tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/work-performance-59510/articlesWork performance – The Conversation2023-11-06T13:35:07Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160582023-11-06T13:35:07Z2023-11-06T13:35:07ZWhat’s your chronotype? Knowing whether you’re a night owl or an early bird could help you do better on tests and avoid scams<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557337/original/file-20231102-21-hyagg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Owl chronotypes function better at night, while lark chronotypes are more energized in the morning.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/blue-owl-royalty-free-image/1164845949">The Photo Matrix/Moment, nomis_g/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Timing is everything. For early risers and late-nighters alike, listening to your internal clock may be the key to success. From the classroom to the courtroom and beyond, people perform best on challenging tasks at a time of day that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916231178553">aligns with their circadian rhythm</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/your-body-has-an-internal-clock-that-dictates-when-you-eat-sleep-and-might-have-a-heart-attack-all-based-on-time-of-day-178601">Circadian rhythms</a> are powerful internal timekeepers that drive a person’s physiological and intellectual functioning throughout the day. Peaks in these circadian rhythms vary across individuals. Some people, known as larks or morning chronotypes, peak early and feel at their best in the morning. Others, known as owls or evening chronotypes, peak later in the day and perform best in the late afternoon or evening. And some people show neither morning nor evening preferences and are considered neutral chronotypes.</p>
<p><a href="https://psychology.cofc.edu/about/faculty-and-staff/may-cynthia.php">As a researcher</a> seeking ways to improve cognitive function, I’ve explored whether your chronotype affects your mental performance. Understanding the kinds of mental processes that vary – or remain stable – over the course of a day may help people schedule their tasks in a way that optimizes performance. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Your brain has an internal clock that influences how your body functions over the course of a day.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Why your chronotype matters</h2>
<p>Chronotype can be measured with a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1027738/">simple questionnaire</a> that assesses things like your perceived alertness, preferred rising and retiring times and performance throughout the day. Even without a questionnaire, most people have a sense of whether they are a lark or an owl or fall somewhere in between. Do you wake up early, without an alarm, feeling sharp? Are you mentally drained and ready for pj’s by nine? If so, you are likely a morning type. Do you sleep late and wake feeling sluggish and foggy? Are you more energized late at night? If so, you are likely an evening type. </p>
<p>People perform best on many challenging mental tasks – from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(90)90056-W">paying attention</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pag0000199">learning</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00320-3">solving problems</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iree.2021.100226">making complex decisions</a> – when these actions are synchronized with their personal circadian peaks. This is known as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00573.x">synchrony effect</a>. Whether you are an air traffic controller scanning the radar, a CFO reviewing an earnings report or a high school student learning chemistry, synchrony can affect how well you perform.</p>
<p>Much of the evidence for synchrony effects comes from lab studies that test both larks and owls early in the morning and late in the day. People with strong chronotypes are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088820">more vigilant</a> and better able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24885-0">sustain attention</a> at their peak relative to off-peak times. Their memories are sharper, with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01764">better list recall</a> and more success in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2016.1238444">remembering “to-do” tasks</a> like taking medication.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hand reaching out under bedsheets towards a blue alarm clock on a nightstand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557340/original/file-20231102-17-6nvix8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">When you feel the urge to hit snooze may tell you something about your circadian rhythm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/early-morning-royalty-free-image/626952608">eggeeggjiew/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>People are also less prone to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.57536">mind wandering</a> and less distracted at their optimal time. For example, a study I conducted gave participants three weakly related cue words (such as “ship,” “outer” and “crawl”). They were tasked to find another word that linked all three (such as “space”). When my team and I presented misleading words alongside the cue words (such as “ocean” for ship, “inner” for outer and “baby” for crawl), those who were tested at synchronous times were <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210822">better at ignoring the misleading words</a> and finding the target solution than those who weren’t.</p>
<p>Synchrony also affects high-level cognitive functions like persuasion, reasoning and decision-making. Studies on consumers have found that people are more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.01.021">discerning</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-013-9247-0">skeptical</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20169">analytical</a> at their peak times. They <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2008.04.002">invest more time and effort</a> in assigned tasks and are more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2009.08.002">search for important information</a>. Consequently, people make <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2021.106165">better investment decisions</a>, are less <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00226.x">prone to bias</a> and are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-013-9247-0">more likely to detect scams</a>. </p>
<p>At off-peak times it takes people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00320-3">longer to solve problems</a>, and they tend to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.031">less careful</a> and more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00226.x">reliant on mental shortcuts</a>, leaving them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-013-9247-0">vulnerable to flashy marketing schemes</a>. Even ethical behavior can be compromised at non-optimal times, as people are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614541989">more likely to cheat</a> at their off-peak times.</p>
<h2>In the classroom and the clinic</h2>
<p>The basic mental abilities that are affected by synchrony – including attention, memory and analytical thinking – are all skills that contribute to academic success. This connection is especially significant for teens, who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2010.535225">tend to be night owls</a> but typically start school early.</p>
<p>One study randomly assigned over 700 adolescents to exam times in the early morning, late morning or afternoon. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0748730414564786">Owls had lower scores</a> relative to larks in both morning sessions, but this disadvantage disappeared for owls taking the exam in the afternoon. Early start times may put student owls a step behind larks.</p>
