tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/usain-bolt-11552/articlesUsain Bolt – The Conversation2024-03-05T16:10:04Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243022024-03-05T16:10:04Z2024-03-05T16:10:04ZKylian Mbappé has trademarked his iconic goal celebration – why a pose can form part of a player’s protected brand<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578872/original/file-20240229-30-v6whau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5978%2C3982&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kylian Mbappé celebrating a goal with his trademark celebration. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kylian-mbappe-celebrates-goal-after-scoring-2313795107">Victor Velter/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>French football superstar Kylian Mbappé celebrates most of his goals by crossing his arms and tucking his hands underneath his armpits. It has become one of the most iconic goal celebrations in the world. </p>
<p>Mbappé, who is due to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/68346321">move</a> to Spanish giants Real Madrid at the end of this season, has already taken steps to <a href="https://en.as.com/soccer/kylian-mbappe-takes-steps-to-protect-name-and-brand-n/">register</a> a logo depicting his celebration as a trademark in several countries, as well as in the <a href="https://euipo.europa.eu/eSearch/#basic/1+1+1+1/100+100+100+100/017157355">European Union</a>. He has done the same for his <a href="https://www.tmdn.org/tmview/#/tmview/results?page=1&pageSize=30&criteria=C&basicSearch=Mbapp%C3%A9%20">surname</a>, <a href="https://branddb.wipo.int/en/quicksearch/brand/EM500000017157348?sort=score%20desc&start=0&rows=30&asStructure=%7B%22_id%22:%22af5d%22,%22boolean%22:%22AND%22,%22bricks%22:%5B%7B%22_id%22:%22af5e%22,%22key%22:%22applicant%22,%22value%22:%22Mbappe%22,%22strategy%22:%22Simple%22%7D%5D%7D&_=1708963392591&searchBy=applicant&fg=_void_&i=7">initials</a> and most famous <a href="https://branddb.wipo.int/en/quicksearch/brand/EM500000018326248?sort=score%20desc&start=0&rows=30&asStructure=%7B%22_id%22:%22af5d%22,%22boolean%22:%22AND%22,%22bricks%22:%5B%7B%22_id%22:%22af5e%22,%22key%22:%22applicant%22,%22value%22:%22Mbappe%22,%22strategy%22:%22Simple%22%7D%5D%7D&_=1708963392591&searchBy=applicant&fg=_void_&i=12">quotes</a>.</p>
<p>The black-and-white <a href="https://twitter.com/EU_IPO/status/1758470179686604921?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1758470179686604921%7Ctwgr%5E6632f5e3550abb68ddc2bb93edd8d49fad4dccf5%7Ctwcon%5Es1_&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.as.com%2Fsoccer%2Fkylian-mbappe-takes-steps-to-protect-name-and-brand-n%2F">logo</a> depicts a smiling Mbappé, celebrating in his usual fashion. </p>
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<p>Mbappé is not the only famous athlete who has looked to secure exclusive rights to their signature celebration. In 2022, Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt applied to trademark a <a href="https://tsdr.uspto.gov/#caseNumber=97552042&caseSearchType=US_APPLICATION&caseType=DEFAULT&searchType=statusSearch">logo</a> in the US showing his victory celebration pose – an application with the US trademark office that is still pending.</p>
<p>The reason well-known athletes look to trademark these poses, and other aspects of their image, is obvious. They wish to turn them into successful brands that can be used commercially in a wide range of markets. </p>
<p>Among the products covered by Mbappé’s trademark registrations are clothes, textiles, footwear, toys, video games, umbrellas, bags, jewellery, perfumery, cosmetics and toothpastes. Any products or brands that wish to use his specific logo, name or quotes will need to pay Mbappé or be granted permission by Mbappé himself.</p>
<p>But how can even the celebratory pose of a sporting star become a brand? To answer this question, we need to look at the nature and function of trademarks. </p>
<h2>What trademark law says</h2>
<p>A trademark is used in the course of trade to distinguish the goods and services of a company from those of competitors. The key, though not only, function is to indicate the commercial origin of a product.</p>
<p>Logos representing a famous athlete’s iconic pose may satisfy this requirement. Such postures can create a stronger association between the player and the products to which their image is affixed, offering a more distinctive characterisation compared with a traditional portrait-style image. Such branding allows consumers to distinguish the products from the goods sold by others, effectively functioning as an indication of commercial source.</p>
<p>For example, if we see a <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Saint-Germain-Collectable-Football-Collect-Favourite/dp/B0BJ2X2PK3/ref=sr_1_6?dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.GG1cGhqjdxGCbbyM2RboACiXMD-QZ8LDKRRNro-Mv2y0n8N_T03Mk_-Hvf0edLUlOaLOrj22wTkcdWxmU5bhD4D7aCCpjqXRXyOwtxd6I2CU0qgeYAzPHkbqktN9fYgleTcbRsxLNPdBqd-JVKey-dv8mUplHkVz95fEFPTf18WIexAgZc5Y9o4q0bAA8tQxDSKNmJfpKXubWDSGyzHvWWrpcDev6PpsfQOuh66ZlnKog3FosnXDkj3ldaOX8cxRoBfVZPVVl3lGqkOQSN_uDs118QGAMCaBkl1aktkW4dc.L1hJr0klWKPAdOknhxw1gUFY6OSLcQW3EKBbYod9Xow&dib_tag=se&keywords=mbappe&qid=1709104613&sr=8-6">toy</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/World-Soft-Fleece-Blanket-Skin-friendly/dp/B0BL2SN57B/ref=sr_1_23_sspa?dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.GG1cGhqjdxGCbbyM2RboACiXMD-QZ8LDKRRNro-Mv2y0n8N_T03Mk_-Hvf0edLUlOaLOrj22wTkcdWxmU5bhD4D7aCCpjqXRXyOwtxd6I2CU0qgeYAzPHkbqktN9fYgleTcbRsxLNPdBqd-JVKey-dv8mUplHkVz95fEFPTf18WIexAgZc5Y9o4q0bAA8tQxDSKNmJfpKXubWDSGyzHvWWrpcDev6PpsfQOuh66ZlnKog3FosnXDkj3ldaOX8cxRoBfVZPVVl3lGqkOQSN_uDs118QGAMCaBkl1aktkW4dc.L1hJr0klWKPAdOknhxw1gUFY6OSLcQW3EKBbYod9Xow&dib_tag=se&keywords=mbappe&qid=1709104613&sr=8-23-spons&sp_csd=d2lkZ2V0TmFtZT1zcF9tdGY&th=1">blanket</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Mbapp%C3%A9-Football-Birthday-Card-Anniversary/dp/B0CJYL8BNZ/ref=sr_1_27?dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.GG1cGhqjdxGCbbyM2RboACiXMD-QZ8LDKRRNro-Mv2y0n8N_T03Mk_-Hvf0edLUlOaLOrj22wTkcdWxmU5bhD4D7aCCpjqXRXyOwtxd6I2CU0qgeYAzPHkbqktN9fYgleTcbRsxLNPdBqd-JVKey-dv8mUplHkVz95fEFPTf18WIexAgZc5Y9o4q0bAA8tQxDSKNmJfpKXubWDSGyzHvWWrpcDev6PpsfQOuh66ZlnKog3FosnXDkj3ldaOX8cxRoBfVZPVVl3lGqkOQSN_uDs118QGAMCaBkl1aktkW4dc.L1hJr0klWKPAdOknhxw1gUFY6OSLcQW3EKBbYod9Xow&dib_tag=se&keywords=mbappe&qid=1709104613&sr=8-27">birthday card</a> or <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Decorative-Painting-Posters-Picture-08x12inch/dp/B0CJS1HH6K/ref=sr_1_104?dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.J38YBIPs5sgfYm5fJl_5IXO57eQa-d1JvSIEpEQ_SoKyEQxQaQkmRvfXZtvLWkSFqJOeapgyHqDz7WhgEsenLzr1hvHZWzTK3SU6b3wzYntbmHEg0AVDj5j0B3eCesn84wHee9kGkEFYprsqf9elUDHpV4cJStV6pfz4utYwmh8MTRQm9hscQLi8QO0f7bhrkTqt1Rq53B4o7-mbXDTNM1Z2LSUMt7E0fFZF2jiIQuWh3kjkl98DpHHMeBhqG58tTD8WiXky4eBd6td2G20VVI1VHUiDBXMHgHEwZYhGxnw.uZd71RzvHyyd1WMKQ-2E4P7RVJ0GeAdcG84Jib86ILw&dib_tag=se&keywords=mbappe&qid=1709104845&sr=8-104&th=1">poster</a> in a shop that features Mbappé’s trademarked celebration logo (or any other trademarks incorporating his image, name and initials), we will probably think those products are marketed by Mbappé himself. </p>
<p>So, if a business sells such branded goods without his authorisation, it will probably be a trademark infringement. This is because consumers would buy the product in the erroneous belief that they are official Mbappé merchandise.</p>
<p>Mbappé is a sports icon with hundreds of millions of fans and followers, including 112 million on <a href="https://www.instagram.com/k.mbappe/">Instagram</a>. Thus, his trademarks may soon become notorious to a large range of consumers, especially if he ramps up the manufacture, sale and promotion of a variety of products bearing his brand. Owners of famous brands have a higher chance of prevailing in trademark infringement cases.</p>
<p>It would then be enough for Mbappé to show that a business which has sold a replica product incorporating his pose wants to take unfair advantage of the reputation of such a trademark. The same outcome would materialise if he could show that such a product is detrimental to his brand – for example, if the replica product bearing his brand is of poor quality.</p>
<p>Other celebrities have done the same. In 2016, Australian popstar Kylie Minogue <a href="https://theconversation.com/kylie-vs-kylie-who-will-win-the-legal-battle-between-minogue-and-jenner-55682">started a battle</a> with TV personality Kylie Jenner over the trademarking of their shared first name. Minogue claimed that her Kylie brand would be tarnished if Jenner were allowed to register an identical or similar trademark, describing her as a “secondary reality TV personality”.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kylie-vs-kylie-who-will-win-the-legal-battle-between-minogue-and-jenner-55682">Kylie vs Kylie – who will win the legal battle between Minogue and Jenner?</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Kylie Minogue posing for a photo in front of a large crowd of cameramen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578873/original/file-20240229-28-zfu1pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Kylie Minogue complained when Kylie Jenner filed a trademark application for her first name.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cannes-france-may-27-kylie-minogue-200809382">Andrea Raffin/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Protecting free speech</h2>
<p>But there are also downsides to a trademark protection strategy based on the registration of every aspect of an athlete’s image and personality. It may limit the freedom of the public – and especially sports fans – to celebrate or criticise their icons.</p>
<p>Take, for instance, a website dedicated to Mbappé that serves as a forum where fans can exchange opinions about the player’s sporting performance and marketing activities. And let’s imagine that the website’s homepage features Mbappé’s trademarked celebration pose, his name or a famous quote prominently, and hosts fan commentaries that are highly critical of any of his activities.</p>
<p>Mbappé could, in theory, enforce his trademark rights to stop what he may consider a use of his trademark that tarnishes or even takes advantage of its reputation. This would be even more applicable if the website hosts advertising banners and sponsored sections, as Mbappé could claim that his brands are being somewhat exploited commercially.</p>
<p>But such an enforcement would unduly restrict the right of football fans to free speech. It would also unjustifiably allow trademark owners to stop their brands being used for purposes that are not strictly commercial. We should all be entitled to celebrate or criticise our favourite players by posting commentaries about their behaviour on and off the pitch, and including their iconic pose.</p>
<p>Mbappé’s trademark protection strategy is certainly legitimate and in line with the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2022/07/13/the-power-of-celebrity-brands/?sh=739fb0a4d30d">current branding trends</a> of most celebrities. But the French football star would be better advised not to enforce his trademarks against whoever simply expresses opinions and ideas about him without a strict economic purpose. </p>
<p>The risk is not only to lose the legal case, but also alienate fans who may end up disappointed about their idol’s willingness to be overly litigious.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224302/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Kylian Mbappé has secured a commercial trademark for his celebration pose, and is looking to protect his name and quotes too.Enrico Bonadio, Reader in Intellectual Property Law, City, University of LondonAndrea Zappalaglio, Lecturer in Intellectual Property Law, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1025132018-08-31T15:48:43Z2018-08-31T15:48:43ZCan Usain Bolt really make it as a footballer?<p>What to do when you’ve won it all?</p>
<p>After the 2017 World Championships and a truly stellar career, Usain St Leo Bolt bowed out of the sport he dominated for so long. Fame, fortune, and a personality to match, it’s hard to imagine Bolt was short of offers on hanging up his golden-laced spikes.</p>
<p>So, what do retired Olympic sprinters do: coach, commentate, agency work, celebrity TV appearances, or just rest on their laurels? Bolt had different ideas, openly expressing his desire to play professional soccer: “Maybe a club will see something and decide to give me a chance”, <a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-soccer-norway-bolt/sprinter-bolt-trains-at-norwegian-club-stromsgodset-idUKKCN1IV1DQ">he said</a>.</p>
<p>As an avid Manchester United fan, his most recent public appearance came as he captained the Rest of the World in the 2018 <a href="http://www.espn.co.uk/football/england/story/3522273/usain-bolt-nets-penalty-at-old-trafford-in-soccer-aid-charity-match">Soccer Aid</a> at Old Trafford. Prior to this, he trained with South African outfit Mamelodi Sundowns FC, Norway’s Stromsgodset, and even German giants <a href="https://www.facebook.com/BVB/videos/435825260197068/">Borussia Dortmund</a>. </p>
<p>In recent weeks, Bolt has earned an “indefinite training period” with Australian side Central Coast Mariners, and on August 31 he <a href="https://twitter.com/CCMariners/status/1035485893929271296">made his debut</a> as a “trialist” in a pre-season friendly against amateur side Central Coast Football. </p>
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<p>Notwithstanding Bolt’s profile, such sporting career transitions raise a series of questions for scientists like me with an interest in expertise research, and elite performance. How do individuals achieve such expertise? Is it possible to transfer between sports? And are some sports easier to transfer to than others?</p>
<h2>What is ‘expertise’?</h2>
<p>Expertise can be defined as the ability of an person to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166411508614624">consistently demonstrate superior levels of proficiency</a> within a particular domain over an extended period of time. This is highlighted perfectly by Bolt, who won gold in the 100m, 200m, and 4x100m relay at three successive Olympics.</p>
<p>Historically, theorists studying expertise have fallen into <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-98355-001">two schools of thought</a> that parallel the “nature versus nurture” debate. Some, such as the 19th-century scientist Francis Galton, argued that eminence in science, music, art, and other fields reflects an <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-98355-001">innate or natural ability</a>.</p>
