tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/territorial-animals-117262/articlesTerritorial animals – The Conversation2023-08-09T13:20:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2111302023-08-09T13:20:50Z2023-08-09T13:20:50ZThe fast, furious, and brutally short life of an African male lion<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541739/original/file-20230808-30-wgjkzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by DeAgostini/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The death of a lion in Kenya’s picturesque savannas rarely tugs at people’s hearts, even in a country where wildlife tourism is a key pillar of the nation’s economy. But when one of the most tracked male lions in Kenya’s famous Masaai Mara was <a href="https://nation.africa/kenya/news/jesse-king-of-maasai-mara-dies-in-tragic-rivalry-battle--4316734">killed</a> on 24 July 2023 the world took notice. Known as Jesse, he was killed during a fight with a coalition of three male lions from a rival pride, drawing attention to the brutally risky and dangerous lives of male lions.</p>
<p>Lions are organised in family groups known as a pride. Each pride is comprised of several related lionesses. One or more adult male lions will also be present. In the public imagination, male lions are better known by their popularised image as <a href="https://www.ourendangeredworld.com/are-lions-the-king-of-the-jungle/">kings of the jungle</a>. Their bravery, strength, and size (only tigers are larger) fits this profile.</p>
<p>But in reality, male lions live a life far more vulnerable. One in two male lions die in the first year of life. From the moment a male lion is born it faces a gauntlet of challenges – from snakebite and hungry hyenas to infanticide at the hands of other male lions. </p>
<p>If a male lion makes it out of their first year of life, and then to independence at around 3, they leave their pride for a period of nomadism. Nomads lead a dangerous existence, skirting the territories of established male coalitions. Out there on their own, few will make it to the age of 10. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541939/original/file-20230809-5449-78bb4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A young male lion rests in the branches of a tree in Uganda’s Ishasha sector. This particular cub was the son of a three male coalition of lions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy: Alexander Richard Braczkowski</span></span>
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<p>At no time, it seems, is the male lion safe. We know from the evidence collected by the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=683919633775825&set=a.642108107956978&type=3&ref=embed_post">Kenya Wildlife Trust</a>, resident guides, and tourists that Jesse administered and received many beatings from other male lions. We also know that Jesse, who lived to the ripe old age of 12, was eventually killed by three younger, stronger lions. Life comes full circle: killers frequently become victims themselves, of younger, brasher lions, or those in larger and thus more powerful coalitions. </p>
<p>We are three researchers with over 50 years of combined experience in big cat <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=hnAe1zYAAAAJ&citation_for_view=hnAe1zYAAAAJ:F2VeH06lQh8C">ecology</a>, <a href="https://www.resilientconservation.org/founder-duan-biggs">conservation</a>, and <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-environ-120920-125536">the complexities of people and wildlife living together</a>. </p>
<p>We base our commentary on the extensive information gathered by conservation organisations, independent scientists and tourism guides working in the Maasai Mara. Information on Jesse has been collected mainly through sightings data compiled by these entities over time. </p>
<p>Often the survival of male lions will be dictated by the size and strength of their coalitions, and the make up of the lion landscape at large. This sometimes has bearing for conservation especially when lions stray out of national parks or <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0073808">when male lions are hunted after leaving the safety of a protected area</a>.</p>
<h2>The trials of a young lion</h2>
<p>A young male lion’s biggest threat is his exposure to other male lions that aren’t their father or uncle. A host of <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.12594">studies from the Serengeti in Tanzania to Zimbabwe</a> show that the most significant single cause of lion mortality in the first year of a lion’s life is attributed to other <a href="https://userpages.umbc.edu/%7Ehanson/Jane'sLions.pdf">male lions that kill them during infanticide</a>. </p>
<p>This involves incoming males seeking out and killing the cubs of other males or driving young males away, and attempting to take over prides. Killing cubs <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1257226?casa_token=DNGxjnBmO-EAAAAA%3A6peluEktzB8JVLut4SBuIMDVOMsiM_lBAmv-kAQDlDwEllpBWirZ68LnI-c11jzIN5sV3pder_KVf1rO">accelerates the onset of oestrus in pride females</a> and so is likely to increase the reproductive success of incoming males. </p>
<p>Most lions that get <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/oik.01266?casa_token=VqaDeZN7ZI8AAAAA:_vhYFHLGSO1jHTthWAkJaRoitzJrqq_4nMPjeY8xnxJ2yh2qgYfGs1xDOTDJPs8TKcnIFqFLUw-8quTe">pushed out of their pride when very young </a> don’t survive.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-closer-to-a-much-better-count-of-africas-lions-140945">Getting closer to a much better count of Africa's lions</a>
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<p>Cubs that survive to independence – around 3 years of age – must leave their pride for a period of nomadism. During this time, they join up with cousins, brothers, and sometimes unrelated males of similar age to form what biologists term ‘coalitions’. The power of coalitions increases dramatically with the size of the group. This power can be defined by the number of different prides these coalitions are likely to rule, the number of offspring they will sire, and the number of times they will successfully be able to defend their prides from violent incursions from neighbouring male lions and their coalitions. </p>