<p>Time of day may also be a consideration when conducting assessments for cognitive disorders like attention-deficit disorder or Alzheimer’s disease. Scheduling time may be particularly significant for <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00003">older adults, who tend to be larks</a> and often show <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902834852">larger synchrony effects</a> than young adults. Performance is better at peak times on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2015.1028326">several key neuropsychological measures</a> used to assess these conditions. Failing to consider synchrony may affect the accuracy of diagnoses and subsequently have consequences for clinical trial eligibility and data on treatment effectiveness.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person writing on a piece of paper on a clipboard with a pen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557341/original/file-20231102-27-tovoh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">What time of day you take a cognitive test may influence your results.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-hand-writing-on-clipboard-with-a-pen-royalty-free-image/1434437996">Violeta Stoimenova/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Of course, synchrony doesn’t affect performance on all tasks or for all people. Simple, easy tasks – like recognizing familiar faces or places, dialing a close friend’s phone number or making a favorite recipe – are unlikely to change over the day. Furthermore, young adults who are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2023.2256843">neither larks nor owls</a> show less variability in performance over the day.</p>
<p>For those who are true early birds or night owls, tackling the toughest mental tasks at times that align with their personal circadian peaks could improve their outcomes. When small improvements in performance offer an essential edge, synchrony may be one secret to success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216058/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cindi May received funding from the National Institute on Aging. She currently serves on the board for Disability Rights South Carolina.</span></em></p>Synchronizing your daily activities to your circadian rhythm could help you improve your performance on a variety of cognitive tasks − and even influence diagnosis of cognitive disorders.Cindi May, Professor of Psychology, College of CharlestonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1820092022-05-23T12:23:46Z2022-05-23T12:23:46ZHow to make performance reviews less terrible – especially given the challenges of supervising remote workers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464567/original/file-20220520-21-6r6t14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=73%2C184%2C4839%2C3359&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A better way?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/four-business-people-sitting-at-desk-holding-score-royalty-free-image/sb10064401w-001">Andersen Ross/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2014/01/27/study-finds-that-basically-every-single-person-hates-performance-reviews/">Few office workers seem to like performance reviews</a>, those annual examinations of how well workers are doing their jobs. And many seem to outright hate – or fear – them. </p>
<p>A 2015 survey of Fortune 1000 companies found that nearly two-thirds of employees <a href="https://hbr.org/2018/03/people-dont-want-to-be-compared-with-others-in-performance-reviews-they-want-to-be-compared-with-themselves">were dissatisfied with performance reviews</a>, didn’t think they were relevant to their jobs – or both. In a separate survey conducted in 2016, a quarter of men and nearly a fifth of women <a href="https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-news/pages/conducting-performance-reviews-get-out-the-tissues.aspx">reported crying</a> as a result of a bad review. The figures were even higher for younger workers. </p>
<p>And that was during the much simpler pre-pandemic times, when <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2012/demo/p70-132.html">pretty much all professional workers</a> were in the office daily and could be assessed similarly. Things are trickier today, as some employees work entirely from home, others come to the office and still others split their time between the two. Almost 75% of U.S. companies <a href="https://www.zippia.com/advice/hybrid-work-statistics">are adopting a hybrid model</a>, with 55% of employees saying they want to work remotely at least three days a week. </p>
<p>I am a professor of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1Zx5gHQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">industrial-organizational psychology</a>, a field that conducts scientific studies to better understand the workplace. Here are three challenges that I believe employers and their employees will face and ways to overcome them. </p>
<h2>1. Familiarity gap</h2>
<p>One of the biggest challenges involves the difficulty of creating a connection with your boss.</p>
<p>Employees who share the same physical space as their managers will have more opportunities to interact with them on a regular basis than those working remotely. This gives officegoers a leg up over peers who work remotely most or all the time.</p>
<p>For example, Matt comes to the office five days a week. Jake, who does the same job, makes it in only on Wednesdays. Over time, their mutual supervisor, Jill, will naturally become more familiar with Matt than she is with Jake, as Matt is available to join her for lunch, engage in a quick chat in her office or say “hi” as they pass in the hall. </p>
<p>The more familiar we are with other people, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000085">more we tend to like them</a>. And research has found that how much a manager likes you <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/256225">can have a significant impact</a> on their evaluation of you.</p>
<p>The best way to even the playing field is by making it easier for workers to interact with their bosses when they’re working remotely. Employers can do this by scheduling short but frequent check-ins with remote workers throughout the day or providing virtual office hours when managers are available. </p>
<p>Another strategy is creating always-on chatrooms that all workers can use to communicate with supervisors in a similar way. To encourage more social interactions, companies can bring back the <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2021/07/15/virtual-happy-hour-end-zoom-fatigue-covid-vaccine-party/7878068002/?gnt-cfr=1">Zoom happy hours</a> that became popular during the pandemic – though <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/home/the-six-dos-and-donts-of-zoom-happy-hours/2020/05/14/e173af4e-93a0-11ea-82b4-c8db161ff6e5_story.html">ideally in a way</a> that <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/90603928/how-to-upgrade-your-zoom-happy-hours-so-youre-excited-to-turn-on-your-camera">make them more fulfilling</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Performance reviews can be painful.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>2. Fewer observations</h2>
<p>I teach my students that the most accurate performance ratings are obtained when <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1177/1059601100252005">reviews are based on observable behaviors</a> rather than subjective evaluations of traits. </p>
<p>This is because while it is possible to define and standardize behaviors and <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2011.02045.x">to train raters</a> on how to observe and rate them, traits are inherently subjective. </p>
<p>Take the trait “creativity.” How do you define creativity? How would you rate it, for example on a scale from “below expectations” to “exceeds expectations?”</p>
<p>Now imagine converting that into a behavior, such as “generates practical ideas in novel situations.” That’s something that could be reasonably and objectively assessed on a scale of never to frequently. </p>
<p>The problem is that observing behaviors is difficult if not impossible when employees are working remotely. One way to address this is for employers to adopt a <a href="https://open.lib.umn.edu/humanresourcemanagement/chapter/11-2-appraisal-methods/">results-based system</a>, in which employees are evaluated based on productivity metrics such as client satisfaction, sales volume or number of units produced – criteria designed to fit the position.</p>
