effective way to prevent the onset of myopia in children.</p>
<p>It is also important to make sure that a child’s visual system is normal and developing naturally. Therefore, the first examination by an optometrist should be done at six months of age (to validate that the eye has normal optics and that there are no congenital defects), and then at three years of age to evaluate eye coordination. If everything is normal, the next examination will take place at five years of age, and annually thereafter, <a href="http://nada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/BK-ChildrenAndTheirVision-2018-EN.pdf">considering that vision can change rapidly</a>.</p>
<p>In the case of an abnormality, the earlier we intervene in the process, the easier it is to restore normal oculo-visual function, either by exercise or by optical means.</p>
<p>By following these recommendations for visual hygiene, we will protect children’s visual system and ensure their normal development.</p>
<p>And let’s not forget that the most beautiful screen in the world is nature! We should offer it to our children more often.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193192/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Langis Michaud ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>The impact of using electronic devices is critical during the first years of life, both visually and on the cognitive and social development of the child.Langis Michaud, Professeur Titulaire. École d'optométrie. Expertise en santé oculaire et usage des lentilles cornéennes spécialisées, Université de MontréalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1655622021-08-18T14:41:50Z2021-08-18T14:41:50ZHow older people are mastering technology to stay connected after lockdown<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416754/original/file-20210818-15-1oayf6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4565%2C3018&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/photo-senior-man-using-smartphone-set-265218128">Tomertu/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s a well-worn stereotype: the image of an elderly person fiddling with technology that leaves them completely bamboozled. The media often depict older people struggling to use or manage digital technology. While this is often designed to be humorous, it can undermine them as users of technology. And that’s a problem if it turns older people off from trying to engage with digital devices, as it can affect their wellbeing.</p>
<p>Older adults are already at a digital disadvantage: <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/media/media-releases/2021/digital-divide-narrowed-but-around-1.5m-homes-offline">18% of over-65s</a> do not have internet access. Propelled by enforced isolation, older people increasingly <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/mar/10/computers-are-marvellous-older-people-embrace-internet-in-lockdow">turned to technology</a> during the pandemic, but not all were able to connect or communicate with friends and family via the internet. </p>
<p>Of course some older people have less experience of digital technology than others, and unsurprisingly <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/is-it-love-or-loneliness-exploring-the-impact-of-everyday-digital-technology-use-on-the-wellbeing-of-older-adults/F391725A9584A666B1EDCEC68E03BCF3">describe mixed emotions</a> regarding the use of everyday devices such as smartphones, laptops, e-readers and tablets. They also report not having much confidence when it comes to using them. Lack of control, a sense of being overwhelmed, and poor product design can lead to feelings of being incompetent, alone and even trapped. </p>
<p>Yet for those who persevere, the rewards can be plentiful: completing tasks more easily, communicating more effectively, increased independence and a sense of achievement. These things are important if this growing part of the population is to experience ageing in a more positive and empowering way. </p>
<p>Through <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0267257X.2021.1945662?src=">our research</a> we wanted to examine these mixed emotions that older people have about using technology, and how they develop ways to combat the challenges they face. While digital technology has been shown to alleviate pressure on health and social care, until now there’s been a limited understanding of how using technology influences the way older adults live. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rSWbgNAgAE8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Attitudes towards technology</h2>
<p>While many see digital technology as a challenge to be conquered, there are different ways of overcoming or confronting the obstacles. Some may view the challenge as a personal goal, using instruction manuals or simply trial and error to prevail over software updates, unwanted viruses or junk mail.</p>
<p>Others view digital technology as a collective endeavour, asking friends and family for help. Not only is this the most successful strategy, it also fosters important interaction with others. For example, during the pandemic many <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/media/media-releases/2021/digital-divide-narrowed-but-around-1.5m-homes-offline">younger people acted</a> as IT support for older friends and relatives.</p>
<p>Not all elderly people have this kind of network, but arguably they can benefit most from greater use of the internet to feel connected and keep loneliness at bay. In these situations, there are useful schemes run by charities such as Age UK, where <a href="https://www.ageuk.org.uk/discover/2021/june/digital-champions/">digital champions</a> can help older adults master technology.</p>
<h2>Adopting strategies</h2>
<p>Understandably frustrations emerge when learning a new skill, but some older people have shown how they overcome their exasperation by developing a relationship with their devices. Naming their tablet or humanising their phone helps to bond older people to technology.</p>
<p>In our study different devices were often referred to as having a personality, gender, or even a mind of their own. This strategy brings a little levity to a situation that could otherwise be stressful.</p>
<p>Once these people become more used to digital technology, familiarity can encourage continued use. With a new device, software and apps they know and understand can be downloaded so that it feels less alien. Similarly, if a touchscreen is problematic, some older people might decide to use a keyboard and mouse instead.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An older black women on her laptop smiling and looking happy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416759/original/file-20210818-13-dou8fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Being able to use technology keeps older people connected and reduce feelings of isolation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-asian-retired-woman-use-notebook-1681881598">M2020/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Breeding confidence</h2>
<p>Using technology at any age can have its pros and its cons, but our research reveals that older adults can offer a unique perspective. Using lifelong wisdom, they can take a step back and acknowledge that technology has its faults. If things go wrong, their judgement and experience is useful in helping to understand that the key to using technology is persistence. One participant, Christopher, 83, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There’s one sure thing: life will come to an end, and technology will always go wrong. My son’s partner sends me texts from their holiday in Tunis. When I try to reply I keep getting ‘no service’ and my message is refused … [but] I know they will be worried if they don’t get a reply. When I was a kid, Tunis was a distant desert war zone, with cinema newsreels a week later … and here’s me now, whingeing about lack of instant contact.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These findings are significant for technology development, marketing and customer services. Designing technology for older people should be based on their experiences and offer continuity. Digital devices need to include familiar commands, buttons, screens, and add-ons to previous models. This will enhance the ability to get to grips with updates and developments. And in turn this will help foster social connections as well as boost independence and confidence.</p>
<p>Stereotyping of older people also needs to stop. Experience and perspective should be acknowledged, respected and reflected in marketing campaigns. Messaging should underscore the potential benefits of mastering technology, emphasising the importance of being connected and socially involved to a person’s independence.</p>
<p>Finally, customer service should be easily accessible and well versed in issues older people face to provide the necessary support, building on schemes offered by Age UK’s digital champions. Clearly there is a crucial role for friends, family, and communities to ensure that older people remain socially active, engaged and connected through technology. Their wellbeing may depend on it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165562/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Older people are often labelled technophobic, but since lockdown the digital divide is closing as more and more use technology to connect with others.Carolyn Wilson-Nash, Lecturer, Marketing and Retail, Stirling Management School, University of StirlingJulie Tinson, Professor of Marketing, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1545522021-07-13T20:11:31Z2021-07-13T20:11:31ZHow do you teach a child to swallow a pill? Hint: use lollies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410240/original/file-20210707-21-12b5x7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1000%2C663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pill-child-mouth-1035027634">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When was the last time you swallowed a pill, be it a tablet or capsule? This morning or sometime in the past week? Now, can you remember the very first time you had to take a pill? Probably not. </p>
<p>Unlike your first kiss, there is usually nothing remarkable about the first time you take a pill. But taking solid medicines orally <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6065591/">does not come naturally</a> and chances are you had to be taught how to do it. And because you don’t remember how you were taught it can be hard for parents to figure out how to teach their kids to do it too.</p>
<p>But here’s how to make the learning process fun and safe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-we-burp-137493">Curious Kids: why do we burp?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is this necessary?</h2>
<p>Before trying to teach your child to swallow a pill, first see if your child really needs to learn.</p>
<p>Most medicines commonly used by children under 12 years of age are readily available as formulations other than pills. These include liquids, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-1087-5_4">suspensions</a>, chewable tablets and <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/general-use/how-to-use-rectal-suppositories">suppositories</a>. The liquids and suspensions usually come in palatable flavours. </p>
<p>Doctors can also write prescriptions to allow pharmacists <a href="https://www.nps.org.au/australian-prescriber/articles/extemporaneously-compounded-medicines-1">to compound (make up)</a> some drugs usually available as a pill into a suspension instead. </p>
<p>If these options aren’t available, you will need to teach your child to swallow a pill. You’ll also need to go down this path as your child gets older, their weight increases, and some of the child-friendly formulations are no longer suitable. That’s because the higher doses often needed can be impractical to give using children’s products. So it would be much easier and cheaper to use a tablet or a capsule.</p>
<p>However, don’t be tempted to <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-it-ok-to-chew-or-crush-your-medicine-39630">crush or break a pill for them, or ask them to chew it</a>, unless your pharmacist has given the go-ahead for that medicine. This can affect the way the medicine is absorbed, which could lead to an overdose.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-it-ok-to-chew-or-crush-your-medicine-39630">Health Check: is it OK to chew or crush your medicine?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Turn it into a game</h2>
<p>Teaching relaxation techniques, learning by imitation or modelling, and learning by repetition and exercise are all useful ways to teach pill swallowing. However, <a href="https://www.hamiltonhealthsciences.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/SwallowPillsHelpChild-lw.pdf">turning it into a game</a> is popular.</p>
<p>First of all, this method is NOT suitable for children under five. The mechanics of swallowing are too difficult for them to understand and both you and the child are likely to end up frustrated. Also, the younger they are, the smaller their throat and the likelihood something will get stuck.</p>
<p>The basis of the game is to start your child trying to swallow very small, everyday foodstuffs and work your way up to things the size of a pill. Lollies (candy) are best because you don’t have to convince your child to play the game.</p>
<p>More importantly, lollies are water soluble so if there are any problems you can ask your child to have a big drink of water to break it apart. If you don’t know if the lolly is water soluble, test it first in a glass of water to see if it dissolves.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sickly-sweet-or-just-right-how-genes-control-your-taste-for-sugar-113455">Sickly sweet or just right? How genes control your taste for sugar</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Ready, steady, go!</h2>
<p>Start your child on the smallest sized lolly. Ask them to sit up straight, facing forward, without tilting their head up or down. Ask them to take a sip of water before each lolly, to get them prepared for the swallowing action. Then ask them to place the lolly on their tongue (<a href="https://www.hamiltonhealthsciences.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/SwallowPillsHelpChild-lw.pdf#:%7E:text=small%2C%20like%20a%20candy%20sprinkle,try%20a%20slightly%20larger%20candy.&text=Work%20up%20to%20a%20candy,your%20child%20will%20be%20taking.&text=candies.">towards the back is best</a>) and take another sip to wash it down.</p>
<p>If they can swallow that, move up to the next size. But if they can’t, ask them to chew and swallow it, and try again.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pile of snake lollies (candies)" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snake lollies can come in handy and your child is unlikely to complain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/snake-candies-close-1222479028">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our version of the game uses lollies available in Australia, increasing in size: sprinkles (such as hundreds and thousands), Nerds, Tic Tacs, M&Ms (normal, not peanut or crispy), and then snakes.</p>
<p>With snakes, you can cut off and swallow the head, about the size of a pill, before cutting up pieces of the body to the same size.</p>
<h2>Some dos</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>do joke around and make the activity fun</strong>. Get family involved as children need to be comfortable when playing</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do make sure it’s the only activity they are doing</strong>. You want your child’s full attention</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do give praise</strong>. The game is all about building confidence</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do put the lolly into a soft food stuff if you want</strong>. Some children find lollies, or even real pills, easier to swallow if they are in a small spoonful of pureed fruit or custard. Don’t use peanut butter as that is sticky and hard to swallow</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do consolidate their skill when they are finally successful</strong>. Once they can swallow a tablet or capsule sized lollie, keep your child’s confidence up by asking them to swallow an age-appropriate vitamin pill every now and then.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Some don'ts</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>don’t stop on a stuck point</strong>. If your child has difficulty with a particular sized lolly that day drop back down to the size they can do so you finish on a win</p></li>
<li><p><strong>don’t use a sultana or peanut-based lolly</strong>. These do not dissolve in water and if they get stuck, become be a choking hazard</p></li>
<li><p><strong>don’t ask children to lay on their back</strong>. <a href="https://www.everydayhealth.com/specialists/healthy-living/when-a-pill-gets-stuck/#:%7E:text=Never%20take%20a%20medication%20when,pill%20is%20%E2%80%9Cchased%E2%80%9D%20down.">This can make it more difficult to swallow</a>. Instead just have them sit up straight. If they like, they can tilt their head forward to place the lolly in their mouth, and then when they are ready to swallow, they can tilt their head slightly back to help it go down.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Final take-home advice</h2>
<p>Teaching your child to swallow a pill is not easy and is likely to take weeks. Most kids will get stuck at one size of lolly at some stage. And they’ll likely not be able to swallow the largest lolly the first time they try.</p>
<p>This is normal, so persevere and keep the game fun. Your child will get there.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154552/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Associate Professor Wheate in the past has received funding from the ACT Cancer Council, Tenovus Scotland, Medical Research Scotland, Scottish Crucible, and the Scottish Universities Life Sciences Alliance. He is Fellow of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute and a member of the Australasian Pharmaceutical Science Association. Nial is science director of the medicinal cannabis company Canngea Pty Ltd, a board member of the Australian Medicinal Cannabis Association, and a Standards Australia committee member for sunscreen agents.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elise Schubert is a registered pharmacist and also receives a scholarship from the University of Sydney and Canngea Pty Ltd. </span></em></p>Here’s how to make the learning process fun and safe.Nial Wheate, Associate Professor of the Sydney Pharmacy School, University of SydneyElise Schubert, Pharmacist and PhD Candidate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1479722021-01-11T13:14:46Z2021-01-11T13:14:46ZConsumer electronics have changed a lot in 20 years – systems for managing e-waste aren’t keeping up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376831/original/file-20201231-49872-1uzkolc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C11%2C3864%2C2572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of the world's electronics are not recycled, posing health and environmental risks. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/abandoned-and-rusted-laptop-lying-on-riverbed-royalty-free-image/108162816">catscandotcom/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to imagine navigating modern life without a <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/are-cell-phones-becoming-more-popular-toilets">mobile phone</a> in hand. Computers, tablets and smartphones have transformed how we communicate, work, learn, share news and entertain ourselves. They became even more essential when the COVID-19 pandemic moved classes, meetings and social connections online. </p>
<p>But few people realize that our reliance on electronics comes with steep environmental costs, from mining minerals to disposing of used devices. Consumers can’t resist faster products with more storage and better cameras, but constant upgrades have created a <a href="https://time.com/5594380/world-electronic-waste-problem/">growing global waste challenge</a>. In 2019 alone, people discarded <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Environment/Documents/Toolbox/GEM_2020_def.pdf">53 million metric tons of electronic waste</a>.</p>
<p>In our work as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oZyg9b4AAAAJ&hl=en">sustainability researchers</a>, we study how consumer behavior and technological innovations influence the products that people buy, how long they keep them and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z6q5FZMAAAAJ&hl=en">how these items are reused or recycled</a>. </p>
<p>Our research shows that while e-waste is rising globally, it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">declining in the U.S.</a> But some innovations that are slimming down the e-waste stream are also making products harder to repair and recycle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sending electronics to junkyards or landfills wastes an opportunity to recycle valuable materials inside them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/junkyard-with-old-computer-and-electronic-parts-ca-news-photo/144074229">Joe Sohm/Visions of America /Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Recycling used electronics</h2>