<p>But practice is uniformly regarded as the single variable that has the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224827585_The_Role_of_Deliberate_Practice_in_the_Acquisition_of_Expert_Performance">greatest influence on skill acquisition</a>. And this lead to the alternative viewpoint that it takes a minimum of 10,000 hours or ten years of “deliberate practice” to achieve domain-specific expertise.</p>
<p>Typically, researchers today are of the view that while the sheer amount of practice is important, other factors, such as genetics, ability and motivation are <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-11726-001">also likely to be critical</a>. To this end, though Bolt may be blessed with certain hereditary capabilities such as height and a greater proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibres, he has also invested the necessary training hours in order to reach the top of his sport. </p>
<h2>Soccer expertise</h2>
<p>So how easy is it to become a footballer? Soccer expertise is multi-faceted in nature, compromising of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294217815_Talent_identification_in_soccer">physiological, emotional, technical, and cognitive factors</a>. By looking at how much footballers have practiced in the past, sports scientists have attempted to shed light on how they developed those skills.</p>
<p>In their study of elite English soccer players, one group of researchers concluded that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255653625_DELIBERATE_PRACTICE_AND_EXPERT_PERFORMANCE_DEFINING_THE_PATH_TO_EXCELLENCE">early specialisation</a> is an important precursor to expertise. Specifically, players would engage in deliberate practice of their primary sport – in this case, football – from a young age (around five years). These activities are <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Science-and-Soccer-Developing-Elite-Performers/Williams/p/book/9780415672115">highly structured and often coach-led</a>, with the specific purpose of improving performance.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02640414.2012.701762?src=recsys&journalCode=rjsp20">early engagement</a> pathway is an alternative approach, which involves meaningful amounts of unstructured soccer-playing during childhood (six to 12 years of age), rather than coach-led practice and competition (“deliberate practice”).</p>
<p>Anecdotal evidence exists of Bolt playing street <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jun/17/usain-bolt-this-much-i-know">cricket and soccer</a> when growing up, which seems to fit more with the early engagement pathway. That said, without a detailed account of his practice history it is impossible to know how his sporting childhood may have shaped his soccer potential.</p>
<h2>Transfer between sports</h2>
<p>In light of his athletic commitments, it is difficult to see how Bolt has accumulated the required practice hours, in either soccer play or deliberate practice, to successfully transition to the professional game.</p>
<p>This brings us onto the question as to whether the skills developed from his years of experience in sprinting, could transfer to soccer. We know that successful career transitions are possible and one example is the former track cyclist Victoria Pendleton: after retiring from the velodrome at age 31 with Olympic and world titles, she made her competitive debut in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/horse-racing/34122804">horse racing</a> three years later.</p>
<p>How successful the transfer can be depends on the level of <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1926-02960-001">identical or similar elements</a> that exist between the two performance domains. Sports scientists have classified these elements into <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=Shifting+training+requirements+during+athlete+development&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart">four categories</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Physical conditioning: general physiological changes shared between similar modes of activity.</p></li>
<li><p>Movement: the anatomical and biomechanical similarities between tasks.</p></li>
<li><p>Perceptual: the environmental information used to make performance related decisions.</p></li>
<li><p>Conceptual: similarities in the strategies, rules and guidelines governing behaviour during competition.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>With the exception of certain aspects of physical conditioning such as reaction speed, and perhaps movements such as acceleration, it is evident that track sprinting and soccer share very little in common.</p>
<p>In contrast, it could be argued that many more similarities exist between sprint cycling and horse racing (pacing strategies, for instance), hence Pendelton’s successful transition.</p>
<p>Although only a very brief overview of expertise and the issue of transfer, the odds are stacked against Bolt, not least because he is 32 and soccer players typically reach their peak <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28254123">a few years earlier</a>.</p>
<p>That said, transfer from one sport to another is a complex process and all sorts of physical, social or functional variables can influence the <a href="https://rapunselshair.pbworks.com/f/barnett_2002.pdf">rate and degree of transfer</a>. </p>
<p>Be it fate, genetics, or sheer persistence, sometimes, everything just works out. A prime example comes from this year’s Tour de France. While most racers had devoted their lives to cycling – overall winner Geraint Thomas began aged ten – fourth place Primož Roglič was a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2017/07/19/a-former-ski-jumper-who-only-took-up-cycling-in-2012-won-stage-17-of-the-tour-de-france/">former junior world ski jumping champion</a>. His achievement was even more astonishing given he only took up cycling in 2012, already in his 20s.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102513/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Edward Hope does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sports science suggests not.Edward Hope, Lecturer, School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/824512017-08-15T10:10:40Z2017-08-15T10:10:40ZHow sport can move on from a championships marked by the booing of Justin Gatlin<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181949/original/file-20170814-28437-1r8k0bg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=138%2C92%2C4643%2C2730&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/doping-on-treadmill-679080535">Igor Zvencom/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The World Athletics Championships in London have ended after ten days of surprises and disappointments. A late flurry of medals for the home nation <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/aug/12/great-britain-relay-usain-bolt-gold-injured">buoyed the British crowd</a>, and the world watched on as sprint icon Usain Bolt’s career ended with more of a whimper than a bang. But the abiding memory is that of Justin Gatlin, the US sprinter who has twice failed drug tests, facing the boos of the crowd as he <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/aug/05/justin-gatlin-usain-bolt-100m-london-2017-world-athletics-championships">triumphed in the 100 metres final</a>.</p>
<p>Many believe that Gatlin should not have been allowed on the track. Instead, he should have been serving a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/athletics/2017/08/06/justin-gatlin-should-have-banned-life-convicted-drugs-cheat/">lifetime ban</a>. Others go further to propose that dopers should be punished not just by sports governing bodies but by the <a href="http://www.bbc.com/sport/athletics/39544930">criminal justice system</a>– doping as fraud by false representation. </p>
<p>Whether or not Gatlin’s punishment should have been more severe, he served his time, and he was there by right. His mistake was in breaking an unwritten rule for returning dopers: “You may be allowed back, but you are not allowed win.” We might add on this occassion: “… and you are definitely not allowed to beat Bolt in his last championship.” </p>
<p>The spectacle of a newly crowned world champion being jeered was embarrassing for athletics, and it served as a reminder of just how deep the problem of doping runs. Along with last year’s <a href="http://www.bbc.com/sport/38261608">Russian doping scandal</a>, this difficult moment might just provide the necessary impetus for real reform. </p>
<h2>Keep it clean</h2>
<p>Current anti-doping strategy revolves around a key article of faith: clean sport can be achieved by incentivising athletes not to dope. The incentives are applied in two ways: testing and punishment. This allows only two responses to any doping scandal: more testing and more severe punishment. The response is always to raise the stakes for dopers so that the gamble of doping becomes foolish. As appealing as this sounds, the approach has not and will not deliver clean sport.</p>
<p>One can imagine how increased penalties for diving in football or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2017/jan/06/world-rugby-new-tackle-laws-what-are-they">high tackling in rugby</a> might reduce the prevalence of these rule violations, but doping is different. Doping takes place away from the arena of competition behind locked doors and drawn curtains. Authorities have neither the right nor the funding to monitor all athletes to the level required to ensure it is in their self-interest to compete clean. So, the alignment of the incentives strategy necessarily fails. </p>
<p>Moreover, the accusatory nature of this strategy, where athletes are treated as if they were either dopers or would-be dopers, is counter-productive. If a system implicitly accuses athletes of wanting to cheat, it is no surprise that many of them will live up to expectation: distrust begets untrustworthiness. </p>
<p>Meaningful competition rests on the trustworthiness of athletes. Doping is not unique in this: match-fixing and match manipulation are also resistant to effective oversight. All are dependant on athletes doing the right thing for the right reasons, not simply in the service of their narrow self-interest. However, trustworthiness cannot be cultivated within an incentive-based system designed to side-step it. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181966/original/file-20170814-28472-15agela.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Leap of faith?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/long-jump-track-field-197522558?src=pkdYTMyHk6RzwzJY7Siprw-1-73">Stefan Schurr/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Moral training</h2>
<p>For the anti-doping movement to make headway, those involved must acknowledge that the testing regime cannot contain the problem. Sport is, and will remain, vulnerable to dopers. Once that is recognised, we can begin to focus on developing among athletes a personal commitment to competing clean. </p>
<p>Sporting authorities should begin by explicitly placing trust in athletes. This involves both abandoning the pretence that dopers are likely to be caught and by emphasising the reliance of sport on the trustworthiness of those within it. Coaches, parents, and volunteers from grassroots level up should cultivate in young athletes a sense of obligation to themselves and to their competitors for how they compete, and an understanding of the values of fairness, participation, and achievement that underpin competition. </p>
<p>Moral training should become a central plank of youth sport coaching alongside physical, tactical, technical and mental training. This would ensure that, by the time athletes reach the upper echelons of competition, honesty and fairness will form part of their self-understanding as athletes, and they will have deeper resources of character to resist the temptation to dope.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181969/original/file-20170814-28430-nd9zht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coachtranier-swimmer-girl-pool-discussing-athlet-533028280?src=gb4KCRe6Ku8IMwkmqFlKJw-1-10">Studio Romantic/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Anti-doping education should also provide a real discussion of the rationale for the ban on performance-enhancing drugs. Athletes must be persuaded of the rational defensibility of the ban, so they can endorse the ideal of clean sport “from the inside”, and as worthy of their commitment, not simply as a set of arbitrary rules imposed from above. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/wada-2015-world-anti-doping-code.pdf">World Anti-Doping Code</a> is notoriously vague on precisely what justifies the ban. Are drugs banned to promote harm prevention, fairness, the purpose of sport or something else entirely? </p>
<h2>Character-building</h2>
<p>Sport must also embrace the need to support returning dopers. The system should go beyond temporary exile, and take seriously the need to prepare dopers for return to (clean) competition. </p>
<p>This shift away from incentives and towards a trust-based approach might seem naive, a move that would expose sport to betrayal by athletes like Gatlin. The real naiveté, though, is in maintaining the specious hope athletes can be incentivised not to dope when the surveillance required to achieve this is neither financially viable nor morally acceptable. A better balance must be struck: the testing regime should serve as a deterrent but only as part of a wider anti-doping programme. </p>
<p>Many parents introduce their children to sport because it builds character for life. But what about building character for sport? Rather than focus energies on the hopeless task of aligning incentives, sport authorities should acknowledge the limitations of this approach, and prioritise rational persuasion and moral education. The task is to shape athletes’ convictions, not just their incentives, because, in the final analysis, the integrity of sport rests on the integrity of sportspeople.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82451/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John William Devine does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The US sprinter, twice banned after failed drug tests, felt the force of public opinion as he won the 100 metres final at the World Athletics Championship. But is it time to start trusting athletes?John William Devine, Lecturer in Sports Ethics and Integrity, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/824312017-08-14T00:58:48Z2017-08-14T00:58:48ZUsain Bolt and Andre De Grasse: Hamstring injuries explained<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181871/original/file-20170813-20168-1cygfci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jamaica's Usain Bolt lays on the track after suffering a hamstring injury in the final of the men's 4x100m relay during the World Athletics Championships in London on Aug. 12, 2017.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Frank Augstein)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Judging by recent hamstring injuries of high-profile athletes at the world track and field championships in London, some may muse that perhaps it’s a contagious virus hitting sprinters.</p>