<p>Shifting the focus of performance appraisal from behaviors to results for all employees ensures that managers do not have to worry about being unable to observe their direct reports on the job. And employees get the flexibility to decide how they will complete their assigned tasks by being held accountable only for the end result. Thus, all workers are held to the same standards. </p>
<p>One other option that can help rate workers evenly is by <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633031">applying tracking technology</a> – though this can be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/sep/16/tattleware-employers-spying-working-home">controversial</a> and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/05/14/some-companies-are-tracking-workers-with-smartphone-apps-what-could-possibly-go-wrong/">problematic</a>, for example by eroding employee privacy and creating more stress. In general, these systems track how remote workers are spending their time on their computers and phones.</p>
<p>But it’s vital to implement these systems right – for example, by being extremely transparent regarding what is being tracked and what data is being collected. When done right, tracking can be a useful way to more fairly evaluate certain types of employees, such as customer service reps or administrative assistants.</p>
<h2>3. One review to rule them all</h2>
<p>Alas, performance reviews based on results may not work for every job. </p>
<p>For example, evaluating a teacher based solely on student test scores <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/bp278/">may be problematic</a>, since scores are also influenced by environmental factors such as poverty or a lack of family support. Similarly, an employee responsible for long-term strategic planning cannot immediately be evaluated based on results since it is impossible to know whether the plan will succeed before it is implemented. </p>
<p>The key thing here is to use only one type of review system for all employees. Evaluating employees by different standards may create fairness and even legal concerns if doing so might lead to different outcomes for groups explicitly protected from discrimination by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/employers/small-business/3-who-protected-employment-discrimination">It is illegal to discriminate</a> based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability or genetic information. </p>
<p>Since the evaluation helps determine who gets a raise or promotion and who might be fired, it is a particularly sensitive document. For example, imagine that a group of employees using one type of review gets more promotions than another batch that follows a different system – and that also happens to include a higher proportion of racial minorities. The organization may then face a discrimination lawsuit in which it may be required to prove that the two evaluations are equivalent.</p>
<p>At the end of the day, an employer should use a type of evaluation that can effectively measure any employee’s performance. If judging on results doesn’t work, an organization could try a behavior-based system but revise it so that it doesn’t favor employees working in the office. Another system is competencies reviews, the <a href="https://www.xperthr.com/benchmarking-and-surveys/performance-appraisals-2021-xperthr-survey-report/50138/">most popular type</a>, which assess employees on competencies such as attention to detail, timeliness and quality of work. </p>
<p>Performance reviews will always be a drag for many workers – however <a href="https://www.villanovau.com/resources/hr/understanding-performance-evaluations/">vital they are to an organization’s success</a>. By their nature, they can be excruciating, and not everyone can get a raise or promotion. But at least the reviews should be fair and not put anyone – such as those working primarily from home – at a disadvantage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182009/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yalcin Acikgoz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Performance reviews were always a challenge, but even more so in the age of hybrid work, when some employees are in the office more often than others.Yalcin Acikgoz, Associate Professor of Psychology, Appalachian State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1724642022-04-12T12:15:09Z2022-04-12T12:15:09ZAbusive bosses often blame a worker’s lack of effort or care for poor performance when it’s their own biases that may be the problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456709/original/file-20220406-20-e381ss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=105%2C147%2C6918%2C4928&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Managers who abuse their employees may be suffering from a perceptual bias. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/boss-yelling-at-subordinates-royalty-free-image/516818246?adppopup=true">imtmphoto/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Managers may mistreat employees who perform poorly because they assume it results from a lack of diligence rather than other factors, according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2560">research we published in September 2021</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307300812">Surveys show that about 1 in 7</a> U.S. workers feel that their manager engages in hostile behaviors toward them. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/1556375">Abusive supervision may range</a> from relatively mild behaviors such as lying or not giving credit for work to more severe actions, such as insults or ridicule.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00725.x">past research</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.60263085">has suggested</a> that it’s the poor performance of workers provoking managers’ abusive reactions, we wanted to examine whether the faulty perception of the supervisor deserves at least some of the blame. </p>
<p>So we conducted two studies, drawing on <a href="https://www.pinterandmartin.com/the-person-and-the-situation">research showing</a> that people are prone to perceptual errors when judging negative events. One of these is the <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/fundamental-attribution.html">fundamental attribution error</a>, a tendency to overattribute negative outcomes to others’ personalities rather than other explanations. </p>
<p>In the first study, we recruited 189 pairs of employees and supervisors from a variety of industries. We asked supervisors to rate their employees’ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890902935878">job performance as well as their conscientiousness</a> or diligence – that is, how organized, industrious and careful they are. We then asked employees to rate themselves on the same measures. </p>
<p>Finally, we asked employees to rate how abusive their supervisors were toward them – such as by ridiculing them in front of others – within the previous month. </p>
<p>We found that managers assessed lower-performing employees as less diligent than the workers rated themselves. Research shows self-ratings of personality traits like diligence are <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1080/00223890902935878">generally more accurate than external ratings</a>. This suggests supervisors believed poor-performing employees were less diligent than they actually were. In addition, these employees perceived higher levels of abuse than others did. </p>
<p>This study didn’t include independent measures of the employees’ diligence or their managers’ abuse. So in our second one we wanted to determine if the managers still blamed a lack of diligence for an incident involving poor performance even when the supervisor knew that the employee wasn’t the primary cause.</p>
<p>We recruited 443 supervisors via an online portal to complete two surveys. In the first, we asked them to think of one of their employees whose first name began with a randomly generated letter and rate their degree of conscientiousness. We used random letters to avoid bias. </p>
<p>One week later, we contacted the same supervisors to complete the second survey, presenting each with an imagined incident in which the employee from the earlier survey performed poorly on a work project. We then randomly assigned them to various scenarios indicating what was responsible for the poor outcome, such as the employee, a software malfunction or both. We asked them what share of the blame they put on the software versus the employee. </p>