<p>The tradeoff of larger coalitions is a watering down of a male lion’s reproductive opportunities. </p>
<p>Examples of such powerful coalitions include the six-strong <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapogo_lion_coalition">Mapogo</a>, and <a href="https://secretafrica.com/the-majingilane-lions-of-sabi-sands/">five-strong Majingilane</a> from South Africa. There is also the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dg680YugRtc">Lake Quintet coalition from Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania</a>. </p>
<p>Contrastingly, Jesse had only one coalition mate, a lion known as Frank. The two were strong enough to kick out the duo of Dere and Barrikoi from the Offbeat pride in May 2014. After his coalition mate Frank disappeared, Jesse left the Offbeat Pride and led a largely nomadic lifestyle except when he unsuccessfully tried to take over the Rakero pride and even fought with his own son Jesse 2. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541450/original/file-20230807-20-8nygn4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Birmingham coalition of five male lions in the Kruger National Park of South Africa. They regularly clashed with other powerful coalitions including the famed Majingilane lion coalition.</span>
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<h2>Three laws of the wild</h2>
<p>Mate, protect, fight. <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=9IWaqAOGyt4C&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=what+is+the+purpose+of+mammal+life+on+earth&ots=1GBV4cKe6D&sig=5LtExzK4__-My_ZA5CkytjjIKRA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=what%20is%20the%20purpose%20of%20mammal%20life%20on%20earth&f=false">These are the three tenets most male animals live and die by in the animal kingdom </a> and this could not be truer for male lions. When male lions are in the prime of their lives somewhere between 5 and 9 years of age they will attempt to have as many cubs as they can. And they will do their best to protect and guard over as many prides as possible.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lions-are-still-being-farmed-in-south-africa-for-hunters-and-tourism-they-shouldnt-be-208584">Lions are still being farmed in South Africa for hunters and tourism – they shouldn't be</a>
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<p>But there is a fine line between holding tenure over many different prides, and successfully being able to defend them and their young. When fights do breakout between male lions they are usually over territorial and breeding rights. </p>
<p>At times they are mere squabbles between coalition mates. At other times, the battles are big enough to cause rifts and splits within coalitions. But in most cases fights are between rival coalitions. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Om5nM54a1Wo">During these fights lions engage in a suite of bodily and olfactory engagements</a> including posturing, roaring and growling, swatting, and biting, and even urination and territorial demarcation. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541448/original/file-20230807-15-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Michael, a male lion sits on the Kasenyi Plains with his two sons in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park. Michael killed multiple litters of cubs in this area during his takeover after leaving the south of the park.</span>
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<h2>For conservation: look to the lionesses</h2>
<p>When it comes to the conservation of the lion species it is important to look to the lionesses. They are the sentinels of a populations health, specifically the number of animals in a group, and more importantly the ratio of lionesses to lions. Healthy populations can expect ratios of roughly <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2688-8319.12015">2 females for every male, but when under pressure due to poaching, killings by cattle farmers and a loss of prey these ratios invert towards males</a>. </p>
<p>The story of Jesse highlights how, in spite of their status as king of the beasts, lions are vulnerable. While in this instance, the cause of death was another lion, much more commonly, lions die at the hands of humans. This can be through being shot or poisoned to protect livestock, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-019-01866-w">being poached for their body parts</a> or being caught as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320723002483">by-catch in traps and snares set for other animals by bushmeat poachers</a>. </p>
<p>On the plus side, the fascinating pride dynamics and trials and tribulations of individual lions can help capture the public’s imagination and foster a love for the species and other wildlife. Although human pressures are high, Kenya retains a large lion population and a suite of iconic wildlife areas. These assets are a great source of pride for many Kenyans, and rightly so.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211130/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Richard Braczkowski received funding from Griffith University and the Southern University of Science and Technology when carrying out this study.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duan Biggs is the Olajos Goslow Chair at Northern Arizona University. Dr Biggs previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and WWF the Luc Hoffmann Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Lindsey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From the moment a male lion is born it faces a gauntlet of challenges, ranging from snakebite to infanticide.Alexander Richard Braczkowski, Research Fellow at the Centre for Planetary Health and Resilient Conservation Group, Griffith UniversityDuan Biggs, Professor and Chair, Southwestern Environmental Science and Policy, Northern Arizona UniversityPeter Lindsey, Research associate, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1791512022-05-17T18:56:02Z2022-05-17T18:56:02ZConnecting fragmented wolverine habitat is essential for their conservation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463082/original/file-20220514-16-891w4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C0%2C5472%2C3514&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wolverine numbers are declining globally due to heavy trapping and predator killing by humans, habitat loss, climate change and various other factors.