<p>Andre De Grasse was aiming for a chance to dethrone Jamaica’s Usain Bolt as the fastest man in the world. But the day before the start of the 100 metre competition, the Canadian sprinter <a href="http://nationalpost.com/sports/loss-of-injured-andre-de-grasse-is-a-big-blow-to-canadian-track-and-field-fans/wcm/8c43e4e1-c41e-4a45-85e1-3a00ae43d7b6">announced a hamstring tear had forced him to withdraw.</a> Bolt had his own dramatic hamstring injury in what was likely his final race. <a href="https://www.thestar.com/sports/amateur/2017/08/12/usain-bolt-injured-in-his-final-race.html">During his leg of the 4x100-metre relay</a>, the Olympic champion tumbled and had to exit the track via wheechair. </p>
<p>What is going on?</p>
<p>As the Director of the Running Injury Clinic at the University of Calgary, I can assure sports fans these injuries are definitely not contagious, but a risk factor for all elite athletes — especially sprinters. </p>
<p>Here is a primer on these potentially career-ending hamstring injuries.</p>
<h2>What are hamstring injuries?</h2>
<p>The hamstring group of muscles are three muscles on the back of your thigh that play an important role in running. They function to control both your knee and hip during both the swing phase (when your foot is off of the ground) and the stance phase (when your foot is on the ground) of running and sprinting. </p>
<p>Injuries occur when these three muscles undergo too much strain and they develop tears or they cramp up. A cramp is when the muscle stops working altogether and simply contracts and cannot relax. A first-degree tear is slight damage while a second-degree tear is a partial tear of the muscle itself. A third-degree tear would be a complete rupture of the muscle and a catastrophic career-ending injury. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181872/original/file-20170813-13505-5jcc4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The hamstring group of muscles (Shutterstock)</span>
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<h2>Why do they happen?</h2>
<p>At the knee, these muscles act to slow down your leg as it swings forward very quickly during in preparation for footstrike. It’s this action that commonly leads to injuries because the muscle is trying to shorten and contract, but the knee is extending very quickly, which pulls on the hamstring and creates a tremendous amount of strain. </p>
<p>At the hip, these powerful muscles generate force just prior to the foot coming off of the ground as they extend the hip backwards. Injuries can occur at this point of the running cycle because these muscles are generating tremendous amounts of force to maintain, or increase, forward running velocity.</p>
<h2>How to recover from a hamstring injury?</h2>
<p>Regarding Bolt, Jamaican team doctor Kevin Jones was quoted as saying: “It’s a cramp in his left hamstring, but a lot of the pain is from disappointment from losing the race.” If it was indeed cramping, it will demand rest, massage, rehydration and stretching. A cramping hamstring is often an overworked hamstring, so rest is usually the best medicine. However, a hamstring cramp can often be misdiagnosed and could, in fact, be a tear, similar to what De Grasse experienced.</p>
<h2>Why it was important for De Grasse to pull out</h2>
<p>For De Grasse, he “felt a pop in his right hamstring,” according to his agent, Paul Doyle. A second-degree tear was later confirmed by ultrasound. The audible “pop” is due to the lightning-fast tearing of the muscle, and this injury demands complete rest and directed treatment. </p>
<p>Treatment usually takes the form of first allowing the tear to heal up, similar to how a cut on your skin needs time to develop a scab and scar tissue. Once the scar tissue has developed, exercise therapy can help increase muscle strength so the scar tissue gets properly replaced with new muscle tissue. If the muscle doesn’t fully recover, an injury recurrence is probable. Re-injuries are very common and can often end a sprinter’s career.</p>
<p>The route I also recommend is to determine the root cause of an injury. While increased strain is the mechanism, you need to understand why there was increased strain. During the Rio Olympics, I discussed the <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/olympics/small-light-and-unconventional-how-does-de-grasse-do-it/article31450048/">asymmetry of De Grasse’s sprinting style</a> and more recently Bolt’s running <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/20/sports/olympics/usain-bolt-stride-speed.html">asymmetry was revealed during a biomechanical analysis</a>. </p>
<p>While getting stronger, resting and allowing the body to recover allows for tissue healing and the ability to deal with increased hamstring strain, finding out the root cause of why there is so much strain is a biomechanical mystery that must be solved to help prevent future injuries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82431/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Reed Ferber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Hamstring injuries played a major role at the 2017 world track and field championships. Without proper recovery, a hamstring injury can be career ending for some athletes.Reed Ferber, Professor, Faculties of Kinesiology and Nursing; Director, Running Injury Clinic, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/822122017-08-10T20:06:46Z2017-08-10T20:06:46ZIs Usain Bolt the greatest athlete of all time? That’s not what the numbers say<p>Usain Bolt has finally hung up his running shoes, retiring from athletics amid plaudits hailing him as the <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/more-sports/world-athletics-championships-twice-banned-justin-gatlin-makes-sure-usain-bolt-has-no-fairytale-ending/news-story/e90514a60f1f5de0c429fd51ce4d7db3">greatest athlete</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/aug/05/bolts-time-runs-out-greatest-athletics-champion-of-them-all">greatest champion</a> of all time.</p>
<p>While it wasn’t quite the fairy tale ending in <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/more-sports/usain-bolt-runs-his-final-ever-100m-final/news-story/2b2f8df4ebefb0aed1b0538c369b150c">Bolt’s final race</a> – he came third and claimed only bronze in the 100m final at the IAAF World Athletics Championships in London – his overall career results are certainly fit for the record books.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The final sprint race for Usain Bolt saw him bring in the bronze.</span></figcaption>
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<p>He is the fastest runner in history over 100m and 200m, as well as winning the “<a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-20/rio-2016-usain-bolt-claims-triple-triple-at-olympics/7769198">triple triple</a>” at the Olympics: gold in the 100m, 200m and 4x100m relay at three consecutive games, in Beijing, London and Rio. (The Beijing 2008 4x100m relay gold <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/jan/25/usain-bolt-jamaica-olympic-relay-gold-nesta-carter-drugs">was later revoked</a> after his team mate Nesta Carter was disqualified for failing a drug test.)</p>
<p>Bolt also held the world championship title over these distances between 2009 and 2015, with the exception of <a href="http://www.bbc.com/sport/athletics/14698558">one false start in the 100m</a> in 2011. </p>
<p>But is the Jamaican athlete the greatest of all time, as is <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/olympics/we-name-the-greatest-athletes-of-all-time-in-the-wake-of-usain-bolts-remarkable-feats-at-rio-olympics/news-story/65b3f82a2e13c88d14a3104929419df3">often claimed</a>? </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-secret-to-usain-bolts-speed-may-lie-in-synchronicity-37897">The secret to Usain Bolt's speed may lie in synchronicity</a>
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<h2>How to compare athletes</h2>
<p>This is an interesting question given how the athletics world has changed over time. </p>
<p>Athletes today have access to cutting-edge training methods, nutrition plans and <a href="https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/knowledge_base/organised_sport/sports_and_sports_organisations/sport_technology">scientific and technological advancements</a> in equipment such as <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18735617">track composition</a> and <a href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/adventure/sports/g1101/the-evolution-of-athletic-shoe-tech/">footwear</a>. There have also been improvements in measuring an <a href="https://www.sporttechie.com/track-and-field-technology-is-rapidly-advancing/">athlete’s performance during a race</a>. </p>
<p>The performance of past 100m winners could be influenced by a number of things such as race conditions and scientific advantages that were available at the time.</p>
<p>For Bolt to truly deserve the title of “greatest of all time”, we need to compare his results to those of previous athletes over the 100m. We also need to compare his track performances to the fastest times over the other track distances. We can do this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/jqas-2012-0047">using statistics</a>.</p>
<p>If we look at the fastest 100m race times for each year, we see there has been a large decrease in fastest times for both men and women. </p>
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<p>This pattern of decreasing times is observed for race times across all distances. A key reason in the decrease in race times is due to advances in modern training and scientific knowledge. In our statistical model, we include a changing trend in time so we can compare athlete performances in different years. </p>
<p>We also need to include adjustments in our statistical model for environmental and political factors that influence the population from which athletes are. During World War I and World War II, for example, the pool of athletes was depleted by men away fighting for their country.</p>
<p>The statistical model that we used, that includes both the trend in time and adjustment for population influences, is called a <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Weibull_distribution">Weibull distribution</a>.</p>
<p>This distribution is perfect for calculating the probability of rare events occurring in a given year, such as the fastest race times, and is ideal for estimating the probability of breaking world records.</p>
<h2>Crunch the numbers</h2>
<p>We use this distribution to model the fastest race times each year over the distances 100m, 200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m, 5000m and 10,000m. Using the statistical properties of the distribution, we can then rescale to compare different athletes’ performances over different distances. This means we can answer the question: is Usain Bolt the greatest athlete of all time?</p>
<p>The top 10 rankings from the statistical model are given below. These rankings account for the advantage of racing in different years and account for performances over different distances. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/e5b0u/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="466"></iframe>
<p>Bolt is the world’s fastest man of all time over 100m and 200m but the title of world’s greatest athlete goes to <a href="https://www.biography.com/people/lee-evans-38545">Lee Evans</a> of the United States, who broke the world record in the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/lee-evans">mens 400m at the Olympics in 1968</a> in Mexico City.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Lee Evans wins the race and a new world record.</span></figcaption>
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<p>For women, the greatest athlete of all time is <a href="https://www.biography.com/people/florence-joyner-9542053">Florence Griffith-Joyner</a> of the United States for her performance in the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2012/apr/11/olympic-florence-griffith-joyner-seoul">100m in the US Olympic Trials in 1988</a>. Her records for both 100m and 200m remain unbroken today.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1cDjB/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="466"></iframe>
<p>Griffith-Joyner’s 100m world record time of 10.49s was suspected to be wind-assisted. But she also ran the second- and third-fastest official times in history for the women’s 100m, at 10.61s and 10.62s, so the title is well deserved.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Florence Griffith-Joyner, also known as ‘Flo Jo’</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The study of extremes</h2>
<p>All this number crunching might seem like just a bit of fun, but statistical modelling of minima and maxima is actually really important and commonly used in fields of engineering, finance and earth sciences.</p>
<p>For example, we use distributions like this one to model the wettest day of the year and estimate the amount of rainfall we expect on average once every 100 years – the 1-in-100-year prediction.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-was-the-sydney-storm-once-in-a-century-40824">Explainer: was the Sydney storm 'once-in-a-century'?</a>
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<p>This allows us to build infrastructure to cope with extreme rainfall events, like drainage and levee banks, and protect against rainfall events that we may not have even seen yet.</p>
<p>But the statistical modelling also gives us a useful method of checking to see if claims of athletic greatness or champion uphold to scrutiny of the numbers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate R Saunders receives scholarship funding from the ARC through the Laureate Fellowship FL130100039, top funding from CSIRO and is a student with the Australian Centre of Excellence in Mathematical and Statistical Frontiers (ACEMS).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alec G Stephenson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Jamaican Usain Bolt is often hailed as the greatest athlete of all time. But when you crunch the numbers, his name doesn’t come top of the list.Kate R Saunders, PhD Student, The University of MelbourneAlec G Stephenson, Senior Data Scientist, Data61Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/822252017-08-09T08:25:51Z2017-08-09T08:25:51ZIn Victorian Britain the crowds approved of sports doping – with cocaine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181425/original/file-20170808-5037-12j1f4x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">sportpoint / Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The American sprinter <a href="https://www.channel4.com/news/booing-at-justin-gatlins-victory-over-usain-bolt-in-the-100m">Justin Gatlin’s recent victory</a> over Usain Bolt at the World Athletics Championships has brought the storied issue of <a href="https://theconversation.com/doping-why-some-athletes-are-reluctant-to-speak-out-79862">sports doping</a> back into the public eye.</p>