<p>Thirty years of data show why the volume of e-waste in the U.S. is decreasing. New products are <a href="https://apnews.com/article/bb5ff45b98f64123b3d408dd4a336b59">lighter and more compact than past offerings</a>. Smartphones and laptops have edged out desktop computers. Televisions with thin, flat screens have displaced bulkier <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, and streaming services are doing the job that once required standalone MP3, DVD and Blu-ray players. U.S. households now produce about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">10% less electronic waste by weight</a> than they did at their peak in 2015.</p>
<p>The bad news is that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling">only about 35% of U.S. e-waste is recycled</a>. Consumers often don’t know where to recycle discarded products. If electronic devices decompose in landfills, hazardous compounds can leach into groundwater, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2019.1640807">lead</a> used in older circuit boards, mercury found in early LCD screens and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/30/toxins-in-plastics-blamed-for-health-environment-hazards">flame retardants</a> in plastics. This process poses health risks to people and wildlife. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"809910797182914560"}"></div></p>
<p>There’s a clear need to recycle e-waste, both to protect public health and to recover valuable metals. Electronics contain rare minerals and precious metals mined in socially and ecologically <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/congo-cobalt-mining-for-lithium-ion-battery/">vulnerable parts of the world</a>. Reuse and recycling can reduce demand for “<a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2020/09/companies-struggle-comply-conflict-mineral-reporting-rules/">conflict minerals</a>” and <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-a-circular-approach-can-turn-e-waste-into-a-golden-opportunity/">create new jobs and revenue streams</a>. </p>
<p>But it’s not a simple process. Disassembling electronics for repair or material recovery is expensive and labor-intensive. </p>
<p>Some recycling companies have illegally <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2020/12/03/former-president-of-crt-processor-sentenced-to-prison/">stockpiled</a> or <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">abandoned</a> e-waste. One Denver warehouse was called “<a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">an environmental disaster</a>” when 8,000 tons of lead-filled tubes from old TVs were discovered there in 2013. </p>
<p>The U.S. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/america-e-waste-gps-tracker-tells-all-earthfix">exports up to 40% of its e-waste</a>. Some goes to regions such as Southeast Asia that have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/world/asia/e-waste-thailand-southeast-asia.html">little environmental oversight and few measures to protect workers</a> who repair or recycle electronics. </p>
<h2>Disassembling products and assembling data</h2>
<p>Health and environmental risks have prompted 25 U.S. states and the District of Columbia to <a href="https://www.ecycleclearinghouse.org/maps.aspx">enact e-waste recycling laws</a>. Some of these measures ban landfilling electronics, while others require manufacturers to support recycling efforts. All of them target large products, like old cathode-ray tube TVs, which contain up to 4 pounds of lead.</p>
<p>We wanted to know whether these laws, adopted from 2003 to 2011, can keep up with the current generation of electronic products. To find out, we needed a better estimate of how much e-waste the U.S. now produces.</p>
<p>We mapped sales of electronic products from the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/04/a-terminal-condition/361313/">1950s</a> to the present, using data from industry reports, government sources and consumer surveys. Then we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0573-9">disassembled almost 100 devices</a>, from obsolete VCRs to today’s smartphones and fitness trackers, to weigh and measure the materials they contained.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A researcher takes apart a smartphone to find out what materials are inside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shahana Althaf</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This dissected tablet shows the components inside, each of which were logged, weighed and measured by researchers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Callie Babbitt</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We created a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3986969">computer model to analyze the data</a>, producing one of the most detailed accounts of U.S. electronic product consumption and discards currently available.</p>
<h2>E-waste is leaner, but not necessarily greener</h2>
<p>The big surprise from our research was that U.S. households are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">producing less e-waste</a>, thanks to compact product designs and digital innovation. For example, a smartphone serves as an all-in-one phone, camera, MP3 player and portable navigation system. Flat-panel TVs are about 50% lighter than <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/06/15/15greenwire-some-see-e-waste-crisis-trailing-switch-to-dig-81110.html">large-tube TVs</a> and don’t contain any lead. </p>
<p>But not all innovations have been beneficial. To make lightweight products, manufacturers miniaturized components and glued parts together, making it harder to repair devices and more expensive to recycle them. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01890-3">Lithium-ion batteries</a> pose another problem: They are hard to detect and remove, and they can spark <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/28/21156477/recycling-plants-fire-batteries-rechargeable-smartphone-lithium-ion">disastrous fires</a> during transportation or recycling.</p>
<p>Popular features that consumers love – speed, sharp images, responsive touch screens and long battery life – rely on metals like cobalt, indium and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-rare-earths-crucial-elements-in-modern-technology-4-questions-answered-101364">rare-earth elements</a> that require immense energy and expense to mine. Commercial recycling technology cannot yet recover them profitably, although innovations are starting to emerge. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple’s new robot, Daisy, can disassemble nine different iPhone models to recover valuable materials that traditional recyclers cannot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2018/04/apple-adds-earth-day-donations-to-trade-in-and-recycling-program/">Apple</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reenvisioning waste as a resource</h2>
<p>We believe solving these challenges requires a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.05.038">proactive approach</a> that treats digital discards as resources, not waste. Gold, silver, palladium and other valuable materials are now more concentrated in e-waste than in natural ores in the ground. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200407-urban-mining-how-your-home-may-be-a-gold-mine">Urban mining</a>,” in the form of recycling e-waste, could replace the need to dig up scarce metals, reducing environmental damage. It would also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105248">reduce U.S. dependence</a> on <a href="https://www.cato.org/blog/chinas-critical-minerals-national-security-meaning-supply-chain-interdependence">minerals imported from other countries</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Concentration of hazardous (left) and valuable (right) materials within the U.S. e-waste stream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Althaf et al. 2020</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Government, industry and consumers all have roles to play. Progress will require designing products that are <a href="https://www.ifixit.com/">easier to repair</a> and reuse, and persuading consumers to <a href="https://earth911.com/eco-tech/ways-to-reuse-old-laptop/">keep their devices longer</a>. </p>
<p>We also see a need for responsive e-waste laws in place of today’s dated patchwork of state regulations. Establishing <a href="https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/how-u-s-laws-do-and-dont-support-e-recycling-and-reuse/">convenient</a>, <a href="https://sustainableelectronics.org/recyclers">certified</a> <a href="https://e-stewards.org/">recycling locations</a> can keep more electronics out of landfills. With retooled operations, recyclers can recover more valuable materials from the e-waste stream. Steps like these can help balance our reliance on electronic devices with systems that better protect human health and the environment. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callie Babbitt receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahana Althaf received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p>Technical advances are reducing the volume of e-waste generated in the US as lighter, more compact products enter the market. But those goods can be harder to reuse and recycle.Callie Babbitt, Associate Professor of Sustainability, Rochester Institute of TechnologyShahana Althaf, Postdoctoral associate, Yale UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1386942020-06-02T12:15:17Z2020-06-02T12:15:17ZMobile technology may support kids learning to recognize emotions in photos of faces<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338980/original/file-20200601-95009-1b3i5td.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=199%2C145%2C4483%2C3257&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many kids use screens all day long and are adept at reading what they see on them.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/students-using-laptop-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/104737316">LWA/Dann Tardif/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The Research Brief is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>An essential social skill is understanding emotion. Children learn about emotion even before language by <a href="https://theconversation.com/clear-masks-for-caregivers-mean-young-children-can-keep-learning-from-adults-faces-139432">paying attention to a caregiver’s face</a>. Watching people around them <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-happens-when-kids-go-cold-turkey-from-their-screens-for-5-days_b_5700805">provides children with essential facts</a> for survival: Who will love me? Whom should I be scared of?</p>
<p>These days everyone’s seen infants and toddlers, and their parents, with screens in their faces. So how could little ones be getting the critical in-person, face-to-face interaction they desperately need in those early years? </p>
<p>Yet in today’s world, just about everyone uses devices to communicate with others, even face to face. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/09/do-babies-know-when-theyre-skyping/404650/">Toddlers learn</a> from video chatting with their grandparents, and <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-technology-2018/">teens devour image-driven social media</a> on platforms such as Instagram and Snapchat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338981/original/file-20200601-95028-s6e0z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There’s a reason they’re called digital natives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/smiling-boy-using-digital-tablet-while-lying-on-bed-royalty-free-image/1155478145">Chachawal Prapai/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What if, rather than stunting the emotional skills traditionally learned from in-person interactions, the hours kids spend staring at screens and sharing selfies with friends actually teach them to read emotion in facial expressions?</p>
<p>My colleagues and I recently published a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0174">study in the journal Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Networking</a> that found screen-based communication, rather than being a barrier to social learning, may instead help it.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The introduction of the iPhone in 2007 and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPad">iPad in 2010</a> <a href="https://www.vjrconsulting.com/children-media-1/2018/9/19/just-out-the-next-wave-of-the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-kids-age-zero-to-eight-2017">drastically changed</a> early learning environments – and set off a decade of hand-wringing about screen time.</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://www.scholarsandstorytellers.com/">Center for Scholars & Storytellers</a>, we seek to understand how media affect learning during the tween and teen years. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202">growing body of research</a> from a variety of disciplines points to these years as a crucial time for social and emotional learning. As early adolescents work toward achieving independence from their parents, they begin to look to peers and media to learn about the world.</p>
<p>Especially in the time of the coronavirus, it’s critical to understand how and what children learn from the digital media they use to communicate, such as social media and video chat, in order to maximize the positive impact of screen time and minimize the negative effects.</p>
<h2>How we did this work</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336594/original/file-20200521-194955-1yp88vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How would you classify the emotion portrayed in this photo?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stephen Nowicki Jr.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We designed a study to test whether the increase in early childhood screen time affects children’s ability to read emotional cues from facial expressions.</p>
<p>In 2017, we showed 56 sixth grade students who were born in 2006 photographs that test their ability to read basic emotions and asked them to identify the emotion depicted. We compared these kids’ scores with those from an earlier study done in 2012 that had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.036">tested sixth grade students</a> who were born in 2001. While both groups spent about the same time watching television and playing video games, their device ownership had changed. Out of the 56 tweens in the 2017 group, 44 reported owning tablets. We hadn’t even asked that question of the group tested in 2012, because tablets were still rare then.</p>
<p>To our surprise, the students who grew up with tablets and phones scored 40% higher on this test than the students from five years earlier. In other words, they were better at reading emotions in the photographs than the older group.</p>
<p>In today’s world, young people use photos and, increasingly, video to communicate. With cameras now installed on every device and the rise of visual-based communication, we suspect our 2017 participants had more opportunities to see, communicate and learn nonverbal emotion expressed in photographs of faces than did the kids from 2012.</p>
<p>While we found a dramatic improvement in reading emotional cues in photos, we don’t know whether this skill would apply to reading emotions in real life.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Technology is always evolving, and just like the studies that have investigated <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/sesame-street-and-its-surprisingly-powerful-effects-on-how-children-learn/2015/06/07/59c73fe4-095c-11e5-9e39-0db921c47b93_story.html">how kids learn from television</a>, researchers need to study how increased exposure to pictures, videos, games and other emerging platforms for communication influences young people.</p>
<p>During this time of social distancing, screen-based communication may be one of the only ways kids can socialize with their friends. We hope our findings give parents some peace of mind that kids at the very least don’t seem to be losing this one particular social skill.</p>
<p>Other research supports this notion. A recent study found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/707985">current generations are no worse at social skills</a> than prior ones, even when judged by teachers.</p>
<p>In-person face-to-face interaction is still the gold standard for understanding emotion. But maybe there’s a silver lining to people increasingly relying on their devices to communicate during the time of the coronavirus. Kids might come out of this pandemic even better at identifying the emotions of others.</p>
<p>[<em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138694/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yalda T. Uhls is an advisor for YouTube Kids and Family, The Bill and Melinda Gates Equitable Future project, Common Sense Media, Bark and the Jacobs Foundations Learning and Science Exchange.</span></em></p>Understanding others’ emotions is a crucial social skill. Counter to concerns about screen time stunting kids’ development, one study suggests they’re getting better at recognizing emotion on screen.Yalda T. Uhls, Founder and Executive Director of the Center for Scholars & Storytellers and Assistant Adjunct Professor in Psychology, University of California, Los AngelesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1280812019-12-10T11:27:17Z2019-12-10T11:27:17ZA mobile phone for Christmas doesn’t mean less family time for teenagers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306066/original/file-20191210-95138-eqqr7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5080%2C3384&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-african-family-2-children-son-1282523581">Fizkes/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Phones, tablets and laptops are usually at the top of many teenage wish lists at Christmas. But parents often worry that giving their children a mobile phone might mean they never see them again. Will they stay locked away in their room for the whole Christmas break? It turns out that might not be such a bad thing.</p>
<p><a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0gv443tm">In a recent study</a>, we found that talking online and texting actually strengthened friendships more than just spending time in each other’s company. Rather than neglecting relationships and encouraging insularity, having a phone meant that young people were more likely to feel connected to their friends and closer to their family.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/social-media-is-it-really-to-blame-for-young-people-being-lonelier-than-any-other-age-group-104292">Social media: is it really to blame for young people being lonelier than any other age group?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This is particularly important for teenagers, who are at an important stage in their development. They need to make close friends and renegotiate relationships with their parents. Making friends allows teenagers to learn how to interact with others, learn more about themselves and find their own place in the world. Mobile tech allows teenagers to stay in touch with others and can help them develop closer, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/08/06/chapter-1-meeting-hanging-out-and-staying-in-touch-the-role-of-digital-technology-in-teen-friendships/">more supportive friendships</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306068/original/file-20191210-95153-178tsyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Socialising is an important part of teenage development.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/JU9SE8vu8FQ">Freestocks.org/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Staying in touch</h2>