<p>We found that when supervisors were told that the employee’s lack of effort and the malfunction were equally responsible for the poor outcome, they still blamed the employee most. When asked to provide feedback, managers who blamed employees <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/1556375">were more objectively abusive</a>, such as by using expressions of anger or threats. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The consequences and costs of abusive supervision are significant. For example, it <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1177/0149206315573997">can worsen employees’ psychological health</a> and <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00725.x">may be costing U.S. employers</a> up to US$24 billion a year in lost productivity. </p>
<p>Suggesting abusive management behaviors <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1771-6">are justified</a> or that a worker <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038513">may deserve the treatment</a> is problematic because it puts the onus for correcting these harmful actions on the targets of abuse <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316160930.006">rather than the perpetrators</a>. Our research suggests it may be perceptual errors on the part of managers that deserve more blame. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We would like to explore how people and employers can reduce instances of abusive supervision. And we’d like to look into what other factors besides perceptual biases might be responsible.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172464/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zhanna Lyubykh received funding for her doctoral studies from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Bozeman received funding for her doctoral studies from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Turner receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sandy Hershcovis receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p>About 1 in 7 workers say their managers are abusive, whether it involves ridicule or a failure to provide credit when it’s due.Zhanna Lyubykh, PhD Candidate in Organizational Behavior, University of CalgaryJennifer Bozeman, Associate Professor of Management, West Chester University of PennsylvaniaNick Turner, Professor of Organizational Behaviour & Distinguished Research Chair in Advanced Leadership, University of CalgarySandy Hershcovis, Associate Dean and Future Fund Professor in Equity, Diversity and Inclusion, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1430912020-08-18T20:10:33Z2020-08-18T20:10:33ZWhat are universities for? If mainly teaching, can they sack academics for not meeting research targets?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352833/original/file-20200813-16-1rzi722.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2325%2C1548&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hand-removing-replacing-book-on-library-16575541">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Questions about the purpose of universities have been highly topical lately. Federal <a href="https://ministers.dese.gov.au/tehan/job-ready-graduates-power-economic-recovery">Education Minister Dan Tehan</a> has suggested the purpose of universities is to produce job-ready graduates – preferably in STEM (science, technology, engineering, maths) rather than HASS (humanities, arts, social sciences) areas. </p>
<p>This has spurred debate about the purpose of universities. Is it to “<a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6819761/is-it-the-role-of-universities-to-train-young-people-for-jobs/">train young people for jobs</a>” or to “nurture intellectual endeavour and the capacity for expansive conceptual thinking”? Put simply, is the primary focus of universities today meant to be education, or is it both education and research? </p>
<p>There appears to be no national consensus on these questions. </p>
<h2>State laws on universities vary</h2>
<p>One reason may be the lack of consistency in the objectives and functions set out in the different state laws that govern universities. </p>
<p>Former Chief Justice Robert French’s <a href="https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/report_of_the_independent_review_of_freedom_of_speech_in_australian_higher_education_providers_march_2019.pdf">recent review</a> of freedom of speech in higher education providers noted this inconsistency. Some university acts, he observed:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>define the university’s functions by reference to the delivery of education, the provision of facilities for learning and research, and encouraging the advancement of knowledge. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>French cited the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2014C00377">Australian National University Act 1991 (Cth)</a> as an example of this. Other university acts provide only <a href="https://www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/A/UNIVERSITY%20OF%20ADELAIDE%20ACT%201971/CURRENT/1971.41.AUTH.PDF">a single object</a> or <a href="https://www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/A/TORRENS%20UNIVERSITY%20AUSTRALIA%20ACT%202013/CURRENT/2013.43.AUTH.PDF">none at all</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-and-university-reforms-put-at-risk-australias-research-gains-of-the-last-15-years-141452">Coronavirus and university reforms put at risk Australia's research gains of the last 15 years</a>
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<p>The High Court of Australia alluded to the lack of clarity resulting from this inconsistency in a 1982 case, <a href="https://staging.hcourt.gov.au/assets/publications/judgments/1982/050--THE_QUEEN_v._McMAHON;_Ex_parte_DARVALL--(1982)_151_CLR_57.html">Queen v McMahon; ex parte Darvall</a>. It considered the general functions of universities to include education, research and the maintenance of intellectual standards and integrity. </p>
<h2>The case of Zhao v UTS</h2>
<p>More attention needs to be paid to the legislation governing universities when considering their purpose. The recent case of <a href="https://www.fwc.gov.au/documents/decisionssigned/html/pdf/2020fwc416.pdf">Zhao v University of Technology Sydney</a> (UTS) illustrates the consequences of failing to consider this legislation. The Fair Work Commission instead opined about the purpose of a university and the primary working focus of its staff. </p>
<p>Zhao v UTS related to the dismissal of a business academic in mid-2019. UTS dismissed her for alleged unsatisfactory performance because she had failed to meet its research publication requirements. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="UTS Business School building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352835/original/file-20200813-14-aqizmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">UTS Business School essentially dismissed the academic for failing to have at least one research article published in a high-ranked journal over a two-year period.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sydney-nsw-australia-february-10-2020-1766597432">Shahram Babakhanian/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>She sued for unfair dismissal at the Fair Work Commission and won. In his <a href="https://www.fwc.gov.au/documents/decisionssigned/html/pdf/2020fwc416.pdf">March 2020 decision</a>, the commission’s deputy president, Peter Sams, made some contentious observations on the purpose of universities. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>[…] in my humble opinion, the teaching of future generations of tertiary qualified students of all ages is the primary purpose of a first-class university.</p>
<p>[…] achieving the top research rankings and reputation […] may tend to distract from the focus of providing a quality learning experience for students. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>His reasoning appeared to be that the academic had performed satisfactorily in her teaching. There was no evidence she was failing in her administrative duties, which meant she was satisfactorily performing the majority of her job. This made it “difficult conceptually and rationally” to conclude that her performance was unsatisfactory overall, warranting dismissal. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/universities-have-gone-from-being-a-place-of-privilege-to-a-competitive-market-what-will-they-be-after-coronavirus-137877">Universities have gone from being a place of privilege to a competitive market. What will they be after coronavirus?</a>