<p>Gatlin has been subject to drug bans <a href="http://www.standard.co.uk/sport/other-sports/why-was-justin-gatlin-booed-at-london-2017-the-full-drugs-story-surrounding-the-new-100m-world-a3605991.html">twice in his career</a> – first in 2001 (though this was reduced on appeal) and again in 2006. Bolt, by contrast, has become a figurehead for clean competition over his 13 years in professional athletics. The fact that Gatlin beat Bolt to the 100m gold medal in the last race of Bolt’s career was met with enraged boos from the crowd. The event has become a lightning rod for the anger that surrounds doping in professional athletics.</p>
<p>Discussions of Gatlin in particular and of performance-enhancing drugs in general tend to be suffused with a rhetoric of criminality and disease. Doping as a “cancer” within sport is a common image. Both <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/athletics/2017/08/06/justin-gatlin-should-have-banned-life-convicted-drugs-cheat/">Lord Coe</a> (President of the IAAF) and <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/athletics/2017/08/06/justin-gatlin-should-have-banned-life-convicted-drugs-cheat/">Dame Jessica Ennis-Hill</a> have called for lifetime bans for dopers. Even Usain Bolt, in defending Gatlin’s return, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/aug/06/usain-bolt-justin-gatlin-100m-world-championships">referred</a> to him as having “done his time”. Modern perceptions of doping are almost entirely predicated on ideas of corruption, immorality, and crime.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181392/original/file-20170808-10926-afgcxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gatlin and Bolt at the IAAF Championship in London.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ANDY RAIN/EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet this was not the case in Victorian Britain. The crowd and commentators in London who jeered Gatlin might have been surprised by the very different reaction that their forebears had in 1876 to another American sporting celebrity and his use of performance enhancing drugs.</p>
<h2>Coca-walking</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=820&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181398/original/file-20170808-5037-9qpnxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Edward Payson Weston, 1909.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Payson_Weston#/media/File:Edward_Payson_Weston_cph.3b22005.jpg">Spooner & Wells</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Edward Weston was a famous long-distance walker who came to Britain in January 1876 to compete in a series of pedestrian races and tests of endurance. In America, Weston had made a habit of getting free publicity by inviting medical specialists to oversee his races and test how his body reacted to extreme stress and exertion. In London, Weston did the same thing, and issued invitations to correspondents from The Lancet and the British Medical Journal.</p>
<p>But these invitations had an unexpected consequence. In March 1876, during an attempt to walk 500 miles in six days, one observer, John Ashburton Thompson, noticed that Weston had spent at least part of the event chewing coca leaves (the source of cocaine) to improve his stamina and recovery time. Thompson conscientiously published this fact in the BMJ. Interestingly, in breaking the news, Thompson was at pains to point out that Weston’s sporting integrity was in no way compromised by his drug use:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is no reason why Mr Weston should not take advantage of every aid which his superior knowledge places at his disposal. Already he is clothed, fed, and tended in such a scientific manner as leaves little room for improvement. There is nothing nefarious about the use of coca under the present circumstances; nor, I presume, would any person attribute all Mr Weston’s powers to some drug suddenly introduced into his system. Could they persuade themselves to do so, his mental powers – his foresight, his energy, his perseverance – would still remain to be accounted for. These are natural qualities of Mr Weston’s mind, which he has cultivated to the best advantage.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181399/original/file-20170808-22949-453b5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coca leaves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mauricio Gil/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From a modern perspective, the reaction to Weston’s coca-chewing seems entirely counter-intuitive. Rather than anger of the kind directed at Gatlin, Weston’s use of the “performance-enhancing” coca was met with interested approval. What little controversy there was centred not on the morality of Weston’s actions, but on how his drug use was likely to affect the results of the physiological investigations the doctors had been conducting. Most significantly, no Victorian commentator seriously suggested that Weston might have been cheating by taking drugs.</p>
<h2>‘Marvellous properties’</h2>
<p>The Glasgow Herald wrote that the use of coca was “very interesting” and that the drug was likely to have many “popular applications”. The Telegraph enthused: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The coca leaf is a plant to which scientific men cannot too soon turn their attention. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Inspired by Weston’s performance, many began to experiment with cocaine and coca tonics. One doctor and sports enthusiast wrote to The Lancet that the drug was destined to “be hailed as a boon by many a brother sportsman”. Amidst the excitement, the Northern Echo reminded its readers that there was more to Weston’s success than just coca: whatever its “marvellous properties, the mere chewing of the leaf will not make a counter-jumper a Weston”.</p>
<p>So why were Victorian observers so willing both to overlook Weston’s coca use, and to embrace performance enhancing drugs themselves? The answer can be seen in how Weston’s sporting performance was constructed at the time. Thompson’s descriptions in the BMJ placed coca alongside other “preparations” and “superior knowledge” that Weston used: his clothing, the design of his boots, his diet, and the unique gait he adopted to minimise exertion over hundreds of miles of walking. Coca was folded into Weston’s regimen of training and specialised understanding of his sport.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181395/original/file-20170808-22938-198p8j1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Advert for coca-based patent medicine, 1880.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Douglas Small</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More broadly, as a professional athlete, Weston’s achievements were seen as the result of a constellation of factors: his bodily strength, his sporting expertise, and the “indomitable pluck and determination” of his character. This was why coca alone would “not make a counter-jumper a Weston”. Sporting performance was seen as the expression of an athlete’s entire (multi-faceted) selfhood. It was, as The Lancet wrote, “essentially a personal feat”.</p>
<p>Victorian opinion held that doping was necessarily secondary to the character of the sportsman. As the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-its-time-to-legalise-doping-in-athletics-46514">doping debate continues</a>, this change in attitudes between 1876 and 2017 highlights how subjective our apparently fixed ideas about performance enhancement – and sporting performance itself – really are.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douglas Small's research is funded by the Wellcome Trust.</span></em></p>A Victorian athlete’s use of ‘performance-enhancing’ coca was met with interested approval rather than anger of the kind directed at Justin Gatlin.Douglas Small, Wellcome Trust Research Fellow, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/719282017-01-26T13:48:54Z2017-01-26T13:48:54ZUsain Bolt has lost an Olympic gold medal thanks to a team-mate on methylhexanamine – here’s what it is<p>Last summer, the world shared in Usain Bolt’s infectious enthusiasm as he achieved a remarkable “triple treble” of Olympic golds in the same three sprint events. So news that he will <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/38744846">lose one of them</a> was a sudden drenching in cold water.</p>
<p>Bolt himself is not at all to blame, which must make the news even harder to take – but this has been coming for a while. Last June, it emerged that Nesta Carter, one of Bolt’s team members in the 4 x 100m relay at the 2008 Beijing Olympics had tested positive for methylhexaneamine, also known as 1,3-dimethylamylamine and DMAA, when a urine sample taken in 2008 was re-examined.</p>
<p>Yesterday, the <a href="https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/Who-We-Are/Commissions/Disciplinary-Commission/BRT-III-005-Decision-of-the-Disciplinary-Commission-Nesta-CARTER.pdf#_ga=1.231576607.1474457394.1485414698">International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced</a> that Carter – and the other members of the quartet, Bolt, Michael Frater and Asafe Powell – would lose their gold medals for that event. The Jamaican Olympic Association – and Carter himself – <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/38757620">may appeal</a>.</p>
<p>But what is <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01237a032">Methylhexaneamine</a>? It was first reported in 1944 by two chemists working at the American pharmaceutical manufacturer, Eli Lilly. They were trying to make a substance that would supplant <a href="http://www.drugwise.org.uk/amphetamines/">amphetamine</a> as a nasal decongestant. Eli Lilly marketed methylhexaneamine under the trade name Forthane from 1948 until they withdrew it from the market in 1983. It is not that difficult for an organic chemist to make, however, and it would not require a sophisticated laboratory to do it. It is widely available on the internet. </p>
<p>Although methylhexaneamine is not a member of the amphetamine family, it has similar effects in the body and it has been suggested that the molecule can wrap itself into an amphetamine-like shape so that it can plug into the same bodily receptors as amphetamines.</p>
<h2>Performance enhancer?</h2>
<p>More recently, Methylhexaneamine has been used as a stimulant, especially when <a href="https://www.drugs.com/ephedrine.html">ephedrine</a> was <a href="http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2004/ucm108281.htm">banned for everything but medical use in 2004</a>. As well as dietary supplements, it found its way into weight loss products and it was claimed that it could also improve athletic performance.</p>
<p>Back in 1996, some Chinese researchers reported finding methylhexaneamine occuring naturally <a href="https://www.antidoping.ch/sites/default/files/downloads/2014/article_2_-_ying_zhang_et_all_2012.pdf.pdf">in a sample of geranium oil</a>. Several other research groups haven’t been able to <a href="https://www.antidoping.ch/sites/default/files/downloads/2014/methylhexaneamine.pdf">repeat that finding</a>, while <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/23843687">others have</a>. Possibly, it is only produced by some geranium plants. </p>
<p>At events, people started calling it <a href="http://geranamine.org">“geranamine”</a>. Some have suggested that this was a marketing ploy, a way of making it sound more like a “natural” chemical. Nevertheless, it is now on the prohibited list of the <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/questions-answers/prohibited-list#item-384">World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)</a>. Regulations also warn against taking such substances accidentally: “Ultimately, the athlete is solely responsible for the substances in his or her body.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154383/original/image-20170126-23845-zfq3or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Methylhexanamine (dimethylamylamine, DMAA) stimulant molecule. 3D rendering. Atoms are represented as spheres with conventional colour coding: hydrogen (white), carbon (grey), nitrogen (blue).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/methylhexanamine-dimethylamylamine-dmaa-stimulant-molecule-3d-488414323?src=xZvB7yMwW8Zlq3SQ9JvwtQ-1-3">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Drug of the year’</h2>
<p>By 2010, it certainly had come to prominence and was named <a href="https://sportsscientists.com/2010/12/drug-of-the-year-methylhexanamine-and-the-supplement-industry/">“drug of the year” by one publication</a>. At that year’s Delhi Commonwealth Games, women’s 100m champion Damola Osayemi also lost her gold medal after <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9078690.stm">testing positive for it</a>.</p>
<p>Its presence does not seem to have been advertised in some supplements. Simon Mensing, a Scottish footballer, received a short ban in 2011 when methylhexaneamine turned up in a post-match urine sample. He said it had not been listed in the contents of a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2011/feb/28/hamilton-simon-mensing-banned">dietary supplement he had taken</a>, a claim that was accepted by the authorities.</p>
<p>And at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, German biathlete <a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/ioc-sanctions-german-biathlete-evi-sachenbacher-stehle-for-failing-anti-doping-test-at-the-sochi-games">Evi Sachenbacher-Stehle</a>, received a two-year ban – although this was subsequently reduced on appeal to six months, on the grounds that there <a href="http://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/CAS_Media_Release_3685.pdf">was accidental contamination</a> and her “degree of fault was minimal”.</p>
<p>But worse than that can happen. Like amphetamine, methylhexaneamine affects heart rate and blood pressure, and it has been linked with <a href="http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/1157413">panic attacks, seizures, liver damage and a stress-induced thickening of the heart</a>.</p>