<p>Although teenagers need freedom to explore new friendships, they still need the emotional support of their parents. One study has suggested that mobile phones act as a sort of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1348/026151008X388413">security blanket</a> for young people as they venture further from home, knowing that parents are only a call or text away if they get in trouble.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/limiting-screen-use-is-not-the-way-to-tackle-teenage-sleep-problems-heres-how-to-browse-healthily-at-night-117527">Limiting screen use is not the way to tackle teenage sleep problems – here's how to browse healthily at night</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But what about when teenagers are at home, basking in the blue glow of their phone and lost in digital conversations with their friends? Are mobile phones killing family time? We asked more than 150 teenagers about how much time they spent online and how many texts they sent every day for one week. We also measured how much time they spent face-to-face with parents without being distracted by their phone.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, we found that teenagers who spent more time texting and chatting online with friends also spent more time talking face-to-face with their parents. This was true both on a daily basis and on average. We think that on days when teenagers spend more time with their family, they may be compensating for not seeing their friends by staying in touch virtually. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306070/original/file-20191210-95120-1vophga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teenagers who spent more time texting friends were also more likely to spend quality time with their family.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/family-teenage-children-eating-breakfast-kitchen-714537895">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So it turns out that parents shouldn’t worry about not seeing their child if they give them a phone for Christmas. They may hide away for a few hours to text their friends, but they’re likely to spend more time with the family in the long run. But there’s even more good news. When teenagers could text their parents regularly, they felt even closer to their parents than those whose only contact with their parents was face-to-face. This is likely because texting allows young people to feel closer to their parents while still allowing them their freedom.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/peak-friendship-data-reveals-when-youll-be-most-popular-57293">Peak friendship: data reveals when you'll be most popular</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While there are certainly risks to having <a href="https://theconversation.com/too-much-screen-time-linked-to-an-epidemic-of-myopia-among-young-people-111599">too much screen time</a>, our work shows that mobile phones can help teenagers build bonds with their friends while still staying close to their family. Phones seem to help, rather than hurt, a young person’s natural progression from the family home to the wider world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128081/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Genavee Brown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents shouldn’t fear putting tech under the tree. In fact, it could bring families closer together.Genavee Brown, Lecturer in Psychology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1221452019-08-29T09:23:12Z2019-08-29T09:23:12ZCurious Kids: how do mobile phones and tablets work?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289924/original/file-20190828-184207-m5hia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C163%2C5472%2C3473&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Like magic. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-asian-child-girl-look-smart-1092089723?src=-1-53">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>How do mobile phones and tablets work? Tom, aged six, Quorn, UK</strong></p>
<p>Great question, Tom! There’s a lot of amazing technology packed into mobile phones and tablets. Nowadays, most have a touch screen, speakers, a microphone, WiFi, Bluetooth, a camera, a telephone and more. </p>
<p>Underneath all these fun features, though, mobile phones and tablets are basically mini computers. And computers work by carrying out instructions we humans have given them. </p>
<p>To a computer, <a href="https://www.howtogeek.com/367621/what-is-binary-and-why-do-computers-use-it/">everything is a number</a>. A picture? Lots of numbers: three for every tiny dot in the image. A sound? A long list of numbers, including one for how “loud” the sound is at each point in time (that’s thousands every second). A word? Each letter has its own unique number, too.</p>
<h2>Machine brains</h2>
<p>Computers have a machine “brain” called the <a href="https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2851/central-processing-unit-cpu">Central Processing Unit</a> (CPU), which has two main jobs: getting instructions from the computer’s memory, and carrying them out. The instructions are stored as numbers, too, of course. </p>
<p>The programs or “apps” you find on a mobile phone or tablet are basically lists of instructions. With a bit of practice, you can even write your own: it’s called “programming” or “coding”. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282267/original/file-20190702-126345-1np1y7m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives children the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a>. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we’ll do our very best.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>But writing down lots of lists of numbers to give your instructions to the computer would be really difficult, and takes a very long time. Luckily, people have invented special coding languages, that are much easier for us to read and understand. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://medium.com/web-development-zone/a-complete-list-of-computer-programming-languages-1d8bc5a891f">lots of different programming languages</a> these days, with names like C, C++, Python and Java. Different languages are better for different jobs – but mostly it’s just down to what the programmer likes to use. </p>
<p>There are even programming languages made of different shapes, like a jigsaw, which can be great for learning – like <a href="https://scratch.mit.edu">Scratch</a>, which you can use to make games.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/289925/original/file-20190828-184240-14xtljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Learning to code can be lots of fun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/group-african-american-kids-learn-coding-656332537?src=-1-24">Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>Once you’ve used one of those languages to make a list of instructions, you run it through a special programme – called a compiler – that turns them into programs or apps that computers can run.</p>
<h2>Powering up</h2>
<p>The most important program on any mobile phone or tablet is the operating system. The operating system runs all the different programs and helps them use the phone’s different features, like speakers, touchscreen and microphones. </p>
<p>The operating system also lets you do lots of things at once, so you can still get a phone call even while you’re playing a game. </p>
<p>And, of course, mobile phones wouldn’t be very “mobile” without a battery. Batteries have been around for <a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-04-history-batteries.html">at least 200 years</a>, but they have got a lot better recently, so they can power complicated things like mobile phones, tablets – and even electric cars. </p>
<p>Batteries work by converting chemicals to electricity. With an adult’s help, you can make a simple battery using fruit and some coins, which is fun – but wouldn’t be strong enough to run a mobile phone. </p>
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<p><em>Children can have their own questions answered by experts – just send them in to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, along with the child’s first name, age and town or city. You can:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><em>email <a href="mailto:curiouskids@theconversation.com">curiouskids@theconversation.com</a></em></li>
<li><em>tweet us <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationUK">@ConversationUK</a> with #curiouskids</em></li>
<li><em>DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a></em></li>
</ul>
<p><em>Here are some more <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/curious-kids-36782?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Curious Kids</a> articles, written by academic experts:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-animals-have-two-different-coloured-eyes-119727?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why do some animals have two different coloured eyes? – George, aged ten, Hethersett, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-high-could-i-jump-on-the-moon-120865?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">How high could I jump on the moon? – Miles, aged five, London, UK.</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-are-the-bubbles-in-fizzy-drinks-so-small-the-ones-i-blow-are-much-bigger-121513?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CuriousKidsUK">Why are the bubbles in fizzy drink so small? The ones I blow are much bigger - Alison, aged seven, Aberdeen, UK.</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122145/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bernie Tiddeman has previously received funding from AHRC, EPSRC, ESRC and Unilever Research. He has current funding from the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund, the European Social Fund, RHE Global and the Welsh European Funding Office. He works for Aberystwyth University. </span></em></p>Mobile phones and tablets are basically mini computers – and to a computer, everything is a number.Bernie Tiddeman, Reader in Computer Science, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1057172018-11-06T11:41:21Z2018-11-06T11:41:21ZNew findings add twist to screen time limit debate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/243943/original/file-20181105-83632-yfg4nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If screens are kept at an arm's length, measures of well-being tend to improve.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-hand-reaching-out-grab-floating-1165508545?src=qvCrDWlrVGAzIMpW_QOm8g-1-64">SawBear/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many parents want to know how much time their kids should be spending in front of screens, whether it’s their smartphones, tablets or TV.</p>
<p>For years, the American Academy of Pediatrics had <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/10/21/health/screen-time-media-rules-children-aap/index.html">suggested a limit of two hours a day of TV for children and teens</a>. </p>
<p>But after screen time started to include phones and tablets, these guidelines needed an update. So last year, the American Academy of Pediatrics <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/American-Academy-of-Pediatrics-Announces-New-Recommendations-for-Childrens-Media-Use.aspx">changed its recommendations</a>: No more than one hour of screen time for children ages 2 to 5; for older children and teens, they caution against too much screen time, but there’s no specific time limit.</p>
<p>This may give the impression that preschoolers are the only ones who need specific limits on screen time, with monitoring less important for older children and teens. Then a study <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.13007">came out last year</a> suggesting that the imperative to monitor screen time for preschoolers may be overblown. </p>
<p>However <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335518301827?via%3Dihub">new research</a> conducted by me and my co-author Keith Campbell challenges the idea that vague directives and loose guidelines are the best approach. </p>
<p>Not only does this study suggest that specific time limits on screen time are justified for preschoolers, it also makes the case for screen time limits for school-age children and teens. </p>
<p>In fact, these older kids and teens may be even more vulnerable to excessive screen time.</p>
<h2>A study muddies the waters</h2>
<p>Several studies have found that children and teens who spend more time with screens are <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-might-explain-the-unhappiness-epidemic-90212">less happy</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-teen-mental-health-deteriorating-over-five-years-theres-a-likely-culprit-86996">more depressed</a>, and more likely to be <a href="http://www.latimes.com/science/la-sci-sn-one-hour-tv-watching-overweight-obese-20150426-story.html">overweight</a>. </p>
<p>But a study released last year <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.13007">muddied the waters</a>. Using a <a href="http://www.childhealthdata.org/learn-about-the-nsch/NSCH">a large national survey</a> conducted from 2011 to 2012, it found little association between screen time and well-being among preschoolers.</p>
<p>This led some to conclude that screen time limits weren’t important. </p>
<p>“Maybe you’re being too strict with your kid’s screen time,” <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/12/18/maybe-youre-being-too-strict-your-kids-screen-time-study-suggests/960894001/">suggested one headline</a>.</p>
<p>However, this analysis examined just four items measuring well-being: how often the child was affectionate, smiled or laughed, showed curiosity and showed resilience – characteristics that might describe the vast majority of preschool children. This study also didn’t include school-age children or teens.</p>
<h2>Diving into a more detailed data set</h2>
<p>Fortunately, a version of that large survey conducted in 2016 by the U.S. Census Bureau included 19 different measures of well-being for children up to age 17, giving researchers a more comprehensive view of well-being across a range of age groups. </p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335518301827">newly released paper</a> using this expanded survey, we found that children and teens who spent more time on screens scored lower in well-being across 18 of these 19 indicators.</p>
<p>After one hour a day of use, children and teens who spent more time on screens were lower in psychological well-being: They were less curious and more easily distracted, and had a more difficult time making friends, managing their anger and finishing tasks. </p>
<p>Teens who spent an excessive amount of time on screens were twice as likely to have been diagnosed with anxiety or depression. </p>
<p>That’s a problem, because this generation of teens, whom I call “<a href="http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/iGen/Jean-M-Twenge/9781501152016">iGen</a>,” spends an extraordinary amount of time on screens – up to <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/about-us/news/press-releases/landmark-report-us-teens-use-an-average-of-nine-hours-of-media-per-day">nine hours a day on average</a> – and <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/138/6/e20161878.figures-only">are also more likely to suffer from depression</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, we found that excessive screen time had stronger links to lower well-being for teens than it did for younger kids. </p>
<p>That might be because children spend more of their screen time watching TV shows and videos. This kind of screen use is <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/our-changing-culture/201808/what-do-happy-teens-do">not as strongly linked to low well-being</a> as the social media, electronic games and smartphones used more often by teens.</p>
<p>These results suggest that it is teens – not young children – who may be most in need of screen time limits.</p>
<h2>The case for clear guidelines</h2>
<p>This research is correlational. In other words, it isn’t clear whether more screen time leads to depression and anxiety, or that someone who’s depressed or anxious is more likely to spend more time in front of screens. </p>
<p>Either way, excessive screen time is a potential red flag for anxiety, depression and attention issues among children and teens. </p>
<p>If we even suspect that more screen time is linked to depression and lower well-being – as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1755296616300862">several</a> <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0069841">longitudinal</a> <a href="https://hbr.org/2017/04/a-new-more-rigorous-study-confirms-the-more-you-use-facebook-the-worse-you-feel">studies</a> find – it makes sense to talk about limits. </p>
<p>Right now, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that the screen time of older kids and teens shouldn’t come at the expense of sleep, extracurricular activities and schoolwork. Parents should add up the amount of time teens spend on these other activities, they say, and whatever’s left could be spent in front of screens. </p>
<p>This suggestion is problematic for several reasons. </p>
<p>First, how can a parent be expected, each day, to calculate how many hours their kid spends on these activities? What about shifting schedules and weekends? </p>
<p>Second, it places few limits on teens who don’t spend much time on homework or activities, and could even motivate kids to drop activities if they figure it could mean more allotted time for, say, playing video games. </p>
<p>Even if sleep isn’t affected and homework is done, it’s probably safe to say that playing Fortnite for eight hours a day or scrolling through social media feeds during every free moment probably isn’t healthy.</p>
<p>Parents need clear advice, and specific screen time limits are the most straightforward way to provide it. </p>
<p>The research on well-being, including this new study, points to a limit of about two hours a day of leisure screen time, not counting time spent on schoolwork. </p>
<p>In my view, The American Academy of Pediatrics should expand its recommendation of screen time limits to school-age children and teens, making it clear that two hours a day is a guideline with flexibility for special circumstances. Some parents may want to set a limit of one hour, but two hours seems more realistic as an overall guideline given teens’ current use.</p>
<p>Two hours a day also allows for many of the benefits of screen time for kids and teens – making plans with friends, watching educational videos and keeping in touch with family – without displacing time for other activities that provide a boost to well-being, like sleep, face-to-face social interaction and exercise. </p>
<p>Technology is here to stay. But parents don’t have to let it dominate their kids’ lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105717/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean Twenge has received funding from the National Institutes of Health and the Russell Sage Foundation.</span></em></p>As their kids get older, should parents should be more – not less – vigilant?Jean Twenge, Professor of Psychology, San Diego State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1023722018-09-05T10:40:34Z2018-09-05T10:40:34ZSix ways that tablets really can transform teaching<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234309/original/file-20180830-195322-hifggg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/back-school-concept-supplies-tablet-on-211402468?src=AxWOJ7ENfqj9Ay8Y09y02w-1-44">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The holidays may be over – but the debate over young people and screen time continues. And as anxious parents prepare children for the start of a new school term, many will have concerns about what exposure to technology they will have in the classroom.</p>
<p>The UK education secretary Damian Hinds has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/aug/07/uk-schools-silicon-valley-tech-industry-urged-foster-education-revolution">challenged the technology industry</a> to spearhead a classroom revolution. He wants more classrooms to take advantage of the gadgets and software available which enable pupils to go on “virtual trips” or “control robots”. </p>
<p>Hinds is right to see the potential that technology has to transform teaching and learning. High quality educational apps available on smart phones and tablets really can help raise attainment, and provide a unique learning experience. </p>
<p>Over the past five years, we have been conducting an <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/10.3389/conf.fnhum.2018.225.00009/event_abstract">international research project</a>
evaluating a series of educational apps developed by the British charity <a href="https://onebillion.org/">onebillion</a>. </p>
<p>These interactive apps are designed specifically to support early years numeracy and literacy skills. They are available in different languages and enable children to learn independently and at their own pace. There is even an “in-app” teacher who guides them through the curriculum-based content. </p>
<p>Children interact with the apps by touching, dragging, and dropping objects to answer questions. Their learning levels are then assessed through quizzes.</p>
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<p>So far, we have found many positive results from using these apps in early years education. Here are some of the things they can do: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Improve learning outcomes – these apps significantly raise attainment in key skills such as mathematics and literacy (when used alongside standard teaching methods). </p></li>
<li><p>Foster an inclusive learning environment – children with special educational needs and disabilities can learn effectively with these apps. This gives teachers a tool for providing high quality education for children with specific needs alongside mainstream classroom peers.</p></li>
<li><p>Support cognitive development – when using educational apps to acquire specific skills, such as mathematics, core cognitive skills can also develop. When children in Malawi used interactive maths apps on a daily basis for eight weeks, their attention and concentration skills also improved.</p></li>
<li><p>Promote development of non-cognitive skills – teachers in Malawi and the UK using the same interactive apps to support early mathematical and literacy skills, reported that children become more confident and independent in their learning.</p></li>
<li><p>Bridge home/school divides – these apps are also available for parents to download and are easy to use, so can support learning at home.</p></li>