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/connecting-fragmented-wolverine-habitat-is-essential-for-their-conservation" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Present day wolverines, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1134/S1022795415090069">which emerged during the ice age</a>, have been declining globally despite their many adaptions to live in challenging, rugged environments. </p>
<p>These large land-dwelling weasels evolved to scramble up trees and climb steep, snowy mountains. Wolverines’ snowshoe-like paws, heavy frost-resistant fur and powerful muscles let them thrive in some of the coldest places on Earth. Their sharp claws and strong jaws allow them to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1407">feast on carcasses</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.22621/cfn.v132i3.1947">hunt species of all sizes</a> from ground squirrels to elk. </p>
<p>While wolverines have been <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SOjmJG73UI">filmed hunting caribou in Norway</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/05/030506073236.htm">observed battling black bears over food in Yellowstone</a>, they are extremely vulnerable, rarely seen and hard to study. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02019">Wolverine numbers are declining</a> globally due to heavy trapping and predator killing by humans as well as habitat loss, climate change and various other factors. <a href="https://species-registry.canada.ca/index-en.html#/consultations/206">Scientists estimate there are more than 10,000 wolverines in Canada</a>, but population densities vary a lot and numbers are difficult to estimate. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02019">20 years of synthesized research about wolverines</a> shows that the best ways to protect remaining wolverine populations are to reduce trapping, minimize predator control pressures and connect the large blocks of intact habitat they need to survive.</p>
<h2>Not as resilient as you might think</h2>
<p>Wolverines are private, generally solitary, species. They are slow to reproduce and have an average of two cubs, or kits, every two to three years. </p>
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<img alt="A wolverine with her cub" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463083/original/file-20220514-8286-72ywkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Wolverines are slow to reproduce as they give birth to an average of two kits every two to three years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>They are <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-assessments-status-reports/wolverine-status-2014.html">naturally low in number</a> and defend territories as large as 500-1,000 square kilometres, or sometimes more. These traits make them vulnerable to human impacts around the world.</p>
<p>Since the Europeans colonized North America, fur trapping and landscape development <a href="https://species-registry.canada.ca/index-en.html#/consultations/206">shrank the wolverine range drastically</a>. South of the wide Arctic range, wolverines can be found only in the western boreal forest and mountains. But they used to live from coast to coast and as far south as New Mexico. </p>
<p>Today, in the United States, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2193/2006-548">only around 300 remain in the lower 48 states — mainly in the snowy strongholds</a> and high elevations of the mountain ranges. Wolverines are restricted to northern countries in Eurasia and are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12171">killed as predators of reindeer herds</a> in Fennoscandia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the wolverine distribution in North America." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463518/original/file-20220517-20-nq8zp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Wolverine distribution in North America.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-assessments-status-reports/wolverine-status-2014.html#_fig03">(Environment Canada)</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>As tough as they are, wolverines are sometimes <a href="https://doi.org/10.2193/0022-541X(2004)068%5b0493:SOSRAC%5d2.0.CO;2">eaten by other big predators</a>. As scavengers, taking food from a hungry bear or pack of wolves is a risky lifestyle. Their habitat is degraded by resource development, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.03.029">forestry</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3337">oil and gas</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00480">roads</a>. People still trap wolverines in Canada, often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21787">far too heavily</a>. They can also be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2611">sensitive to recreation</a>. </p>
<p>All this human activity makes life better for wolverines’ competitors — coyotes. Where coyotes exploit developed landscapes, they come into conflict with wolverines, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109435">and in these fights, wolverines lose</a>.</p>
<p>Piled on those problems is the impact of climate change on wolverine habitat. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/10-2206.1">The cold, snowy refuges</a> that wolverines have sought south of the Arctic are now thawing. Wolverines need snow to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-020-2823-4">cache food</a>, to raise their <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3801996">vulnerable kits safely</a> and to keep lowland competitors away. The one-two punch of landscape change and climate change are making matters worse for wolverines.</p>