<p>At one time, “party pills” in New Zealand contained methylhexaneamine, and a 21-year-old man suffered a cerebral haemorrhage after <a href="http://www.thepoisonreview.com/2011/01/08/dmaa-a-new-party-pill/">taking two of them, along with caffeine and alcoholic drinks</a>. It has also been implicated in the deaths of two soldiers who took it in <a href="http://militarymedicine.amsus.org/doi/pdf/10.7205/MILMED-D-12-00265">dietary supplements</a>.</p>
<p>The most publicised case was that of 30-year-old Claire Squires, who collapsed and died from a heart attack a mile from the end of the 2012 London Marathon. She had unwittingly consumed an energy drink which contained <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/30/claire-squires-runner-dmaa-fatal">methylhexaneamine</a>.</p>
<p>Perhaps we should reflect that taking performance-enhancing substances can have far worse consequences than losing a gold medal.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71928/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cotton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One of Bolt’s 4 x 100m team mates has tested positive for a banned substance – costing Bolt one of his gold medals.Simon Cotton, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/640742016-08-19T21:29:25Z2016-08-19T21:29:25ZWhat food does it take to fuel athletes like Usain Bolt to Olympic success?<p>Usain Bolt <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/36690965">made history</a> at the Rio Olympics, becoming the first athlete to win gold in the 100 metre and 200 metre sprints at three consecutive games. He <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/olympics/rio-2016-usain-bolt-angry-world-record-200m-gold-medal-a7198746.html">didn’t beat his world record</a> of 9.58 seconds, but still managed to leave his competitors for dust. </p>
<p>It takes years of intense training and enormous discipline for athletes such as Bolt to achieve their Olympic dreams – and throughout it all they have to adhere to strict dietary requirements. To find out what sort of food it takes to fuel Bolt’s Olympic efforts, it’s worth taking a closer look at an Olympic sprinter’s ideal diet.</p>
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<p>In the run up to the Olympic Games, Bolt would actually require more energy than during the games themselves. High quality preparatory training sessions use up a huge number of calories which need to be replaced with the correct nutrients. After all, these sessions are crucial in giving Bolt the all-important muscle power and technique that help him to gain the advantage over his competitors.</p>
<h2>Protein over carbo-loading</h2>
<p>During training, sprinters have to maintain a nourishing and balanced diet. This is predicated on the familiar mix of protein, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals. Unlike some endurance athletes, sprinters don’t need to <a href="https://theconversation.com/carbo-loading-for-sport-is-simple-when-you-know-how-8071">carbo-load</a> with bread, potatoes, rice, pasta and cereals. Instead, protein – found in eggs, meat, fish, nuts, beans and dairy products – is perhaps the key dietary requirement. Protein allows muscles to recover, repair and develop after sprint and resistance drills which cause minute damages to the muscle fibres. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134765/original/image-20160819-30377-x9kvyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Another piece of chicken?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elena Schweitzer/Shuttertock</span></span>
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<p>Carbohydrates are still crucial for sprinters as sprint training also uses up a huge amount of a compound called glycogen. When we eat carbohydrate, it is broken down and stored by the body in the muscles and liver <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/glycogen.htm">in the form of glycogen</a>. Sprint training can deplete glycogen stores very quickly since it’s the only fuel available to the body at such high intensity effort. Bolt’s 100 metre world record time of 9.58 seconds isn’t long enough for the body to process the oxygen it needs and so energy is provided anaerobically – without oxygen – from fuels already found in the muscles.</p>
<p>The all out effort of sprinting can use up most, if not all, of the glycogen stored in the body. During a training session, if Bolt is doing repeated sprints of 20 to 50 metres, the majority of his muscles’ glycogen <a href="http://www.faqs.org/sports-science/Fo-Ha/Glycogen-Depletion.html">will be depleted</a> after about eight to ten efforts. Good nutrition is therefore vital to restock the lost glycogen and repair any routine muscular damage that’s been done.</p>
<p>When the Olympic Games draws closer – and with the bulk of athletes’ training behind them – their energy requirements lessen and they look to simply maintain their weight. The good news for sprinters is that there’s a reasonable amount of flexibility with what they can eat the night before a medal race. Apart from adhering to the basic principals of a balanced diet, the main recommendations are to limit fibre intake and to avoid a high-fat meal – which can lie heavily in the stomach. Athletes should also stick to familiar dishes to avoid upsetting their digestion with food that they’re not used to the night before a race. Trying local delicacies is best left until after the games have finished. </p>
<p>Rest assured, however, that there is some wriggle room, even in the diet of a world class sprinter. If Bolt’s <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/athletics/usain-bolt-reveals-he-devoured-1000-chicken-mcnuggets-during-the-2008-beijing-olympics-8920870.html">fabled love of chicken nuggets</a> is indeed true, then he wouldn’t have to constantly deprive himself of his favourite snack. Although eating fried food every day would cause an excess of fat in the diet, the energy demands on athletes are so high during full training that they can get away with more sweet treats and slightly more fat than the average person. So Bolt can afford to indulge as an occasional luxury, and if he’s just won a gold medal, he certainly deserves it. </p>
<p>And although sprinters are recommended to have a slightly higher protein intake for repair and growth than the general population, Bolt’s diet is not fundamentally different to what an average person should be ideally looking to eat, except of course energy requirements would be higher. Most people should eat a well balanced mix of carbohydrates: pasta, bread, cereals and potatoes, and protein foods: meat, fish, cheese, egg and milk, beans and pulses as well as plenty of vitamin loaded fruit and vegetables. And there’s even room for the occasional indulgence, although the rest of us might not have quite as good an excuse as Bolt for a high-fat binge. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was based on a segment from episode four of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/podcasts/the-anthill">The Anthill</a>, a podcast from The Conversation on the subject of fuel. <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthill-4-fuel-64021">Click here</a> to listen to the full episode.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Kinrade does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>No carb-loading necessary …Emma Kinrade, Lecturer in Dietetics, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/640212016-08-17T05:24:17Z2016-08-17T05:24:17ZAnthill 4: Fuel<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134299/original/image-20160816-13037-ekf578.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C33%2C444%2C440&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Relja/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s not just cars and aeroplanes that need to take on fuel: our bodies and brains do too. So think of your summer holidays as a pit stop in your frantic year – a time to recharge the batteries. </p>
<p>It’s fuel – the stuff that makes both us and the world go round – that we’re focusing on in this fourth episode of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/podcasts/the-anthill">The Anthill</a>, a podcast from The Conversation UK. </p>
<p>It’s clear that some of us need to take on more fuel than others – especially those with dreams of being an Olympic champion. Dietitian Emma Kinrade explains what the world’s fastest man over 100m, Usain Bolt, needs to eat to reach his top speed. The amount of energy he uses up over in those 9.81 seconds might surprise you.</p>
<p>If food fuels our muscles, it’s sleep that fuels our brains. But what happens if we don’t get enough of it? Sleep psychologist John Groeger and his colleagues have been depriving people of sleep to find out. They’ve discovered that some of us have genes than mean we need more of a lie in than others. </p>
<p>From calories to shut eye, we turn to the scientists around the world trying to find the latest super fuels. While some have made the case for the energy potential of left-over <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-things-you-can-do-with-coffee-after-youve-finished-drinking-it-49385">coffee grinds</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-the-poo-bus-the-many-uses-of-human-waste-34615">human waste</a>, thin air might be the real fuel of the future, as Jonathan Radcliffe and Peter Styring explain. </p>
<p>For now though, much of world’s economy still relies on fossil fuels. And for countries that are home to oil reserves, it can be a both blessing and a <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-newly-oil-rich-guyana-survive-the-resource-curse-and-a-dispute-with-nosey-neighbour-venezuela-47814">curse</a>. As maritime security expert Lisa Otto tells us, a huge illicit economy has grown up around this black gold in Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>The Anthill theme music is by Alex Grey for <a href="http://www.melodyloops.com/search/How+to+Steal+a+Million+Dollars/">Melody Loops</a>. Background music during the sleep segment was, Atlantean Twilight by Kevin MacLeod via <a href="http://incompetech.com/">Incompetech</a>. Music during the Niger Delta segment was by the <a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Barcelona_Afrobeat_International_Orchestra/Live_at_the_Boom_Festival_in_Idanha_a_nova_Portugal_2008/">Barcelona Afrobeat International Orchestra</a>. Sound effects by <a href="https://www.freesound.org/">freesound.org</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>A big thank you to City University London’s Department of Journalism for letting us use their studios.</em></p>
<p><em>This is the fourth episode of The Anthill. Click <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/podcasts/the-anthill">here</a> to listen to our previous episodes, <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthill-1-about-time-59355">About time</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthill-2-brexit-special-60581">Brexit</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthill-3-rooting-for-the-underdog-62368">Rooting for Underdog</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64021/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The fourth episode of our podcast takes on fuel – from Olympic diets to conflict over oil in the Niger Delta.Will de Freitas, Environment + Energy Editor, UK editionAnnabel Bligh, Business & Economy Editor and Podcast Producer, The Conversation UKGemma Ware, Head of AudioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/629762016-08-15T07:12:23Z2016-08-15T07:12:23ZWhat makes a winning sprinter?<p>In all sprint running races (100m to 400m), every hundredth of a second gained or lost in the race counts. But, most importantly, the fastest male and female sprinters attain incredible top running speeds, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SyY7RgNLCUk">with peaks in excess of 44km per hour</a> and 38km per hour in the men’s and women’s 100m races, for example. So what makes a fast runner?</p>
<p>The fastest sprinters on average take longer strides than slower sprinters, but at a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1615256">similar stride rate</a>. This results from larger forces being delivered to the ground in the short foot-ground contact period (often 0.1 second). </p>
<p>Of course, having longer legs can <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23717364">benefit stride length</a>, which appears to be a significant <a href="http://www.meathathletics.ie/devathletes/pdf/Biomechanics%20of%20Sprints.pdf">reason for Usain Bolt’s superior top speed</a>. </p>
<h2>Generating force</h2>
<p>In addition to improving stride length, the greater distance of the foot from the hip in taller sprinters allows a faster backwards horizontal foot speed to be attained for a given hip angular velocity, since the foot velocity (v) is a function of hip angular velocity (ω) and hip-foot distance (r); v = ωr.</p>
<p>But it’s not all good news for taller runners. Longer limbs have a greater moment of inertia (they’re harder to move), so they’re accelerated less for a given hip torque production (i.e. muscle force). </p>
<p>In this case, there are different costs-benefits for shorter versus taller sprinters; shorter sprinters must attain faster limb movement speeds, but taller sprinters need to generate sufficient torque to rapidly accelerate their longer limbs.</p>
<p>It’s also clear that rapid force production is paramount. Peak <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18317373">forces of more than 2500N</a> (255kg) are delivered to the ground within a few hundredths of a second in each step.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ground forces during sprint running. Faster sprinters (black line) produce greater forces in a shorter time (often <0.1s) than slower sprinters (grey line). The ability to produce large forces rapidly against the ground is a key to successful sprinting.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we continued to produce such rates of force for just one second, we could accelerate a Forumula 1 car to 100km per hour, or an 80kg athlete to about 900km per hour. Of course, peak force potential is limited in humans, so we won’t see this in Rio.</p>
<h2>Muscular design</h2>
<p>To deliver such forces, we might expect that sprinters possess a unique muscular design, and there is some evidence for this. Better sprinters have a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/129449">high proportion of type II muscle fibres</a>, which can develop forces so rapidly that they’re commonly called “fast twitch” fibres. </p>