<li><p>Equalise access – as these apps are available in different languages, are easy to use by teachers and parents, and promote self-paced learning, they can be used in different settings, equalising access to high quality education for all.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The apps are currently being implemented by <a href="https://vsointernational.org/">Voluntary Service Overseas</a> in Malawi in their flagship international development programme, <a href="https://unlockingtalent.org/">Unlocking Talent through Technology</a>. They have also been implemented in 15 schools across Nottinghamshire with <a href="http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/52319/9/Math%202018-30648-001.pdf">promising results</a>. So far, children using the app for 12 weeks (for 30 minutes a day) were up to four months ahead of their peers. The app was particularly beneficial for children struggling with maths.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234831/original/file-20180904-45166-1nqyfq2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">‘Appy’ children at a school in Nottingham, UK.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marc Faulder</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>But it’s not just about numbers. Educational apps can also be used by teachers and children to create their own imaginative content, and connect classrooms worldwide. <a href="http://jmilnereducation.wixsite.com/storiesofalifetime">Stories of a Lifetime</a> is a global literacy project run by Marc Faulder (in the UK) and Jason Milner (in Australia), which creates a library of local stories and myths, told by children in their own words and animations. Part of Apple’s “<a href="https://www.apple.com/uk/education/apple-distinguished-educator/">Distinguished Educators</a>” programme, it enables teachers across the world to share their children’s stories in way which promotes digital literacy, communication skills and a sense of identity.</p>
<h2>Teaching the teachers</h2>
<p>But while tablets have considerable potential to transform teaching, teachers themselves need to be <a href="https://enabling-environments.co.uk/">skilled and confident</a> in using this technology creatively. To revolutionise learning through technology, greater opportunities for professional development of teachers is needed. </p>
<p>Tech giants such as Apple, Microsoft and Google already offer introductory and specialised training for teachers in using tablet technology effectively in the classroom. But for technology to enhance learning universally, training should be an integral part of professional development. </p>
<p>Those currently in the profession, and those studying to become teachers, would benefit from being taught how to use apps and tablets to improve learning in all subject areas – even if that means the adults having a bit more screen time, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102372/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Pitchford receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council, the Education Endowment Foundation, and the Royal Norwegian Embassy to support this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura A. Outhwaite receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council to support this research.</span></em></p>A brief guide for teachers and parents on tech in the classroom.Nicola Pitchford, Professor of Developmental Psychology, University of NottinghamLaura Outhwaite, PhD candidate in Applied Psychology and Education, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/958462018-05-24T10:23:41Z2018-05-24T10:23:41ZHow ‘media snacks’ – from HQ Trivia to Candy Crush – are transforming the workplace<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219993/original/file-20180522-51121-5kz1wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A quick distraction is at our fingertips – and app developers know it. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/employee-using-his-smartphone-workplace-while-364632065?src=A48-4ZfObeWYcNiYXIYZow-1-0">JrCasas/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Snow White sang “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSnXNHUEodY">Whistle While You Work</a>,” she was participating in a long tradition of using entertainment to manage the stresses of labor.</p>
<p>That same year, factory owners in the United Kingdom became interested in exploring whether music <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649360500258229?src=recsys&">could improve productivity</a> and invested in research to determine the optimal tunes for doing so. Workers welcomed the change, viewing it as a reprieve from the mind-numbing monotony of the mechanical age.</p>
<p>Today, smartphones and the internet largely perform this role, giving workers an array of daily distractions. </p>
<p>Media companies have taken note and are increasingly investing in the development of what <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EoX5iqwAAAAJ&hl=en">I call</a> a “<a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9781479844234/">procrastination economy</a>,” which is centered on the development of products designed for those moments when we pull out our phones or surf the web for a few minutes of distraction.</p>
<p>It could be during your commute or while you’re hanging out in a waiting room. But the workplace is an especially fertile place for media designed to avert people’s attention from the task at hand. </p>
<p>However, that doesn’t necessarily mean we are compulsively checking our phones to the detriment of our ability to do our job well. As alluring as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy_Crush_Saga">Candy Crush</a> may be, it doesn’t compare to a steady pay check. No, instead, these new products can enhance camaraderie and add to the various ways workers have, for years, navigated the work day.</p>
<h2>Disengaging from the task at hand</h2>
<p>Whether it’s listening to the radio in the break room or sneaking a book into the bathroom, media have long played a role in the workday. </p>
<p>The digital age transformed labor; the assembly line gave way to the cubicle; and work required constant engagement with the computer. These same computers also brought with them a form of distraction: the internet. During the workday, employees could now easily access their favorite news sites or chat with their friends.</p>
<p>A particularly ingenuous development of the era is the “<a href="http://www.speedofcreativity.org/2007/04/02/the-boss-button/">boss button</a>,” a computer hack for transforming a chat window or video game into an anonymous spreadsheet. Employers combated this trend by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/22/business/on-the-office-pc-bosses-opt-for-all-work-and-no-play.html">installing nanny software</a> to prohibit surfing on certain websites. </p>
<p>With an assist from the tech industry, employees found a new outlet with their smartphones. A good example of how mobile companies positioned themselves as an ally of the worker is a <a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2fzxg0">2009 commercial</a> for the now-defunct Windows Phone that features a bored employee inviting anthropomorphic mobile apps into a meeting.</p>
<p>Now workers have distractions like the live mobile game show <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/05/arts/hq-trivia-app-appointment-viewing.html">HQ Trivia</a> at their disposal. This daily trivia contest attracts around a million players each weekday afternoon at 3 p.m. EST. The game takes about 15 minutes, as participants answer 12 questions for a chance to win cash prizes. </p>
<p>This game show app is a perfect example of the procrastination economy: It asks participants to plan their day around a short, scheduled distraction, with advertisers paying to sponsor it.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219991/original/file-20180522-51098-z6ulrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At 3 p.m. every day, millions of workers can take a trivia break.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://qz.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/hq-trivia-android-quiz-app-ios.jpg?quality=80&strip=all&w=1600">HQ</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>‘Snacking’ on morsels of media</h2>
<p>An implicit assumption of these developments is that they kill productivity. But research on computer use at work <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08959285.2013.765878">has shown</a> that short web surfing breaks during the day have restorative benefits that improve productivity, offer stress relief, or <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jcc4.12085">fill downtime between projects</a>. Socializing online can also be <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3055231/the-internet-isnt-whats-distracting-us-the-most-at-work">less time-consuming</a> than chatting with a colleague. </p>
<p>Then there are those who say that the older forms of procrastination – hanging in the break room, chatting at the water cooler – were better because they built camaraderie. Critics of smartphones <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/opinion/sunday/the-flight-from-conversation.html">often point</a> to the ways that they isolate us from each other, drawing us into our own bubbles.</p>
<p>But it turns out that these newer products of the procrastination economy can help build camaraderie. Since a lot of digital media is available on demand, colleagues can watch clips and short episodes together that, in the past, they would have only been able to watch at home. In my ethnographic observations of modern workplaces, I’ve found that people often synchronize their break times with coworkers. Then they’ll use their tablets or smartphones to select a show that they all enjoy and can watch together during a break. </p>
<p>Even HQ trivia can bring people together. Its hosts often promote the game as a group activity, since the questions tend to be challenging enough that it’s exceedingly difficult for one person to answer them all correctly. <a href="https://twitter.com/ap_garrett/status/986320588259123201">Teachers have paused class</a> to play as a group, and <a href="https://twitter.com/DanAmira/status/984516119569616898">some workplaces</a> have made the game show a team-building exercise.</p>
<p>HQ is just one selection on the menu of what some have dubbed “<a href="https://www.wired.com/2007/03/snackminifesto/">media snacks</a>.” It includes games like Words with Friends that can be played in short bursts. It could also be subscription services like Netflix <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/22/arts/television/netflix-15-minute-comedy-specials.html">that are offering ever shorter</a> stand-up comedy specials to fit neatly into the rhythms of the day or late night talk shows that <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/late-nights-youtube-battlefront-whos-881254">divide up segments</a> into bite-size morsels for people to quickly consume on YouTube. </p>
<p>The procrastination economy has turned simple mobile games <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/mobile-games-more-money-than-console-pc-chart-2017-6">into lucrative products</a>. It can make a subscription service a vital source of content both at home and at the workplace. </p>
<p>And the best part? Smartphone screens are so small that a boss button isn’t even necessary.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95846/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ethan Tussey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Thanks to a burgeoning procrastination economy, developers are creating content that can be consumed in short spurts. What does it mean for productivity?Ethan Tussey, Associate Professor in the School of Film, Media & Theatre, Georgia State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/851572017-10-19T13:51:20Z2017-10-19T13:51:20ZTeens are sleeping less – but there’s a surprisingly easy fix<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189309/original/file-20171009-25792-iceli6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/vector-illustration-bored-woman-lying-alone-721523575?src=gmb2eysLqZDfwHUIH_X_RA-1-8">jesadaphorn</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Something is stealing teens’ sleep.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.sleep-journal.com/article/S1389-9457(17)30350-7/fulltext">In a newly released analysis of two large national surveys</a>, my co-authors and I found that the number of U.S. teens who reported sleeping less than seven hours a night jumped 22 percent between 2012 and 2015. Sleep experts agree that <a href="https://sleepfoundation.org/ask-the-expert/sleep-and-teens-biology-and-behavior">teens need at least nine hours of sleep a night</a>. But by 2015, 43 percent of teens reported sleeping less than seven hours a night on most nights – meaning almost half of U.S. teens are significantly sleep-deprived.</p>
<p>What could have raised sleep deprivation among teens to such unprecedented levels? Some factors are easy to rule out. For example, we found that the amount of time teens spent working, doing homework and participating in extracurricular activities held steady during those years. </p>
<p>But there was one large change in teens’ lives between 2012 and 2015: More owned smartphones.</p>
<h2>It starts as an alarm clock…</h2>
<p>Today’s teens – <a href="http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/iGen/Jean-M-Twenge/9781501151989">whom I call “iGen”</a> – are the first generation to spend their entire adolescence with smartphones. </p>
<p>In our analyses, we found that teens who spent more time online and on social media were more likely to sleep less. Time spent watching television had a much weaker link to fewer hours of sleep, and teens who spent more time with their friends in person or on sports or exercise actually slept more. </p>
<p>Time spent online, however, was the one teen activity that both increased during the 2010s and was linked to shorter sleep, making it the most likely cause of teen sleep deprivation. Seventeen- and 18-year-olds – <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.12930/full">who spend more time online than younger teens</a> – were also the most sleep-deprived: The majority, 51 percent, slept less than seven hours on most nights by 2015.</p>
<p>The link between time spent online and less sleep was considerable. Spending five or more hours a day online (vs. one hour) upped the risk of sleeping too little more than 50 percent. Spending three hours a day (vs. one hour) upped the risk nearly 20 percent. </p>
<p>Smartphones – <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/12/evolution-of-technology/">which the majority of Americans owned by the end of 2012</a> – allow mobile and instant internet access. It’s difficult to prove what causes what in an analysis like this, but it seems much more likely that teens’ increased smartphone use between 2012 and 2015 led to less sleep than less sleep leading to more smartphone use. </p>
<p>Why might smartphones cause teens to sleep less? Unlike other electronic devices such as TVs and desktop computers, smartphones (and tablets) are easily carried into the bedroom and held by hand in bed. </p>
<p>Most of the students I interviewed for my book “iGen” told me they kept their phones within reach as they slept, in part, because they all used it as their alarm clock. </p>
<p>Many also told me that their smartphones were the last thing they looked at before they went to sleep at night. That’s a problem, because answering texts and scrolling through social media is mentally and emotionally stimulating, which <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743516000025">leads to disturbed sleep</a>. Others told me that they also regularly reached for their phones, often just out of habit, when they woke up in the middle of the night. </p>
<p>There’s a physiological response as well: The blue light emitted by smartphones and tablets simulates daylight, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/4/1232">inhibiting the brain’s production of melatonin</a>, the hormone that helps us fall asleep and stay asleep.</p>
<p>And that’s if teens try to go to sleep at all. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/awake-online-and-sleep-deprived-the-rise-of-the-teenage-vamper-34853">A 2014 study</a> found that 80 percent of teens admitted to using their phones when they were supposed to be sleeping – a practice some call “vamping.” Some said they stayed up most of the night when their parents thought they were asleep. </p>
<h2>Some simple limits</h2>
<p>Sleep deprivation can have serious consequences for teens. </p>
<p>Those who don’t sleep enough <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3707878/">perform more poorly in school</a> and are <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/3/e921">at greater risk of developing obesity</a>. Sleep deprivation is also linked to mental health issues <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178108004113">including depression and anxiety</a> among both teens and adults. </p>
<p>When conducting research for my book, I found that iGen teens are more likely to be <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/11/10/peds.2016-1878">depressed</a> and anxious than previous generations. If smartphones cause teens to sleep less, and less sleep leads to depression, sleep deprivation might explain why teen depression increased sharply after 2012 – exactly when smartphones became common, and exactly when sleep deprivation began to increase among teens.</p>
<p>What can be done? <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/3/642">Later start times at high schools have significant positive impacts</a> on teen sleep, but school start times aren’t something parents and teens can control. </p>
<p>In contrast, limiting smartphone use before bed is a strategy that can be immediately implemented (ideally for the whole family, adults included). A “no phones in the bedroom after bedtime” <a href="https://theconversation.com/wired-and-tired-why-parents-should-take-technology-out-of-their-kids-bedroom-50406">rule</a> can work. If your family uses phones as alarm clocks, buy inexpensive alarm clocks. Put an app on phones that shuts them down during certain hours, or leave phones and tablets in another room overnight. Suggest reading a book, taking a bath or writing in a journal in the hour before bed.</p>
<p>Your teens will probably get some more sleep – and they might find themselves healthier and happier as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85157/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean Twenge has received funding from the Russell Sage Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>The amount of time teens have spent working and participating in extracurricular activities has held steady in recent years. There has, however, been one big change in their lives: smartphones.Jean Twenge, Professor of Psychology, San Diego State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/839012017-09-13T13:29:14Z2017-09-13T13:29:14ZNever mind the iPhone X, battery life could soon take a great leap forward<p>Another suite of Apple iPhones, another media frenzy. Much has been written about the $999/£999 iPhone X, the demise of the home button, the “face ID” function, wireless charging and so on. Somewhere down the list of improvements was <a href="https://www.phonearena.com/news/Apple-iPhone-X-iPhone-8-and-iPhone-8-Plus-battery-life_id97985">extra battery life</a>, at least for the iPhone X, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/sep/12/iphone-x-release-date-apple-home-button-screen">thanks to</a> its new souped up A11 bionic processor. </p>
<p>Apple says the new device will charge for up to two hours more than the iPhone 7, <a href="https://www.apple.com/uk/iphone-7/specs/">suggesting</a> 14 hours of internet use, for instance. Battery life on the iPhone 8, on the other hand, appears to be about comparable with its predecessor. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/sep/13/apple-iphone-8-iphone-x-what-is-wireless-charging-do-i-need-it">Wireless charging</a>, to which Apple is late to the party, makes no difference to the amount of power devices can store. </p>
<p>Improvements to batteries are usually a key part of smartphone launches, as you would expect for one of the major specifications on which consumers judge new devices. Samsung <a href="http://www.techradar.com/reviews/samsung-galaxy-note-8-review/3">had much to say</a> on this subject when it launched the Galaxy Note 8 last month – albeit less about extending battery life than ensuring no repeats of <a href="http://www.techradar.com/news/samsung-galaxy-note-7-battery-fires-heres-why-they-exploded">the flaws</a> in Note 7s that made them prone to catch fire. </p>
<p>Yet several decades into the mobile computing revolution, even the best products are still relatively limited in how long they can function on a single charge. The original iPhone was <a href="https://www.itworld.com/article/2832547/mobile/is-the-iphone-s-battery-life-actually-better-after-five-years-.html">good for</a> eight hours of internet browsing, for example, so Apple’s devices have only advanced modestly in ten years. </p>