<h2>Building blocks for wolverine conservation</h2>
<p>Wolverines need large, <a href="https://y2y.net/work/hot-projects/mapping-wolverine-way/">connected blocks of intact habitat to survive</a>. The only way to protect them in the long run is to help protect and connect their fragmented blocks of habitat. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A scenic mountainous green landscape" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463084/original/file-20220514-12-32h47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prime wolverine habitat near Revelstoke, B.C. in summer. Wolverines need large areas of intact, connected habitat to survive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Mirjam Barrueto/WolverineWatch.org)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Creating more protected areas and managing human activity within and next to them will help. Protecting “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/whatonearth/the-wolverine-s-world-is-shrinking-but-they-ve-found-a-safe-haven-in-b-c-mountains-1.6444665">climate refugia</a>” — the last bastions of cold wolverine habitat — is an important priority. Landscape planning to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.102840">connect mountain refuges</a> across busy degraded valley bottoms is sorely needed, especially in southern Canada and the United States </p>
<p>Work to maintain or improve ecological connectivity is happening in some places, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/linking-protected-areas-from-yellowstone-to-the-yukon-shows-the-value-of-conserving-large-landscapes-not-just-isolated-parks-and-preserves-177501">from Yellowstone to Yukon</a> and <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49061">other areas in the world</a>. </p>
<p>Roads and industrial development cut up major sections of prime habitat. We can fight habitat fragmentation by making better decisions about road-building, including when to decommission roads built for resource extraction and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.030">mitigating the effects of traffic</a> on wolverines and other wildlife. Habitat protection, connectivity and restoration are critical for wolverines.</p>
<p>We also need transboundary co-ordination. We need to think across larger landscapes, especially regions that still support wolverines on both sides of a border — like between Canada and the United States or between Norway and Sweden.</p>
<h2>No longer ignorant nor blissful</h2>
<p>Globally, governments have insufficiently protected wolverines. </p>
<p>Sweden’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011383117">predator stewardship program is an exception</a> and British Columbia has stopped wolverine trapping in small locales. </p>
<p>Otherwise, large-scale wolverine conservation has been on the back burner. In the U.S., a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/12/wolverines-endangered-species-act-us-fish-wildlife">petition to list wolverines on the federal Endangered Species Act was thwarted</a>. Canada lacks a federal management plan and British Columbia’s most recent wolverine plan is from 1989, while Alberta lists the species in the “data deficient” category.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A wolverine in a camera trap surrounded by trees and a snow covered ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463085/original/file-20220514-23-lndoua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wolverine at a research station in southeastern British Columbia. We know a lot about wolverines. All we have to do is use the knowledge and act fast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Mirjam Barrueto/WolverineWatch.org)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For years it seemed like not much was known about wolverines, and policymakers have rested on wolverines’ mystery to excuse inaction. </p>
<p>The truth is, science knows a lot about wolverines. Research from around the world clearly shows what we need to do. </p>
<p>Wolverines may have evolved in the cold but the heat is on us to act now. We must <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02019">use the research compiled over the past two decades</a> to make the changes needed to conserve wolverines.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179151/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason T Fisher receives funding from Oil Sands Monitoring Program, Government of Alberta (Environment and Parks), Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, and Urban Wildlife Stewardship Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aerin Jacob works for the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative (Y2Y), an environmental non-government organization and charity in Canada and the United States. Y2Y receives funding from foundations, corporations, and government bodies further described at <a href="https://y2y.net/about/partners/supporters">https://y2y.net/about/partners/supporters</a>.</span></em></p>The key to protecting wolverines around the world is to reduce trapping, minimize predator control pressures, and to protect and connect large blocks of intact habitat they need to survive.Jason T Fisher, Adjunct Professor; Head, Applied Conservation Macro Ecology Lab, University of VictoriaAerin Jacob, Adjunct professor, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, University of Northern British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1816172022-05-08T19:58:16Z2022-05-08T19:58:16ZMeet the territorial females and matriarchs in Australia’s backyard<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461797/original/file-20220506-22-5xkyt0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=84%2C32%2C4229%2C2839&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Linda Reinhold/Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions WA</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Social structure is an important aspect of species’ biology. Having a pecking order and male or female territoriality can help species thrive. </p>