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<p>Sams did not, however, make any reference to the <a href="https://beta.legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-1989-069">University of Technology Sydney Act 1989 (NSW)</a>. The act expressly states:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The object of the University is the promotion, within the limits of the University’s resources, of scholarship, research, free inquiry, the interaction of research and teaching, and academic excellence. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Commissioners divided on appeal</h2>
<p>UTS <a href="https://www.fwc.gov.au/documents/decisionssigned/html/pdf/2020fwcfb3571.pdf">sought to appeal the decision</a>. Ruling on the university’s application, three Fair Work commissioners were split 2:1 as to whether Sam’s observations on the purpose of universities were “merely general observations” or formed part of his reasoning. </p>
<p>In their joint decision, Vice President Joseph Catanzariti and Commissioner Leigh Johns labelled his observations three times as “unhelpful”. They found, however, that these were “inconsequential musings” and not the critical “driving part” of the reasoning for the decision. They refused permission to appeal. </p>
<p>As they formed the majority, the decision that UTS had unfairly dismissed the academic stands. </p>
<p>Deputy President Alan Colman strongly disagreed. He considered the observations on the purpose of universities to be “highly relevant […] expressions of opinion”. He would have granted permission to appeal on the basis that UTS had not been heard on the purpose of the university and thus had been denied procedural fairness. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Front of Fair Work Commission building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352838/original/file-20200814-20-1llw4wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Fair Work Commission’s failure to consider the University of Technology Sydney Act 1989 (NSW) in its decision was a striking omission.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/melbourne-vicaustraliasept-9th-2018-sign-fair-1417088552">Shuang Li/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Universities still waiting for clarity</h2>
<p>The case has left universities uncertain about their ability to manage the performance of staff who are not meeting research expectations. </p>
<p>Can a university justifiably dismiss an academic whose teaching performance is satisfactory but whose research is non-existent or inadequate? Or is the university obliged to retain the academic, although it has the power to transfer them to a teaching-focused position? </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-governments-funding-changes-are-meddling-with-the-purpose-of-universities-141133">The government's funding changes are meddling with the purpose of universities</a>
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<p>If the primary focus of a university is said to be teaching, as Sams suggested, a decision to dismiss an incompetent teacher may be reasonable, irrespective of their research performance. </p>
<p>Universities are likely waiting with anticipation to see if UTS takes the case to the Federal Court. We can only hope that if the court considers the purpose of universities relevant to the case, it gives some regard to the University of Technology Sydney Act 1989 (NSW).</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143091/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Narrelle Morris has received funding from the Australia Research Council, the National Archives of Australia and the National Library of Australia.She supports the view that the purpose of universities is teaching and research and that HASS areas are just as important to Australia's future as STEM areas.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pnina Levine does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Legislation governing universities varies from one to the other, often leaving their purpose undefined. But it certainly matters when determining an academic’s duties in an unfair dismissal case.Pnina Levine, Lecturer in Law, Curtin Law School, Curtin UniversityNarrelle Morris, Senior Lecturer, Curtin Law School, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1205982019-07-29T20:25:32Z2019-07-29T20:25:32ZAustralian city workers’ average commute has blown out to 66 minutes a day. How does yours compare?<p>The average weekly commuting time in Australia has increased considerably since 2002. According to the latest Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) <a href="https://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/hilda/publications/hilda-statistical-reports">Survey released today</a>, workers averaged 3.7 hours’ commuting time per week in 2002, but this had increased to 4.5 hours by 2017. </p>
<p>In 2017, workers in mainland state capitals (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth) had consistently longer commute times than those living elsewhere. These city workers typically spent more than an hour travelling to and from work each day. The average was about 66 minutes. This is a 20% increase from the average of around 55 minutes in 2002. </p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-422" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/422/e916ff5b19c0125d8d290c27d3345fb64edec1e2/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As in past surveys, Sydney had the longest average daily commutes (71 minutes). In 2017, it was followed by Brisbane (67 minutes), Melbourne (65 minutes), Perth (59 minutes) and Adelaide (56 minutes). Reasons for the increasing commute time vary among different cities but may include increased road congestion, urban expansion and poor public transport services.</p>
<p>Average daily commuting times across Australia also increased from about 49 minutes in 2002 to almost one hour in 2017. </p>
<img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/666/Mean.gif?1564036035" width="100%">
<p>Workers in the Northern Territory had the shortest commutes in 2017, averaging close to 35 minutes per day.</p>
<p>The HILDA analysis covers all workers aged 15 years and older. This includes those with commuting times of zero (that is, who work from home).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285781/original/file-20190726-136744-124z3od.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Daily commuting times are calculated by dividing the time spent travelling to and from work in a typical week by the usual number of days worked per week.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Data source: HILDA</span></span>
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<p>The survey, based on interviews with about 17,000 Australians yearly, also reveals that the share of people commuting two or more hours a day is increasing, from 12% in 2002 to 18% in 2017. Men are more likely than women to be long-distance commuters. And middle-aged workers (aged 25-54) are more likely to have long commutes than younger and older workers. </p>
<p>Interestingly, fathers of two children had the highest likelihood (27%) of having long commutes, while mothers with two children were the least likely (less than 13%). On the one hand, households with dependent children are more likely to live in suburban locations for the larger houses, potentially increasing commuting distance for workers in these households. On the other hand, female workers’ relatively lower wage rate and more household responsibilities, such as child rearing, may restrict them to choosing jobs closer to home. </p>
<h2>Impacts on job satisfaction</h2>
<p>According to the HILDA Survey, long-distance commuters (two hours or more a day) are less likely than short-distance commuters (less than one hour) to be satisfied with their working hours, work-life balance and even pay. Therefore, they have lower levels of overall job satisfaction. These long-distance commuters are more likely to quit or lose their jobs within the next year. </p>