<p>Further, some important power-producing muscles in their calf and thigh regions may possess <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710372">longer muscle fibre bundles</a> (which is thought to contribute to faster muscle-shortening speeds) attaching at <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710372">smaller angles to the tendon</a> than slower runners.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this ultrasound image of the vastus lateralis, a lateral thigh muscle, the muscle fibre bundles can be seen to run at an angle (dotted line denotes the fibre direction at one part of the muscle) to the muscle’s shortening direction (arrow). Sprinters tend to have longer fibres that attach, in this muscle at least, at smaller angles to the muscle-shortening direction. This is believed to improve the high-speed shortening of the muscle.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But, perhaps paradoxically, the best sprinters don’t have super-sized muscles.</p>
<p>One reason is that even the fastest muscles produce forces too slowly to allow humans to come close to the fast running speeds required, and increasing their size doesn’t help them produce forces any faster.</p>
<p>Instead, muscular forces stretch elastic tissues, such as tendons, and stored energy is subsequently recaptured at much faster rates when they recoil. Because of this, tendons work as “<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21228194">power amplifiers</a>”. </p>
<p>However, we know little about the effect of changing tendon properties. We do know that sprint runners have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17101142">stiffer Achilles tendons</a> than non-runners. This should allow them to cope better with forces of over <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1638639">900kg placed on the tendon</a> and to recoil faster while under load during the propulsion phase of the foot-contact phase. </p>
<p>We also know that exercise such as <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4535734/">strength training tends to increase</a> their stiffness while detraining reduces it. </p>
<p>But we don’t yet know what the optimum stiffness is for the Achilles tendon (or other tendons), and we can’t yet set training programs to optimise them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Before foot-ground contact (left panel) the muscle (pink) and tendon (spring) are relatively inactive. During ground contact, the joints are flexed and muscles highly active (red). Tendons and other elastic structures are stretched and store energy. As the leg extends behind the athlete during propulsion (right panel), muscle shortening is accompanied by tendon recoil, allowing for high rates of force production.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Getting a move on</h2>
<p>Another issue is that increased muscle mass increases limb inertia (in much the same way as greater limb lengths do), so reducing the acceleration for a given joint torque production. </p>
<p>The best sprinters therefore have very low limb masses, which enables them to cyclically move their arms and legs at high speeds. So, the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21916672">leanest sprinters may be the fastest</a>.</p>
<p>Of final note is that sprinters must deliver their large forces to the ground in a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22422028">very specific direction</a> and with the least wasted energy. They spend years learning techniques that minimise unnecessary limb movements, particularly those in the frontal and transverse planes (those that are not in the direction of running). </p>
<p>The sprinters at the front in the finals will surely display better running techniques.</p>
<p>So while you might not be able to pick the fastest sprinters through muscle fibre type, fibre bundle length, or tendon stiffness tests, you can be sure their limb masses will be small and their techniques will be the most efficient. And after the races are over, perhaps we’ll be able to answer the final question: long legs or short?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62976/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Blazevich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The fastest male and female sprinters attain incredible top running speeds with peaks in excess of 44km per hour and 38km per hour, respectively, in the men’s and women’s 100m races.Anthony Blazevich, Professor of Biomechanics, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/637322016-08-12T08:47:21Z2016-08-12T08:47:21ZThe maths behind the fastest person on Earth (and no it’s not Usain Bolt)<p>Who is the fastest man on Earth? Usain Bolt, right? Wrong. The unpopular answer is, in fact, Justin Gatlin. In 2011, he ran the 100 metres in 9.45 seconds, the fastest time a human has ever run that distance, smashing Usain Bolt’s best time by a massive 0.13 seconds. </p>
<p>At the time, the controversial US athlete – <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/34060181">twice banned from competing for drug-related offences</a> – was being pushed along the track by a huge 20 metre-per-second tail wind (the limit for a time to be ratified as a record is +2m/s). The wind was generated by a number of giant fans as part of a <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/row-zed/justin-gatlin-beats-usain-bolts-7468931">Japanese game show</a>, so the “record” didn’t count. Nevertheless, no-one has ever been recorded to run faster from a stationary start on the flat – although some sub-world record times have also been clocked for <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a1sO7moXC-s">people running down hill</a>.</p>
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<p>Wind assistance improves athletes’ performances only in these short sprinting events and some of the field events, such as long jump, triple jump, which require sprints in a single direction. For most other track athletes, wind is anathema.</p>
<h2>You wind some, you lose some</h2>
<p>When Roger Banister looked out of the window on the morning of May 6 1954, for example, he almost decided to postpone his attempt to break the four-minute mile record <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/6/newsid_2511000/2511575.stm">because it was too windy</a>. Just before the event, however, the winds dropped enough for him to want to take part and the rest is history. He knew what mathematics can prove: that if you have to do at least one lap of the track, then wind, no matter how light, will always slow you down.</p>
<p>Consider a wind blowing up the home straight of a standard 400 metre athletics track. When Mo Farah runs with the wind, his speed is increased by a set amount, but when he runs against it on the back straight the wind decreases his speed by the same amount. It seems reasonable that these two effects might balance each other out giving Farah the same lap time as if there were no wind at all. Strangely, however, it doesn’t work out that way.</p>
<p>The reason, in essence, is that because you run faster down the home straight, you derive the benefit of being pushed by the wind for only a short time. When you run down the back straight, however, you spend longer going slower, fighting against the wind. The difference in the time you spend being assisted by the wind versus the time you spend battling it ensures your lap time always slows. Imagine the extreme example of a wind so strong that it doubles your speed down the home straight. On the back straight, however, it would reduce your speed to zero meaning that you’d never finish the race.</p>
<p>So wind and other adverse weather conditions can act as a leveller, adding to the uncertainty about the results of individual races. Surely, though, whatever the weather, one thing we can be confident about is that the world’s fastest sprinter will always be a man? <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3702650.stm">Well, perhaps not</a>. Researchers from the University of Oxford found that, although 100 metres’ times for both men and women have been decreasing linearly over the years, the women’s time was decreasing at a much faster rate than than the men’s.
The team concluded that, if trends continue as they have over the last 90 years, <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040927/full/news040927-9.html">women could be dominating the 100 metres by 2156</a>.</p>
<p>However, sports scientists have been critical of the findings and have suggested that increased participation and training opportunities for women over the same time period have led to the artificially rapid reduction in their 100 metre times in comparison to the men’s. They argue that now men and women are on a roughly level playing field the decrease in women’s 100 metre times will begin to slow to a rate comparable with that of the men. Critics also cite fundamental difference in men’s and women’s physiology, <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040927/full/news040927-9.html">including oxygen carrying capacity and body fat levels</a>, which suggest that the “fastest person on earth” will never be a woman.</p>
<h2>The fastest race</h2>
<p>In fact, although billed as the race for the fastest person on Earth, it’s questionable whether the 100 metres always produces the fastest performance. When Bolt set two new world records for the 100 metres and 200 metres at the 2008 Bejing Olympics in the bird’s nest stadium, his 200 metres took him 19.30 seconds, less than twice the time of his 9.69 second 100 metres. This means that on average, he was running faster in the longer event. </p>
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<p>Part of this increase, however, is due to not having to react and accelerate up to speed in the second 100 metres of the 200 metre race. Based on average speed over the whole race, the title of “fastest person on earth” has switched back and forth between 100 and 200 metre runners since the records began. </p>
<p>This effect is even more exaggerated in the 4x100 metre relay in which all but one of the runners begins their 100-metre stretch from a running start. In the last leg, the “anchor” doesn’t even have to worry about passing on the baton at the other end so can achieve some incredibly quick times. Several sub-nine second times have been recorded in this leg of the race including Bolt’s <a href="http://www.alltime-athletics.com/m4x100ok.htm">electronically-timed 8.65 seconds in 2014</a>.</p>
<p>Despite this, the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SyY7RgNLCUk">fastest human footspeed</a> was recorded between 60 and 80 metres in Bolt’s world record 9.58-second 100 metres in Berlin. He was clocked at <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiGv-GIx7bOAhUkAsAKHVBYCSIQFggjMAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaaf.org%2Fdownload%2Fdownload%3Ffilename%3D76ade5f9-75a0-4fda-b9bf-1b30be6f60d2.pdf%26urlslug%3D1%2520-%2520Biomechanics%2520Report%2520WC%2520Berlin%25202009%2520Sprint%2520Men&usg=AFQjCNEDtoC5EopOC8khd78hdvqowCT0iw&sig2=hDooBLWS4NVhe3M5eD62Gw">44.64kph or 27.8mph</a>.</p>
<p>So despite Gatlin’s “record”, the <em>official</em> “fastest man on Earth” title still rests with Bolt – at least for now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63732/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christian Yates does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>… and how wind played its part.Christian Yates, Lecturer in Mathematical Biology, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/465282015-08-27T20:05:30Z2015-08-27T20:05:30ZWhy are we so opposed to performance-enhancing drugs in sport?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92982/original/image-20150826-32502-rbynl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Usain Bolt (centre) won the highly anticipated men's 100m event at the World Athletics Championships in Beijing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Hu Wong</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/competitions/iaaf-world-championships">World Athletics Championships</a> are currently in full flow. There was a collective sigh of relief earlier this week when Usain Bolt <a href="http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/athletics/34033556">triumphed</a> in the blue-riband men’s 100m event over <a href="http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/athletics/29515182">Justin Gatlin</a>, who has previously served two bans for taking performance-enhancing drugs. Three other athletes in the final – Mike Rodgers, Tyson Gay and Asafa Powell – had also received previous bans for doping. </p>
<p>Almost everyone seems to be in agreement that performance-enhancing drugs are a blight on competitive sport. Two major claims underpin the aversion to this use of drugs. The first is that it is cheating. The second is that performance-enhancing drugs threaten the health of athletes.</p>
<p>But is either claim persuasive?</p>
<h2>Using drugs is unfair</h2>
<p>The problem is not that athletes try to gain an advantage over their competitors by enhancing their performance. We praise them for doing so, and it is the main goal that athletes set for themselves. </p>
<p>The complaint is not against performance enhancement, but the method by which it is achieved. The real concern behind the cheating claim is that athletes who use drugs are gaining an unfair advantage by accessing something not available to those who follow the rules. Those who use drugs prosper at the expense of those who play fair.</p>
<p>But things are murkier than they seem. How interested are we in fairness in sport? Athletes try to <a href="https://theconversation.com/drugs-in-sport-what-constitutes-unfair-advantage-12728">enhance their performance</a> in many ways: coaches, psychologists, dietitians, massage therapists, training at high altitude, skin-tight swimsuits. All of these are used to gain an advantage, which is often unfair because, like drugs, they are available to some – wealthy athletes rather than cheats – but not to everyone.</p>
<p>The Tour de France, a sporting event <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cyclings-dark-history-continues-to-haunt-the-tour-de-france-44312">well known</a> for drug use, would not suddenly become a level contest if drug use disappeared. The race winner has his performance enhanced by the quality of his team. The Tour would only be a true test of individual riders if teams were banned.</p>
<p>Performance is also unfairly enhanced when governments fund athletes. Australia spent <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/olympics/off-the-field/what-price-medals-20120810-23zua.html">more than A$300 million</a> to prepare athletes for the last Olympics. One of the major reasons for the British squad’s success at the London Olympics was the large amount of financial support for the team. </p>