<p>So far, manufacturers have tended to focus on improving battery technology, packing more and more energy into less and less space. Those fiery Galaxy Note 7s were a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-batteries-have-started-catching-fire-so-often-68602">cautionary tale</a> of what can go wrong when this energy gets released as heat. </p>
<p>Manufacturers also look to improve other mobile hardware that consumes energy – including the display, WiFi, GPS and the central processing unit (CPU). The new iPhones’ improved CPUs and OLED screens have made them more battery friendly, for example.</p>
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<p>But one area that has received surprisingly little attention is the energy consumed by software, or rather the energy consumed by the CPU when running particular software. Neither Samsung nor Apple seemed to make any noises in this direction with their latest launches, but this emerging field could make a major difference to how long we need to charge our devices in future. </p>
<h2>Software sap</h2>
<p>Decades ago, when computers were thousands of times slower, developers would hand-tune code to near perfection to squeeze out every last drop of performance. But as software has become more complicated – thanks to new features, improved user experience and so forth – this stopped being possible. </p>
<p>Software development is now several layers removed from the raw binary machine code that the CPU deals in. Developers also rely on libraries of existing code because it would take too long to build each instruction from scratch every time. Both changes reduce duplicated effort and greatly speed up development time. But the final code often contains parts that are redundant in a particular app, or it could be improved with more efficient tailor-made segments. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185835/original/file-20170913-23134-1hixvqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Phone brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-illustration-cpu-over-digital-background-711010207?src=AtsySJkQRWmXEVG9knvRFw-1-0">Mmaxer</a></span>
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<p>Developers often try to mitigate these disadvantages by making their code run as fast as possible, which in theory reduces energy consumption. Yet this doesn’t always work in practice, since some instructions are more power-hungry than others and can end up neutralising the benefits. </p>
<p>The net result is that the energy consumption of software has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/HPCA.2016.7446054">increased considerably</a> over the years. Nobody much cared until the last decade or so, since most software ran on machines that were mains powered. This has changed with the rise of mobile devices – while mounting concerns about the links between electricity consumption and climate change have added extra urgency. </p>
<h2>The AIs have it</h2>
<p>There is another reason why developers were slow to address this problem, which is that the energy consumption from each piece of software was very difficult to measure. This is because each device’s configuration is different. Energy use can change depending on whether a program has run before, or whether other programs are running. </p>
<p>Lately, however, there have been advances. They involve <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7393719/">using machine learning</a> to estimate energy use by analysing particular lines of code or software components, and referencing energy data from other programs running on many other devices. Do this well and you can get the computer to do the hard part: search for alternative software designs that make the software more efficient. </p>
<p>Welcome to search-based software engineering. It can be as simple as <a href="https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/46709">finding redundant code</a> that can be skipped or <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1084804517301285">fine-tuning</a> the configuration, or it can extend to <a href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2754752">making changes to</a> existing source code. Our <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TETCI.2017.2699193">own work</a> has looked at both choosing alternative software components from existing libraries and generating new parts of code from scratch. We even managed to <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-09940-8_22">find and repair</a> several hundred bugs in <a href="https://mapr.com/products/apache-hadoop/">Hadoop</a>, a very widely used software framework.</p>
<p>Our vision is that these search-based methods for improving energy efficiency will be incorporated into what is known as the “compiler” stage, when human-readable computer code is converted into the zeroes and ones the machine understands. These searches would happen automatically and developers wouldn’t need to think about them – their code would be efficient out of the box. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185836/original/file-20170913-23106-19djmfu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The long and winding code.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/programs-hacking-hard-disk-software-codes-651473887?src=Ls889xOGMP8MziSFB0VtHw-1-31">Dmitry A</a></span>
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<p>There is still a long way to go, it should be said. The main difficulty is getting the estimates of software energy consumption right, especially for lots of different devices at the same time. But the potential over the next five years looks exciting. We were able to show a 40% to 70% reduction in CPU energy use for a couple of specific tasks, and it’s not inconceivable that this could be replicated over all running software. </p>
<p>Combined with better batteries and more improvements to hardware performance, such as <a href="http://grist.org/cleantech/2011-03-10-meet-the-zero-energy-transparent-tv">zero energy screens</a>, we could be talking about serious gains on battery life. In future, the leading manufacturers may no longer be talking up incremental improvements to battery life capabilities – instead they could be adding many hours and maybe even days.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83901/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Brownlee receives funding from EPSRC and Microsoft.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jerry Swan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It feels like we’ve seen less progress on charge time than almost anything else in smartphones. Could software efficiency be the answer?Alexander Brownlee, Senior Research Assistant, University of StirlingJerry Swan, Senior Research Fellow, Computer Science, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/795382017-07-05T22:42:33Z2017-07-05T22:42:33Z‘Screen time’ is about more than setting limits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176447/original/file-20170630-8225-1jd0hdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How much is too much screen time for kids?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-brother-sister-watching-cartoons-on-472962424?src=-8M1vrXec2Haov1oCsGriQ-1-8">Dragon Images/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In today’s media-rich world (or media-saturated, depending on your view), one rarely has to look far to find parents concerned about the ways that kids engage with technology. Recently, managing “screen time” seems to be on <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/06/19/why-a-colorado-dad-is-fighting-to-make-smartphones-for-preteens-illegal/">everyone’s</a> <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/can-they-unplug-a-school-principal-will-pay-students-to-forgo-screentime-this-summer/2017/06/09/b22decd4-4c88-11e7-bc1b-fddbd8359dee_story.html">mind</a> – particularly during these summer months when kids find themselves with more time on their hands.</p>
<p>As someone who has spent the majority of my career studying <a href="http://www.mitpress.mit.edu/books/framing-internet-safety">kids and safety online</a>, I get a lot of questions from parents about screen time. My response? There’s a lot more to digital media consumption than expert advice about hourly limits. </p>
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<h2>Where ‘screen time’ comes from</h2>
<p>The idea of “screen time” initially gained traction in 1999, when the American Academy of Pediatrics suggested that parents <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1753">avoid smartphone, tablet, computer and TV use for children under two</a> and limit such use to no more than two hours for children over two, adding hours as kids mature. While the American Academy of Pediatrics <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-screen-time-is-good-for-kids-53780">relaxed these guidelines</a> somewhat in 2016 (expanding their policies to include <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2592">positive digital media use</a> and suggest family media plans), the <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/66927/1/Policy%20Brief%2017-%20Families%20%20Screen%20Time.pdf">core idea of screen time remains largely unchanged</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176937/original/file-20170705-29992-vwtymp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As early as 1984, even the Berenstains had something to say about screen time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/12152/the-berenstain-bears-and-too-much-tv-by-stan-and-jan-berenstain-illustrated-by-the-authors/9780394865706/">Penguin Random House</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the allure of easy-to-follow rules that address parental concerns, screen time recommendations have drawn <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/66927/1/Policy%20Brief%2017-%20Families%20%20Screen%20Time.pdf">increasing criticism</a> from a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/head-quarters/2017/jan/06/screen-time-guidelines-need-to-be-built-on-evidence-not-hype">wide range of experts</a>.</p>
<p>In the academic world, the science supporting screen time recommendations has major limitations. Lab-based studies don’t always translate to the complexities of real life. More often than not, screen time studies demonstrate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615596788">connections between problems with well-being and media use</a>; they don’t demonstrate that one causes the other. For example, while research suggests that there’s a connection between screen time and childhood obesity, that could just mean that kids who are less active are more likely to be obese and spend more time in front of screens. The research does not suggest that screen time causes obesity.</p>
<h2>Screen time today</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176465/original/file-20170630-16446-2jgstb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One way to limit kids’ screen time: apps that lock their internet usage after a certain amount of time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.unglue.com/press/">unGlue</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As our media practices have changed, and adults themselves have begun to spend more of their time online, the idea of screen time has not quite kept up with the times. The world is increasingly saturated with all kinds of <a href="https://theconversation.com/textbooks-in-the-digital-world-78299">positive, interactive media experiences</a> – for children and adults alike. Ideas about limiting screen time assume all screen experiences are equally negative for kids and that they’re replacing positive offline activities.</p>
<p>Yet, we know that kids do all kinds of positive things with digital media, often in ways that <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/hanging-out-messing-around-and-geeking-out">support and are supported by “real life” activities</a> – in ways similar to adults. They go online to hang out with friends, catch up on events and seek out entertainment and information, just like anyone else.</p>
<p>In my own work, I’ve argued that some of the problems that parents have with kids and technology are, in fact, not about technology at all. With each generation, kids have been <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2011.638173">increasingly restricted</a> from <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/13/living/feat-maryland-free-range-parenting-family-under-investigation-again/index.html">going outside on their own</a>. With fewer private spaces to be a kid, we shouldn’t be surprised when kids turn to social media apps to hang out and socialize – and get upset when we stop them.</p>
<p>What looks like a “waste of time” or an “addiction” is often just <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242101479_Questioning_the_Generational_Divide_Technological_Exoticism_and_Adult_Constructions_of_Online_Youth_Identity">everyday hanging out</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176448/original/file-20170630-21184-jikdnd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Should kids be allowed outside – away from their devices – alone? The Meitiv family of Silver Spring, Maryland, faced an investigation after allowing their children to play in a local park unsupervised.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what should parents do?</h2>
<p>How, then, can parents get a handle on their children’s media use? As always, <a href="https://www.danah.org/books/ItsComplicated.pdf">it’s complicated</a> – and no expert advice should trump the real, everyday experiences that parents have with their own children. That said, there are some general guidelines that can help.</p>
<p>First, parents should get away from ideas about time and focus more on the <a href="http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/mediapolicyproject/2016/08/05/the-content-and-context-of-screen-use-is-more-important-than-the-amount-of-screen-time/">content, context and connections</a> provided by different kinds of engagement with media. There’s a world of difference between spending a few hours playing games with close friends online and spending a few hours interacting with hate groups in an online forum. </p>
<p>Second, parents should ask <a href="http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/parenting4digitalfuture/2016/10/21/new-screen-time-rules-from-the-american-academy-of-pediatrics/">real questions concerning the well-being of their children</a>, independent of their media use. Are your children healthy, socially engaged, doing well in school and generally happy? If so, there’s probably no need to enforce hard restrictions on technology. If not, it’s best not to rush to conclusions about the inherent evils of technology. Have a conversation with kids about what they’re doing and what they think the rules should be. Unilaterally cutting kids off without understanding their problems can often <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/warning-screen-time-rules-can-backfire_us_5925d374e4b090bac9d46b07">make things worse</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, parents should remember that there’s no substitute for a meaningful, supportive relationship between parents and children. With a stable, trusting relationship, even negative experiences online can become positive learning experiences. In my many years of working with families, I’ve learned that if you already care enough to be worried about digital media, you’re probably already “doing enough” to protect your kids.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176451/original/file-20170630-22617-18kaozg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Monitoring children’s media consumption is important, but there’s no substitute for quality family time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nathaninsandiego/3995036506/">Nathan Rupert</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79538/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Fisk, Ph.D. receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>For decades, parents have fretted over ‘screen time,’ limiting the hours their children spend looking at a screen. But as times change, so does media… and how parents should (or shouldn’t) regulate it.Nathan Fisk, Assistant Professor of Cybersecurity Education, University of South FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/750652017-03-31T01:59:31Z2017-03-31T01:59:31ZCloud, backup and storage devices: how best to protect your data<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163266/original/image-20170330-15619-l7vchv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How much data do you still store only on your mobile, tablet or laptop?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Neirfy</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We are producing more data than ever before, with more than <a href="https://www-01.ibm.com/software/data/bigdata/what-is-big-data.html">2.5 quintillion</a> bytes produced every day, according to computer giant IBM. That’s a staggering 2,500,000,000,000 gigabytes of data and it’s growing fast.</p>
<p>We have never been so connected through smart phones, smart watches, laptops and all sorts of wearable technologies inundating today’s marketplace. There were an estimated <a href="http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3165317">6.4 billion</a> connected “things” in 2016, up 30% from the previous year.</p>
<p>We are also continuously sending and receiving data over our networks. This unstoppable growth is unsustainable without some kind of smartness in the way we all produce, store, share and backup data now and in the future.</p>
<h2>In the cloud</h2>
<p>Cloud services play an essential role in achieving sustainable data management by easing the strain on bandwidth, storage and backup solutions. </p>
<p>But is the cloud paving the way to better backup services or is it rendering backup itself obsolete? And what’s the trade-off in terms of data safety, and how can it be mitigated so you can safely store your data in the cloud?</p>
<p>The cloud is often thought of as an online backup solution that works in the background on your devices to keep your photos and documents, whether personal or work related, backed up on remote servers. </p>
<p>In reality, the cloud has a lot more to offer. It connects people together, helping them store and share data online and even work together online to create data collaboratively. </p>
<p>It also makes your data ubiquitous, so that if you lose your phone or your device fails you simply buy a new one, sign in to your cloud account and voila! – all your data are on your new device in a matter of minutes. </p>
<h2>Do you <em>really</em> back up your data?</h2>
<p>An important advantage of cloud-based backup services is also the automation and ease of use. With traditional backup solutions, such as using a separate drive, people often discover, a little too late, that they did not back up certain files. </p>
<p>Relying on the user to do backups is risky, so automating it is exactly where cloud backup is making a difference. </p>
<p>Cloud solutions have begun to evolve from online backup services to primary storage services. People are increasingly moving from storing their data on their device’s internal storage (hard drives) to storing them directly in cloud-based repositories such as <a href="https://www.dropbox.com">DropBox</a>, <a href="https://www.google.com/drive/">Google Drive</a> and Microsoft’s <a href="https://onedrive.live.com/about/en-au/">OneDrive</a>.</p>
<p>Devices such as Google’s <a href="https://www.google.com.au/chromebook/">Chromebook</a> do not use much local storage to store your data. Instead, they are part of a new trend in which everything you produce or consume on the internet, at work or at home, would come from the cloud and be stored there too. </p>
<p>Recently announced cloud technologies such as <a href="https://www.blog.google/products/g-suite/introducing-new-enterprise-ready-tools-google-drive/">Google’s Drive File Stream</a> or <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/business/smartsync">Dropbox’s Smart Sync</a> are excellent examples of how cloud storage services are heading in a new direction with less data on the device and a bigger primary storage role for the cloud. </p>
<p>Here is how it works. Instead of keeping local files on your device, placeholder files (sort of empty files) are used, and the actual data are kept in the cloud and downloaded back onto the device only when needed. </p>
<p>Edits to the files are pushed to the cloud so that no local copy is kept on your device. This drastically reduces the risk of data leaks when a device is lost or stolen.</p>
<p>So if your entire workspace is in the cloud, is backup no longer needed?</p>
<p>No. In fact, backup is more relevant than ever, as disasters can strike cloud providers themselves, with hacking and ransomware affecting cloud storage too. </p>
<p>Backup has always had the purpose of reducing risks using redundancy, by duplicating data across multiple locations. The same can apply to cloud storage which can be duplicated across multiple cloud locations or multiple cloud service providers. </p>
<h2>Privacy matters</h2>
<p>Yet beyond the disruption of the backup market, the number-one concern about the use of cloud services for storing user data is privacy. </p>