<p>These results from the HILDA Survey align well with the findings of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0966692318307269">our research</a>. Our findings suggest longer commutes not only impose physical and mental strains on workers but may also affect their work participation, engagement and productivity. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/walking-and-cycling-to-work-makes-commuters-happier-and-more-productive-117819">Walking and cycling to work makes commuters happier and more productive</a>
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<h2>Negative impacts go beyond work</h2>
<p>A growing number of studies have found long-duration commuting can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856410000960">reduce the time a person has for other activities</a>. These other activities, such as physical exercise, time with family, social activities and so on, are important for psychological well-being. </p>
<p>Lengthy commuting also potentially increases <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9442.2008.00542.x">exposure to nuisances and hazards</a> such as traffic noise, crowds, congestion, pollution and uncomfortably hot or cold conditions. These can cause physical or emotional distress and have a direct influence on people’s physical and mental health. </p>
<h2>What can policymakers do about this?</h2>
<p>A better balance of jobs and housing within a smaller geographic area could help to shorten commuting distances and time. Planning policy such as polycentric cities – with multiple activity centres – have been proposed in Sydney and Melbourne, and could help achieve this.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-close-is-sydney-to-the-vision-of-creating-three-30-minute-cities-115847">How close is Sydney to the vision of creating three 30-minutes cities?</a></em></p>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-growing-big-cities-need-new-centres-of-employment-heres-melbournes-chance-93067">Our growing big cities need new centres of employment – here’s Melbourne’s chance</a></em></p>
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<p>Most Australians still rely on their cars for daily commuting. Aside from long travel distance, traffic congestion is another important factor in increasing commuting times. Encouraging alternative travel modes for commuting could potentially relieve congestion. </p>
<p>The HILDA Survey reveals that close to 28% of workers live and work in the same postcode. About 55% of workers live within 10 kilometres of their place of work. This suggests there is huge potential to promote active travel – cycling and walking – for daily commuting trips. Only for a minority (11%) are the postcodes of the home and place of work 30 or more kilometres apart.</p>
<p>High-frequency and reliable rapid public transport networks linking major residential and employment centres could encourage more medium and long-distance commuters to use public transport for daily commuting. </p>
<p>Finally, emerging transport technology, such as autonomous vehicles, is also promising to curb traffic congestion and reduce the “perceived” commuting time, if these vehicles are shared rather than owned by individuals. </p>
<p>Companies also have a role to play in helping to reduce commuting times and their impact on workers’ well-being. Flexible working times, which allow employees to avoid peak-hour travel, and a supportive company culture for working from home can help reduce weekly commuting time. In return, companies potentially benefit from improving employee job satisfaction and retention rates. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-a-reason-youre-feeling-no-better-off-than-10-years-ago-heres-what-hilda-says-about-well-being-121098">There's a reason you're feeling no better off than 10 years ago. Here's what HILDA says about well-being</a>
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<p><em>One of the authors, Runing Ye, is available today for a Q+A on this topic from 3pm-4pm AEST. Please post your questions in the comments below.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120598/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Average commuting times for Australians have increased by 23% in 15 years. And those with long commutes are less satisfied with their work, working hours, work-life balance and even pay.Runing Ye, Research Fellow, Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbourneLiang Ma, Vice-Chancellor's Postdoctoral Research Fellow, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1178192019-07-04T19:47:55Z2019-07-04T19:47:55ZWalking and cycling to work makes commuters happier and more productive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279944/original/file-20190618-118522-jcpmyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The stress of commuting by car can affect workers' well-being and productivity.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flamingo Images/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Australia, <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0.55.001%7E2016%7EMain%20Features%7EFeature%20Article:%20Journey%20to%20Work%20in%20Australia%7E40">more than 9 million people</a> commute to work every weekday. The distance they travel and how they get there – car, public transport, cycling or walking – can influence their well-being and performance at work. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0966692318307269">study</a>, involving 1,121 full-time workers who commute daily to work, made several important findings:</p>
<ul>
<li>those who commute longer distances tend to have more days off work</li>
<li>among middle-aged workers, those who walk or cycle performed better in the workplace</li>
<li>Those who commute short distances, walk or cycle to work, are more likely to be happy commuters, which makes them more productive.</li>
</ul>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-everyday-commute-is-changing-who-we-are-100323">How the everyday commute is changing who we are</a>
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<p>In Australia, full-time workers spend <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-09/commuting-times-travel-shorten/6592510">5.75 hours</a> a week on average travelling to and from work. Among them, nearly <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-09/commuting-times-travel-shorten/6592510">a quarter</a> of commutes can be classed as lengthy (travel for 45 minutes or more one way). </p>
<p>Long commutes not only cause physical and mental strains on workers, but may also affect their work participation, engagement and productivity.</p>
<p>And Australia’s pervasive urban sprawl means most workers commute by car. But <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369847815001370">driving has been found to be the most stressful way to commute</a>. </p>
<p>Driving to work is associated with a series of health problems and lower social capital (smaller social networks with less social participation), which all affect work performance and productivity. </p>
<h2>What did the study look at?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0966692318307269">Our research</a> investigated how and to what extent our daily commuting can influence workplace productivity. We surveyed 1,121 employees from Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. These employees are all employed full-time, have a fixed place of employment, make regular commuting trips and work in different industries and occupations. </p>
<p>We found that workers with a long-distance commute have more absent days, as the graph below shows. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277498/original/file-20190602-69063-llunb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Predicted number of days absent from work with increasing commuting distance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Two reasons can explain this result. First, workers with long commutes are more likely to become ill and be absent. Second, workers with long commutes receive less net income (after deducting travel costs) and less leisure time. Therefore, they are more likely to be absent to avoid the commuting cost and time. </p>
<p>The average commuting distance for Australian capital cities is <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0.55.001%7E2016%7EMain%20Features%7ECommuting%20Distance%20for%20Australia%7E1">about 15km</a>. Workers with a commuting distance of 1km have 36% fewer absent days than those commuting 15km. Workers who commute 50km have 22% more absent days.</p>