<p>The advantage gained through financial support might be different to that gained by drug use because it is not achieved through underhand means. But, if fairness is our goal, the source of the disadvantage is secondary.</p>
<p>So, if our objection to drugs is that they create an unfair advantage, consistency demands we apply the same standard to many other aspects of athletic competition. There seems to be no reasonable justification for drawing a line in the sand that places drug use on one side and the above-mentioned performance enhancers on the other. </p>
<p>Given that drugs are significantly cheaper than psychologists, permitting their use might actually level out the playing field for poorer athletes. Finally, if fairness is our major concern we can easily solve the problem by lifting the prohibition – thus making drugs available to all athletes.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/92983/original/image-20150826-32499-11p4qs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Should the best coaches and equipment also be considered ‘performance-enhancing’?</span>
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<h2>Performance-enhancing drugs and harm</h2>
<p>The second objection is that drug use, unlike coaches and massage therapists, causes harm. Removing the prohibition might make things fairer but it would come at a heavy price. </p>
<p>In response to this objection, ethicist Julian Savulescu has <a href="https://theconversation.com/asafa-powell-may-be-guilty-of-doping-but-hes-also-a-victim-21978">argued</a> that performance-enhancing drugs are not particularly dangerous, and if their use was no longer clandestine they would be safer still. It is difficult to know whether allowing drug use would lead to greater harm to athletes, but for the sake of argument let’s assume Savulescu is wrong and accept that drug use is risky.</p>
<p>Is harm prevention a reasonable justification for limiting drug use in sport? One thing to bear in mind is that the very act of participating in many sporting activities is dangerous. Climbing, boxing, mixed martial arts, rugby, AFL, NFL, cricket, horse riding and many other sports can cause significant physical harms and sometimes result in death. There is no rush to ban people from <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/04/mortality-on-mount-everest/360927/">climbing Mount Everest</a> even though it is far more dangerous than taking EPO. </p>
<p>The NFL in America recently <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-19/brain-damage-head-trauma-sport-afl-nrl-concussion/5103148">agreed to pay</a> US$750 million to compensate for head injuries sustained by former players. Still, NFL athletes are allowed to collide with great force every week. It is certainly not obvious that performance-enhancing drugs cause more damage than high-impact sports.</p>
<p>I have not suggested that drug use should be permissible in sport because there might be persuasive arguments for proscription I have not addressed. For example, one might argue that using drugs is an attempt to win in the “wrong way”. If so, we need to know why using other performance enhancers like caddies in golf or high-tech equipment is winning in the “right way”.</p>
<p>But, the two claims most often used for prohibiting performance-enhancing drugs do not seem to provide sufficient grounds for a ban unless one is willing also to prohibit many other aspects of sport in the name of fairness and harm prevention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46528/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David van Mill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In sport, there seems no reasonable justification for drawing a line in the sand that places drug use on one side and the other performance enhancers on the other.David van Mill, Associate Professor in Political Science and International Relations, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/464852015-08-24T13:54:08Z2015-08-24T13:54:08ZThe astonishing comebacks at the Athletics World Championships<p>It seems to be the year of the comeback at the Athletics World Championships in Beijing. Jamaica’s Usain Bolt, widely tipped to <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/athletics/11702850/Justin-Gatlin-will-beat-Usain-Bolt-and-break-100m-world-record-at-World-Championships-says-John-Regis.html">lose out</a> to US runner Justin Gatlin, ran a time of 9:77 in the 100m final to <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/34032366">beat his rivals</a> and retain his title as <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/competitions/iaaf-world-championships/15th-iaaf-world-championships-4875/news/report/men/100-metres/final">world champion</a>. It has been described as the most important win of an already stellar career.</p>
<p>Bolt had been recovering from an injury and had <a href="http://www.eurosport.co.uk/athletics/world-championships/2015/justin-gatlin-the-form-horse-but-don-t-write-off-usain-bolt-maurice-greene_sto4871065/story.shtml">struggled with his form</a>. It appears to have had a <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jun/30/usain-bolt-withdraws-diamond-league-leg-injury">sacroiliac joint block</a>, which was restricting his movement and causing him pain in his leg.</p>
<p>This type of injury can be a common problem for athletes, but it is under-researched so treatment and recovery is complex. The fact that Bolt had to overcome this poorly understood condition will make his victory all the sweeter.</p>
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<p>British long-distance runner Mo Farah also <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/34026627">fought back</a> in the early days of the competition to win the 10,000m in style, notwithstanding <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/aug/22/mo-farah-stumble-10000m-gold-beijing">one small stumble</a>. </p>
<p>Farah has been engulfed in controversy in recent months after his trainer, Alberto Salazar, was the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jul/15/alberto-salazar-kara-goucher-17-more-witnesses-mo-farah">subject of doping allegations</a> levelled in a BBC Panorama documentary. There is no suggestion that Farah himself was involved in, or had any knowledge of doping, but the intense media scrutiny to which he was subjected would not have made preparation for Beijing easy.</p>
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<p><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jan/25/jessica-ennis-hill-recapture-greatness-british-athletics-neil-black">Jessica Ennis-Hill</a> achieved a comeback of a different kind in Beijing. Ennis-Hill returned to athletics this year after having a child. While in <a href="http://oro.open.ac.uk/42692/">my research</a> I acknowledge that sport is a psychologically empowering force for mothers, it can also lead to conflict between the competing roles of athlete and parenthood. And since the London 2012 Olympics, Ennis-Hill has changed both physically and psychologically. It was fascinating to see her new body and self perform. She is an inspiration, having <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/aug/23/jessica-ennis-hill-shines-again-mother-comebacks-athletics">won a gold medal</a> in the heptathlon.</p>
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<p>With Bolt, Farah and Ennis-Hill retaining their titles, will any others follow in their footsteps to make their comeback this week?</p>
<h2>Caster Semenya</h2>
<p>For me, one of the most unforgettable memories in recent athletics history was the women’s 800m at the World Championships in Berlin in 2009. The women gathered themselves for the final. BANG. They sprint out of the blocks and take the bend. Caster Semenya sits behind the front runner, then at 52 seconds into the race, she overtakes to lead from the front. She speeds ahead, breaks away, glances back but the others have no response. She completely dominates the last half of the race and finishes with a time of 1:55:46.</p>
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<p>Since this phenomenal performance, instead of being hailed a star, Semenya has been at the centre <a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-men-and-women-the-fraught-issue-of-olympic-gender-testing-8585">of huge controversy</a> over her gender and which prevented her from competing until the following year. This has undoubtedly had an impact on her motivation and her personal best time. </p>
<p>Despite the adversity she experienced, Semenya was back at her best, or near it, at the IAAF World Championships in 2011 <a href="http://www.flotrack.org/coverage/238947-IAAF-World-Championships-in-Athletics-Track-and-Field-Daegu-2011/video/505912-Caster-Semenya-compares-2009-gold-medal-and-2011-silver-medal-after-Daegu-2011#.VdcwpVNVhHw">when she won silver in the 800m</a>. Here’s hoping she can pull through for another astonishing victory this year.</p>
<h2>Christine Ohuruogu</h2>
<p>Christine Ohuruogu is making a return to defend her 400m world title in Beijing. Over the years, like many athletes, she has experienced injuries – and she was also <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/athletics/6934362.stm">suspended for a year</a> after missing three doping tests in a row in 2006. </p>
<p>Often talented athletes are pushed into the limelight without being prepared for media attention and being subjected to public scrutiny. Nonetheless, Ohuruogu has a habit of being unpredictable and can pull out fast times when they’re least expected.</p>
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<h2>Dina Asher-Smith</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/great-britain-ni/dina-asher-smith-267317">Dina Asher-Smith</a>, also part of the Great Britain squad, is one of many of the young athletes to watch in the 200m. She <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/32982184">broke Britain’s national 100m record earlier this year</a>. </p>
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<h2>Smoke gets in their eyes</h2>
<p>There are some elements of unpredictability ahead for athletics. In 2008, Beijing went to additional lengths to cut down on the city’s <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/07/china.olympics2008">infamous air pollution</a> for the sake of competing athletes, but for the IAAF World Championships 2015, this hasn’t happened. </p>
<p>British athletes have been given “<a href="http://www.express.co.uk/sport/othersport/599223/British-athletes-Farah-Ennis-Hill-pollution-packs-cope-with-Beijing-smog">pollution packs</a>” but for athletes with asthma, this high level of <a href="http://www.asthma.org.uk/Blog/pollution-risk-for-millions">pollution</a> can alter the airways’ responsiveness and can cause <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463061/">long-term damage</a>. </p>
<p>In 2008, human rights activists <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1743043042000291677?journalCode=fcss20">highlighted</a> the fact that child athletes’ civil rights, legal rights and above all, their human rights are ignored in China. Amid the individual performances, there are certainly some more opportunities for new and evolving stories to be developed at this World Championships. </p>
<p><em>UPDATE: the original version of this piece misstated the name of Justin Gatlin, and claimed Semenya broke the World Record in 2009. She did not.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46485/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen Owton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Stunning returns from Bolt, Farah and Ennis-Hill make the competition in Beijing one of the best yet.Helen Owton, Lecturer in Sport & Fitness, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/464302015-08-20T16:28:00Z2015-08-20T16:28:00ZRecords to beat and battles to watch at the World Athletics Championships<p>This year’s World Athletics Championships kicking off in Beijing couldn’t come at a better time for many athletes. It is a chance for athletic performance to take centre stage, a change in focus from the recent doping controversy that has shrouded the sport.</p>
<p>While we know that three medals will be awarded for each event, what is less known is which records may fall. So far this year, 11 world records have been broken in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/33751010">indoor and outdoor events</a>. But some athletics records have stood for decades, and will take some beating.</p>
<p>So which are the events with the most giant-slaying potential? Here’s a quick guide.</p>
<h2>Women’s events</h2>
<p>Many of the women’s events have long-standing records. The women’s 100m record of 10.49 seconds, set by <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/22/sports/florence-griffith-joyner-38-champion-sprinter-is-dead.html">Florence Griffith-Joyner</a>, remains unbeaten since 1988. In men’s events, Michael Johnson’s 400m world record of 43:18 set in 1999 <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/records/by-category/world-records#results-tab-sub=0">still stands today</a>.</p>
<p>Poland’s Anita Wlodarczyk has already posted a world-record throw in the women’s hammer this year, so undoubtedly is the favourite in Beijing. She is tipped to better her <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/news/preview/beijing-2015-hammer-wlodarczyk-heidler">81.08m throw set</a> at the Festival of Throwers meeting in Cetniewo, Poland, a monumental distance and the first time the 80m barrier has been broken by a woman. Such a huge improvement suggests that Wlodarczyk has the potential to throw even further in Beijing.</p>
<h2>Giant leaps</h2>
<p>Like Johnson’s long-standing 400m record, another that has stood for 20 years is Jonathan Edwards’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-other-giant-leap-for-mankind-how-this-athlete-set-a-world-record-thats-still-standing-20-years-later-44156">triple jump record</a> – currently at 18.28m. </p>
<p>Current Olympic champion Christian Taylor is still 23cm short of this, but this record is what he has his sights on, and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/33751010">has been his goal</a> since entering the sport.</p>
<p>Taylor will have some competition in the shape of Cuba’s Pedro Pablo Pichardo who recently <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/news/feature/pichardo-triple-jump">jumped out to 18.06</a> at the IAAF Diamond League meeting in Doha. This competition could be the one to see this long-standing record fall.</p>
<h2>Bolt v Gatlin</h2>
<p>It will take a record-breaking time to win the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/33751010">4x100m men’s relay</a>. The event which will see Jamaica’s team (featuring the fastest man in the world, Usain Bolt) take on America (featuring <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/united-states/justin-gatlin-176453">Justin Gatlin</a>). </p>