<p>Data privacy is strategically important, particularly when customer data are involved. Many privacy-related problems can happen when using the cloud. </p>
<p>There are concerns about the processes used by cloud providers for privacy management, which often trade privacy for convenience. There are also concerns about the technologies put in place by cloud providers to overcome privacy related issues, which are often not effective. </p>
<p>When it comes to technology, encryption tools protecting your sensitive data have actually been around for a long time. </p>
<p>Encryption works by scrambling your data with a very large digital number (called a key) that you keep secret so that only you can decrypt the data. Nobody else can decode your data without that key. </p>
<p>Using encryption tools to encrypt your data with your own key before transferring it into the cloud is a sensible thing to do. Some cloud service providers are now offering this option and letting you choose your own key. </p>
<h2>Share vs encryption</h2>
<p>But if you store data in the cloud for the purpose of sharing it with others – and that’s often the precise reason that users choose to use cloud storage – then you might require a process to distribute encryption keys to multiple participants. </p>
<p>This is where the hassle can start. People you share data with would need to get the key too, in some way or another. Once you share that key, how would you revoke it later on? How would you prevent it from being re-shared without your consent?</p>
<p>More importantly, how would you keep using the collaboration features offered by cloud providers, such as Google Docs, while working on encrypted files?</p>
<p>These are the key challenges ahead for cloud users and providers. Solutions to those challenges would truly be game-changing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75065/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adnene Guabtni does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We have never been so connected and we are producing more data than ever before. But how can we manage our data effectively while making sure it remains safe?Adnene Guabtni, Senior Research Scientist/Engineer, Data61Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/632212016-12-15T06:22:11Z2016-12-15T06:22:11ZReading with your children: proper books vs tablets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137740/original/image-20160914-4944-ipvcdj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1024%2C571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thisaintfunny/5175165328/in/photolist-8Tj5mq-5T79cD-vZ4zD-756cPR-dktiYz-8LKSes-7k58GV-8QTTru-5ZbJBS-dbPwY1-96Y7T-91Akmo-bgjafV-56cNTD-5WXLPB-ogbWEp-8tRSwi-9XdiDp-9F8Vuf-iTe5nd-BH1wi3-nfcrP3-5G8PUr-6Z2BBQ-6Z2BA7-8wex8M-7QxiXV-7k93by-neCQK4-91xc6k-GD51s-3a85M-8iHRKm-4zcErN-91AiHj-63UcuJ-pbuvAh-qSUXoo-91Ajyy-dRjBDR-91xbBv-9rssnc-a6yC2s-6XC5mY-91Akfw-6XC5fY-6faUL6-91xbvF-9DSK2K-5YKbZh">Opal Eyes/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most of us have an opinion about whether we prefer reading on screen or paper: but what difference does it make for children? The truth is that technology is now encountered from babyhood. Anecdotes abound of toddlers swiping their fingers across paper rather than turning the page, while parents and teachers express their fear of screen addiction as tablets introduce new distractions as well as new attractions for young readers. </p>
<p>Ofcom figures tell us that children’s <a href="http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/research/media-literacy/children-parents-nov-15/childrens_parents_nov2015.pdf">screen use rises sharply</a> towards the end of primary school (from age seven to 11) and in the same period, <a href="https://www.egmont.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Egmont-Reading-Street-ch2.pdf">book-reading drops</a>. Increasing screen use is a reality, but does it contribute to a loss of interest in reading, and does reading from a screen provide the same experience as the feel of reading on paper?</p>
<p>We looked at this in <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01951/full?&utm_source=Email_to_authors_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&utm_campaign=Email_publication&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Psychology&id=233837">our research on shared reading</a>. This has been a neglected topic even though it is clearly a common context for children when they read at home. It might be their regular homework reading of a book from school, or a parent reading them a favourite bedtime story. </p>
<h2>Warming up</h2>
<p>We asked 24 mothers and their seven to nine-year-old children to take turns – mother reading or child reading – with popular fiction books on paper, and on a tablet. They read Barry Loser: I am not a Loser by Jim Smith and You’re a Bad Man, Mr Gum by Andy Stanton. We found that the children’s memory for the descriptions and narratives showed no difference between the two media. But that’s not the whole story.</p>
<p>The interactions of parent and child were found to be different in the independent ratings from video observation of the study. When they read from paper rather than a screen, there was a significant increase in the warmth of the parent/child interactions: more laughter, more smiling, more shows of affection. </p>
<p>It may be that this is largely down to the simple physical positioning of the parent and child when using the different media, as well as their cultural meaning. When children were reading from a screen, they tended to hold the tablet in a head-down position, typical of the way they would use the device for solo activities such as one-player games or web-browsing. </p>
<p>This meant that the parents had to “shoulder-surf” in order to share visual attention. In contrast, when parents read to their children on paper, they often held the book out to support shared visual engagement, tucking the child cosily under their arms. Some children just listened without trying to see the book, but instead curled themselves up comfortably on the sofa.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137912/original/image-20160915-30594-lmz50n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paper or pixels?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/megantrace/6201381800/in/photolist-arZGKS-4zJ9cj-bd1Lh4-6hFCmJ-79rPRT-a1MZPK-aSqJ9X-79rRBk-79vHN1-79rQ5n-6hFCqd-79rSqv-79vGMy-79vFGq-79E2mZ-79vHw5-79vHaQ-79s2XM-79vUbN-byKMHR-49o9ZP-keUF9H-4Jgj5r-8iXorF-63zzdW-qkRKBk-8iXph8-6hFChs-79rQnT-79vJou-jBfp5Q-97tdpj-79vG3E-79s2F8-dKxaxz-79vTTb-79s2Ce-79rRa2-79rQbK-6FUSBR-79rQTZ-8CYzwi-79rQgk-4JkFUy-dGiyJX-8FocV8-q4sJmP-79vH5b-79vGA3-79rRmi">Megan Trace/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Keep taking the tablets?</h2>
<p>Our research joins a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253734/">growing list of studies</a> comparing paper and e-books, but the answer isn’t a simple one. Shared reading is different to reading alone, for a start. And we may be interested in whether screen or paper makes a difference in how children learn to read, to understand, and enjoy reading. In short there are multiple perspectives to consider – developmental, educational, literary and technological – if we are to decide which medium is preferable.</p>
<p>Most studies have compared children at the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253734/">earliest stages of reading</a>, using paper books, e-books with audio and dictionary support to help less-skilled readers, and so-called “enhanced” e-books with multimedia, activities, hotspots and games.</p>
<p>Text with audio support helps children to decode text, and multimedia can keep a reluctant reader engaged for longer, so a good e-book can indeed be as good as an adult reading <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253734/">a paper book with their child</a>. But we don’t yet have long-term studies to tell us whether constant provision of audio might prevent children developing ways of unpicking the code of written language themselves. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/137732/original/image-20160914-4980-hkn2al.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">They think I’m reading; I’m playing Candy Crush.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-439348279/stock-photo-cute-little-girl-in-headphones-is-using-a-tablet-and-smiling-in-the-background-her-parents-are-using-a-tablet-too-sitting-on-sofa-at-home.html?src=9nOG0KjuMpy5rFB3cvDgQQ-1-30">George Rudy/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Re-design for life</h2>
<p>There is also increasing evidence that adding multimedia and games can quickly get distracting: one study found that young children <a href="http://static.trogu.com/documents/articles/palgrave/references/de%20jong%20quality%20of%20book%20reading.pdf">spent almost half their time</a> playing games in enhanced e-books, and therefore they read, remembered and understood little of the story itself. But there is plenty of guidance for e-book developers on the what, where and how much of designing multimedia texts.</p>
<p>And that brings us back to perhaps the defining conclusion from our own study. Books versus screens is not a simple either/or – children don’t read books in a cultural vacuum and we can’t approach the topic just from a single academic field. Books are just books, with a single typical use, but screens have many uses, and currently most of these uses are designed round a single user, even if that user is interacting with others remotely.</p>
<p>We believe that designers could think more about how such technology can be designed for sharing, and this is especially true for reading, which starts, and ideally continues, as a shared activity in the context of close long-term family relationships. Book Trust figures <a href="http://fileserver.booktrust.org.uk/usr/resources/1434/time-to-read-press-release-080916.pdf%5D">report a drop</a> from 86% of parents reading with their five-year-olds to just 38% with 11-year olds. There is a possibility that the <a href="http://ecl.sagepub.com/content/3/2/147.short?rss=1&ssource=mfc">clever redesign of e-books</a> and tablets might just slow that trend.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63221/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Yuill received payment from Egmont Publishing to conduct a pilot study into children's shared reading. Her study mentioned here was conducted independently.</span></em></p>Bedtime stories can be comforting, chilling and mysterious, but new research highlights how emotions change depending on how children are doing it.Nicola Yuill, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/631272016-08-01T06:26:43Z2016-08-01T06:26:43ZWindows 10 one year on: it’s evolving but privacy still a concern<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132562/original/image-20160801-25605-1vii7zp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Windows 10 was designed with more than the desktop in mind.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maurizio Pesce/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This week marks one year since the launch of what is arguably Microsoft’s most ambitious – and possibly most controversial – operating system: Windows 10.</p>
<p>Windows 10 represents a fundamentally different approach compared to the earlier versions of Windows that many of us have used, such as the highly popular Windows 7. </p>
<p>One of the things that made Windows 7 so successful was that it represented the culmination of more than a decade of experience developing operating systems for just a single platform: the desktop.</p>
<p>Microsoft understood what desktop users wanted and delivered a product to satisfy their demands. Windows 7 loaded quickly, it made media sharing easy, it was more secure than the earlier Windows XP, gamers loved it, it used less power and Windows Media Centre was a useful interface for watching media.</p>
<p>But rather than being exclusively for desktop PCs, Windows 10 aimed to service three different platforms: PC, tablet and smartphone.</p>
<p>In many ways, Windows 10 is an evolution of its previous iteration, Windows 8 (there was no Windows 9). Microsoft has taken the same cross-platform philosophy and refined it to remove some of the issues that proved unpopular with users.</p>
<p>But Microsoft’s first attempt to appeal to the desktop and mobile market in a single OS failed badly in two ways. </p>
<p>Firstly, Windows 8 never gained a significant market share in the mobile space. Secondly, it compromised the experience for desktop users by forcing them to use an interface system designed with touchscreen tablets in mind. </p>
<p>The Start menu – a fixture since Windows 95 – was removed in favour of a start screen, which proved to be a disastrous move. </p>
<p>Even experienced Windows users could not find the common functionality they regularly used. Microsoft’s app store was launched to compete with Apple and Google, but it failed to attract quality developers. This had a flow-on effect on the mobile/tablet market as many apps that people used were not available on Windows 8. </p>
<p>Windows 10 was a result of the learning experience from Windows 8. The user interface is significantly improved as part of the “<a href="http://www.windowscentral.com/continuum">Continuum</a>” concept, which senses the device you are using and adjusts itself accordingly. </p>
<p>The Start button was back with the addition of <a href="http://www.windowscentral.com/how-to-use-windows-10-live-tiles">Live Tiles</a>, which display information at a glance without opening an app or program. </p>
<p>Microsoft also introduced Cortana, which is couched as a <a href="https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/17214/windows-10-what-is-cortana">virtual personal assistant</a>, and a new web browser, <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/microsoft-edge">Edge</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132561/original/image-20160801-25627-374ogy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Windows 10 restored the Start button, to many users’ delight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Microsoft</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Who’s watching?</h2>
<p>However, one of the features that drew the most attention, and the most controversy, was the way Windows 10 <a href="http://lifehacker.com/what-windows-10s-privacy-nightmare-settings-actually-1722267229">tracked user data</a> and provided targeted advertising in return.</p>
<p>This was one way that Microsoft could afford to offer Windows 10 as a free upgrade from Windows 7 and 8 until July 2016.</p>
<p>But many users did not welcome the tracking of their personal information. As some have said, Microsoft used to monetise its operating systems by offering it as a product and charging money for it, but with Windows 10, Microsoft is monetising its customers by gathering their data and turning that into a product to sell to advertisers.</p>
<p>While many companies, such as Google and Amazon, regularly gather user data and target advertising at them through their online portals, many people objected to Microsoft using their entire operating system to track them. </p>
<p>The feeling of your desktop tracking your actions and sending out this information is disturbing to many people. People strongly feel that their desktop belongs to them because they paid for it (even though Windows 10 was offered free to most users), unlike websites for which they did not. </p>
<p>Microsoft has also had legal trouble in <a href="http://www.zdnet.com/article/french-authorities-serve-notice-to-microsoft-for-windows-10-privacy-failings/">France</a> over Windows 10 practices regarding privacy, security and user data collection. This may be the first case, but likely won’t be the last one. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132558/original/image-20160801-25630-plfjjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Windows 10 was designed from the outset to work on multiple platforms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maurizio Pesce/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Out of 10?</h2>
<p>Despite the privacy concerns, Windows 10’s features have expanded over its first year. Cortana now shares maps, tracks lost phones and sends photos from phone to PC with voice commands. </p>
<p>Edge now uses less power, allows note taking on web pages and provides a reading view for distraction-free reading of web content. </p>
<p>In August 2015, Microsoft launched an Internet of Things (IoT) framework to offer support for developing IoT apps on Windows 10 using <a href="http://raspberry.piaustralia.com.au/">Raspberry Pi</a>, which is a miniature low-cost computer. </p>
<p>In terms of security, Microsoft added Device Guard, which can ensure only permitted programs will run. It also disabled the controversial Wi-Fi Sense, which was included at launch and allowed shared users’ Wi-Fi passwords with Outlook and Skype contacts.</p>
<p>Microsoft’s mobile strategy progressed further with Continuum, which now allows any monitor to be used as a computer by plugging in a Windows 10-enabled smartphone. </p>
<p>Another change to Microsoft’s strategy is that there won’t be new stand-alone versions of Windows, but rather incremental functional updates to Windows 10.</p>
<p>Overall, Windows 10 was a successful strategic move by Microsoft to leverage its desktop user base and guide them to tablets, mobiles and then to the cloud. It learnt from the mistakes of Windows 8 and developed an OS platform that has shown potential to be successful.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63127/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vidyasagar Potdar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A year after its launch, Windows 10 continues to evolve and improve upon its predecessor. However, the privacy concerns still haven’t gone away.Vidyasagar Potdar, Senior Research Fellow, School of Information Systems, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/625332016-07-21T20:05:28Z2016-07-21T20:05:28ZApple is taking its first steps towards a more comprehensive post-PC world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131024/original/image-20160719-13871-1ivan8w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Apple-developed lessons help students learn to code on the same device the code will be used on.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apple.com/newsroom/2016/06/swift-playgrounds-app-makes-learning-to-code-easy-and-fun.html">Apple</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hands up if you’ve heard of Swift Playgrounds? No, it’s not some new start-up providing quick playdates for bedraggled parents, although that might be interesting.</p>
<p>Swift Playgrounds is the new <a href="http://www.apple.com/swift/playgrounds/">programming tool</a>, introduced by Apple in June at its annual <a href="http://developer.apple.com/wwdc/">Worldwide Developer Conference</a>, based on the Swift programming language the company introduced a few years ago. </p>
<p>What makes Swift Playgrounds interesting is that it provides a first-party computer programming platform that can be run entirely on an iPad, no computer required.</p>
<p>While Apple has been slowly <a href="http://www.imore.com/new-multitasking-features-are-coming-ipad-part-ios-9">adding features</a> to the iPad over the past few years, this represents a pretty significant step change for Apple.</p>
<p>It means the company is starting to acknowledge that these machines – famously called <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XdSQbVFobu4">post-PC devices</a> by the late Apple CEO Steve Jobs – are now powerful enough to be used to write apps for use on the same device.</p>
<p>That means it may not be long before these devices can be used totally without a personal computer for everything, from writing content to developing apps.</p>
<h2>They might be Swift, but they’re not the first</h2>
<p>Of course, Apple is not the first company to launch programming tools for the iPad.</p>
<p>Universities such as MIT have been developing tools such as the <a href="https://scratch.mit.edu">Scratch visual programming language</a> for the iPad for a number of years. This gives primary school and middle school students a platform to develop their own games. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131025/original/image-20160719-13868-li4ue3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Creative experimentation in Swift Playgrounds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apple.com/newsroom/2016/06/swift-playgrounds-app-makes-learning-to-code-easy-and-fun.html">Apple</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what makes Swift Playgrounds significant is that in using the same programming language as iPad apps themselves are developed in, <a href="http://www.apple.com/swift/">Swift</a>, it gives insight into a future where iPad apps could be written on iPad themselves, and published from that same location.</p>
<p>It’s not a great stretch to envision a future where digital natives could potentially develop and run totally new apps using only post-PC devices. They would never have to touch a personal computer for anything at all.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly, Steve Jobs, ever the visionary, predicted this possibility back in 2008 in an interview with Apple journalist Walt Mossberg at the D8 conference. At D8, Jobs described a future where he likened iPads to cars, usable by the majority of people, and PCs to trucks, required by only those with specialised needs. </p>