<p>This study also finds that middle-aged (35-54) commuters who walk or cycle – known as active travel – have better self‐reported work performance than public transport and car commuters. This result may reflect the health and cognitive benefits of active travel modes. </p>
<p>Finally, this study finds the short-distance and active travel commuters reported they were relaxed, calm, enthusiastic, and satisfied with their commuting trips, and were more productive.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/commuters-help-regions-tap-into-city-driven-growth-63097">Commuters help regions tap into city-driven growth</a>
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<h2>How does commuting affect productivity?</h2>
<p>Urban economic theory provides one explanation of the link between commuting and productivity. It argues that workers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166046208000549">make trade-offs between leisure time at home and effort in work</a>. Therefore, workers with long commutes put in less effort or shirk work as their leisure time is reduced. </p>
<p>Commuting can also affect work productivity through poorer physical and mental health. Low physical activity can lead to obesity as well as related chronic diseases, significantly <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/0c658aed-ba22-4df1-8762-6975e23449b6/cdpw-20090219.pdf.aspx">reducing workforce participation and increasing absenteeism</a>. The mental stress associated with commuting can further affect work performance.</p>
<p>A growing number of studies have found active commuting by walking and cycling is perceived to be more “relaxing and exciting”. By contrast, commuting by car and public transport is more “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0013916506294032">stressful and boring</a>”. These positive or negative emotions during the commute <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369847817304138">influence moods and emotions during the work day</a>, affecting work performance. </p>
<p>Finally, commuting choice could influence work productivity through cognitive ability. <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/10.1123/jsep.19.3.249">Physical activity improves brain function and cognition</a>, which are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18094706">closely related to performance</a>. So it’s possible that active travel commuters might have better cognitive ability at work, at least in the several hours after the intense physical activity of cycling or walking to work. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=214&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=214&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=214&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279484/original/file-20190614-158949-1wuj540.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pathways through which walking and cycling to work might influence productivity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stop-working-on-your-commute-it-doesnt-benefit-anyone-102459">Stop working on your commute – it doesn't benefit anyone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>What are the policy implications?</h2>
<p>Employers should consider types of commuting as part of their overall strategies for improving job performance. They should aim to promote active commuting and, if possible, to shorten commuting time. For example, providing safe bike parking and showers at work could significantly increase cycling to work.</p>
<p>As for governments, in most states of Australia, only a tiny portion (<a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-and-walking-are-short-changed-when-it-comes-to-transport-funding-in-australia-92574">less than 2%</a>) of transport funding is devoted to bicycling infrastructure. </p>
<p>By contrast, in the Netherlands most municipalities have <a href="http://velobg.org/docs/Cycling_in_the_Netherlands.pdf">specific budget allocations</a> to implement cycling policies. Australia should allocate more transport infrastructure funding to active travel, given the economic benefits of walking and cycling to work.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-and-walking-are-short-changed-when-it-comes-to-transport-funding-in-australia-92574">Cycling and walking are short-changed when it comes to transport funding in Australia</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Workers with long commutes are more likely to become sick. They also receive less net income (after deducting travel costs) and less leisure time.Liang Ma, Vice-Chancellor's Postdoctoral Research Fellow, RMIT UniversityRuning Ye, Research Fellow, Melbourne School of Design, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1099622019-02-05T13:42:50Z2019-02-05T13:42:50ZFake qualifications are on the rise. How universities can manage the risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254910/original/file-20190122-100261-1h9681y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fake credentials are becoming more common in South Africa. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fake credentials have become a global problem. The National Student Clearinghouse, a US NGO that offers a degree verification service, reports that falsified academic credentials are a <a href="https://nscverifications.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/CostOfAcademicFraud.pdf">serious, prevalent and ever-increasing problem</a>. In 2015 the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/20/opinion/a-rising-tide-of-bogus-degrees.html">New York Times</a> reported on a billion-dollar industry consisting of 3 300 “diploma mills”. These were fake universities that sold certificates for all levels of degrees, worldwide.</p>
<p>Buying totally fake academic certificates is only part of the problem. Those who have degrees may falsify their academic transcripts. This is made easier by the availability of sophisticated technology. Higher education is highly sought-after and provides a measure of status and <a href="http://opensaldru.uct.ac.za/handle/11090/884">improved job prospects</a>. So some working professionals may not be able to resist the temptation of adding or altering a qualification on their CVs. </p>
<p>Fake credentials are becoming more common in South Africa. In 2018, the country saw a <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/shock-increase-in-fake-credentials-18264458">sharp increase</a> in the number of fraudulent qualifications reported to regulatory bodies such as the South African Qualifications Authority. Higher Education Minister Naledi Pandor revealed that the number of reported cases spiked from just 37 in 2011/12 to 982 in the 2017/18 financial year. </p>
<p>This only represents the number of fake credentials reported. The real number may be much higher. This poses a serious problem for universities and employers. It undermines their legitimacy and reputation and robs honest candidates of opportunities for further education or employment.</p>
<p>Fortunately, there are steps that universities and employers can take to protect themselves. These include the use of verification systems, reference checking and competency-based interviews.</p>
<h2>Implications</h2>
<p>For universities, fake qualifications pose <a href="https://studentclearinghouse.info/onestop/wp-content/uploads/CostOfAcademicFraud.pdf">a reputational risk</a> – within other academic institutions and in the workplace. If postgraduate students manage to gain entry on a falsified transcript, their performance will be below standard. Future applicants from that university may be disadvantaged by association.</p>
<p>This also poses a risk to university selection criteria data and policy, as it damages the validity of using prior academic records as a predictor of success.</p>
<p>Another consequence is that fraudulent qualifications may increase the tendency for institutions to hire their own – accepting more students from their own institution for further study, or employment, rather than recruiting from further afield. That’s because students who’ve already been trained by the institution are more easily verified and represent a known entity.</p>
<p>For employers, hiring those who have falsified their qualifications or lied on their CVs can lead to costly exposure to legal action, high staff turnover, lost revenue and public reputational damage which may take years to repair. </p>