<p>The Bolt/Gatlin showdown is hotly anticipated and the two athletes will first face each other in the men’s 100m. At 33, Gatlin is five years older than Bolt and has twice been found guilty of doping. Much has been made of this contest and many <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/athletics/11702850/Justin-Gatlin-will-beat-Usain-Bolt-and-break-100m-world-record-at-World-Championships-says-John-Regis.html">have suggested</a> that Gatlin will not only take Bolt’s 100m title but will also <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/records/by-category/world-records#results-tab-sub=0">claim his world record, which was set in 2009</a>.</p>
<h2>Long walk to stardom</h2>
<p>While the 100m is undoubtedly the most hyped, the 20km walk could also see a new record set. Research has frequently <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00641.x/abstract;jsessionid=C1D9B45690B8C25C94E198D7F3F23884.f03t04?userIsAuthenticated=false&deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=">cited the benefits of competing at home</a> and this could well be the case for Liu Hong as she attempts to go faster than her <a href="http://www.marca.com/2015/06/06/atletismo/1433616255.html">1.24.38 time</a> set at the Premio Cantones de Marcha – the Spanish leg of the 2015 IAAF Race Walking Challenge in La Coruna.</p>
<p>Briton Mo Farah also has the potential to break records in Beijing. He is in the form of his life, having <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/31569286">broken the two mile indoor record</a> earlier this year. While Farah has said the wins are the priority <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/feb/22/winning-still-the-priority-for-mo-farah-despite-his-first-world-record">he hasn’t ruled out</a> tackling Ethiopian Kenenisa Bekele’s 5,000m (12:37.35) and 10,000m (26:17.53) outdoor records.</p>
<p>What is certain is that the coming nine days of competition guarantee to have their fair share of drama, medals and hopefully some record-breaking performances.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46430/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Candice Lingam-Willgoss does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Your guide to the events to watch and the athletes to follow in Beijing.Candice Lingam-Willgoss, Lecturer in Sport & Fitness, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/289482014-08-01T15:57:19Z2014-08-01T15:57:19ZCan a human ever run 100m under nine seconds?<p>It is never easy to run 100m in less than ten seconds, as the recent Commonwealth Games demonstrated. However, as the world record stands at 9.58 seconds, the attention in recent years has turned to whether a human will be able to run 100m in less than nine seconds one day.</p>
<p>Our thoughts, based on 20 years of investigating the biomechanics of sprinting, are “of course they can”. There is no limit to human sprinting in sight yet. Humans have run competitively (with time records available) for only about 100 years. In the context of human evolution, this is far too short a period to analyse with a view of making long-term predictions for the future. Records are still being broken, and training and technology (for example, track surfaces and running spikes) are continuously developed further. </p>
<p>In fact, from Jim Hines’ beating the ten-second barrier for the first time in 1968 to Maurice Green in 1999, the world record improved by 0.16 seconds in 31 years, but since then the record has been improved by 0.21 seconds in only ten years. This does not necessarily imply that the development of the record is speeding up, just that we cannot consider human limits in a short-term perspective. </p>
<p>There have always been and there will always be humans who make new leaps in these kinds of records. To develop the argument against a set limit in human performance further, why would not Usain Bolt have a son who is just a bit taller, stronger and faster than Usain himself, and so on?</p>
<h2>Better training and techniques</h2>
<p>The issue of improving performance is also down to better training and improving running technique. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2014.928915">In a recent scientific paper</a> we highlighted the importance of powerful gluteus (buttock) muscles for the start performance in sprinting. Athletes and coaches can then train and strengthen these key muscle groups to get out of the starting blocks better. </p>
<p>Overall, the sprinting velocity is a product of step length and step frequency. In his world record run in Berlin 2009, <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=76ade5f9-75a0-4fda-b9bf-1b30b">Usain Bolt ran at 12.4m/s in his fastest phase</a>. He did this with a step length of 2.77m and step frequency of 4.49Hz. </p>
<p>For a human to run 100m in under nine seconds, this would require maximum velocity to reach about 13.2m/s. Such velocity would require, for example, step length to be 2.85m and step frequency 4.63Hz – just “modest” increases from Usain Bolt’s values. </p>
<p>But the progress is not so easy, as when athletes start to increase step length in the maximum velocity phase, it has a negative effect on step frequency. Longer steps take longer time to make and thus step frequency will go down and vice versa. Thus, it will likely take time before we see that kind of performance. The main issue is how much power (large forces in the shortest possible time) humans can produce and what the requirements are to achieve this.</p>
<h2>Long steps at a high frequency</h2>
<p>To produce long steps at a high frequency an athlete has to produce a huge amount of force (approximately 4.5 times body weight) in a very short period of time (around 0.1s). To do this they must maintain a very stiff leg and accelerate it into the ground at foot contact. <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/early/2014/04/01/jeb.099523.full.pdf+html">Recent research has shown that</a> it is this difference in the forces generated in the early part of the stance phase (just after foot contact) that distinguishes very fast sprinters from the less fast ones. </p>
<p>The ability to maintain a stiff limb is determined by how muscle force can be generated in the muscles of the leg. This in turn is a function of muscle size, the types of fibres which make up the muscles and the co-ordinated activation of the muscles of the leg to optimise the use of elastic mechanisms and amplify the power from the muscles. A muscle with a high proportion of large, fast twitch muscle fibres will be able to generate larger amounts of force more quickly than a muscle with a lower proportion. </p>
<p>Therefore to reach the point at which enough force can be generated quickly enough to produce the step lengths and frequencies suggested above a combination of genetics and training would need to produce bum, thigh and calf muscles which are a little bit stronger and faster than the current best sprinters.</p>
<p>The record will start to plateau at some point and it will get harder and harder to outrun the previous record holder. But, it’s safe to say that someone will break the nine second barrier – not necessarily in our lifetime, but it will happen one day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28948/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Polly McGuigan receives funding from Arthritis Research UK.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr A Salo has received research funding from UK Athletics.</span></em></p>It is never easy to run 100m in less than ten seconds, as the recent Commonwealth Games demonstrated. However, as the world record stands at 9.58 seconds, the attention in recent years has turned to whether…Polly McGuigan, Lecturer in Biomechanics, University of BathAki Salo, Senior Lecturer in Sport Biomechanics, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/293512014-07-17T13:57:39Z2014-07-17T13:57:39ZTax, ads and prestige: why Usain Bolt won’t be centre stage this Commonwealth Games<p>If you’re grumbling about the number of athletes who have opted out of or are still prevaricating about whether to compete in the Commonwealth Games, blame Usain Bolt. The most charismatic and globally popular sports star since Muhammad Ali has decided to stay out of the 100m and 200m races that have made him famous and only compete in the 4x100m relay.</p>
<p>Bolt has redefined track in much the same way as Tiger Woods redefined golf and Michael Jordan basketball: not with his style, so much as his brand -– his name, image and imprimatur sell goods, most unrelated to sport, to any market in the world.</p>
<h2>Brand Bolt</h2>
<p>Last year Bolt <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24218141">renewed his endorsement contract</a> with Puma in a deal worth $10m (£5.8m) over two years. The Jamaican superstar also has promotional contracts with Virgin Media, Visa, Nissan, Gatorade, Swiss watchmaker Hublot and Soul Electronics; with which he will develop his own line of headphones. He has also published two books, pushing his early earnings to about $20 million. </p>
<p>So for him, the prize money available on the <a href="http://www.diamondleague.com">IAAF Diamond League</a> circuit from which most athletes earn a stable living (winners are paid $10,000 per event) is negligible. Typically, Bolt will command an appearance fee of between $200,000 and $350,000 per meeting. Promoters may balk at this, but his appearance guarantees a full stadium. He alone can confer respectability and glamour on the Glasgow tournament. </p>
<p>So why isn’t he interested in competing in the best-known events? A Commonwealth Games medal would not add commercial value to Bolt’s brand, and a defeat or disqualification (remember: he was disqualified from the 2011 World Championships) would be damaging from a marketing perspective. Bolt’s declination of the 100m and 200m is a big blow for the Commonwealth Games. But you can imagine the cost-benefit calculation behind the decision. </p>
<h2>The problem with the games</h2>
<p>The tournament has nowhere near the lustre of the Olympics, nor even the IAAF World Championships. Its television audience is relatively small and interest among the world’s richest economic nations is limited. The Commonwealth embraces some of the world’s poorest countries, such as Mozambique and Rwanda. As many as 31 of the member states have populations of 1.5m or less. </p>
<p>So while there is a collective population of near two billion and a few fast-emerging economies, the games do not present an especially attractive proposition for advertisers. One can imagine the global corporations that pay Bolt wondering out loud whether it is worth risking his reputation in a tournament that counts for little. Allowing him to compete in the relay might have been seen as a compromise – it will not expose him to any conceivable embarrassment or brand damage and will be entirely ritualistic. </p>
<p>Those who reject this explanation as too cynical should recall the <a href="https://in.news.yahoo.com/sprint-king-bolt-boycott-diamond-league-protest-against-110655511.html">fuss Bolt kicked up last year</a> when he was invited to participate in a post-Olympics event. HMRC, the British government’s tax service, requires its 50% cut of sports stars’ earnings. </p>
<p>HMRC agreed to International Olympic Committee demands that it grant stars an amnesty for the Olympics, and it will repeat this for the Commonwealth Games, but these are exceptions. Bolt is one of a number of stars that have avoided UK events because of the tax rules. Asked if he was staying away because he would lose as much money as he would earn from running in London, <a href="http://uk.mobile.reuters.com/article/sportsNews/idUKTRE66B4J820100712">Bolt replied</a>: “That’s what my agent told me.” It goes without saying, agents are in business to make money. </p>
<h2>The cold reality</h2>
<p>It may disappoint fans to learn their heroes are motivated by much the same pecuniary incentives as everyone else, but sports stars are not idealists. The Chariots of Fire have long since charged away. Bolt is far from unique: nowadays professional sportsmen and women are working for money and their priorities reflect this. Their pursuit of trophies or sporting accolades has long since been replaced by another, more basic pursuit. It’s not unknown for sports stars to skip training or even competition to attend events for their commercial sponsors. </p>
<p>Bolt’s official position is not clear: he is apparently not injured but just hasn’t trained enough for the big events. He is not the only Jamaican sprinter to be giving the games a cold-ish shoulder. Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce is also only competing in the 4x100m relay, while Yohan Blake last week went further and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/jul/10/yohan-blake-blow-commonwealth-games-credibility">pulled out</a> altogether. </p>
<p>Double Olympic silver medallist Blake said he could not put his preparations for Rio 2016 at risk. Translated, this is: “The Commonwealth Games are worthless. There is no money, prestige or any kind of benefit to be gained from winning a tupenny ha'penny medal at a third-rate Games.” </p>
<p>Luckily the organisers are having slightly better luck with athletes closer to home. Cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cycling/sir-bradley-wiggins-will-pursue-commonwealth-gold-instead-of-tour-de-france-yellow-9569688.html">will be competing</a>, though this appears to be only because he was left out of the Sky team for the Tour de France. Mo Farah has been uncertain due to injury, but his fitness has been confirmed. <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/commonwealth-games/28323967">He strongly hinted</a> on Twitter that he would now compete in Glasgow. </p>
<p>As for Bolt, he may be secretly disappointed: an appearance at a venue full of adoring fans where he can do his usual shtick in front of TV cameras and pick up another medal for his cabinet would not be an onerous task for him, even if he did end up enriching the British taxman. But he isn’t in control: like other pro sports stars, he’s made a Faustian pact that renders him at the mercy of his corporate paymasters.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/29351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ellis Cashmore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you’re grumbling about the number of athletes who have opted out of or are still prevaricating about whether to compete in the Commonwealth Games, blame Usain Bolt. The most charismatic and globally…Ellis Cashmore, Professor of Culture, Media and Sport, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.