<p>For instance, this can prevent inbreeding, by ensuring males or females leave their family territory to reproduce. It can also help with passing important knowledge and resources down through family lines. </p>
<p>Many Australian species, such as the kangaroo, have a male-dominated social structure. However, recent research into lesser-known native animals has found it’s actually girls who run these worlds.</p>
<h2>The houseproud greater stick-nest rat</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=137">greater stick-nest rat</a> (<em>Leporillus conditor</em>) is a native rodent about the size of a guinea pig. It was once widespread across the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR97056">southern half of mainland Australia</a>. But by the 1930s, grazing, changes in land use and introduced predators reduced its range down to a single island off the coast of South Australia.</p>
<p>Now, thanks to some fantastic conservation efforts, it persists in multiple safe havens across the country. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Stick-nest rat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461798/original/file-20220506-20-w7swvh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stick-nest rats are a vulnerable species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">April Reside</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This species builds nests out of sticks and dry grass, bonded together with special sticky urine. The nests can reach huge sizes and are surprisingly complex – with multiple burrows, chambers and even levels that keep the inhabitants safe from predators and extreme heat and cold.</p>
<p>The construction is so advanced that nests can last for thousands of years, when protected from the elements by caves or rock <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200057155">overhangs</a>. </p>
<p>These stick nests are communal and used over many generations. For a long time, however, there was little understanding of how the nests are passed down. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13100">A study</a> published last year by myself and my colleagues used trapping data and genetic samples taken over many years to investigate this. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Researcher Isabelle Onley kneels down behind a large greater stick-nest rat nest, made of many long twigs and sticks, in the outback" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461256/original/file-20220504-21-3vghd6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greater stick-nest rat nests can grow to large sizes as they are passed down and maintained over many generations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Georgina Neave/Arid Recovery</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found females were more closely related to each other over shorter distances, while males were not. Also, females that were caught in consecutive months and years were typically found in the same nest (or one next door), while males were not.</p>
<p>The evidence pointed to one thing: female greater stick-nest rats typically remain in, or near, the nest they were born in – while males leave and disperse across the landscape. </p>
<p>This strategy has two major benefits. First, it helps prevent inbreeding within populations. </p>
<p>Second, since the nests are a huge energy investment for a little rat, passing them down through the female line improves the likelihood of breeding success for future generations, by giving descendants protection from predators and extreme temperatures. </p>
<p>Researchers of greater stick-nest rats have also observed dominant behaviour in females and, occasionally, aggression towards males that come near their nest. Males have even been seen presenting flowers to a resident female, as if attempting courtship!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fierce-female-moles-have-male-like-hormones-and-genitals-we-now-know-how-this-happens-149174">Fierce female moles have male-like hormones and genitals. We now know how this happens.</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Female dominance in Australian species</h2>
<p>The greater stick-nest rat isn’t the only Australian rodent with females that rule the roost. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR9930405">broad-toothed rat</a>, a sub-alpine species found in south-eastern Australia, demonstrates female territoriality in the summer months while the males roam across larger home ranges. But when the cold winters set in, and snow covers the landscape, males and females can be found huddling together in shared nests.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1976.tb00930.x">ash grey mouse</a>, a native rodent from the biodiversity hotspot of southwest Western Australia, forms groups of multiple females that share a burrow and raise their young together. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An ash-grey mouse wrapped up, with its head peaking out" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461473/original/file-20220505-26-mcq5lm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ash-grey mice face many threats including loss of habitat, competition and predation from introduced species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:1067f58c-b822-412d-bb6e-07a9b8416a52">Questa Game/Atlas of Living Australia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Female social dominance can also be found in marsupials, such as the thumb-sized <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/AJZS121">honey possum</a>, which is also native to southwest Western Australia. Females of this species are larger than males and are sexually promiscuous. They mate with multiple males to produce tiny babies, no bigger than a grain of rice. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb02769.x">brush-tailed phascogale</a>, another small marsupial species, has females which settle and occupy territories that are sometimes surrendered in part to their daughters when they reach adulthood.</p>