<p>With the introduction of Swift Playgrounds, Apple is acknowledging that more and more users only need a car, and that perhaps trucks are becoming more and more rare.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YfJ3QxJYsw8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Moving between digital devices</h2>
<p>This change is a good thing, because <a href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2843349">research work</a> I conducted with colleagues at Central Queensland University shows that while many of our students, regardless of their age, are comfortable with technology, they are not as comfortable with changing between devices.</p>
<p>Specifically, our work found that digital competencies do not transfer well between devices. Their comfort with one device does not translate to comfort with another.</p>
<p>The introduction of Swift Playgrounds and the potential for app development on iOS devices suggests that this preference will eventually be catered for, which is a good thing given our findings.</p>
<p>Perhaps we are finally pushing towards a world of truly pervasive computing. Rather than being locked behind a desk for some tasks, or finding ourselves desperately missing the keyboard we left at home, we are able to use <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-apple-watch-and-pervasive-computing-can-lure-you-into-leveling-up-your-fitness-59045">whatever computing device</a> we have at hand to complete whatever task we need to complete.</p>
<p>After all, as long as the device has the right buttons and the right inputs, then why not be able to use it for anything we need to do with it?</p>
<p>What’s more, why don’t we make it so that our progress on tasks transfers seamlessly between devices? That way we can pick up any device and simply continue with the work that we started earlier.</p>
<p>Ben Thompson, of Stratechery, called this concept <a href="https://stratechery.com/2015/apple-watch-and-continuous-computing/">Continuous Computing</a> back in 2015 when he envisioned a world where we move seamlessly between devices to get our work done.</p>
<p>Apple’s announcements at WWDC this year certainly indicate this is the direction they are heading. This should be applauded and I am hopeful for our digital native students. </p>
<p>While we can’t stop them from having an iPhone or an iPad continuously in their hand, it’s good to know we are working towards a world where they can drive these devices confidently to do what they need, moving seamlessly between devices as the need arises. They don’t need to find themselves behind the wheel of an unfamiliar truck-style PC. </p>
<p>Which raises the question, what will other tech giants such as Google and Microsoft do now to catch up and avoid being left behind in any post-PC world? After all, more safe post-PC driving can only be a good thing!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62533/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Cowling does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you’re creating an app for an iPad, then why not create it on an iPad too. Is Apple’s Swift move to do this just another step towards the end of the personal computer?Michael Cowling, Visiting Project Scientist in Informatics, University of California, IrvineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/618972016-07-20T10:08:24Z2016-07-20T10:08:24ZDo students lose depth in digital reading?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131155/original/image-20160719-7877-1qpju5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Paper or tablet?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/megantrace/6201381800/in/photolist-arZGKS-6hFCmJ-9hoHsC-oEKgyd-4ze863-9hkAmi-aAS9Mt-9hkAa2-9hkAeg-aF5QQD-9hoHiJ-6hFCqd-9hoHEN-9a8FY2-bd1Lh4-9hkAhR-9hoHmw-9hkzWc-dJkffA-9hkAk4-9hoHx7-6hFChs-9hoHfA-9wEiCL-dNSraK-9hoHoN-dGiyJX-cVp5im-9jgmUY-ph3FLG-aengF2-9p5jxM-bFe5qM-73ZWEW-cWUCLN-qcRAVV-9BGNqy-daTqKi-6hFCtf-65REhG-6WG1wo-afBktJ-6rdM2Z-dQPgg6-6hFCxy-D6uwV6-hSWmVp-dLZA9U-9xefTQ-7bDZw4">Megan Trace</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do students learn as much when they read digitally as they do in print?</p>
<p>For both parents and teachers, knowing whether computer-based media are improving or compromising education is a question of concern. With the surge in popularity of e-books, online learning and <a href="https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7061.pdf">open educational resources</a>, investigators have been trying to determine whether students do as well when reading an assigned text on a digital screen as on paper.</p>
<p>The answer to the question, however, needs far more than a yes-no response.</p>
<h2>Reading in print versus digitally</h2>
<p>In my research, I have compared the ways in which we read <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/words-onscreen-9780199315765?cc=us&lang=en&">in print and onscreen</a>. Between 2013 and 2015, I gathered data from 429 university students drawn from five countries (the U.S., Japan, Germany, Slovenia and India).</p>
<p>The students in my study reported that print was aesthetically more enjoyable, saying things such as “I like the smell of paper” or that reading in print is “real reading.” What’s more, print gave them a sense of where they were in the book – they could “see” and “feel” where they were in the text.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131151/original/image-20160719-8005-12e2uk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Print is easier on the eyes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hmoon101/271105443/in/photolist-pXucM-6GZXmJ-pQy3zR-j9c3EG-8H9VcJ-prYxTo-bAoTw5-n7kWzT-dW2n57-9xJLv-3zf3id-r7fyRD-74mHYX-bo4Mqb-8SqqJx-5MhGmR-rr6Nuf-9f3Sty-bxMydE-p6cRA6-4g9emg-7aWz7-dEXFN4-4BD785-8T8vdp-pPnFCm-qCdXyB-7Rr2qr-quCHBB-ayqr9r-2bux9E-dCUkif-5A3ZcS-oBp5kr-bxV57x-nSpDem-f6LKPD-9ZviMC-CyUHB-5hvF1A-72RLSm-iiiWMi-6Jng8d-og3Sa6-9WEQVS-9Ptmuy-5r7g5P-fn5DLP-qi8yh-bkpVaD">H. Moon</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Print was also judged to be easier on the eyes and less likely to encourage multitasking. Almost half the participants complained about eyestrain from reading digitally (“my eyes burn”), and 67 percent indicated they were likely to multitask while reading digitally (compared with 41 percent when reading print).</p>
<p>At the same time, respondents praised digital reading on a number of counts, including the ability to read in the dark, ease of finding material (“plenty of quick information”), saving paper and even the fact they could multitask while reading.</p>
<h2>Measuring learning</h2>
<p>But the bigger question is whether students are learning as much when they read onscreen.</p>
<p>A number of researchers have sought to measure learning by asking people to read a passage of text, either in print or on a digital device, and then testing for comprehension.</p>
<p>Most <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23405265">studies</a> have <a href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2753926">found</a> that participants scored about the same when reading in each medium, though a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256563189_Reading_linear_texts_on_paper_versus_computer_screen_Effects_on_reading_comprehension">few</a> have indicated that students performed better on tests when they read in print.</p>
<p>The problem, however, with learning-measurement studies is that their notion of “learning” has tended to be simplistic. Reading passages and answering questions afterwards may be a familiar tool in standardized testing, but tells us little about any deeper level of understanding.</p>
<p>Some researchers are beginning to pose more nuanced questions, including <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anne_Mangen">one scholar</a> who has considered what happens when people read a story in print or on a digital device and are then asked to <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/19/readers-absorb-less-kindles-paper-study-plot-ereader-digitisation/">reconstruct the plot sequence</a>. The answer: Print yielded better results.</p>
<p>Another aspect of learning is to see how outcomes differ when students are doing their reading in less prescriptive experimental conditions. <a href="http://iew3.technion.ac.il/%7Eackerman/papers/Ackerman%20&%20Goldsmith%202011%20-%20Metacognitive%20Regulation%20of%20Text%20Learning%20On%20Screen%20Versus%20on%20Paper.pdf">One study</a> let students choose how much time to spend when reading on each platform. The <a href="https://web.iem.technion.ac.il/en/people/userprofile/ackerman.html">researchers</a> found that participants devoted less time to reading the passage onscreen – and performed less well on the subsequent comprehension test.</p>
<p>This finding is hardly surprising, given the tendency so many of us have to skim and search when going online, rather than reading slowly and carefully. In my study, one student commented,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It takes more time to read the same number of pages in print comparing to digital.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another complained,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It takes me longer because I read more carefully.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Critical thinking and reading</h2>
<p>How does the learning question relate to educational goals? There is much buzz today about wanting students to be good at <a href="https://www.aacu.org/value/rubrics/critical-thinking">critical thinking</a>. Definitions of that goal are elusive, but it’s pretty clear they involve being able to understand complex ideas, evaluate evidence, weigh alternative perspectives and construct justifiable arguments.</p>
<p>To become proficient in critical thinking – at least in a literate society – students need to be able to handle text. The text may be long, complex or both. To make sense of it, students cannot skim, rush ahead or continually get distracted.</p>
<p>So, does reading in print versus onscreen build critical thinking skills?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131154/original/image-20160719-7903-1c6ss5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reading helps develop critical thinking skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/40923931@N03/4996550222/in/photolist-8BwCiC-4RD5FS-6PQ468-6m6QPh-9wBpGB-aE5Md6-gTUHiq-8M3ejH-s7MgHe-7xChWA-a3eq9F-7t8pBa-7Zz51E-8Jw8QV-7xChj1-bWzYba-q2DTSr-EyHz1-coU9rs-3eSVGm-EyHqM-5gubUn-CB58Dz-dDhwLU-ce7Rj7-cRGFYo-8RVhXn-k3tEWK-EyHw3-EyHpV-c2e6tq-bozCmi-dW4Byd-pRQR9r-8Kgz5k-3fuH6v-787Wt9-EyHxj-eK12f6-75yvqZ-edGKW9-a1L3sq-dBmSFe-dBshLE-qvHFs1-3gJruv-6ywxdg-4EVaVb-oDPTg3-9ujeng">mrskradz</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The comprehension studies we talked about earlier tell us little about the kind of reading we recognize as necessary for serious contemplation or analysis. An alternative approach, at least for starters, is asking students about their digital and paper-based reading patterns – much as physicians ask for histories (along with physicals and lab tests) to figure out what ails their patients.</p>
<p>While my own study didn’t directly measure learning, it did query students about their reading patterns and preferences. The responses to some of my questions were particularly revealing.</p>
<p>When asked on which medium they felt they concentrated best, 92 percent replied “print.” For long academic readings, 86 percent favored print. Participants also reported being more likely to reread academic materials if they were in print.</p>
<p>What’s more, a number of students indicated they believed print was a better medium for learning. One said,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It’s easier to focus.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Others stated,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[I] feel like the content sticks in the head more easily” and</p>
<p>“I feel like I understand it more.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>By contrast, in talking about digital screens, students noted “danger of distraction” and “no concentration.”</p>
<p>Obviously, student perceptions are not the same thing as measurable learning outcomes. And my research didn’t probe connections between reading platforms and critical thinking. </p>
<p>However, a pattern did emerge: Print stood out as the medium for doing serious work.</p>
<h2>Digital is convenient and cheaper</h2>
<p>At the same time, we cannot ignore other factors impacting students’ decisions about what reading platform to chose for school work.</p>
<p>Convenience is one big consideration: More than 40 percent of participants in my study mentioned convenience (including easy access to materials) as what they liked most about reading onscreen.</p>
<p>Money is another variable. Students were highly conscious about differential prices for print and digital versions of reading materials, with cost often driving choice. As one student put it,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Cost rules everything around me.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many students revealed a mismatch between finances and learning. When queried about which reading platform they would choose if cost were the same, 87 percent said “print” for academic work.</p>
<h2>Adapting to digital learning</h2>
<p>We also need to keep in mind the growing trend for universities to <a href="https://www.edsurge.com/research/edtech-wiki/adaptive-learning">adapt their curricula</a> to fit the proverbial “procrustean” bed of a digital world – a world tailor-made for skimming, scanning and using the “find” function rather than reading slowly and thoughtfully.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131149/original/image-20160719-7903-1gnr9zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How can digital be adapted?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/itupictures/8166927220/in/photolist-drFCW1-5f9dD-drFur4-7a244S-bqBy4Y-boxaN2-XXKFK-mJ3T88-oUVe3D-bnGrc8-dkyh5j-nB2vDt-eqXvrX-6BJJvc-paoixu-dES5te-bSmVQn-osCX9z-cormfS-coqWKA-dqvs2C-61uJiP-E3Esc-5AxBsn-9VVqUx-akiLeE-5kXKYB-d494eU-8F1kwP-6HAt4W-drZAqQ-boxgJv-tSBNBu-37M5wF-bDEUiF-gzuuXv-fSxgd-7XujLW-5oBu2F-nXRGiK-9iUa87-8F1p6M-bSebhr-pQYrmu-nxeRe7-cfjfjd-6DwPTc-DRnrf-nQNRE3-k7zb8qhttps://www.flickr.com/photos/itupictures/8166927220/in/photolist-drFCW1-5f9dD-drFur4-7a244S-bqBy4Y-boxaN2-XXKFK-mJ3T88-oUVe3D-bnGrc8-dkyh5j-nB2vDt-eqXvrX-6BJJvc-paoixu-dES5te-bSmVQn-osCX9z-cormfS-coqWKA-dqvs2C-61uJiP-E3Esc-5AxBsn-9VVqUx-akiLeE-5kXKYB-d494eU-8F1kwP-6HAt4W-drZAqQ-boxgJv-tSBNBu-37M5wF-bDEUiF-gzuuXv-fSxgd-7XujLW-5oBu2F-nXRGiK-9iUa87-8F1p6M-bSebhr-pQYrmu-nxeRe7-cfjfjd-6DwPTc-DRnrf-nQNRE3-k7zb8qhttps://www.flickr.com/photos/itupictures/8166927220/in/photolist-drFCW1-5f9dD-drFur4-7a244S-bqBy4Y-boxaN2-XXKFK-mJ3T88-oUVe3D-bnGrc8-dkyh5j-nB2vDt-eqXvrX-6BJJvc-paoixu-dES5te-bSmVQn-osCX9z-cormfS-coqWKA-dqvs2C-61uJiP-E3Esc-5AxBsn-9VVqUx-akiLeE-5kXKYB-d494eU-8F1kwP-6HAt4W-drZAqQ-boxgJv-tSBNBu-37M5wF-bDEUiF-gzuuXv-fSxgd-7XujLW-5oBu2F-nXRGiK-9iUa87-8F1p6M-bSebhr-pQYrmu-nxeRe7-cfjfjd-6DwPTc-DRnrf-nQNRE3-k7zb8q">ITU Pictures</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/books-to-read-before-university">Professors</a> now toy with ditching long or complex reading assignments in favor of short (or more straightforward) ones, moving closer to digital reading patterns in the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2016/jun/23/condensed-apps-that-turn-books-into-15-minute-reads-joosr-blinkist">nonacademic world</a>. This world hypes condensed versions of texts and shorter reading material that is <a href="https://snackreads.com">bite-sized</a> to begin with.</p>
<p>The question then is how can universities help students read text thoughtfully, reflectively, and without distraction on digital devices?</p>
<p>One key could be adaptation. <a href="https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0509/paper0509.pdf">Research suggests</a> students may be overconfident about what they are understanding when they read digitally. Teaching them to be mindful in their digital reading (for instance, by writing down key words from the reading) may help in learning.</p>
<p>Another form of adaptation is happening in the realm of digital hardware and software. Modern screens cause less eyestrain, and annotation programs continue to improve. Some digital reading devices now come with <a href="http://www.digitalbookworld.com/2016/amazon-launches-page-flip-feature-for-kindle/">tools</a> enabling them to digitally approximate physical page flipping and multiple place-marking.</p>
<p>However, in my view, while short-and-to-the-point may be a good fit for digital consumption, it’s not the sort of reading likely to nurture the critical thinking we still talk about as a hallmark of university education.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61897/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi S. Baron does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With the surge in e-books and digital devices, one concern has been whether students are learning as much. Research shows that some crucial elements of learning are indeed being lost.Naomi S. Baron, Executive Director, Center for Teaching, Research, and Learning, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/499142016-02-10T17:30:21Z2016-02-10T17:30:21ZParents express concerns as more toddlers switch on tablet computers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/100319/original/image-20151030-16519-1riiiu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What else is there for her to do?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philip Lange/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most parents have profound concerns about their children reading digital books on tablets. In a <a href="http://www.booktrust.org.uk/usr/library/documents/main/final-digital_reading_survey-wed-pdf.pdf">new survey</a> of 1,500 parents of under-eights in the UK about their attitudes to children’s use of technology and digital books at home, we found that only 8% have no concerns about them using tablets to read. For using digital media in general, only 16% of parents had no concerns.</p>
<p>By comparing the results with data from a similar survey conducted by the US-based <a href="http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/publication/learning-at-home/">Joan Ganz Cooney Center</a> in 2014, the research also found that parents in the UK and US had different reasons for using or not using digital devices with their children. For example, more American than UK parents said that they use digital media together with their child to ensure they are not exposed to inappropriate content. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.booktrust.org.uk/usr/library/documents/main/final-digital_reading_survey-wed-pdf.pdf">survey</a>, commissioned by the charity <a href="http://www.booktrust.org.uk/">Book Trust</a>, highlighted the various opinions on technology “rights and wrongs” held by British parents. For example, 35% of parents thought that using interactive e-books would mean they lose interest in print books, 26% worried they would affect chidren’s attention span, and 14% that it would inhibit their learning. </p>
<p>Parents prefer to read print rather than digital books with their children under eight-years-old, but they do recognise the value of digital books for specific learning situations. The findings indicate that education and literacy charities need to maintain an open dialogue with parents about the various ways families use media. </p>
<p>But there are also key questions around who has access to technology. <a href="http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/publication/opportunity-for-all-technology-and-learning-in-lower-income-families/">Another US survey</a> of nearly 1,200 lower-income parents of school-age children and in-depth interviews with Hispanic families in three lower-income communities located in Arizona, California, and Colorado found that although most families (94%) had an internet connection, the access was often too slow, interrupted or from a shared digital device. These profoundly influenced children’s educational opportunities.</p>
<h2>Strategies for parents</h2>
<p>In their recent book, <a href="http://www.tapclickread.org/">Tap Click Read</a>, chief executive of Joan Ganz Cooney Centre, Michael Levine and journalist Lisa Guernsey recognise the diversity of families and ask the uncomfortable question: what if the differences in technology exacerbate the educational divide between rich and poor? </p>
<p>The authors go on to describe how the use of digital media varies among poor and rich people, but also first-time mothers, tech-savvy parents or immigrant families. The book is accompanied by several <a href="http://www.tapclickread.org/learn/">video vignettes</a> of programmes and initiatives that hold a promise to offer children equal access to the learning opportunities offered by technology. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aCt8_61Mwes?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Play and learning strategies for parents.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The variety of family expectations and motivations concerning children’s technology is important for all stakeholders working with young children, including technology producers and policy-makers. So far, the focus of attention has been on the increased access and ownership of technology by young children, notably touchscreens.</p>