<p>For example, in 2012 it was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/19/business/the-undoing-of-scott-thompson-at-yahoo-common-sense.html">discovered that Scott Thompson</a>, the then CEO of Yahoo, had not earned the computer science degree he claimed. Instead, he had a degree in accounting. <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120908803557643829">Herbalife’s CEO, Gregory Probert</a>, was forced to resign in 2008 after it emerged that he did not have the MBA he claimed to.</p>
<h2>Checks and balances</h2>
<p>The University of Cape Town, where we work and conduct research, checks the validity of every undergraduate applicant’s school-leaving certificate. Postgraduate applicants must undergo rigorous selection processes. If falsified documentation is discovered, the application is rejected; in some instances, an enquiry or disciplinary process follows.</p>
<p>This approach is available to all universities in the country. South Africa is ahead of the curve when it comes to the ability to verify qualifications. It boasts a fully-automated, centralised online degree verification system, called <a href="https://www.mie.co.za/">MiE</a>. This was the first commercial background screening company of its kind worldwide. </p>
<p>The system links higher education institutions to a centralised database where third party queries may be fielded. The service verifies Grade 12 certificates and checks tertiary qualifications. These include short courses, diplomas and degrees, which are checked directly with local and global institutions. The system also checks whether an academic institution is accredited by the relevant governing body.</p>
<p>For employers, and universities who are also large employers, it is imperative to follow due diligence and check references. Developing collegial relationships across institutions and other organisations can facilitate the due diligence process. Employers must do their homework online as well: check candidates’ online presence and across social networking sites such as LinkedIn and Facebook.</p>
<p>In addition, a competency-based interview can go a long way in alerting interviewers to what may be a falsified qualification. Use the interview process to look for depth of knowledge across the applicant’s field.</p>
<p>Finally, when in doubt, don’t appoint. Additionally, have the courage not to appoint straight away. Even if someone appears to tick all the boxes, there is still a responsibility for due diligence. Re-advertise and continue the search to find other applicants when doubts arise. Taking extra time and care to properly vet qualifications, references and CVs will pay dividends in the long run.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109962/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suki Goodman receives funding from: I have been a recipient of an NRF grant in the past.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Linda Ronnie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fraudulent academic qualifications have increased dramatically in South Africa.Linda Ronnie, Associate Professor, University of Cape TownSuki Goodman, Associate professor, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/982752018-09-21T12:59:26Z2018-09-21T12:59:26ZWhy business should do more for employees looking after elderly relatives<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237473/original/file-20180921-129877-g9bfwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hipster-son-walking-disabled-father-wheelchair-655349698?src=WqLpDen-090JpBiAOY41GQ-2-91">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The word’s population of elderly people – aged 70 or over – <a href="https://www.mha.org.uk/news-and-views/policy-research1/facts-stats/">is expected to increase sharply</a> in the coming decades. Many of these people will need some kind of care – and much of that care will come from family members who already have time-consuming jobs.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791523/">Studies show</a> that caregiving is widely considered to be a mentally and physically taxing activity. It takes time, energy and focus. It can also have a negative effect on a person’s approach to their paid work, with a detrimental impact on performance and commitment. At the moment <a href="https://www.england.nhs.uk/commissioning/comm-carers/carer-facts/">as many as one in nine</a> workers in England and Wales also look after someone who is frail or disabled. </p>
<p>So how can we – and the places where we work – transform this perception of caregiving into a positive, psychologically fulfilling and motivating experience?</p>
<p>To begin with, governments need to take measures to support caregiving as a personally meaningful responsibility. After all, looking after children is tiring and draining – but employers are legally required to make provisions for this kind of care. Why not do the same when it comes to looking after people at the end of their lives?</p>
<p>Secondly, as members of society we all need to look at elderly caregiving from a rather brighter perspective. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27732008">Research has found</a> that improved resources in the workplace provided to employees with elderly relatives to care for – money for training or staff relief, rewards, extra time – could reduce the negative impact and its effect on performance. </p>
<p>Bu negative associations between the demands of elderly care and work become insignificant when those carers are happy with their responsibilities. When they find the caregiving enjoyable and worthwhile, rather than draining and thankless. </p>
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<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/job.2203">Psychologists have looked</a> into this idea in El Salvador – a country where close family ties and taking care of elderly relatives is considered socially important. They found that managers who are caregivers themselves are best placed to empathise with the needs of their employees. As a result, they are perhaps more likely to provide flexible working for those with care responsibilities at home. A work culture which is supportive of family life helps to make the caregiving experience a positive one. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1748-8583.12160">Another study</a> of carers for the elderly who work in the finance and services industries in South America (managers and junior staff) found that providing care can be personally satisfying – with a positive impact on their overall well being and approach to work. Supportive behaviours for employees included providing flexible work schedules, listening to them and jointly coming up with creative solutions for any work-family conflicts.</p>
<h2>Supporting subordinates</h2>
<p>The study also found that junior staff who worked under supervisors who had similar responsibilities at home were likely to perceive their own caregiving experiences as personally meaningful. They also spoke of doing better at work. </p>
<p>Important practical implications and messages can be taken from this research, which highlights the positive side of caregiving. Better resources for providing support would be one important take away for managers. Likewise, appropriate training should be provided so that managers feel better equipped and more confident of their ability to understand the lives of their staff. They will then be better able to create a family-friendly work culture – and in turn create and maintain a cohesive team who are happier in their non-work lives.</p>
<p>Caring can be among the most challenging of family responsibilities – it is physically and emotionally taxing. But it can also generate personal skills such as empathy and perspective, which can all be positively applied to work – and benefit employers. Organisations should adopt and encourage work place measures that are supportive of caring responsibilities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98275/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yasin Rofcanin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is a brighter side to caregiving. It can improve work performance and morale.Yasin Rofcanin, Reader and Associate Professor of Organisational Behaviour & Human Resource Management, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.