<p>The males, meanwhile, move more freely over large home ranges that overlap with other individuals. A key factor in the marking of brush-tailed phascogale territories is believed to be a kind of scent marking, by way of faeces left in prominent positions around the home range boundaries and nesting sites. </p>
<p>Other native species exhibit similarly variable and complex social structures. But with so many of our fauna threatened, endangered or difficult to find and study in the wild, we have much to learn about how they interact. </p>
<h2>The science of sociality</h2>
<p>While the complexities of these social hierarchies are fascinating, they’re often hard to determine. Previously, such knowledge could only be gained through long-term studies in the field or in captivity. This is difficult when the species is shy, or tiny like the honey possum. </p>
<p>Thankfully, advances in genetic and animal tracking technology are providing experts deeper insight into the dynamics of these species, with much less cost and effort. With tracking devices becoming more lightweight, powerful and durable, researchers can now remotely monitor the movement and dispersal of species across their home ranges. </p>
<p>In addition, DNA from tissue, skin or hair samples can be sequenced to provide high-quality data to inform on how individuals in an area are related. This can show us how family groupings coexist. </p>
<p>Yet even with these improvements, there is still much we don’t know about the secret lives of Australia’s animals. With the combined pressures of habitat loss, feral predators and climate change, researchers are racing against the clock to better understand our wildlife and hopefully preserve it. </p>
<p>Wildlife reserves such as the <a href="https://aridrecovery.org.au">Arid Recovery Reserve</a>, where our study on greater stick-nest rats was conducted, combine research with hands-on management to inform conservation efforts – and are taking steps to safeguard our precious native species’ place in the future. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-australian-birds-can-teach-us-about-choosing-a-partner-and-making-it-last-125734">What Australian birds can teach us about choosing a partner and making it last</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181617/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Isabelle Onley receives funding from the following sources: the University of Adelaide, Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship, Nature Foundation South Australia, Biological Society South Australia/Nature Conservation Society of South Australia, and the Field Naturalists Society of South Australia.</span></em></p>Researchers are in a race against time to learn about the female-oriented social structures of Australia’s small native rodents and marsupials.Isabelle Onley, PhD Candidate, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1782052022-03-01T15:04:40Z2022-03-01T15:04:40ZWhen a hippo honks, here’s what it could mean – to another hippo at least<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449227/original/file-20220301-25-1h8fu7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Hippos are very vocal animals, exchanging signals like the “wheeze honk”. But not much is known about what these sounds mean. Two researchers found themselves thinking about this in Mozambique – where they were initially studying crocodiles. </p>
<p>Hippos are quite territorial and aggressive – and fast-moving. So the researchers kept a fair distance away as they conducted their <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(21)01693-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982221016936%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">experiment</a>. They recorded hippo noises and played them back to the animals, watching to see how the hippos behaved. If the call came from an unknown hippo in a different social group, the response appeared to be aggressive. If the call was one they recognised, they were less inclined to be aggressive. </p>
<p>One way hippos show aggression is to spray dung.</p>
<p>The meaning of hippo sounds is useful to know for conservation efforts. Hippos and humans sometimes come into conflict and need to be moved for their own survival. Before relocating them, conservation managers could play them the sounds of the hippos they will be meeting in their new location, to familiarise them.</p>
<p>In this episode of Pasha, Nicolas Mathevon, professor in animal behaviour and bioacoustics at the University of Saint-Etienne, and Paulo Fonseca, professor in acoustic communication at the University of Lisbon, take us through their experiences of listening to hippos in Mozambique.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Photo</strong>
“Specie Hippopotamus amphibius family of Hippopotamidae.” by PACO COMO, found on <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hippopotamus-kruger-national-parksouth-africa-specie-439875586">Shutterstock</a> </p>
<p><strong>Music</strong>
“Happy African Village” by John Bartmann, found on <a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/John_Bartmann/Public_Domain_Soundtrack_Music_Album_One/happy-african-village">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">CC0 1</a>.</p>
<p>“African Moon” by John Bartmann, found on <a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/John_Bartmann/Public_Domain_Soundtrack_Music_Album_One/happy-african-village">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">CC0 1</a>.</p>
<p><em>The researchers would like to thank the Maputo special reserve for allowing them to do the research on the property.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178205/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Hippos are very vocal creatures. They display certain aggressive behaviour when strangers are in their territory.Ozayr Patel, Digital EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.