<h2>A third of under-fives have a tablet</h2>
<p>Another recent UK survey of 2,000 families found that 31% of children under the age of five have their own tablet at home. The <a href="http://techandplay.org/download-report">report</a> of the <a href="http://techandplay.org/">Tech and Play</a> project at the University of Sheffield recommended that children have access to tablets in schools if they do not have a device at home. The researchers also encouraged development of better-designed apps for toddlers by informing developers about aspects that promote play and creativity.</p>
<p>While the Tech and Play report is based on data from families who already have tablet computers at home, the fact that increasingly young children have access to, and own, various technologies has also been documented in surveys with nationally representative samples. </p>
<p>For example, in the UK, the 2015 <a href="http://media.ofcom.org.uk/news/2015/five-years-of-tablets/">Ofcom survey</a> reported that 71% of five to 15-year-olds have access to a tablet device at home. In the US, <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/zero-to-eight-childrens-media-use-in-america-2013">Common Sense Media reported</a> the rising trend in 2013, with the finding that children aged eight-years-old and under were five times more likely to own a tablet compared than in 2011. </p>
<p>The extent to which young children, especially those under the age of two, can actually learn and benefit from tablets’ use is currently being heavily debated by the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-its-wrong-for-pediatricians-to-eliminate-daily-screen-time-recommendations-49408">American Association of Peadiatrics</a> (APA), with an <a href="http://aapnews.aappublications.org/content/36/10/54.full">updated guidance due to be issued in autumn 2016</a>. </p>
<p>Whatever the APA recommendations, family culture and parents’ perceptions profoundly shape the strategies they employ to support children’s actual technology use. With tablets and toddlers in particular, it is not just about who has access to what, but also about what parents think is important for their child. </p>
<p>But we need to urgently develop strategies to address the profound <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/dr-natalia-kucirkova/technology-education_b_7704744.html">inequality gaps</a> when it comes to using technology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49914/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalia Kucirkova received funding from Book Trust to lead on the project The Digital Reading Habits of Children which involved collaboration with the Joan Ganz Cooney Centre. </span></em></p>A new study shows how concerned parents of young children are about e-books.Natalia Kucirkova, Senior lecturer, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/494082015-10-23T09:58:04Z2015-10-23T09:58:04ZWhy it’s wrong for pediatricians to eliminate daily screen time recommendations<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99356/original/image-20151022-8024-y1v5f2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The original recommendations were made with TV shows and films in mind.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=IvrUi9abHelhmSwSkrR5_Q&searchterm=child%20watching%20tv&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=56826277">'Watching TV' via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This month, the <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/Pages/About-the-AAP.aspx">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> (AAP) announced a disappointing decision. </p>
<p>Sixteen years after they published their formal <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/104/2/341.full.pdf+html">recommendations</a> discouraging any form of screen time before age two – and 14 years after making <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/108/5/1222.full.pdf+html?sid=29e11ca9-5afa-4c58-ba65-467fb9d2e85f">recommendations</a> to limit screen time for older children to no more than two hours per day – they are now <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/06/health/screen-time-rules-change-pediatricians/">recanting those recommendations</a>, calling them “outdated.”</p>
<p>According to <a href="http://aapnews.aappublications.org/content/36/10/54.full">AAP-affiliated doctors</a> who participated in the Academy’s Growing Up Digital: Media Research Symposium (a symposium organized to discuss research data and suggest practical advice to parents), the two-hour daily limit does not reflect how much media children actually consume. </p>
<p>Therefore, they argue, the recommendation needs to be changed.</p>
<p>Certainly, children do spend a lot of time with <a href="http://www.screenfree.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/screentimefs.pdf">screen media</a>. And many will spend more than two hours per day. </p>
<p>However, today’s media reality – and the proliferation of screens that has accompanied it – doesn’t change decades of research that points to the harmful effects of too much screen time.</p>
<h2>What the science says</h2>
<p>The AAP’s original guidelines were based on a number of studies that showed the negative effects of heavy screen exposure. </p>
<p>For example, increased exposure to <a href="http://public.psych.iastate.edu/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/01ba.ap.pdf">violence in the media</a> was linked to more aggressive behaviors in children and desensitized responses to violence. Meanwhile, increased exposure to <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/247525277_Contributions_of_entertainment_television_to_adolescents_sexual_attitudes_and_expectations_The_role_of_viewing_amount_versus_viewer_involvement">sexual content</a> was shown to lead to more risky behaviors in teens. And exposure to glamorized portrayals of alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs was tied to <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/103/1/129.extract">early experimentation</a> with these substances.</p>
<p>Current research still supports the earlier findings related to <a href="http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2015/08/violent-video-games.aspx">media violence</a>, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21546986">sexual content</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26308217">substance use</a>. </p>
<p>Therefore, it’s puzzling to hear AAP representatives say that their policies must be updated because “The public needs to know that the <a href="http://aapnews.aappublications.org/content/36/10/54.full">Academy’s advice</a> is science-driven, not based merely on the precautionary principle.” </p>
<p>The original guidelines <em>were</em> science-driven. And the today’s science <em>still supports</em> those guidelines.</p>
<h2>No replacement for social interaction</h2>
<p>Beyond exposure to racy or violent content, time spent engaged with various media technologies often displaces more active and interactive endeavors.</p>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01974.x/abstract">Neuroscience research</a> shows that infants and toddlers need a lot of direct interactions with people in order to promote healthy brain growth and appropriate cognitive, social and emotional skills. The two-dimensional, non-interactive platform of most screen media simply cannot act as a stand-in for this important developmental function.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99361/original/image-20151022-7999-1rb1nrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Screens, screens, screens…</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/binderdonedat/2181833837/in/photolist-4jNtbM-4ZNDFi-4jNt4k-4jNu2v-4jNt8T-52aXyE-7niadr-9ospk7-nv4Pem-dDhypY-DrjCp-8X12WB-5Uf9br-98iDp-fzfvxX-wpSvGj-cBiHo9-MoXNb-3R5z1M-8kVSmf-91zaqu-91w36g-6sPZ5V-36T7wv-5S1uKg-tc5Di-hVMLu-6CHM9N-4jSvaG-f1iHU8-66Nufb-66NudE-9QdFPy-buMaiV-3UUNqs-d7VgG1-85umLd-we3rXR-nKUXy9-91zaxy-f1EJNa-aFG62p-aFGcgF-c4UFaw-9FSTDC-c4UF7S-aFFZcF-3R5ySP-aoY28G-9ZLbW3">Binder.donedat/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Furthermore, heavy marketing of educational video, such as the Baby Einstein videos, and the vast number of <a href="http://psi.sagepub.com/content/16/1/3.full.pdf+html?ijkey=GxHiSvddIDi.E&keytype=ref&siteid=sppsi%2520">“educational” apps</a> have led parents to believe that these products are beneficial to their children – that they can help them cognitively, socially and academically. </p>
<p>However, research has shown that the educational benefits of these products are <a href="http://commercialfreechildhood.org/ccfc-urges-baby-einstein-come-clean-parents-advocates-document-years-educational-claims">questionable</a>, at best. </p>
<p>One thing hasn’t changed since the original guidelines were released: older children are still inadvertently exposed to a lot of inappropriate content on TV and in video games. In fact, violent content in TV shows, movies and video games has only <a href="https://www.parentstv.org/PTC/publications/reports/violencestudy/DyingtoEntertain.pdf">increased</a> over the past decades.</p>
<p>Now websites and social media apps like Instagram and Snapchat can be added to the mix. </p>
<p>Exposure to inappropriate content is especially likely to happen when children have unsupervised access to media technologies. (Which many children do. A <a href="http://www.networkworld.com/article/2225579/microsoft-subnet/most-parents-allow-unsupervised-internet-access-to-children-at-age-8.html">study</a> by Microsoft found that 94% of parents allowed their children unsupervised access to some form of media.) This alone should prompt guidelines that recommend reduced screen time, especially unsupervised screen time.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, many parents will use television and other media as “babysitters.” Other parents either <a href="https://kaiserfamilyfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/8010.pdf">don’t have rules</a> or, if they do, simply don’t enforce them.</p>
<h2>Raising a generation of media-literate kids</h2>
<p>With that said, the original guidelines, which focused mainly on TV and movies, do need some updates. </p>
<p>Today’s children and adolescents interact with many more technologies – tablets, iPads and smartphones – on a regular basis. </p>
<p>In addition, the expansion of social media networks, online multiplayer video games and video sharing sites such as YouTube has created even more opportunities for exposure. Guidelines from professional organizations such as the AAP certainly need to reflect these realities.</p>
<p>But if something becomes more pervasive or ubiquitous in our everyday lives, it doesn’t mean we should simply embrace it or downplay its repercussions. </p>
<p>Think about texting and driving. If the same logic were applied to the widespread use of cellphones by drivers, the practice – which endangers drivers and pedestrians – would never be discouraged or banned. </p>
<p>Similarly, an increase in media use among children should not lead us to forego recommended time limits. Abandoning specific hour limits in favor of general recommendations (with the AAP using vague suggestions like “<a href="http://aapnews.aappublications.org/content/36/10/54.full">setting limits</a>”) may send the wrong message: that we should no longer be as worried about media exposure. </p>
<p>Furthermore, many parents may not know what is considered a reasonable limit. Specific time limits would at least alert parents that they should be cautious of the amount of exposure, even if they don’t always follow the recommended guidelines.</p>
<p>With the increase in screen media options, unsupervised access and increasingly more complex forms of technology, it’s important to also focus on <a href="http://www.medialit.org/media-literacy-definition-and-more">media literacy</a>, which is the ability to critically evaluate media messages and recognize how media influences us. </p>
<p>The AAP has the opportunity to educate parents on how to better mediate their children’s exposure and teach their children to become more critical consumers of media. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17482798.2012.662031">Research shows</a> that media education can buffer some of the negative effects of exposure.</p>
<p>As the amount of time spent in front of screens becomes more and more difficult to control, kids should, at the very least, understand how it’s affecting them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49408/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brigitte Vittrup does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The American Academy of Pediatrics has called its guideline of two hours per day of screen time outdated. So what about the decades of research that led to the original recommendation?Brigitte Vittrup, Associate Professor of Child Development, Texas Woman's UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/469802015-10-20T19:33:23Z2015-10-20T19:33:23ZBanning under twos from screens has little basis in evidence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98156/original/image-20151013-17807-1v49wa2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Guidelines recommending no screens before age two came before interactive and educational tablet and smart phone apps.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/henriksent/6774634275/">Tia Henrikson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Screen time – watching television, DVDs, or using other electronic media devices such as mobile phones and iPads – is now a major part of our daily lives. It is virtually impossible to avoid exposure to these technologies. Yet that is exactly what the Department of Health and Ageing in Australia <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/health-pubhlth-strateg-phys-act-guidelines">recommends</a> for children younger than two years of age.</p>
<p>This recommendation is based on guidelines set by the <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/104/2/341.full">American Academy of Pediatrics in 1999</a>, which it now says could be <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/scrap-simplistic-screentime-limits-for-kids-experts-say-20151016-gkb7kl.html">obsolete in the digital age</a>. The academy did an <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/1040.full">update in 2011</a> but the recommendations remained largely unchanged.</p>
<p>There is no question that excessive screen time can have negative impacts on children’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-screen-time-before-bed-is-bad-for-children-46464">sleep</a> as well as <a href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/h2012-063#.VhsH3mSqqkp">development more generally</a>. But is there sufficient evidence that screen time should be completely eradicated in this age group, as these guidelines indicate?</p>
<p>The Australian guidelines <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/F5698F4E9CB73B94CA257BF000217BF6/$File/HEPA%20-%20B5%20Book%20-%20Family%20Book_LR.pdf">make several claims</a> to support this recommendation. One is that screen time may leave less time for active play and social interaction with others. The other main claim is that there is no evidence that health, intellectual or language benefits are gained from screen-based activities in children under two years of age. </p>
<p>Therefore, with the possibility of adverse effects, combined with no benefits from screen time, the advice of no screen time for little ones would seem to make a lot of sense. But the situation is not that simple, and the evidence is not that clear.</p>
<p>There are some important aspects of these guidelines that bring into question the recommendations being made, particularly in Australia. Firstly, screen time and media use were discouraged for those under two years of age, which is in contrast to the very strict instruction of no screen time at all proposed in Australia. </p>
<p>This is an important distinction; discouraging and limiting electronic media use is a much more attainable goal than completely eradicating it from children’s lives.</p>
<h2>Are the guidelines outdated?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98159/original/image-20151013-17843-14i20ye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Guidelines date back to the days of VHS.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/demandaj/6462748651/">Amanda Tipton/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These guidelines were developed a long time ago. They are predominantly based on activities such as television and pre-recorded video and DVD viewing. The fact that electronic media and the way it’s used has changed substantially since then seems to have been largely ignored by current recommendations.</p>
<p>When it comes to television viewing, there is some evidence that it may be negatively related to things such as <a href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/h2012-063">obesity, behaviour and cognitive development</a>. </p>
<p>This can be due to the content of what is being watched. Violent content in particular <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/120/5/986.abstract">has been shown to have a negative impact</a> on young children. Increased time viewing television has also been shown to leave <a href="http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=383160">less time for other potentially beneficial activities</a>.</p>
<p>But just as the content and amount of screen time may produce negative outcomes, it is also true that these aspects may lead to positive outcomes too.</p>
<h2>The next generation of screen time</h2>
<p>With the next generation of screen-time devices, such as mobile phones and iPads, there are <a href="http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleID=1840251">many features</a> that make the use of these kinds of electronic media very different from earlier screen technologies. </p>
<p>Children are able to interact with these devices, which are able to respond to what a child does. They can be tailored to the developmental level of a child and can facilitate joint play and interaction with other children and adults. And they are portable, meaning they can be used in a wide variety of places and situations.</p>
<p>Research on the impact of these newer screen-based technologies on children’s development and well-being <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/135/1/1.short">remains scarce</a>. However, these distinguishing features <a href="http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1840251">bring into question</a> whether they should be considered alongside other, more traditional screen technologies when setting guidelines.</p>
<p>The way in which these guidelines are set and communicated is also very important. Often there is limited or conflicting evidence regarding a risk or hazard, as is the case with screen time and young children. The Department of Health guidelines are not clear about the supporting information and evidence given for eliminating screen time. </p>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01725.x/full">People prefer to receive</a> more information about how decisions are made so they are able to come to a clear and informed judgement. Therefore it’s not only the guideline itself that is important, but also the behind-the-scenes discussions of how such assessments are made.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98161/original/image-20151013-17858-1soynwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research on the effects of these new types of technology on children is scarce.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/beglen/5004302606/">David, Bergin, Emmett/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rethinking the guidelines</h2>
<p>This month the <a href="http://aapnews.aappublications.org/content/36/10/54.full">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> acknowledged some of the shortcomings in its original guidelines. </p>
<p>With new guidelines being developed, the discouragement of use below two years of age is being revised, with the content and context of screen time now being taken into account and prioritised over setting strict time limits. This is a very positive step forward. Let’s hope Australia and other countries with overly strict limits will follow suit. </p>
<p>Screen time isn’t necessarily bad. It’s a part of our everyday lives, and although negative impacts should not be ignored, nor should positive ones. We need to strike a balance by encouraging positive use of technology and limiting potentially harmful use. As the guidelines under development show, the way in which electronic media is used is more important than setting strict limits on its use.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46980/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Loughran receives funding from NHMRC.</span></em></p>There is no question that excessive screen time can have negative impacts on children’s sleep and development generally, but is there sufficient evidence for an all-out ban before age two?Sarah Loughran, Research Fellow, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.